Agroforestry Manual

Agroforestry Training Program
www.plant-trees.org
Certificate in Agroforestry
Taking Action
Reaching Out

Third Edition
Taking Action
Reaching Out
A Publication of
P. O. Box 7027
Silver Spring, Maryland 20907 USA
Phone (301) 565-0630
Fax: (301) 565-5012
info@treesftf.org
www.plant-trees.org
Copyright First Edition January 20, 2006
Second Edition April 21, 2008
Third Edition September 2, 2008
Note: It is permissible to copy any, or all, of this publication provided credit is given to
TREES FOR THE FUTURE, INC., Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
Preface
Expansion of agricultural land and a variety of human activities have led to deforestation
and land degradation in many parts of the world. If this continues, the potential contribution of
forests to economic development and ecological stability will not be realized. Developing new
natural resource management techniques to address such devastating environmental degradation is important for our rapidly growing world. The lack of training materials for land management, reforestation and agroforestry in many developing nations makes the problem
worse. Field technicians, community leaders, and others need appropriate training aids in sustainable land management for economic development that does not cause environmental
degradation.
Trees for the Future was launched three decades ago to address issues of deforestation and environmental degradation. Since then, Trees for the Future has planted over 50 million multipurpose tree species and has assisted in transferring real life experience and technology about reforestation efforts. We at Trees for the Future believe that agroforestry technologies are important for addressing problems in developing countries. Agroforestry is a collective name for land use systems that combine trees with crops and/or animals on the same
unit of land. We are developing new and innovative learning materials to train individuals in
agroforestry, but it is difficult to reach them because the majority does not have access to the
internet, computers, and in many situations, electricity. Therefore, to connect the disconnected communities to the rest of the world we are pleased to offer this second edition of
Agroforestry Training Manual.
The training manual contains valuable information about our own experience as well as
those of communities in Africa, the Americas and Asia where we have assisted people over a
period of over 30 years. It begins by outlining the challenges of our time: land degradation,
deforestation, and climate change. Next, the manual explains agroforestry as a science and
an art, followed by major agroforestry technologies and conservation techniques. Once these
basics are covered, the manual outlines appropriate multipurpose tree species for (sub) tropical countries, seed collection and handling methods, and tree propagation and nursery management. We sincerely hope that the training manual will be useful to millions of farming families and forestry practitioners.
The manual does not address all of the challenges of sustainable land management. For
the next edition of the manual we would like to hear from you to refine and add to the manuals content. In the meantime, we would like to assure you of our commitment to solve these
problems.

TREES FOR THE FUTURE
September, 2008

This training program contains:
- This Taking Action Reaching Out Training Packet
- The Agroforestry Library CD
Using this training packet:
Each of the lessons in this training packet begins with specific objectives. At the end of each lesson, you will
be expected to be able to meet those objectives. The final evaluation of this long distance training course is
the agroforestry test at the end of this packet. Submission guidelines are located on the inside of the back cover.
Table of Contents
Lesson 1: Sustainable Land Management
Lesson 2: Trees & Global Climate Change
Lesson 3: Agroforestry Technologies - Introduction
Windbreaks
Living Fences
Senegal Case Study
Alley Cropping
Terraces & Contour Plantings
Firebreaks
The Forest Garden
Integrated Production Systems
Lesson 4: Agroforestry for Livestock Management
Lesson 5: Conservation Techniques
Fuel-Efficient Stoves
Integrated Pest Management
Composting
Lesson 6: Perceived Needs of the Community
Lesson 7: Income-Generating Activities
Lesson 8: Major Agroforestry Species - Introduction
Leucaena sp.
Calliandra calothyrsus
Sesbania sp.
Cassia sp. and Senna sp.
Grevillea robusta
Albizia sp. and Paraserianthes sp.
Moringa oleifera
Gliricidia sepium
Prosopis sp.
Azadirachta indica
Acacia sp.
Ziziphus mauritiana
Lesson 9: Seed Collection, Storage, and Pretreatment
Lesson 10: Bareroot Nurseries & Barestem Seedlings
Lesson 11: Vegetative propagation
Lesson 12: Sapling Protection & Dry Season Maintenance
References
Glossary
p. 2-5
p. 6-7
p. 8-9
p.10-11
p.12
p.13
p.14-15
p.16-18
p.19
p. 20-22
p. 23
p. 24-28
p. 29
p. 30
p. 31
p. 32
p. 33-34
p. 35
p. 36
p. 37
p. 38
p. 39
p. 40
p. 41
p. 42
p. 43
p. 44
p. 45
p. 46
p. 47
p. 48-49
p. 50-53
p. 54-55
p. 56-57
p. 58-59
p. 60-61

Lesson Objectives: By the end of Lesson 1, YOU will be able to: 1) define and explain sustainable
land management; 2) list 3 major sources of brush fires; 3) explain why overgrazing occurs; 4) list 3
major concerns with planting too many eucalyptus and pine species; 5) explain how chemical fertilizers and pesticides damage the soil; and 6) list 3 reasons for global deforestation
Increased rates of deforestation, unsustainable agricultural land use, and severe soil degradation are creating 1A
widespread poverty and environmental degradation in developing countries (NAS,1993; Swift, 2007). Each day, the
world loses about 125 square miles (~320 km2) of its forests,
thats 34.5 million acres (14 million hectares) every year
(FAO,1996). Most of this takes place in the developing countries of the humid tropics. Reforestation efforts are limited to
only about 10% of the total area and most efforts are not
promising (Lamb, et al. 2005).
Every year, the equivalent of 40 billion tons of carbon
Pic 1A: Children in Ethiopia carrying firewood.
dioxide enters the global atmosphere, the result of the everincreasing use of fossil fuels. This increase in atmospheric
carbon, in combination with the loss of forests has combined 1B
to make global climate change worse.
The resulting human tragedy must be a cause for real
concern, because it affects all of us in so many ways. Global
food security is declining, as is the world's supply of safe
drinking water. The death toll from floods and mudslides rises
every year. World peace is threatened as nations wage war
over a dwindling base of natural resources. Millions of rural
families are forced from their homes into urban slums as the
loss of the forests makes it no longer possible for their lands
Pic 1B: Effects of a fire.
to support them.
The adoption of sustainable agriculture is often proposed as a solution to these problems. Sustainable agricul- 1C
ture is concerned with agricultural practices that are economically viable, meet human needs for food, are environmentally friendly, and improve quality of life. Agroforestry is one
such land use practice that maintains sustainability at its core.
Deforestation is a major unsustainable land use practice. Yet little is being done to address its economic, environmental and ecological impact (Teketay, 2001). Clear-cut logging, uncontrolled brush and forest fires, and traditional slash
Pic 1C: Children herding cattle in the degradand burn agricultural techniques have damaged the environed lands of East Africa.
ment as well as the agricultural resource base. Additionally,
every year, reforestation efforts that intend to help communities are actually assisting in planting the
wrong types of tree species, resulting in long-term damage. This concerns all of us, especially the families who rely on trees for the basic necessities of life: fuel, water, food, building materials, and the air
we breathe.
Cutting trees is NOT a bad thing. Trees are an important resource for everyone on earth. The
problem is when people cut trees but do not replant them. Trees are cut for many reasons. Industries
based on construction and making items such as furniture (beds, tables) are always in need of valuable hardwood trees. Wood (sometimes in the form of charcoal) is the major source of cooking fuel for
Page 2

over half of the world (FAO,1999). Because populations and
industries in every country are growing, there is always a 1D
growing pressure on forest resources. Slash-and-burn agriculture, characterized by periodic burning of the land both to
get rid of weeds and to use the ash as fertilizer, is also contributing to the rapid loss of the worlds forests.
Brush and forest fires (pic 1B) not only inhibit the
regeneration of tree seedlings (though some grasses, trees
and shrubs have evolved the ability to regenerate after fires),
they also destroy what little organic matter remains in the
soil. Fires are often caused by smoking and cigarettes,
unskilled beekeeping techniques, and uncontrolled burning of Pic 1D: Leaves of eucalyptus trees in this shelterbelt in northern Nigeria blanket the ground.
fields for cultivation and grazing.
Overgrazing is another major cause of land degradation. Communities all over the world rely on animals for food, 1E
fiber, and labor (pic 1C). Herding animals through grazing
lands, if done correctly, is a viable way to produce livestock,
but it is seldom done correctly (see Lesson 4). There are
always too many animals in too little space, trampling the
ground and eating all of the vegetation including tree
seedlings. While animals do leave their manure in the places
they graze (contributing something positive to the soil) the
overall effect of overgrazing is highly detrimental. Especially Pic 1E: The lack of vegetation beneath these
destructive are the grazing habits of goats, whose small lips
eucalyptus trees leads to soil erosion.
(unlike those of a cow) can graze a plant or even seedling
down to the soil, preventing it from resprouting. Overgrazing 1F
also results in soil erosion; stripping the most fertile top soil
and with it much of the soil organic matter, further reducing
the lands productivity.
Some Trees Cause Long Term Damage!?
In the global program of Trees for the Future, we provide seeds of multi-purpose, fast-growing (MPFG) trees. In
order to extend the program into many climactic zones, and Pic 1F: Most plants and trees cannot grow in
to make it more beneficial to the participants, we are con- the understory of pine trees because of the
blankets of acidic pine needles.
stantly looking for promising species, but we approach this
with a great deal of care when making recommendations.
Eucalyptus trees grow rapidly into true trees at a wide range of elevations, soils, and climactic
conditions. They sustainably produce fuelwood and timber suitable for many local construction needs,
and they produce oil used in some medications and other products, BUT . . . Eucalyptus trees do not
lend themselves to sustainable land management systems (Lisanework and Michelson, 1993).
Many communities in Central America, the Caribbean, Africa and Asia are suffering from the
long term damage caused by massive eucalyptus plantings. At first, most communities were content
with having a tree, which when harvested, grew back as two trees. These became four, and so forth.
Throughout each coppicing, the root system, barely under the surface of the soil, continued to widen
into fields where farmers once grew crops.
Farmers quickly discovered that eucalyptus trees are causing problems with their roots by taking all available water and nutrients from neighboring trees and crops, and also with their leaves, which
blanket the ground inhibiting new growth. Eucalyptus trees inhibit the growth of other vegetation
Page 3

(Sasikumar et al. 2001) (pic 1E), exposing soils to
erosion, and causing lakes and ground water to
disappear with their aggressive roots.
Pine trees (Pic 1F), which are planted
throughout much of the world for their valuable
timber present a similar problem. Beneath pine
trees, you will rarely find a productive understory;
you tend to find a blanket of acidic needles that
inhibit the growth of everything. The needles are
also a great fuel for forest fires. Pine trees do
have their benefits, but like eucalyptus trees,
they do not lend themselves to
Figure 1G:
sustainable land management
systems. These trees can leave
soils in much worse condition than
when they were first planted.
In our program at Trees for the
Future, we encourage communities
to plant multipurpose fast growing
(MPFG) trees that not only produce
useful products within a short time,
but ALSO encourage the growth of
field crops, vegetables, and other
vegetation around them.
nutrients, it takes trees with strong, deep tap roots

to bring nutrients back to the surface through
falling leaves. We must take precious care of
these top layers of soil because this is where we
grow our food. Unfortunately erosion, insecticides, fertilizers, and burning cause serious long
term damage to the topsoil layer.
When soils are unprotected, they are easily eroded by wind and water. Because the best
soil was on the surface, all that remains are bare
fields with few nutrients. Because of soil erosion,
we see muddy rivers, cloudy oceans,
Soil layers
gullies, mudslides, and dust storms.
Much of agroforestry, which we will
examine further in Lesson 3, aims to
protect soils from heavy rains and
strong winds.
Besides these physical processes,
we also see chemicals that damage
soils; primarily in the form of insecticides and fertilizers. Chemical fertilizers and insecticides are unsustainable, temporary solutions that rarely
improve the quality of the soil.
Pesticides often kill many of the
Water & Soil
insects and microbes in soils that are needed for
Water and soil are two of the most impor- natural processes. There are, in fact, many bentant resources for farming communities around eficial insects that eat many of the pest insects,
the world. The soil and water of any community but most insecticides kill everything indiscrimiMUST be conserved so that future generations nately. Not only are they poisonous and often
will be able to feed themselves. In our work, we improperly used, but some pesticides that are
see serious soil and land degradation taking banned from use and sale in the United States
place, but we also see some great solutions that and Europe are available throughout the developaddress these problems.
ing world. Furthermore, insecticides get concenSoils form layers called horizons. By dig- trated from smaller insects into the larger animals
ging a hole in the ground, one can easily see the that eat them, ultimately poisoning the entire food
O and A, and possibly the B, horizons (pic 1G). chain. Alternatives to pesticide use entail 1) givThe O horizon consists of organic material on top ing crops the strength they need to resist infestaof the soil. The A horizon is a dark, living layer of tion by adding nutrients and organic matter to the
soil where organic material and beneficial soil, and 2) using Integrated Pest Management
microorganisms mix with inorganic products techniques that ward off and kill insects (page 30).
(rocks, minerals) of weathering, and the B horizon
Fertilizers also cause long term damage,
lies just beneath the A horizon and tends to be and are often inadequate in their nutrient compolighter in color. While the A horizon in the United sition (ICRAF,1999). Soils need rich organic matStates is often several meters deep, the A horizon ter in the form of humus, compost, manure, etc.
in most tropical soils is less than a few centime- Commercial fertilizers, often in the form of NPK
ters.
pellets, contain just nitrogen, potassium, and
Many nutrients leach out of this top layer phosphorous. These are three of the major nutriand settle deep in the ground. For these lost ents, but there are also plenty of other nutrients Page 4

such as manganese, iron, boron, zinc, and copper
- that chemical fertilizers tend not to contain.
Furthermore, rains can immediately leach these
chemical fertilizers down through the soil, contaminating groundwater and forcing farmers to apply
more fertilizer every year.
fungi is directly related to nutrient amounts in the

soil. Large increases in either nitrogen or phosphorous can kill certain beneficial microorganisms
that live in the roots of plants, making them more
susceptible to injury and diseases. Sudden, large
increases in nitrogen levels, combined with a lack
of trace elements, have been shown to cause disI know insecticides are bad, but how do fertil- eases in plants.
izers damage the soil?
4. Plants can experience a deficiency in trace
We often see communities using N-P-K minerals, even if the trace minerals are locally
fertilizer in forms such as 10-10-20, 15-15-15, and available in the soil. This is because overuse of
20-20-20). These numbers refer to the portions of chemical fertilizers inhibits the chemical and physnitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium in the fer- ical reactions that transfer the trace elements into
tilizer. Chemical fertilizers
the plants through the root
cause at least 4 major
1H hairs. This is all very
problems in soil and vegecomplicated,
and
is
tation:
beyond the scope of this
1. Fertilizers kill beneficial
training
manual
to
organisms that live in the
explain, but it is a known
soil. This includes both
fact that the roots of
small
microorganisms
plants can get covered by
and larger ones such as
so many charged partiearthworms. Chemical
cles, such as sodium ions,
fertilizers are often acidic,
that they can no longer
which causes the pH of
absorb the other minerals
the soil to change, therethey need.
by harming organisms
Green manures are
that are critical to soil
sustainable alternatives to
health.
chemical
fertilizers.
2. Chemical fertilizers creAgricultural crops which
ate hardpans in the soil.
received green manure of
Hardpans are hard layers
Gliricidia sepium yielded
that can form naturally or
9.5 tons per hectare of
unnaturally under the soil.
maize
in
Oromia,
While
microorganisms
Ethiopia. A similar yield
and organic matter hold
was obtained from plots
healthy soil together, the
which received green
chemicals actually break
manure of Leucaena pallidown the soil particles Pic 1H: Healthy soil should be dark in color. Though da and L. diversifolia, but
creating a cement-like invisible to the eye, this compost (page 28) contains a significantly reduced
state, which decreases millions of healthy microorganisms. Pesticides and fer- yield was obtained from
tilizers destroy this microlife.
the soils ability to trap and
plots receiving recomhold water. Additionally, chemicals applied to mended levels of chemical fertilizer (Diriba et al,
crops can seep into surface and underground 2002). This implies that the use of multipurpose
water supplies, thus contaminating them - a major fast growing agroforestry species as a green
concern in rural areas of the developing world that manure can boost grain production over levels
lack treated drinking water.
obtained from chemical fertilizer. Additionally the
3. Fertilizers can damage plants health, because multipurpose species provide the farmer with fruit,
a plants ability to defend itself from bacteria and fuelwood, fodder, and construction wood.
Page 5

Lesson Objectives: By the end of Lesson 2, YOU will be able to: 1) explain why atmospheric carbon levels are increasing; 2) define climate change; 3) briefly explain the greenhouse effect; 4) list at
least 4 environmental problems that have resulted from climate change; and 5) list 3 positive things
that trees and forests do to combat the effects of global warming.
Climate change is one of the greatest environmental, economic and social threats facing the
globe. The earth has been going through natural heating and cooling cycles, taking place over hundreds, often thousands, of years. Then, starting in the early years of
the 19th Century, the warming increased rapidly. The change began
to accelerate during the Industrial Revolution, a time during the
1800s when new technology enabled industries to replace animal
and human labor with machines driven by fossil fuels. These new
machines revolutionized production and transportation, but at a significant cost to the environment.
Like wood and other organic fuels, fossil fuels - such as coal,
gas and oil - are composed mostly of carbon. When burned, the
carbon unites with oxygen and forms carbon dioxide (CO2). As
industries grew, and the use of fossil fuels increased, so did levels
Figure 2A: Carbon dioxide emissions
of carbon dioxide in the global atmosphere (figure 2A).
increased rapidly in the last century.
The use of fossil fuels has been increasing for almost 200
years. Now, more than ever, the atmosphere is filled with dangerously high levels of carbon-dioxide.
It is colorless and odorless, so we cant see or smell it, but it spreads itself evenly throughout the world;
air pollution does not respect international boundaries.
The Greenhouse Effect
The Greenhouse Effect
Solar radiation from the sun, which we see as
light and feel as heat, constantly shines on the earth.
Some of the heat is absorbed and some is reflected.
Carbon dioxide works like an invisible blanket that
wraps around the earth, trapping the heat inside (see
figure 2B).
A greenhouse is a structure that is used in colder climates to grow plants, flowers, and vegetables.
Even when outside temperatures drop below freezing,
greenhouses are still warm enough inside to grow
plants. Greenhouses are made of glass, which allows
solar radiation to enter. The heat is trapped inside the
greenhouse, allowing plants to grow all year around.
Figure 2B: Carbon dioxide traps heat in the earth's
Increasing concentrations of carbon dioxide in atmosphere everyday, contributing to the Greenhouse
Effect.
the earths atmosphere insulate it like a greenhouse,
leading to a gradual warming of the earths atmosphere. Carbon dioxide is the major greenhouse gas, but there are others as well, including methane
and nitrous oxide.
Increasing Temperatures
Over the last 120 years, the average global temperature has increased by about 1.3 degrees
C (see figure 2C). The rate of increase is accelerating and that over this new century, the average temperature will increase by about two (2) additional degrees Celsius.
In recent years, we have seen record temperatures on every continent. Animals and insects
Page 6

are changing their migratory patterns. Invasive species and insects
such as malaria-carrying mosquitoes are spreading into new territories. Glaciers in the arctic regions, on Mount Kilimanjaro in Kenya,
Mount Fuji in Japan, and throughout Europe, Asia, and the Americas,
are melting, causing the worlds oceans to rise. People in small island
nations in the Pacific Ocean have already been forced to abandon
their homes.
As ocean temperatures increase, coral reefs die, hurricanes
increase in frequency and strength, and weather patterns change.
Droughts and floods have become more common than ever before.
The term climate change refers to significant changes in the Figure 2C: Average global temperaaverage weather, such as wind and rainfall, experienced in a region tures are increasing so fast that flora
and fauna throughout the world canover a long period of time. The climate on earth has naturally undernot adapt quickly enough.
gone many changes in the past. The rate at which the climate has
www.wikipedia.org
been changing over the past 200 years however; has led to a consensus among scientists that this change is due to human activity. Global climate change is affecting all
of us.
Atmospheric Levels of Carbon Can Be Brought Down
Through a natural process called photosynthesis (figure 2D), plants remove carbon dioxide
from the atmosphere and release oxygen. They store this carbon in their leaves, branches, trunks, and
roots. Because trees grow faster in the tropics, they absorb more carbon than trees in temperate
regions.
An average tree in our program can remove about 50-53
lbs (23 kg) of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere annually. In agroforestry projects, where trees encourage the
growth of other vegetation in their understory, the amount
of carbon sequestration is further increased.
The Importance of the World's Forests
Forests are critically important carbon warehouses
that filter massive quantities of carbon from the atmosphere, trapping it in their biomass (Roshetko and Lasco,
2008). The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations estimates that the worlds forests
store 283 gigatons (Gt) of carbon in their trunks and roots. Additionally, there is more carbon stored in
the deadwood, leaves, and soil of forests than there is in the earths entire atmosphere (FAO, 2006).
Deforestation has caused the deaths of thousands upon thousands of people. Mudslides and
floods that result from the loss of tree cover are happening more and more frequently. Despite the
common belief that clearing an area prevents the spread of malaria, it has now been shown that
because forests also contain bats, birds, and other enemies of mosquitoes, deforestation actually
increases the prevalence of malaria carrying Anopheles mosquitoes.
The increased use of fossil fuels is only one part of the threat of Global Climate Change. With
it, the earth is losing its forests at a rate of 14 million hectares every year (FAO, 2006). As lands are
cleared, they are also burned; releasing even more carbon into the atmosphere with fewer trees to
remove it. Introducing all this formerly-stored carbon into the atmosphere, with no corresponding
mechanism to take it back out, has also contributed to the current high levels of CO2 in the atmosphere. Clearly one part of the fight against climate change must include re-establishing global forest
cover.
Figure 2D: Through photosynthesis, trees
remove CO2 from the global atmosphere.
www.wikipedia.org/wiki/leaf
Page 7

Lesson Objectives: By the end of Lesson 3, YOU will be able to 1) define agroforestry; 2) distinguish major agroforestry classification schemes; 3) list 4 keys to success in extending agroforestry,
and, 4) after studying pages 8-20, identify and explain the agroforestry technologies most appropriate for your region and the communities you serve.
Agroforestry is a land-use system that integrates trees (woody perennials), crops, people,
and/or animals on the same piece of land in order to get higher productivity, greater economic returns,
and more social benefits on a sustained basis (Huxley and van Houten, 1997). This can be done by
planting trees and crops together in the same field at the same time, or they can be planted one after
the other. Agroforestry provides an alternative land use
model, that is a potential solution to address land management problems.
Researchers at the World Agroforestry Centre found
that for every hectare put into agroforestry alternatives, five to
ten hectares can be saved. By planting the correct trees on
their lands, farmers can improve the quality of their farmlands, develop income generating opportunities, and they can
establish sustainable supplies of high-protein animal forage,
fuelwood, food crops,and organic fertilizer. Trees in these
systems provide valuable goods and services, including
human food and forage for animal production, natural fertilizers and tools for agricultural production, cash crops for economic development, fuelwood, construction materials, physical protection for agricultural fields, and soil conservation.
Agroforestry is not only a science, but also an ancient, widely-used practice that cultivators have engaged in the world
over.
Agroforestry is important for all climactic zones. Not
A forest garden in Mali
only does agroforestry provide useful and marketable products, it diversifies the timing of production so that farmers do
not receive their entire years income at one time. It can improve the yields of agricultural systems,
while also diversifying the products from the system. Ultimately, the use of agroforestry leads to food
security, soil and water conservation, and longterm sustainable agriculture.
What are the five (5) keys to a successful
agroforestry program? (see Lesson 6)
1. Gather information about practices in your area
and then to tailor your work to meet local needs.
2. Local people must be willing to cooperate and
participate.
3. The program must be sensitive to cultural practices, especially traditional patterns of land tenure,
land use, and vegetation use.
4. The agroforestry program must be technically
sound and climactically appropriate.
5. It must provide useful products and be economically viable, building self-reliance rather than
dependence on expensive materials.
Page 8
A living fence in Senegal
Figure 3A1. Classification of agroforestry systems based on

the type of components.
Agrisilviculture - crops (including shrubs/vines) and trees.
Silvopastoral - pasture/animals and trees
Agrosilvopastoral - crops, pasture/animals and trees.
Source: Nair (1993)
Both time and space are important

management components in agroforestry
systems. Figure 3A1 shows ways of classifying these systems based on the main components (crops, animals, and trees), while
figure 3A2 shows different ways that trees
are placed in agroforestry systems.
In these systems, the density of planting varies from dense (as in forest gardens,
windbreaks, and living fences) to sparse (as
when trees are planted in pastures). This
spatial arrangement can change over time.
In rotational fallow systems, crops are grown
for 2-3 years, which is followed by more than
15 years when trees are allowed to regrow
naturally. However, this requires large
amounts of land to be left alone for many
years, which is not possible in many areas.
Agroforestry supports sustainablity in
two key ways. First, agroforestry systems
are designed to yield beneficial products that
meet the farmers needs, and secondly they
serve to protect and maintain the production
of this system by reducing wind and water
erosion, improving the health of the soil, and
increasing water infiltration.
Spatial Arrangement of Trees in Agroforestry Systems
Rotational Fallow
Boundary Planting
Windbreaks
Alley Cropping
Trees in Cropland (large scale)
Trees in Cropland (small scale)
Figure 3A2. Spatial arrangement of trees in Agroforestry systems
Page 9
Lesson 3: Agroforestry Technologies - Windbreaks

Enabling Objective: By the end of studying this page, YOU will be able to describe the orientation,
design, and make-up of a windbreak.
Windbreaks are one of many agroforestry technologies that increase overall productivity of land
and environmental quality. Windbreaks incorporate many useful multipurpose species and management practices that will return additional income to the producer.
Purpose and Design:
Windbreaks slow the wind at crop level and divert the force of the wind to higher altitudes.
Farmers plant windbreaks for four main reasons:
1) to minimize damage to vegetables and crops
2) to protect vegetables and fruit trees while they are flowering (because fruits and vegetables develop from the flowers, you can increase production by protecting the flowers from heavy winds)
3) to minimize soil erosion
4) to minimize the amount of moisture the winds evaporate from soils
The species composition of trees and shrubs used in windbreaks vary greatly around the world,
but the basic design of windbreaks stays the same. There tends to be a time of the year, often during
the dry season, when strong winds cause the most damage. It is those strongest winds which must
be addressed first.
Windbreaks should be planted perpendicular to the wind. It may be necessary to plant windbreaks on multiple sides of fields because the wind often changes direction during the year.
Communities can work together, analyze their farmlands, and identify major areas where massive
windbreaks can be established to benefit the entire community, OR individual farmers and families can
create smaller windbreaks on their own individual plots (pics 3B1 & 3B2). Large windbreaks can
extend for many kilometers and can benefit many communities, while the smaller windbreaks can be
planted abound single fields for the benefit of single families - all projects are different.
Desirable characteristics of windbreak species includes: ability to withstand strong winds, deep
spreading root system to add stability to the windbreak by making the trees less susceptible to wind
Pic 3B1: Prosopis trees in this windbreak shed
large amounts of small leaflets that quickly break
down and add nitrogen and other nutrients to the soil.
Pic 3B2: Farmers visit a field surrounded by a 2year old windbreak made of leucaena and prosopis
trees.
Can you design the orientation and make-up of a windbreak?

Page 10
Lesson 3: Agroforestry Technologies - Windbreaks

damage, and trees with small open crowns
which reduces the risk of wind damage.
Figure 3C shows why the windbreak
must not be too dense; the goal is to slow the
wind down, not to stop it. By creating a windbreak that is too dense, winds will actually
come crashing over the windbreak, causing
damage to the field. Windbreaks can protect
for a distance of up to ten times the height of
the tallest trees, so 5 meter tall trees protect
fields for 50 meters - as long as the wind3C: Windbreaks must not be too dense. When you look
break is uniform in height and spacing among Figure
through the windbreak, you should be able to see 60-80%
trees.
foliage. Agroforestry in Dryland Africa, ICRAF
To better understand the design of a
windbreak, we will have to examine it from
the top and side (figures 3D and 3E): From a
side view, windbreaks should be shaped like
the letter A. If you look at figure 3D, the tall
trees in the middle of the windbreak stand
between rows of shorter bushes. By integrating tall trees, short trees, bushes, and grasses into the windbreak, you can protect from
winds at all levels and you can diversify the
products that you can harvest from it. Keep in
mind that it is usually not recommended to
plant fruit trees in windbreaks because the Figure 3D: From a side view, the windbreak should have the
stress from winds will keep them from pro- shape of an A. Shorter bushes and grasses should be on the
front and back, and taller trees should be in the middle.
ducing much fruit, with the exception of Windbreaks
protect fields for a distance of 10 times the height of
tamarind trees, those in the genus Averrhoa,
the tallest trees. Agroforestry in Dryland Africa, ICRAF
and those that develop fruit along their trunk,
not on the ends of their branches.
Windbreaks can be single lines of
trees, though it is best to have two or more
rows. The lines of trees should be staggered,
as shown in (figure 3E). In picture 3i (p.13),
it is difficult to see, but the seedlings have
been planted in staggered
lines as shown in figure 3E.
A major problem to avoid
is funneling (figure 3F): When
windbreaks have gaps in
them, the wind is channeled
into those gaps, creating a
destructive tunnel of high
winds that can destroy crops.
Figure 3E: Stagger the rows by
planting trees to fill the spaces
between trees in other rows.
Figure 3F: Openings in a windbreak can cause the winds to

funnel. These gaps can cause damage to crops.
Page 11
Lesson 3: Agroforestry Technologies - Living Fences

Enabling Objective: By the end of this page, YOU will be able to 1) describe the desirable characteristics of trees useful for live fence and 2) design & maintain a living fence.
Purpose: A living fence is an animal-proof barrier composed of trees and shrubs planted at close
spacings around the perimeter of a field. Not only do living fences reduce the need (and cost) for standard fencing, but the trees and shrubs utilized in living fences can produce tangible benefits such as
food, fuelwood, fodder, and other raw materials. Families who normally pay others to build fences see
a major savings in never having to pay anyone to construct or fix their fence - but this is not to say that
maintaining a living fence is not labor intensive. Farmers face the greatest difficulties during the first
few years when establishing a new living fence. Replanting, as seen in picture 3G, is often necessary
to fill in gaps where the previous years seedlings did not survive. Farmers must also be sure to begin
pruning the trees when the seedlings are in the nursery, and there is always pruning work to be done
to maintain the fence. However, once the living fence is established, farmers can develop their field
inside the safety and security offered by the permanent protection,
and they can utilize the many products from their living fence.
3G
Desirable characteristics of trees used in living fences:

Tolerate minor "injuries": living fences are susceptible to frequent
injuries from pruning or animals and should tolerate them well.
Fast growing: provide benefits to families as soon as possible.
Compatible with crops: cannot have adverse effects on other tree
species or crops they are associated with.
Produce useful products like fodder, green manure, & fuelwood
Protection- stiff branches, thorns, spines, nettles, or irritating
latex to keep animals out.
Vegetative propagation: ensures fast establishment while reducing the chance of spreading to pasture and cultivated areas.
3H
Design: Thorny species (Acacia sp., Parkinsonia, Prosopis,

Ziziphus, etc.) tend to work best in living fences, though many people also use non-thorny species. Spacing among individual trees
for most living fences varies between 25 and 75 cm, depending on
the amount of rain and the rate of growth of the species used Pic 3G: Planting seedlings 40 cm apart to fill
in a gap in the existing living fence.
(Rocheleau et al., 1988). Cuttings of euphorbia bushes and other
Pic
3H:
TREES Field Rep Omar Ndao
non-thorny species must be planted very close together (10-20
explains
a living fence made of
cm). Most living fences in Trees for the Futures projects tend to
A. nilotica spaced at 50 cm.
space seedlings 40-50 cm apart. Farmers who can afford barbed
wire will often plant trees for living posts, and attach barbed wire
once the trees reach the appropriate size (See Gliricidia sepium, lesson 8). If the trees are being planted inside a dead fence, plant the seedlings 1 meter away from the existing fence (even if it looks like
you will be losing ground), or falling sticks and weeds near the old fence can crowd and kill the
seedlings. It is best to stagger two rows of trees for any living fence instead of having only one line of
trees (figure 3i). A variety of species should be planted & branches should be woven into the lower
levels of the fence to create a strong barrier.
Pruning & Harvesting: The key for a good fence is to encourage early branching, because animals
can only penetrate a living fence if there is not enough lower branching. If you wait too long and let
the trees grow tall, it will be difficult to get them to grow lower branches. The seedlings must have their
terminal buds pruned in the nursery stage and then again after they grow to 75 cm. Once mature, the
trees can be pruned at the 1.5 to 2 meter height every year. Major pruning is best done during the dry
season while trees are still in dormancy.
Page 12
Lesson 3: Agroforestry Technologies - Senegal Case Study

Insight into an agroforestry technology designed to maximize benefit for the participants
Confronting the Sahara desert, a mere 150
miles to the north and moving steadily southward,
the farmers of Kaffrine in central Senegal face an
environmental disaster. The Wolof people have
unknowingly punished their soils with over a century of uninterrupted peanut farming. The annual
harvest, which entails ripping peanuts out the
ground, leaves farmlands exposed to the intense
sun and harsh winds that last the long dry season.
The need for fuelwood and construction materials
has depleted local forests. The Wolof people are
desperate for new ideas to deal with irregular rainfall, locust attacks, and the encroaching desert.
Food security is only a dream. The baobab,
tamarind, and bush mangoes that dot the horizon
are all that remain of a once thriving forest.
The initial response of desperate farmers
has often been to ask international development
organizations to construct water pumps. In fact,
access to fresh water often quickly creates a
boom in vegetable and animal production.
However, pumps alone have been an unsustainable solution. What at first appeared to be a
springboard to sustainable development has
proven to be the Trojan Horse of the African sahel.
It is a tragic, but common, scenario. Herds
of animals concentrate at the water sources,
trampling the soils and eating all that remains of
local vegetation. New gardening industries further
deplete the remaining forest resources as communities cut trees to build wooden fences that
protect their precious gardens.
During our analysis, we learned that
Senegalese farmers are tired of working - literally
and figuratively - for peanuts. Production keeps
falling, and the scant remaining topsoil is badly
eroded by fierce winds in the dry season.
Fertilizers are expensive, and farmers get only
one payday per year, in November, after peanuts
have been processed. The rest of the year is a
painful waiting game. Animals have nothing to eat
in the dry season after all grasses have been cut
or burned, and women become exhausted from
walking miles to collect wood for fuel.
Our response was to work with local com-
munities to establish multipurpose windbreak/living fences. This agroforestry intervention directly

addresses their major problems. We plant thorny
trees on the outside to keep the animals out, and
we plant fast-growing trees on the inside (pic 3J)
to establish a tall windbreak.
From the mix of tree species in this agroforestry technology: 1) there is plenty of high-protein animal forage from the leucaena trees; 2)
families are now producing 100% of their own
fuelwood; 3) the Cajanus cajan and Ziziphus
mauritiana produce pigeon peas and jujube fruits;
4) the Acacia nilotica trees produce several medicines; 5) the nitrogen fixing trees add plenty of
nitrogen and organic matter (leaves) to the soil; 6)
production has been diversified; and 7) inside
these protected areas, we are now beginning to
establish fruit tree orchards.
Families have changed the way they farm,
collect firewood, improve their soil, feed their animals and protect crops.
Pic 3i: Getting started with 2 rows: Thorny acacia trees
are planted on the outside for protection, while fast-growing leucaena trees are planted in the inside row. More
species will be integrated in future years.
3i
Do you understand how to combine windbreak and living fence technologies?

Page 13
Lesson 3: Agroforestry Technologies - Alley Cropping

Enabling Objectives: By the end of this section, YOU will be able to 1) list the 2 major benefits of
alley cropping, 2) list the characteristics of good alley cropping trees and shrubs, and 3) list 4 major
considerations in the design & species used in alley cropping.
Overview: One of the most promising agrocharacteristics of good alley cropping trees.
forestry technologies in the humid and sub
Within each line, the trees are planted
humid tropics is alley cropping. Alley cropping is
close together. In our experience we found it
a system of growing food crops between parallel desirable to plant a double row, about 20 cm
hedgerows of (usually leguminous) shrubs and
apart, with the trees about that same distance
trees . The hedges are pruned periodically during the growing season to provide biomass and
to prevent shading of the growing crops.
Many farmers in developing countries do
not have access to commercial fertilizer. Even if
they did, they do not have the money to buy it. In
some ways, that is fortunate, as chemical fertilizers can destroy soil structure. For them, there's
good news: you can grow fertilizer on trees.
In equatorial regions, the rows of trees
should be planted in the east-to-west direction,
NOT north-to-south. By planting the rows east-towest, the sun is able to shine inside all the rows of
the field. If the rows are planted perpendicular to
the path of the sun, then the crops will not receive
enough sunlight.
The species of trees planted should be
able to coppice (resprout and grow well after cuttings). Throughout the growing season, on a rotaFigure 3J: Characteristics of good alley cropping trees
tional system of 3-4 weeks, the branches, branchAgroforestry in Dryland Africa, ICRAF
lets and leaves of these trees are cut and dropped
around the crops growing between the tree rows apart in the rows. The two rows are staggered to
(Pic 3P). They quickly degrade, adding large keep the maximum distance (about 20 cm)
amounts of organic matter & nutrients to the soil. between the trees. This greatly reduces "root
On degraded soils, this brings important binding" between the trees. You can have as
and sustainable increases in harvests (Agus et many as 25 double-tree rows per hectare and a
al., 1999). Other tests involving coffee crops population of about 1,000 trees per 100-meter
showed similar increased yields and also marked row, or as many as 25,000 trees per hectare
improvement in the flavor and quality of the coffee (10,000 trees per acre).
(Lutz, 1998). Moreover, this is sustainable - it conAlley cropping often requires a lot of continues to increase harvests year after year. in vincing, as most hillside farmers believe they are
many instances, once the growing season is end- already "land poor". Now you are asking them to
ing and the dry season is about to begin, the trees plant rows of trees in their fields to grow bigger
are allowed to grow tall, since there is now no crops? You can imagine many are thinking "I
problem of shading out the crops (pic 3L). By the know my family can eat corn; I doubt if they can
beginning of the next rainy season, the trees may eat trees". But once you can get a few demonstrabe 3-4 meters tall and should be cut back. The tion plots started, you will find many people are
wood can be used for fuelwood or construction, convinced and ready to adopt the new idea.
and the leaves should be plowed back into the
land as "green manure". Figure 3J shows the
Page 14
Lesson 3: Agroforestry Technologies - Alley Cropping

Purpose: Alley cropping is the planting of strips of green manure trees among field crops (pic 3L).
These green manure trees serve the vital role of producing nitrogen-rich organic matter (mainly in the
small, easily degradable leaves) which is harvested and mixed into the soil, ultimately increasing soil
fertility. Despite the fact that the rows of trees reduce space for planting crops, experience shows that
because of the increased soil fertility, production of corn in several different countries has increased
by 150% (Szott and Kass, 1993). Alley cropping is also used to diversify the types of products that
can be harvested from a field. For example, a field of corn intercropped with leucaena trees will produce massive quantities of corn, fuelwood, organic fertilizer and high-protein animal forage, all at different times of the year.
Design: Spacing among the rows of trees and among the trees themselves is highly variable. One of
the major considerations is that the rows should run east to west - following the path of the sun to
ensure that there is not too much shading among rows. Spacing between rows ranges from 4 to 20
meters, depending on the farmers preferences. Spacing of 4-5 meters among rows (pic 3M) will create a labor-intensive system that will produce large quantities of wood and quickly revitalize worn soils
with the massive amount of leaf fall (Nair,1993).
Figure 3K: Spacing Among Seedlings.
Distance between
rows can vary from 4
to 20 meters.
20 cm
28 cm
Harvesting: The rows of trees are often harvested at 50 cm to 1 meter height (pic 3N). Branches are
used for construction and fuelwood, and leaves are mixed into the soil as an organic fertilizer, though
leaves of some species like leucaena are also collected and used as a high-protein animal forage
(after which the manure can be added back to the soil) (pic 3P).
3L
3P
3M
Pic 3L: Let the trees grow tall during

the dry season
Pics 3M & 3N:

Cut the rows
when you seed
your crops
3N
Pic 3P: Mix the leaves into the soil
Can you meet the enabling objectives at the top of page 14?
Page 15
Lesson 3: Agroforestry Technologies - Terraces & Contour Plantings

Enabling Objective: By the end of this lesson, YOU will be able to list the 5 major steps in establishing a contour planting.
Overview:
As more upland soils erode and degrade, and the demand for food crops increases, farmers
are forced onto more marginal lands, including
very steep hillsides. It is common to see a 3Q
farmer planting his crops up and down a steep
hillside throughout much of the world, even
though it is obvious to everyone that the bare
soils on those hillsides are eroding away, creating deep gullies.
Farmers who want to sustainably work
these lands therefore construct terraces, often
comprised of stones from the field. The eroding
soil backs up behind them and, over time, these
terraces become flat, looking like a series of
giant steps down the hillside (pic 3Q).
The problem is maintaining these terPic 3Q: Overstory trees with wheat in SW Uganda
races in times of heavy rain. In the tropics, it
can rain as much as 250 cm in a single night, and with the increasing numbers of hurricanes and
cyclones, the potential for damage is enormous. Heavy rains can cause a large area of soil to break
loose above or within stone walls, eventually stressing or crashing into the next terrace and continuing the chain reaction to the bottom of the hill.
And so the living terrace was developed. Here, a double row of trees, similar to some alley
cropping arrangements, is planted on the contours of the hillside. As the land is worked, stones,
weeds, and other debris are continually thrown behind the rows of trees, forming a wall that helps
catch the eroding topsoil. Many of these terraces have tall grass, such as vetiver or napier, which are
planted in combination with the trees. This further strengthens the terrace and can be continuously
harvested as fodder for livestock, as organic matter to be added to the soils, and for other purposes.
In this way, there can be a stone terrace, backed by trees and tall grasses, strengthened by
hundreds of thousands of tree roots. In areas of heavy rain, soil build-up behind these terraces is as
much as 30 cm (1 foot) per year - rich topsoil that would otherwise have been washed away. The terrace is also providing a steady supply of organic fertilizer and humus from the leaves of the trees, as
well as forage for animals, and a sustainable supply of firewood that can be used or sold. The greatest benefit is often the creation of a sustainable supply of water that is guided and captured into the
ground during the rainy season and made available during the dry season.
Purpose:
Contour planting is an agroforestry technology that can minimize soil erosion on hillsides by up to 50%.
Contour lines refer to a set of points on a hillside that are all at the same altitude. Contour plantings
are vegetative strips that follow contour lines. They minimize hillside erosion by creating living terraces
that encourage the infiltration of rainwater into the soil while slowing the speed of water washing down
the hillside.
Five major steps in establishing a contour planting:
Step 1) Find and Mark the Contours: Find the contour using an A-frame (pic 3R and figure 3U), a
water tube, or markers. Start creating contour lines at the top of the hill and move down to the bottom
(see figure 3U). Start on one side of the field and, using the A-frame, find the contour as it meanders
Page 16

across the hillside, marking it with sticks or rocks.
To provide maximum protection, the rows should
be properly spaced. The vertical drop between
contour rows should be about 1-2 meters. This
does not mean 1-2 meters between rows, but
rather the vertical drop (also known as the vertical interval) between rows should be 1-2 meters.
Hillsides with a gentle slope will have long distances between rows (though it is best to limit this
to 5 meters), while those on steeper mountainsides will be closer together.
3R
Step 2) Prepare the Lines: Using your markers

as a guide, dig two channels along each contour
line, leaving about 50 cm between channels. An
animal drawn plow will greatly help. These channels will be used for seeding the trees. Note well:
Some technicians suggest digging one major
channel along the contour and seeding on the
uphill mound created by the channel (pic 3S).
Step 3) Plant the Seeds/Seedlings: Pretreated
seeds of multipurpose, fast-growing, nitrogen fixing trees can be sprinkled heavily along the
channels. Cover the seeds lightly yet firmly with
soil. Suggested species include G. sepium, C.
calothyrsus, and L. leucocephala. You may also
decide to plant seedlings or cuttings along the
channels.
Step 4) Protect the Seedlings: The first year is
critical for success. Extremely heavy rains, animals, and farmers themselves can ruin the work.
If possible, the fields containing the newly planted contour rows should either not be cultivated in
the first year or cultivation should be minimized.
Be sure to weed the newly planted seedlings.
3S
3T
Step 5) Diversify: Beginning in the 2nd year,

diversify the contour hedges with short-, mediumand long-term crops.
Pic 3T: On Flores Island in Indonesia, an area of 8,000
hectares (20,000 acres) was planted with leucaena
contours. Flores one river had always dried up
several weeks before the rainy season began.
Since two years after planting the contour strips, the river
has never run dry again.
See the vetiver pamphlet included in this packet and the book on the CD for more info.
Page 17

Figure 3U: Constructing and Using an A Frame
Use either a level OR

the string system to
determine if the A
Frame is on a slope
3 pieces of wood,
poles, or metal
(do not have to be
straight)
attach with screws,
nails, bolts, or rope
cross-bar
string
rock or other
weight
center line (exact)
To Determine the Center line: Stand the A Frame on a slight slope. Draw a line where the string
meets the crossbar ( ). Then reverse the legs and again mark the cross-bar where the string touches it ( ). The centerline is exactly between those two points - mark it clearly.
1 to 2
meters
To Mark a Horizontal Contour Across a Hillside: Start at the top of the hill. Mark one leg of the A
frame with a stick. Slowly adjust the other leg until both legs stand on even ground and the string
hangs across the center line. Then mark the second leg with a stick. Now pivot the A frame around
keeping one of the legs firmly placed. Read just the positioning of the side of the A frame that was just
swung around, and find the center line again. Mark this new contour point with a stick and continue
across the hillside.
Page 18
Lesson 3: Agroforestry Technologies - Firebreaks

Enabling Objective: By the end of studying this page, YOU will be able to describe two of the many
approaches to creating a firebreak.
Fires are a difficult problem to address. It is best to start with education to stop people from starting
fires. We are also working on combatting fires through agroforestry;
these techniques are continually being developed.
Firebreak Case Study 1: Solid Green Walls To Firebreak Case Study 2: Stopping Fires with
Cashew Trees on the Senegal-Gambia Border
Stop Grass fires in the Philippines
The dry season in the mountainous regions of
Southeast Asia is long and hot. This is especially
true where the forests have been cleared - which
is almost everywhere in the Philippines, where
only 2% of the original forests remain. Nature protects these barren lands with a tough grass,
Imperata cylindrica, that is found throughout the
world. It is thick, tough and can grow on poor and
degraded soils to a height of more than 10 feet.
When the uplands get hot and dry, it is almost
explosive and all it takes is one spark. This happened during the "El Nio" in 1998. For weeks,
smoke from the fires blackened the skies from
Jakarta to Singapore, killing thousands. Every
year the grass fires wipe out hundreds of upland
villages and end many reforestation projects.
Orchards of mango and other fruit trees are
especially susceptible to brush fires. Farmers
have learned from their bad experience the importance of firebreaks in protecting their fruit. These
"living" firebreaks are about 40 feet wide, and
consist of 7 rows of trees that stay green and cool
during the dry season. The shaded land beneath
them maintains lush undergrowth making a solid,
cool and green barrier about 20 feet high. When
these breaks are planted in grids, they can stop
almost any grass fire. They work because they
quickly become solid green walls. One reason for
this, and for their popularity in the community, is
this undergrowth. Under the protection of these
trees people can plant many other food crops:
such as papaya, bananas, pineapple, and different root crops. The continuing leaf fall from the
trees fertilizes and shades them while holding
moisture on the land. This project, begun by
TREES Technician Gabby Mondragon in the
northwest Philippines, is teaching this technology
to the people of the upland villages.
Brush fires, frequently caused in the sahel by

cigarettes, inexperienced apiculturalists, and animal herders camping in the bush, wreak havoc on
dryland Africa, especially from March to June. The
Dankou Forest, located on the border between
Senegal and Gambia, is no exception.
The solution: Three lines of cashew trees,
Anacardium occidentale (pic 3V), spaced ten
meters apart, were planted in 2001. Why cashew
trees? Cashew trees develop a thick, full crown,
blocking most of the light from reaching the understory. This inhibits many grasses and shrubs from
growing underneath them. Furthermore, the
cashew tree has medium sized, thick leaves,
which blanket the ground beneath the parent
trees, further excluding growth of other vegetation.
When a fire advances, the thick leaves on the tree
and on the ground resist igniting, and with
nowhere to pass underneath, the fire stops.
3V
Pic 3V: Rows of large cashew trees like this one can
inhibit the spread of brush fires.
picture courtesy of http://commons.wikimedia.org
Can you meet the enabling objective at the top of this page?
Page 19
Lesson 3: Agroforestry Technologies - The Forest Garden

Enabling Objective: By the end of this Lesson, YOU will be able to list at least 4 major characteristics of the forest garden and at least 8 of the 10 zones.
A forest garden is a sustainable agroforestry system that fulfills economic, social, and cultural
needs of the individual owners and provides biological conservation, carbon sequestration, and
other valuable benefits to society (Kumar and Nair, 2004; Hairiah, 1997; Torquebiau, 1992).
Agroforestry requires farmers to think both horizontally and vertically, and a forest garden is a perfect example of this. A forest garden goes by many names including permaculture, stacked polyculture, analog forestry and the perfect acre. Ultimately, it is a production system that is harvesting
products on over a dozen levels (Asfaw and Nigatu, 1995; Abebe, 2005). There is no specific design
or methodology for a forest garden, just a set of desirable characteristics and zones.
Major Characteristics of a forest garden
It allows people to sustainably meet their needs and produce a marketable surplus, by making maximum use of the land
It incorporates the symbiotic relationships among plants animals and microbes
It avoids the risk of economic dependence on one, or a very few, crops
It provides a continuing supply of food and other crops
It allows nature to provide organic fertilizers and pest controls
Properly managed, it produces fruits and vegetables of far higher quality than those produced
through monocultures
With their ecological similarities to natural forest ecosystems, forest gardens act as insurance
against pests and disease outbreaks. They also act as a buffer against deforestation of natural
forests by providing an alternative source for goods and services that people would otherwise collect
from natural forests. The multi-tiered canopy structure is one of the most distinguishing features of
forest gardens, especially in humid tropical lowlands (Kumar and Nair, 2004). About ten zones are
distinguished in a typical forest garden.
Major Zones (See figure 3W)
Zone 1: The planting of "pioneer" or "fertilizer" trees that are initially planted to protect and support a
forest garden. Because most of the species used for this purpose are fast growing, and also
because they coppice--grow back after cutting--they appear at different heights throughout the site,
constantly being cut back and re-growing. These trees are normally planted at spacings of about
3 meters, which provides an almost complete light canopy over the site, despite the periodic cutting
of individual trees.
Zone 2: Ground crops that grow well in lower temperatures, higher humidity and partial shade.
Examples include pineapple, sweet and spice peppers, various kinds of beans and pulses,
Zone 3: Root crops that benefit from being planted close to the roots of the pioneer trees (cassava/manioc, sweet and yellow ginger, kamote (sweet potatoes) and other such crops).
Zone 4: Vine/climbing crops. The trunks of the pioneer trees offer an ideal way to construct trellises
for overhead crops such as squash, gourds, "bitter melon", cantaloupe, chayote, and "air potatoes."
Zone 5: Various fruit and nut trees: shade-grown coffee, bananas, papaya, guavas, citrus, & cacao.
Zone 6: Hardwoods for long-term investment.
Zone 7: "Mini" livestock and poultry. The cool, shaded area is an ideal place to construct housing for
various types of animals. For most classes of livestock and poultry there is an abundance of food.
Zone 8: Marketable flowers (orchids), traditional medicinal plants, and other horticultural products.
Zone 9: The production of biofuels, whether in shade-grown jatropha, coconut trees, or any other
oil-producing plants. Though this is a new technology, such fuels and feedstock are being produced
on a limited scale in many villages already.
Zone 10: Carbon credit market for carbon stored in these forests.
Page 20

Figure 3W: Zones of a Forest Garden
Zone 10: Carbon

removed from the atmosphere
Zone 9: Biofuels (jatropha, coconut, jojoba,

palm, etc)
Zone 6: Hardwood Trees

(laurel, mahogany, A. falcataria, etc.
Zone 5: Fruit and nut

trees (avocado, coffee,
coconut, cacao, caimito,
etc.)
Zone 1: MPFG species
(Leucaena, Calliandra,
Sesbania, Cassia,
Acacia sp. etc.)
Zone 4: Climbing and
vine crops (calabasa,
luffa, melons, squash,
gourds, etc.)
Zone 3: Root crops (cassava, kamote, ginger,
bean yams, carrots, etc.)
Zone 8: Marketable
flowers (orchids), traditional medicinal plants,
essential oils, etc.)
Zone 7: Livestock and
Poultry (pigs, goats,
cows, sheep, chickens,
ducks, etc)
Zone 2: Ground crops
(eggplant, wing beans,
pepper, tomato, pineapple, etc.)
Page 21

The Forest Garden and nutritional security, income generation and employment
A forest garden produces edible fruits, nuts, grain, rhizomes and tubers, leaves, and flowers,
along with fodder, fuelwood, medicine, and construction materials. Forest gardens are also significant
sources of minerals and nutrients contributing to food security of the owner (Wiersum,1997). Perhaps
most importantly, its contribution to food security is more pronounced during the lean season of the
year (Tesfaye, 2005). As a result there is a growing interest in combining a forest garden with nutrition
education as a practical strategy for improving household nutritional security for at-risk populations,
particularly women and children in developing countries. In experimental studies, the target families
significantly increased their year-round production and consumption of vitamin rich fruits and vegetables compared to the families without forest gardens. This, in turn, reduced deficiencies of iodine, vitamin A and iron (Kumar and Nair, 2004). Products from forest gardens usually are not contaminated by
synthetic toxic chemicals and they can be more profitable than field crop agriculture due to lower production costs.
Experience with organic coffee (Coffea spp.) production in Central America showed that products from forest gardens could fetch premium prices. In West Java, as much as two-thirds of production is reported to be sold (Nair, 1993). In South African forest gardens, about 28% of such products
were sold and the remaining was used for household consumption (High and Shackleton, 2000, cited
in Abebe, 2005). In addition to generating cash income and subsistence products for the growers, forest gardens have a remarkable potential for rural employment generation. Studies show that forest
gardens required on average 32.6 hours of labor per family per week, with women contributing roughly half (Abebe, 2005).
3X
Mango (tree)
Avocado (tree)
Canna edulis (perennial root crop)
Banana
Tropical squash (annual vine)
Pic 3X: A forest garden in Calamajue, Cuba, at the

home of the Balboa family, displays the depth and variety possible in forest gardens.
Page 22
Lesson 3: Agroforestry Technologies - Integrated Production Systems

Enabling Objective: By the end of reading this case study on coffee, YOU will be able to explain at
least one example of why we must better integrate food production systems.
Next to oil, coffee is the most
traded commodity in the world (Gole
3Y
et al., 2002). Cacao, which is used to
make chocolate, is also a valuable
commodity in world trade. Both are
produced by trees that naturally grow
in tropical forests, and both have
been produced and harvested in
their natural setting for centuries.
In the late 1960's it became
clear that the tropical forests of the
world were being rapidly destroyed
threatening the supply of these two
important commodities. The World
Bank and other organizations sought Pic 3Y: Fields of coffee that has been bred to grow in full sunlight. The lack
ideas for the continued production of of an overstory and the use of chemicals minimize biodiversity in these
fields and expose soils to serious erosion.
these crops without dependence on
the surrounding trees.
Hybrids of both plants were developed (pic 3Y). The new variety of coffee, as well as cacao to
a limited extent, can be grown as plantation crops in full sunlight. The plants were significantly
changed, and were now using their top foliage to provide the shade that was provided by the forest.
These modified plants are shorter, mature faster, and produce higher yields in their earlier years.
The management system promoted for these new varieties of coffee entails clearing away
undergrowth and other plants, especially trees. Herbicides keep the undergrowth away and pesticides
reduce damage from insects. Chemical, rather than organic, fertilizer maintains productivity.
These systems are much more difficult for these trees to endure. In a forested state, coffee
trees can produce for over 100 years. Grown in plantations, their life expectancy is reduced to only 2530 years. Initial yields under the new system were much higher, but under these conditions the nutrient levels of the soils quickly dropped, as did their organic matter and capacity to hold water.
Chemical fertilizers restored the levels of "macro"-nutrients - nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium, but not the "micro"-nutrients such as iron, zinc and copper. The result was that as the richness
of the soil decreased, so did the yields - and the flavor. At the same time this was happening (and probably because it was happening) markets in Europe and North America began demanding organically
and sustainably produced foods, including "shade-grown" coffee.
Markets began providing ground coffee with various flavors added and powdered cream, also
in various flavors, hoping to cover up the fact that the coffee itself had very little taste. At the same
time, coffee roasters who advertised their product as "shade-grown" found they could command the
best prices.
This situation continues and offers upland farmers a great opportunity not only to get higher
prices for their coffee but also to save and improve the productivity and water retention capability of
their lands, while also allowing them to produce more products. For example, in upland areas, much
of the land unsuitable for tilling is used as pasture. The tree leaves that provide shade for their coffee
also offer a high protein forage supplement for their cattle. Trees, coffee, and cattle can work in a system that increases overall production while improving the water retention ability and soil quality of
mountainsides.
What does this case study say about integrated production systems?
Page 23

Lesson Objective: By the end of Lesson 4, YOU will be able to: 1) define silvopasture 2) cite 3
problems with grazing systems; 3) list 5 benefits of zero-grazing systems; 4) identify 3 forages
appropriate for your region; 5) list major silvopastoral management tools, and 6) list at least 3
socioeconomic benefits of silvopasture.
Overview
In many developing countries, livestock 4A
production is a major contributor to gross
domestic product (GDP). For example, livestock production contributes 30-40% of the
GDP in the Sudano-Sahelian countries of
West Africa (Nair, 1993). Agroforestry practices mainly concerned with the management
of trees, forage and livestock is known as silvopasture. The term silvopasture translates
into forest-pasture, as the prefix silvo was
derived from a Latin word that means forest.
In silvopasture systems, forage crops are
deliberately introduced into a timber production system, or trees are deliberately introduced Pic 4A: Cattle grazing in Ethiopia on hilly land that is heavily
overgrazed, with few trees and rampant erosion
into a forage production system. The interactions among timber, forage, and livestock are thus managed intensively to simultaneously produce timber, a high quality forage resource and efficient livestock production. Overall, silvopasture can provide
economic returns while creating a sustainable system with many environmental benefits (Pagiola, et
al., 2004). These systems range from traditional silvopastoralism to very high intensity cut and carry
fodder systems. Below a brief account of traditional grazing systems and cut and carry systems are
discussed.
Traditional Grazing Systems
Peace Corps volunteers throughout Central America's degraded uplands have seen the damaging effect that livestock can have on the land (pic 4A). However, livestock are an essential component of farming throughout the Developing World, as they provide labor, fertilizer, transport, and food.
Animals are also a major investment for families and have many social implications. Therefore we
should take a closer look at how animals can fit into programs that save and restore degraded lands.
One of the most important points you must first understand is that: animals are not causing the
problems, management systems are. Most communities
throughout the developing world allow their animals to
4B
roam the countryside, often herded by young men or
boys. These herds of animals have a significant impact
on the environment. They eat everything, including tree
seedlings, and their hooves compact the soil, keeping
forests from regenerating while causing long term damage to the soil. To make things worse, herding animals
in the hot sun is an inefficient way to raise animals. They
are stressed by the high temperatures and lack of water,
just as people are, and the grasses and seedlings they
graze on tend to be low in nutrients. It is now time to
consider a new management system.
Pic 4B: Corral used for confinement rearing built
from locally available materials
Page 24

Planning Considerations
Before establishing silvopastoral systems in an
area, one must assess the value of integrating
forestry and agriculture for economic success and
environmental sustainability compared to local land
used. Environmental requirements (e.g., planting
trees, stream-side protection, and wildlife habitat
maintenance) also may vary between locations.
Select and use trees and planting/harvesting patterns that are suitable for the site, compatible with
planned silvopastoral practices and provide desired
economic and environmental returns.
4C
Design and Establishment

Silvopastures can be established on any land capaPic 4C: Confined livestock fed selected nutritious fodder
ble of simultaneously supporting tree and forage
growth. The pattern of the distribution of trees on
the land is an important factor for silvopasture suc- 4D
cess. Trees can be evenly distributed over the area
to optimize growing space and light for both trees
and forage. Alternatively, grouping trees into rows or
clusters concentrates their shade and root effects
while providing open spaces for pasture production.
Trees are typically pruned to increase light penetration and develop high-quality timber.
Management
The management of silvopasture requires a good
understanding of forage growth characteristics as
well as the timing and duration of grazing to avoid
Pic 4D: Preparing leucaena fodder for livestock
browsing of young tree seedlings. Livestock should
be excluded from tree planting areas during the first year of
plantation establishment. Improper management of silvopas- 4E
ture can reduce desirable plants due to overgrazing and soil
compaction.
The major silvopasture management tools include:
tree harvesting, thinning and pruning
fertilization to improve both forage and tree production
planting legumes for nitrogen fixation and forage production
multi-pasture, rotational grazing
rotational burning
supplemental feeding
developing water sources (e.g., stock tanks, windmills,
ridge reservoirs, etc.)
Using fencing, tubing, plastic mesh, repellents, & seasonal
livestock exclusion to reduce damage to young seedlings
Pic 4E: Leucaena used for forage & fuelwood production
Page 25

One effective and highly profitable livestock management technique is to confine the
animals, which is known as confinement rearing. In this system, the food is brought to the
animals, the animals do not go to the food. This
is also known as a cut-and-carry or zero-grazing system. In these systems, one acre of forage can maintain up to 20 cow-calf units.
Confinement / Cut-and-Carry Systems
In a cut-and-carry system, animals are
penned in a specific area (pic 4B). Families use
walls, thorny branches, poles, or living fences to
keep the cows, sheep, or goats enclosed. This
protects them from other people, pests, and diseases, and it keeps them from wandering.
Because animals are not allowed to
graze in open lands, forage must be brought to
them. This gives the owner an opportunity to
select the very best food for the animals (pic
4C).
4F
Tephrosia
4G
Tree Lucerne
Selecting Forage & Forage Trees

There is a wide range of great animal forages that communities utilize around the world.
Just like people, animals need a well-balanced
diet. The ultimate goal of rearing animals is to
provide them with living conditions that will help
them stay healthy and reproduce quickly.
Grass alone is not enough. Animals need protein, macro and micronutrients, minerals, and
plenty of clean water.
The question is: what species of trees are useful for forage production? Almost every country
in the tropical world has some species where the leaves are used as forage. Trees for the Futures
experience has largely been with the species Leucaena leucocephala (pic 4D) because it grows well
under a wide range of conditions, quickly coppices (grows back) when cut (pic 4E), and produces a
large quantity of leaves, even through the long dry season. The leaves are especially palatable and
contain about 27.5% crude protein, plus high levels of Vitamins A & D (National Research
Council,1984). Communities have also had success using grasses and bushes including dwarf napier/elephant grass, tephrosia vetch (pic 4F), and tree lucerne (pic 4G).
Over the past 32 years, Trees for the Future has helped livestock growers plant millions of
trees. In the Philippines, Trees for the Future assisted 90 families to plant 66,000 trees, using the
leaves to fatten cattle. A few years later, working with the Cattlemen's Association of Madura,
Indonesia, technicians helped them plant over 22 million trees. This increased the available forage
supply by 15% - much of it in the dry season when the forage supply had always been dangerously
low.
Nutritionists have pointed out that leucaena is in the Mimosa family and the leaves contain an
irregular (alkaline) amino acid called "mimosine", which can reduce calving rates under certain circumPage 26

stances. These leaves should be fed to singlestomach animals in limited amounts (25% for
goats and sheep; none to horses or mules) but
can be fed to large ruminants up to 30% of the
total ration.
While Trees for the Future has assisted
many forage projects to achieve good results,
there is a great need for more research ito determine even better methods to increase both the
quantity and quality of animal protein for people
and to bring income-generating trees back to the
world's degraded lands.
able to gain 150 kg. However, in the dry season,

they lose about 25 kgso they actually only achieve
about 33% of their genetic potential.
Putting in a confinement system costs far
less than installing and maintaining perimeter and
division fences, especially on rough land where
many livestock programs are located. Some raisers ask what can be done with all that rough land.
One suggestion is to plant trees, including fruit
and timber trees in combination with forage trees,
to provide high quality forage for the herd, especially in the dry season.
The Economics of Cut-and-Carry Systems

From an economic perspective, this is the
obvious best choice. In upland areas, it usually
takes anywhere from three to seven acres of land,
depending on the type of forage, to maintain one
cow-calf unit. With the confinement or cut-andcarry system, one acre of forage can maintain up
to 20 cow-calf units.
Grazing systems are especially difficult to
maintain in tropical areas where there are distinct
rainy and dry seasons. Working with Banteng (an
Asian relative to cattle), researchers learned that
yearling bulls gain about 75 kg of body weight in
the rainy season so, for the year, they should be
Pic 4H: This goat

is not foraging in
degraded pastures, and is
enjoying a
healthy, nutritious meal
4J
Pic 4J: This is not an uncommon sight on tropical pastures

near the end of the dry season.
Short of forage, this cow
walked throughout the dry season looking for food in the hot
sun. It will take an entire rainy
season to restore this cows
health. The result is fewer
calves, stunted growth, low
productivity, and serious health
problems for the herd.
4H
4K
Pic 4K: High quality beef can

be produced with the cut-andcarry system. This bull gained
900 grams (.9 kg, 1.95 lbs)
every day for 240 days! The
ration was sugar cane tops and
leucaena tree leaves. No grain
was used.
Can you meet the lesson objectives at the top of page 24?
Page 27

Experience with these systems, much of it in Southeast Asia where the price of land makes it
prohibitive to graze livestock, has shown that confinement rearing greatly improves production by generating more milk, faster gains, and a higher calving percentage because the animals are in the cool
shade with clean water and better forage. There are no hills to climb, no insects, no snakes, no predators, and no hot sun. There is also far less sickness and mortality. The reason is simple: the animals
are where you can keep an eye on them.
Because the animals are confined, daily management is far easier. Sickness and other problems can be quickly identified and remedied before it is too late. Because the cattle are comfortably
housed with forage, clean water and minerals at all times, they waste far less energy compared to animals that spend their lives walking around in the hot sun, always thirsty, and always plagued by insects
and heat. Therefore more energy goes into the production of more calves, more milk to make them
grow, and more meat to sell each year. Because the manure is easily captured, it serves as an excellent source of organic fertilizer that can be transported to crop fields, gardens, or nurseries.
Once again, this system depends heavily on the use of forage trees, which are the deep-rooted leguminous trees needed to restore the land. Thus, a high percentage of the ration, about 25% for
most cattle, is available from the reforestation program. These tree leaves (especially Leucaena leucocephala) have the ability to greatly increase growth rates and milk production, because they have
high levels of protein. An average herd of dual-purpose cattle needs a ration of about 11-12% protein.
Local grasses have about 6% in the rainy season and 4% in the dry season. Leaves of the Leucaena
tree have about 27.5% protein, high levels of Vitamins A and D, and are palatable to the animals
(National Research Council,1984).
Our program has proven many times that improving the feed ration and decreasing the stress
and energy requirements can double annual growth and milk production in an average herd (pic 4J
and 4K).
Looking at this system from a national perspective, it is possible to rapidly increase livestock
numbers through higher birth rates, without major investment. The average yield of meat or milk per
animal can be increased by as much as 40% because energy requirements are lowered and more of
the forage goes into production. It also provides meaningful jobs in rural communities where they are
needed most.
Social, Economic and Environmental Benefits of Silvopasture
Integrating trees, forage and livestock into a land use system raises the production of marketable products while maintaining long-term productivity. The system produces multiple products and
hence reduces economic risk. Because the management cost for the timber and livestock component
is spread out, the system provides relatively constant income from livestock/product sale and sale of
trees, fruit and timber products.
Grazing can enhance tree growth by controlling grass competition for moisture, nutrients and
sunlight. Well managed grazing provides economical control of weeds and brush without herbicides,
maintains fire breaks, and reduces habitat for persistent rodents. In addition, livestock manure recycles nutrients to trees and forage.
Trees that provide shade or wind protection can have a climate-stabilizing effect, reducing heat
stress and wind chill of livestock. Trees can cut the direct cold effect by 50% and reduce wind velocity by as much as 70%. Planting trees on grazing lands is a protective measure that can improve livestock performance, reduce their mortality, and decrease their feed requirements. Moreover, silvopasture has the potential to improve water quality and wildlife diversity. The trees protect the soil from
water and wind erosion, while supplying organic matter to improve soil properties (Rocheleau et al.,
1988; Nair, 1993). Unlike concentrated livestock management, silvopastoral systems are more environmentally friendly and less likely to raise environmental concerns related to water quality, odors,
dust, noise, disease problems and animal treatment.
Page 28
Lesson 5: Conservation Techniques - Fuel-efficient stoves

Lesson Objective: By the end of this page, YOU will be able to: 1) explain the basic principle of fuel
efficient stoves; and 2) list the 4 main ingredients and 8 major steps in making a mudstove.
Fuel Efficient Stoves
The demand for fuelwood has placed a great pressure on tropical forests and resulted in rapidly depleting forest cover, soil erosion and desertification, especially in developing countries. Fuel-efficient stoves can decrease wood consumption by as much as 30-40%, and not only reduce the amount
of wood used for cooking but also reduce the amount of toxic smoke produced. Models like the lorena stove (pic 5A) channel the smoke out of the kitchen, decreasing the prevalence of respiratory problems among women and children. This makes a major difference in peoples lives by protecting their
health, and saving money and time which would otherwise have been spent searching for wood.
There are several types of fuel efficient stoves; many are variations of conventional designs.
They are made from clay, mud, metal and other simple materials. The basic principle of all fuel-efficient stoves is that they are better insulated than traditional models. This improved insulation is
achieved by surrounding the fire with walls. Whereas traditional cooking methods often entail the use
of just three rocks, new stove models ensure that the heat is forced up toward the bottom of the pot
and does not escape out the
How to Make a Fuel-Efficient Mudstove with No Money
sides of the stove.
5A
1 bucket of straw
2 1/2 buckets of clay soil
Mix the dry ingredients 1 bucket of dried manure
Then add water
Stomp the mud pile, cover it,
and leave it to soak overnight
5B
Wet and smooth the ground where you will build it.
Form balls of mud

the size of grapefruits
Place 3 support rocks and a large can using a

cooking pot as a guide.
5C
5D
Pack mud balls around the rocks and the pot. Be

The mud stove mound. Build a shelf for the wood.
sure to pack mud into all the gaps.
Cut around the pot and shape the stove with a machete
5A: Lorena Stove

5B: Forno Jumbar Stove
5C: Ethiopian "Mirte" Stove
5D: Fixed Mud Stove
Let the mud

stove dry for 2
weeks before
using it - make
sure it does not
get wet.
Page 29
Waterproof the stove with a mixture of ground baobab leaves

and water. You may need to find an alternative sealant.
Mud stoves are fuel-efficient because

they channel all the heat and smoke
around the pot. The pot and fire are
insulated by the mud mixture. You are
saving time and trees.
Lesson 5: Conservation Techniques - Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

Lesson Objective: By the end of studying this page, YOU will be able to 1) define Integrated Pest
Management; and 2) identify at least 2 IPM techniques that you and your communities can use.
Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
In agricultural systems where chemical pesticides are NOT used, farmers
can use a wide variety of natural measures to protect crops, vegetables, and
seedlings. By understanding the pests natural biological characteristics - for
example how they travel, what they eat, and what they are attracted to - farmers and researchers have developed a variety of techniques that trap, kill, and
repel insects. Integrated pest management can be defined as the maintenance of destructive agents,
5E
including insects, at tolerable levels by the planned use of a variety of preventive, suppressive, or regulatory tactics and strategies
that are ecologically and economically efficient and socially
acceptable.
We must clarify that one way to combat pests and diseases is by keeping your vegetation healthy. When vegetables
lack nutrients and water, they become more susceptible to infestation. Natural enemies such as bats, birds, wasps and ladybugs
should also be encouraged.
Pic 5E: IPM Cocktail
While many books are available that explain dozens of
IPM techniques, here we will explain just one cocktail that is effective against most insects.
Its ingredients can be found throughout the tropical and sub-tropical world. We recommend
using as many of these plant materials as you can find - others can be mixed in as well, such as mint,
tobacco (depending on the crop), and tomato leaves. We also recommend that you include soap.
Soap helps IPM concoctions not only adhere to the surface of plants, but it is also a slippery weapon
effective against small sucking insects, such as aphids and thrips, and larger bugs and insects when
concentrations surpass 8 grams per liter.
IPM Cocktail (Pic 5E) Ingredients:
kilo marigold flowers
100 grams diced hot

chili peppers
2 kilograms of neem 1 kilogram of

seeds (leaves also mango leaves
effective)
1 kilo leaves of
Ricinus communis
Ingredients Not Pictured:
Directions:
6) 10 Liters of water
7) 1 kilo leaves of Catalpa
longissima, Haitian oak, (if
available)
8) 8g/L Plain, fragrance free,
locally-made soap (such as
peanut soap)
1) Crush all ingredients together (neem kernels must be cracked).

Dissolve soap in the solution by either heating it in a separate container or by scrubbing firmly (cut it into small pieces if necessary).
2) Mix and let soak overnight in water - do not store in the sun.
3) Strain the concoction with an old t-shirt or cloth.
4) Apply solution in the evening by either dipping infested branches in
the solution, brushing the solution on the infected plants with a branch,
or spraying.
Page 30
Lesson 5: Conservation Techniques - Composting

Lesson Objectives: By the end of this section, YOU will be able to 1) list the ingredients your family/community can put in your compost; 2) explain how a compost creates humus; and 3) explain 5
aspects of managing a compost.
Overview
Compost is a cheap and effective organic mulch that can be used
instead of commercial fertilizers to improve the soil. Composting is a process
that transforms organic materials into humus. As we learned in Lesson 1, soil
is composed of both organic and inorganic material. Humus is the organic
matter component of soil that is being destroyed and eroded throughout
much of the world. Many types of organic waste can be decomposed to create a valuable natural fertilizer that enhances the quality of your soil.
Proper use of compost improves soil structure, texture and aeration, and increases the soil's
water-holding capacity. It loosens clay soils and helps sandy soils retain water. Adding compost
improves soil fertility and stimulates healthy root development in plants. The organic matter provided
in compost is further broken down by microorganisms in the soil, keeping the soil in a healthy, balanced condition. Adding compost to gardens, nurseries, and crop fields adds natural strength to soil
in the form of nutrient-rich organic matter along with plenty of beneficial microorganisms. Adding chemical fertilizers is a short-term fix that actually causes long term problems, while adding compost to soil
is a long term solution that causes no problems.
What Goes into Compost?
Proper composting relies on aerobic decomposition, which consists of: 1) carbon and nitrogenrich organic materials, 2) air, and 3) water. Carbon-rich materials are old brown or yellow fibrous vegetation like stalks and dry leaves. Nitrogen-rich material includes green vegetation and fresh manure.
You can put nearly any organic waste into a compost; just be sure it does not have any pesticides or other chemicals on it. Anything green or brown can be added. Crop residues, weeds, peanut
shells, grass clippings, weeds (the high temperatures and decomposition will kill the weed seeds so
they are not distributed when you use your compost), tree leaves, animal manure, fruit peels, egg
shells, coffee grounds, etc. You should also mix in soil and a little wood ash.
Putting it Together
The compost will begin decomposing more quickly if the materials you add are chopped into
small pieces. Mix the compost pile regularly to maintain adequate aeration; the decomposition process
will need plenty of oxygen or it will begin to smell badly. During rainy seasons, the compost can be
arranged in a pile. During dry seasons, it is best to put it in a hole or pit to keep the moisture from
evaporating.
The Internal Processes
In the presence of air and water, various kinds of fungi and bacteria feed on organic material
and convert them into humus. As this takes place, heat builds up in the pile/pit. Properly made compost will reach 65-70 degrees Celsius in 2-4 days due to the processes caused by bacteria; then it
will cool down. This heat will kill pathogens in the soil and weed seeds. Mix it after a couple of weeks
and it will heat up in the interior again. Continue this process. You will know the compost is ready
when it no longer heats up after being aerated. Finished compost is dark brown and earthy-smelling.
Things to Avoid
Do not let it get too wet.
Be sure it is mixed and gets enough oxygen.
Page 31
Do not add meat or bones

Keep the compost out of full sunlight.
Lesson 6: What are the Perceived Needs of the Community

Thoughts from Trees for the Futures Founder, Dave Deppner.
The people who will actually be implementing
your project - the people living on these degraded
lands - are, for the most part, extremely poor.
There is no way they can voluntarily participate
unless they are convinced, first, that the project is
intended for their benefit, second, that the benefits will address their needs, and third, that these
benefits will come quickly - poor people can't wait
very long.
If an agroforestry or reforestation project is to
succeed, it is absolutely essential that it begin by
meeting the people of the community and getting
them to tell you what their problems are, at the
same time asking them what ideas they have to
resolve those problems. If the project is to have
any chance of success, involvement of the entire
community is the key! Answers obtained from
some government report will generally not convince local families to participate in your project.
Local needs will generally not coincide with
national or global priorities. A family that is watching their hillside farm wash away probably knows,
or cares, little about loss of diversity or global climate change. And yet, one of the great things
about restoring tree cover is that, with good project design, it not only brings great benefit to the
local community but also

contributes to solving
these global and national
concerns.
Ancient Chinese
claimed that trees bring
as many as 5,000 benefits. Many of these can
be covered by a single
word: SUSTAINABILITY!
Does your project
Dave Deppner
allow local people to
remain on their lands, not just for a few years but
sustainably? Does it increase their food production sustainably? Does it provide them with a sustainable source of low-cost fuel? Does it improve
the quality of their lives sustainably? If, for example, your project has convinced hundreds of families to donate many hours of hard labor and a
portion of their precious land, and then, only a few
years later, the trees are gone, it might have been
better if you had never started the project. Poor
people don't have the resources to do the job
twice if it was poorly
planned the first time.
Nand Strestha, now the Deputy

Minister of Agriculture in Nepal,
speaks with farmers in
the town of Musikot about
planting forage trees to protect
the fragile slopes and to keep
their work animals healthy.
Page 32
Lesson 7: Income-Generating Activities

Special Assignment: Interview at least five different community leaders to identify 4 or more nontimber forest products in your area.
For this assignment, interview 5 or more other community leaders to identify non-timber products that you can potentially produce and sell from local agroforestry projects.
One of the most critical aspects of an agroforestry project is whether it brings immediate benefit to participating communities. This is why it is important to plant fast-growing trees. Most communities where we work do not have 30 years to wait before they receive benefits from the trees.
Here are just a couple of the hundreds of possible products:
Honey production
Vegetable production
Selling leucaena leaves as

high-protein animal forage
Cacao and coffee

Handicrafts and jewelry
Page 33
Lesson 7: Income-Generating Activities - Extra Examples

These examples are for interested individuals only.
They are not included in the agroforestry exam.
How to Make Body Lotion for Sale
Soap Elongation
- Popular Among Women During the Dry Season
Why do it?
Not only can you turn one bar of soap into four,
but you can also turn this soap into anti-bacterial
soap by using the neem leaves.
Materials for one batch

1 liter of cooking oil (vegetable or peanut)
1 large bar of scented soap
1 liter of water
Perfume (the quantity you add depends on
how you like it)
Anything else you want to add (ex. neem
leaves, lime/lemon juice, etc.)
1 bucket (remember this bucket may smell
afterwards)
1 grater - If you dont have a grater, get a
Nescaf lid or large can
1 nail
1 Coca-cola bottle, rock, or hammer
1 whisk or something to mix with
Containers in which to put the
lotion (bags, bottles, etc.)
Method:
1. Begin by pounding holes into the Nescaf lid
or tomato can with the nail and the Coke bottle
or rock. The rough side will be used as a grater.
2. Start grating soap into your bucket. If the grated soap is damp, leave in the sun for a few
hours or a day. Dry soap is easier to grate.
Materials:
kg peanut soap
1 liter water
salt
bucket of neem leaves (crushed
neem seed kernels are preferred)
large cooking pot with cover
spoon
5 or 6 plastic water bottles (cut the tops off)
a tomato pot with holes (grater)
Method:
1. Grate the soap using the tomato can grater.
2. Boil the neem leaves in a liter of water. Include
the neem branches and cracked kernels to make
it stronger. Boil it until the water turns green, then
discard the leaves.
3. Add the soap and a little salt to the neem
water. Mix well.
4. Pour the mixture into the containers (water
bottles) to dry.
3. Add the water. Use the whisk to mix well.

5. Leave to dry for 3 days.
4. Add the oil very slowly. Continue mixing.
5. When it is well mixed, add perfume as you
prefer. You can also add neem extract to give
your lotion anti-bacterial and anti-mosquito properties.
6. Peel off the plastic bottle and your soap is

ready for use or sale.
6. Once you have reached the desired consistency, smell and feel, simply put your lotion into the
containers that you have set aside.
7. They are ready for sale
Page 34
Lesson 8: Agroforestry Tree Species - Introduction

Lesson Objective: After reading this page and reviewing the tree species descriptions on pages 3647, and using the information in this training packet and from any outside sources you may have, write
a one paragraph description for 2 tree species appropriate to your region that will be extremely helpful in improving local agroforestry systems and why.
In agroforestry, trees are planted as an initial step in a long, continuing program of sustainable
land management. Anyone who recommends tree planting as an end in and of itself is not doing the
participants any favors, and those efforts will not last very long. Establishing a sustainable agroforestry
system will occur over a number of years. The first year or two are the most important: participating
communities must have some level of success and must see some harvestable product or significant
benefit. After the initial pioneer species are established, diversifying the system will become much
easier.
In the first year, you will start with a low number of species, perhaps just one to three. Nonnative species that have been researched and used in agroforestry projects for decades are often
used in these initial steps, and they are the stepping stone to creating conditions that will allow for the
return of lost biodiversity. Regardless of which species, the trees you will identify and plant over the
next year must include fast-growing, multipurpose (MPFG) trees that have the following qualities: survive in full (12 hour) sunlight; have a strong taproot (as opposed to an extensive lateral root system);
produce wood that is useful for both construction and fuelwood, be very coppiceable (meaning that it
grows back vigorously when cut); and have leaves that can be used either as animal forage, organic
fertilizer, a natural insecticide, or other use. These trees should preferably be nitrogen fixing trees.
As for the exact species for your region, you must ultimately make that decision. Discuss
species selection with other technicians and staff of your local department of forestry or natural
resources if you have any questions. For land reclamation and establishment of agroforestry systems
world-wide, Trees for the Future has seen great success using Leucaena leucocephala (p.36).Other
popular agroforestry species, examples of which are on pages 37-47 of this training packet, have also
proven very useful in agroforestry systems around the world. Here is a list of some of our favorite
(sub)tropical MPFG species. We keep stocks of seeds of many of these tree species at our seed distribution sites around the world. After passing the agroforestry test, you will be eligible to submit a
request for seeds. For more information on tree species, visit the technical training and education
materials posted at www.plant-trees.org.
Acacia albida (thorny)
Leucaena leucocephala
Acacia angustissima
Leucaena salvadorensis
Acacia mangium
Moringa oleifera
Acacia nilotica (thorny)
Paraserianthes falcataria
Acacia senegal (thorny)
Prosopis juliflora (thorny)
Acrocarpus fraxinifolius
Senna siamea
Albizia lebbek
Sesbania grandiflora
Azadirachta indica
Sesbania sesban
Calliandra calothyrsus
Ziziphus mauritiana (thorny)
Cassia fistula
Temperate trees:
Gliricidia sepium
Gleditsia tricanthos
Leucaena colinsii
Robinia pseudoacacia
Read the following pages to help you identify species that will best help your communities.
Page 35
Lesson 8: Agroforestry Tree Species - Leucaena

(Fr.) Leucaena, (Sp.) Guaje, (Eng.) Leucaena, (Swahili) Mbaazi
Overview: Fast growing, deciduous small tree or shrub, reaching up to 20 m tall. Native to the American tropics, improved
varieties of Leucaena are now being developed on nearly every
continent. It is predominantly self-pollinating and therefore gives
forth offspring similar to the mother tree. Use of L. colinsii and
L. salvadorensis is mostly in Central America.
Agroforestry Uses: FERTILIZER: Leaves are high in nitrogen
and are great as an organic fertilizer. WINDBREAKS: Good, tall
filler in windbreaks because leaf density is full yet not too thick,
space ~3-4 meters apart. LIVE FENCING: Fast growth speed
makes it great for live fence posts as long as animals do not eat
the seedlings before they mature. WOOD: Coppiceable, dense
wood good for fuelwood and pole timber. ANIMAL FORAGE:
The high protein quantity and the sheer amount of leaves (pic
8A) well into the dry season make it a great source of forage.
However, it contains mimosine, an irregular amino acid, and
should be fed in limited amounts to non-ruminant / single stomach animals (none at all to horses or mules). For ruminant aniLeucaena tree form
mals (cattle, goats, sheep), it can be fed from 20-30% of the
diet. Lesson 4, page 27, has more details. ALLEYCROPPING: Nitrogen fixing; can be planted on flat
terrain or in contour lines on slopes, Leucaena makes great hedge rows that produce organic fertilizer, pole timber, and serve as windbreaks. FUEL: Quality fuel
and charcoal.
8A
Characteristics: Growths rates are fast, and crown shape
and branch formation are all similar. Narrow canopy up to 20
meters tall, sometimes higher. Very coppiceable. L. colinsii
and L. salvadorensis have very similar properties as L. leucocephala.
Site Requirements: Grows best in full sun, though can handle partial shade. Tolerant of many types of soil and terrain,
but tends not to fare well in acidic soil. Can tolerate light frost
though will likely be defoliated.
L. leucocephala: Altitude 0-1500 m; Rainfall 650-3,000 mm
L. collinsii: Altitude 100-900 m; Rainfall 500-1,000 mm
L. salvadorensis: Altitude 200-1000 m; Rainfall 800-2,000 mm
Propagation: L. leucocephala: Soak in boiled water for 2 minutes, then add cool water. Soak for 24
to 72 hours. Another option is to scarify the seed coat. Make sure not to damage the radicle/embryo
(the pointed side of the seed). L. collinsii: Soak in boiled water for 30 seconds, then add cool water.
Soak for 24 to 72 hours. Scarification is more effective. Make sure not to damage the radicle/embryo
(the pointed side of the seed). L. salvadorensis: No pretreatment required
Pests and Diseases: A myriad of insects, fungi, and animals attack Leucaena, yet few cause serious damage. Widespread leaf loss from psyllids in the mid-1980s is less of a concern for new,
more resistant varieties. Adult trees have very few problems, though seed loss by seed weevils and
flower loss by moth larva have been reported. Grazing animals are by far the greatest problem!
Page 36
Lesson 8: Agroforestry Tree Species - Calliandra calothyrsus

(Fr.) Calliandre, (Sp.) Cabello / Palo de ngel, (Eng.) Red calliandra, (Swahili) Mkaliandra
Overview: Native to the uplands of Indonesia and

Latin America, Calliandra produces excellent firewood. Leaves are high in nitrogen and are used as
a fertilizer and sometimes as livestock fodder. In
tropical areas it can be established at elevations
above 2000 meters but develops best below 1300m.
Great pioneer species used to reclaim over-used
lands.
8B
Agroforestry Uses: WOOD: Branches tend not to

be good sources of pole timber, but excellent for
coppicing and fuelwood production. Great for
domestic cooking and fueling small kilns, ovens, and dryers. Woodlots usually spaced 1m x 1m or 2m
x 2m. Should be coppiced at 20-50cm above the ground to facilitate resprouting and prevent fungal
infections. SOIL IMPROVEMENT/LAND RECLAMATION: Thrives on slopes, marginal soils, and
degraded agricultural land. Improves soil by fixing nitrogen and leaf litter. Great for alley-cropping (pic
8C) BEE FODDER: Nectar-rich flowers great for year-round honey production (pic 8B). FORAGE:
22% protein, high tannins, no toxic components. Liked by cattle and goats in Indonesia.
Characteristics: Vigorous nitrogen-fixing, bushy tree. Fast growth rate to 4-6 meters tall (known to
reach 12m), growth of 3-5 meters is possible in the first year. Branches tend not to develop into
straight poles. Crown is moderately heavy and sheds leaves in seasonal climates. Has both superficial and deep-growing roots.
Site Requirements: Good in humid tropics, tolerates rainfall as low as
700mm, but thrives in areas with 2000-4000mm. Avoid areas with poor
drainage where waterlogging occurs. Prefers light soil textures and slightly acid conditions, but can grow in a wide array of soil types. Tolerates altitudes from 250 to 1800 m. Moderately shade tolerant. Moderately drought
resistant, but during severe drought the tree will die off and come back
with the rains.
8C
Propagation: PLASTIC SACKS: Pretreat seeds by soaking in boiled water. Let the water cool and
soak the seeds for 24 hours. Seed 2 per sack, cover with inch of soil and keep moist. Outplant at
20-50cm height, when root collar is 0.5-1.0cm. STUMPING: Plant pretreated seeds in nursery bed,
allow to grow to 75-100cm which takes about 4 months. When ready to outplant, prune the roots at
20 cm and the top at 30cm, strip leaves. Stumps can be stored for up to a week if kept moist. Whether
propagated with sacks or as stumps, weeds should be cleared before planting and monitored during
the first year. When reclaiming poor soil, trees respond well to fertilizer (phosphate) in the first year.
BARESTEM: See Lesson 10.
Pests and Diseases: Calliandra tends not to suffer from major pests or diseases. Mature trees should
be coppiced cleanly 50cm above ground to avoid infestations in the fissures of harvested stumps.
Page 37
Lesson 8: Agroforestry Tree Species - Sesbania

S. sesban- (Sp.) Tamarindillo, (Eng.) Common sesban, Egyptian rattle pod, riverhemp
S. grandiflora- (Fr.) Colbri vegetal, fleur papillon, (Sp.) Cresta de gallo, (Eng.) Vegetable hummingbird
Overview: Thought to be originally from Egypt, S. sesban, a

short nitrogen fixing tree, is great for animal fodder and fuelwood. S. sesban (pic 8D) and S. grandiflora (pic 8E) share
many qualities, though S. sesban is better for drier climates.
8D
Agroforestry Uses: Difficult to establish in highly-grazed

areas because it is favored by animals. FORAGE: Leaves
are a good source of protein for cattle and sheep (Berhe, et
al, 1999). WOOD: Coppiceable; light wood is good for cooking; yields excellent charcoal; branches and stems used for
light construction. ALLEYCROPPING: Can be intercropped
with corn, beans, cotton and many other field crops. Serves
as a support for grapes and black pepper. Also used as a
shade tree for coffee and tumeric. Grown as a support for
sugarcane, each plant bracing six canes. SOIL RECLAMATION: Planted on fallow land for soil improvement.
Harvested leaves make a rich compost. WINDBREAK:
Applicable around vegetable gardens, but often too short for
protecting large crop fields.
Characteristics: Fast growing, short-lived tree. Grows
many branches. Tends to develop into a shrub or small tree
about 4 to 15 meters tall. Flowers for either species can be
pink, purplish, white or red.
Site Requirements: Tolerates saline, acidic, or waterlogged
soils. Prefers between 500 and 2000 mm rainfall. S. sesban is able to grow at elevations between 100 and 2300
meters.
Propagation: SEEDS: Very susceptible to insect attack and
should not be stored for over 1 year. Seed 2 seeds per sack
12 weeks before outplanting. Weeding around seedlings
recommended in the first month after outplanting. Barestem
propagation possible but not thoroughly tested.
S. sesban: Scarification is recommended. Make sure not to
damage the radicle/embryo (the pointed side of the seed).
S. grandiflora: Scarification helpful, or soak in cold water for
24 hours. Make sure not to damage the radicle/embryo (the
pointed side of the seed).
Pests and Diseases: The seed is commonly attacked by
insects. Leaves and branches are susceptible to attack by
caterpillars, weevils, bacteria and fungi. Burn infested plants.
Page 38
8E
Lesson 8: Agroforestry Tree Species - Cassia and Senna species

C. fistula- (Fr.) Casse doux, espagnole (Sp.) Canfstula mansa, Chcara (Eng.) Golden shower, Indian laburnum
S. siamea - (Fr.) Casse de Siam, (Eng.) Black-wood, Yellow cassia, (Swahili) Mjohoro
Overview: Senna siamea (pic 8F & 8G) is a fast growing evergreen native
to Southeast Asia. It tolerates both arid lands and tropical climates.
Because of its fast growth and quick regeneration from coppicing, it is
applicable to many agroforestry systems. It is very popular in arid regions,
particularly West Africa. C. fistula (pic 8H) is not as widely used in agroforestry as S. siamea and tends to be less tolerant of dry conditions.
Agroforestry Uses: Leaves are high in nitrogen and great as an organic
fertilizer. WINDBREAKS: Good, tall filler in windbreaks, space at 3-4
meters. LIVE FENCING: Growth speed makes great live fence posts.
WOOD: Dense wood, great for fuelwood and pole timber, very coppiceable. BEE FODDER: C. fistula is popular with bees. ANIMAL FODDER:
Leaves are highly toxic to pigs but are an excellent source of forage for
ruminant animals. DISPERSED TREE: Good for shade around houses,
roads, schools.
8F
8G
Characteristics: Rainfall as low as 500mm may inhibit growth from exceeding 5 meters, yet rainfall up to 1500mm can allow growth to 20m. Lateral
roots have been reported to compete with crops in alley cropping, so should
be kept out of gardens and crop fields (though makes a great
windbreak/boundary planting). Seeds all year round. Produces large quantities of biomass, but does not fix nitrogen.
Site Requirements: The dry season cannot exceed 8 mos. SUN: Enjoys full sun. SOIL: Decent soil
is sufficient, but cannot tolerate poor or skeletal soils.
8H
C. fistula: Altitude 0-1200 m; Rainfall 480-2,700 mm
C. siamea: Altitude 0-1200 m; Rainfall 400-2,720 mm
Propagation: Be sure not to seed too deep (only ~1/2 cm deep).
Seed 4-5/sack if hot soaked and 3-4/sack if scarified by hand. Keep
soil moist and in a sunny place. Propagation by cuttings up to 2
meters in length is possible. Weeding is necessary for the first one
or two years of growth during which they require pruning to develop a straight trunk.
C. fistula: Scarification. Make sure not to damage the
radicle/embryo (the pointed side of the seed).
S. siamea: No pretreatment required.
Pests and Diseases: Insects are quick to attack harvested or splintered wood.
Page 39
Lesson 8: Agroforestry Tree Species - Grevillea robusta

(Fr.) Greville robuste, (Eng.) Grevillea, Silk oak, (Swahili) Mgrivea
Overview: Fast growing evergreen timber tree native to the Pacific Islands and Eastern Australia.
Very popular in East Africa and growing in popularity in Central America. Grows well in tropical highlands and lowlands.
Agroforestry Uses: Great for reforestation. WOODLOTS:
Good for medium strength poles and fuelwood, coppiceable. Plant in woodlots (2.5 m x 2.5 m) and rows (2-2.5 m
between trees). Harvest branches by pruning high, leave
about 1/3 of the branches after pruning to support regrowth.
BEE FODDER: Nectar-rich flowers are great for honey production. WINDBREAKS: Space at ~3 meters and combine
with shorter species. FERTILIZER: High leaf litter (pic 8K),
good source of natural mulch. INTERCROPPING: Good
shade-species for tea and coffee. Cut roots around trunk to
30cm whenever planted next to crops to minimize competition from Grevilleas root systems (Kalinganire, 1996).
8J
Characteristics: Fast growing, to 8-9 meters in 5 years

(Tesfaye et al, 2004). Grows up to 18-30 meters. Complex,
shallow root system allows for efficient nutrient uptake, even
in poor soils. Leaves produce a chemical that inhibits
growth of other plants, but no major problems regarding this
issue has been reported.
Site Requirements: WATER: Found in both dry and wet climates (600-1,700mm). Fairly drought tolerant, as little as 350mm rainfall can support growth. ALTITUDE: Grows at sea level to 2300 m. Can
tolerate light frosts. SOIL: Grows in neutral to highly acidic soils (best in slightly acidic), well-drained
soil preferred. LIGHT: Not very shade-tolerant, flowers best in open, sunny areas.
Propagation: Extreme heat may hinder germination
rate. SACKS: No pretreatment is required. However,
seeds can be pretreated by putting them in a bowl of
boiled water and allowing them to cool for 24 hours.
Seed in sacks 1/2 cm deep and keep the soil moist.
CUTTINGS: Place cuttings 7.5-10cm long in sacks
about 3.5 cm deep. Leave only a few leaves near the
top of the cutting.
Pests and Diseases: Not prone to any specific pests or
diseases. Susceptible to fungi in low, humid areas. In
the Caribbean, often attacked by scale insects.
Page 40
8K
Lesson 8: Agroforestry Tree Species - Albizia and Paraserianthes species

A. lebbeck- (Fr.) Bois noir, (Sp.) Acacia amarilla, (Eng.) Womans tongue, (Swahili) Mkingu, (Cr.) Tcha tcha,
P. falcataria- (Eng.) Albizia
Overview: Native to India, sub-tropical

Africa, Asia, and northern Australia, Albizia
trees are now widely cultivated throughout
the tropics. Albizia lebbeck (pic 8L) is very
suitable for the southern sahel.
Paraserianthes falcataria (pic 8M) is a fastgrowing hardwood.
8L
Agroforestry Uses: SOIL: Nitrogen-fixing

tree, produces green manure. INTERCROPPING: Good companion plant for
coffee and tea. WINDBREAKS: Good for
shelterbelts, but not in areas with little to no
precipitation. FODDER: Leaves, flowers,
and pods make good fodder. TIMBER: Coppiceable, good for fuel wood and carpentry, though difficult
to work. BEE FODDER: Large 5cm-long flower heads are attractive to bees. OTHER: Finely pounded
bark used in soap-making. Good for roadside and village plantings.
Characteristics: Medium-sized deciduous tree, usually 6-12m high, fast growing. Can reach 30
meters in areas with high precipitation. Tolerates light frost.
Site Requirements: SUN:They grow best in full sun, but
will tolerate partial shade. SOIL: Prefers loamy soils, but
can grow on sandy, weathered soils. Tolerates acid and
alkaline soils, as well as salt spray.
P. falcataria: Altitude 1-1200 m; Rainfall 2,000-4,000 mm
A. lebbeck: Altitude 0 -1,800 m; Rainfall 500-2,500 mm
Propagation: Sow 2 seeds/pot, 15-18 weeks in the nursery in partial shade before transplanting to beds at beginning of rainy season. Can be propagated by cuttings and
root suckers. Barestem propagation should be applicable.
P. falcataria: Soak in boiling water for 3 minutes, then add
cool water and soak for 24 hours.
A. lebbeck: Scarify, making sure not to damage the radicle/embryo (the pointed side of the seed) and then place
in boiled water. Let water cool and soak the seeds for 24
hours.
Pests and Diseases: Susceptible to damage from high
winds and from attacks by insects and rodents .
Page 41
8M
Lesson 8: Agroforestry Tree Species - Moringa oleifera

(Fr.) Ben ail, (Eng.) Horse-radish tree
8N
Overview: Moringa has been referred to as "Nebeday" for it's

strength and tendency to "never die". It is popular in backyards throughout Asia, Africa, and Central America.
Agroforestry Uses: FOOD: Leaves, young pods (pic 8Q),

flowers, and horseradish-tasting roots are all edible, and are
sometimes used in salads. Very high in Vitamin A & C, calcium, protein, iron, potassium, magnesium, and other vitamins
and minerals. Leaves are usually cooked in sauces for vitamins. Nutritious tea is made with the leaves for pregnant
women and children. Leaves, dried in the shade and poundphoto taken by Harvey McDaniel
ed, can be mixed with peanut butter, chocolate spread, or any
other food as a vitamin additive. WOOD: Soft, spongy wood is very coppiceable but not a great source
of wood for building or firewood although it is sometimes used. FENCING: Straight trunks make
good living fence posts. Can make live fences when spaced at 15-20 cm. Makes a good dispersed
tree in fields, gardens, or family compounds. OTHER: Powder from crushed seeds can be used to
coagulate and settle dirt/bacteria out of water for purification.
Characteristics: Very fast growth rate. Tends to
have an open, undeveloped crown. Branches easily break during leaf harvesting, leads to stunted
growth about 3-4 meters tall, though can reach 8m.
Branches tend to be spindly.
8O
8P
Site Requirements: WATER: Strong tap root,

highly drought resistant, but requires at least 500
mm of rainfall. SUN: Likes a lot of direct sun, yet is
known to survive mild frost. SOIL: Prefers neutral to
slightly acidic sandy soils though tolerates a wide
range of conditions. ALTITUDE: Grows between 0A field of three-week-old Moringa trees planted like a field
1000 m in elevation.
crop for leaf production
Propagation: Naturally regenerates well. Cuttings between 20cm and 4m can be used, be sure of orientation when placing cuttings in soil/sacks. Direct seeding
does very well, seeds require no pretreatment. Fresh seed
will sprout in 3-5 days. Also sown in sacks, cover with ~1cm
8Q
soil. LEAF PRODUCTION: (pics 8O & 8P) Seed Moringa in
a bareroot bed with ~3cm between seeds, do not outplant,
harvest 1/2m tall seedlings by cutting them about 10cm from
the ground, keep bed moist and all seedlings will regrow for
continued leaf harvests. BARESTEM: Barestem propagation
methods are often used (Lesson 10).
Pests and Diseases: No major problems reported
Page 42
Lesson 8: Agroforestry Tree Species - Gliricidia sepium

(Fr.) Immortelle, (Sp.) Madre de cacao, (Eng.) Gliricidia
Overview: Gliricidia is a nitrogen fixing tree known throughout the Americas as "Madre de Cacao" or "Madera Negra".
Because of it's high output of hard wood and rich leaf litter, it
can play a major role in agroforestry systems.
8S
Agroforestry Uses: FUELWOOD: Good quality. TIMBER:

Strong wood used in heavy construction, tools, posts, and
furniture. BEE FODDER: Good for supporting honey production. FORAGE: Leaves not widely used for animal forage
because some animals dislike the taste, but palatability
improves when leaves wilt overnight (pic 8R). FERTILIZER/ALLEYCROPPING: Great source of green manure and
leaf litter. Leaves have a high concentration of nitrogen,
when submerged in water for 20 days they produce a strong
natural fertilizer. Easy to establish as an alleycrop. LIVING
FENCE
(pic
8S):
Though lacking thorns, it
8R
is relatively easy to establish hedges, especially when propagated by cuttings. OTHER: Mix mashed seeds or boiled bark with
food bait to kill rodents.
Characteristics: Very fast growth rate, possible to reach 4.5
meters in a few months from cuttings. Known to have strong lateral root system that can sometimes inhibit growth of surrounding
vegetation. Flowers are usually pink (pic 8T).
Site Requirements: RAIN: Prefers over 1000 mm yet can survive with as little as 700 mm, not drought
tolerant. SOIL: Tolerates salinity and many soil types.
8T
Propagation: SACKS: No seed pretreatment. Seed 2 per

sack 8-12 weeks before outplanting. CUTTINGS: Small cuttings may be placed in sacks or directly in the ground. They
may need some water during the first
dry season because root structure may
not be as developed as those started
from seeds. Larger cuttings, 15cm
wide and 2 m long, allow for fastest growth. Scrape the base of the cutting to
encourage rooting. Place 2 m cuttings m in the ground a couple weeks before
heavy rains begin.
Pests and Diseases: Not a target of any specific pests, though reported to be
one of hundreds of plants that host the pink hibiscus mealybug, a serious (sub)
tropical pest around the world.
Page 43
Lesson 8: Agroforestry Tree Species - Prosopis species

(Fr.) Bayarone, (Sp.) Algarroba, (Eng.) Mesquite, (Swahili) Kikwajukwaju
Overview: Prosopis juliflora (pic 8U) is a highly esteemed fuelwood source in several tropical countries. It is also valued for the shade, timber, and forage it provides, and it fares well in dry regions.
Agroforestry Uses: FUELWOOD: Prosopis wood is
hard and heavy. It is excellent for firewood and makes
superior charcoal. It burns slowly and evenly and holds
heat well. DUNE STABILIZATION: Because it thrives in
sandy, arid areas, Prosopis has been successfully used
for dune stabilization in places such as India. LIVING
FENCES: Prosopis contributes well to living fences.
Trees must be pruned early in development to encourage lateral branching. Very coppiceable, so branches
help fill in living fences. Thorns are sharp but branches
are still workable (unlike some Acacia species). WINDBREAK: Prosopis trees are not very tall, but they are still
successfully used in windbreaks for smaller fields or to fill
in lower tiers of windbreaks. FORAGE P. juliflora drops
massive quantities of seed pods which sheep and goats
enjoy eating (pic 8V).
8U
Characteristics: A thorny, deciduous tree, large crown,

deep roots. P. juliflora may grow to 10 meters or more. Other species are shorter. Dark green leaflets
(pic 8W) are very small and quickly degrade. Seed pods are long and thin. Some introduced prosopis
species have become invasive, and so use should be carefully considered.
8V
Site Requirements: Grows well in hot, dry climates.

Not frost hardy. Prefers altitudes from sea level to 1,500
meters. Drought tolerant - grows in areas with 15-750
mm rainfall, and in a variety of soils, including on rocky
terrain.
Propagation: Reproduces easily by root suckers

and seeds. Seeds require scarification on a
rough surface to penetrate hard seed coat.
PLASTIC SACKS: Plant 3-4 seeds per sack.
Competes well with weeds. Barestem propagation has not yet been tried.
8W
Pests and Diseases: Bruchid beetles often damage much of the seed crop in certain regions.
Page 44
Lesson 8: Agroforestry Tree Species - Azadirachta indica

(Fr.) Nim, (Sp.) Nim, (Eng.) Neem, (Swahili) Kohomba
Overview: Originally from India and Burma, this broad-leaved

evergreen and cousin of mahogany is now used throughout the
world (pic 8X).
8X
Agroforestry Uses: WINDBREAKS: With 4m spacing, creates

a great windbreak. WOOD: Begins producing timber after 5
years. Best if coppiced 1.5 or 2 meters height. Major source of
straight poles (pic 8Y). SOIL RECLAMATION: Tolerance to
most soil conditions, high survival rate, and resistance to grazing animals make neem a solid pioneer tree for reforesting
lands, delineating field crops, or trying to establish any type of
border planting (ie windbreak, living fence). SHADE: Used for
shade in family compounds and along roads. PESTICIDE: (see
page 27) Submerge leaves and crushed kernels (pic 8Z) in water
overnight to make a great natural pesticide. Neem has over 20
8Y
active chemicals, the most important of which is azadirachtin,
which help to repel and distort the reproduction cycles of numerous insects, nematodes, fungi, bacteria, and even viruses.
Solution should be applied once every week on garden vegetables, field crops, and tree nurseries. Leaves can be used when
making soap to give it antimicrobial and insecticidal properties.
Warning: direct sunlight on leaves will destroy the pesticide
ingredient. Neem is NOT poisonous to humans. BEE FODDER:
Clusters of small white flowers attract many bees. Pesticides are
not present in the honey (National Research Council, 1992).
Characteristics: Up to 30 meters tall, trunk usually not thicker
than 1 meter. Very fast growth rate, up to 6 meters in a year.
Very coppiceable. Neem tends not to be planted among gardens
or alley-cropped with field crops because it absorbs a lot of water
and may outcompete other plants. Seeds often dispersed by
birds and fruit bats that eat the sweet yellow fruit around the
seed kernels.
Site Requirements: Grows almost anywhere. RAIN: Prefers 400-1200mm of
rainfall but can tolerate both drought and higher rainfall. Waterlogging can kill
trees. ALTITUDE: Sea level to 700m, and as high as ~1000m around the
equator. SOIL: Neem can withstand dry, infertile soil, as well as acid soils.
Slightly salt-tolerant. TEMPERATURE: Thrives in extreme heat, but dies in
freezing temperatures.
Propagation: SEEDS: Normally do not store well over 6 months. Seeds
should be cleaned with water to improve germination. No pretreatment necessary. Seed in sacks 12 weeks before outplanting. Barestem and direct
seeding is successful. Cuttings possible, but propagation by seed is most common.
For more information: Read Neem in the Agroforestry CD
Page 45
8Z
Lesson 8: Agroforestry Tree Species - Acacia species

A. angustissima- (Sp.) Timbre, (Eng.) Fern acacia
A. mangium- (Sp.) Zamorano, (Eng.) Black wattle
Overview: Known for their hardiness in dryland Africa, Acacia

species are actually very diverse and are native to most
regions around the world. Many of the popular agroforestry
species are not thorny, though many Acacia species, especially those in Africa, have evolved thorns as a method of protecting themselves from browsing, and thereby conserving water.
Special Assignment: Read pages 123-152 of the

book entitled Acacias for Rural, Industrial and
Environmental Development. This book is on the
CD that comes with this training manual. It is an
older resource, but it does a good job of discussing
the main Acacia species that we at Trees for the
Future encourage communities to plant.
Acacia angustissima
Acacia angustissima
Acacia nilotica
Acacia mangium
Page 46
Lesson 8: Agroforestry Tree Species - Ziziphus mauritiana

(Sp.) Perita haitiana, (Eng.) Chinese date, (Swahili) Mkunazi, (Wolof) Jujube, (Hindi) Ber
Overview: The genus Ziziphus belongs to the Rhamnaceae family,

and has about 100 species of deciduous or evergreen trees and
shrubs distributed in the tropical and subtropical regions of the world
(pic 8AA). The fleshy seed coat of several species are rich in sugars
and vitamins, and this fact has made Ziziphus species important fruit
trees for many centuries.
Agroforestry Uses: LIVE FENCING: The trees are excellent for live
fencing. When coppiced, the branches grow laterally and can easily
woven with neighboring branches. The sharp thorns deter most animals. SOIL STABILIZATION: Planting Ziziphus reduces the rate of
desertification and soil erosion in deserts by stabilizing sandy tracts
and dunes. FODDER: The leaves and twigs can be used as high nutri8AA
tional fodder for livestock. WOOD: Excellent fuel-wood tree and makes
a good charcoal. FOOD: Fruits of all Ziziphus species are edible (pic
8AB). The drupes are eaten fresh, pickled, or dried and the juice can be made into a refreshing drink.
Fruits are sold on local markets and consumed at household. MEDICINAL USES: Fruits are applied
on cuts and ulcers, employed in pulmonary ailments and fevers, and sometimes mixed with salt and
chili peppers to be given for indigestion. The seeds are sedative and are taken, sometimes with buttermilk, to halt nausea, vomiting, and abdominal pains in pregnancy.
Characteristics: Z. mauritania is a vigorous grower and has a rapidly-developing taproot. It may be a
bushy shrub 1.2-1.8 m high, or a tree 10 to 30 meters; erect or wide-spreading, with gracefully drooping branches and downy, zigzag branchlets, thornless or set with short, sharp straight or hooked
spines.
Site requirement: Ziziphus lives in a wide range on climates.
ALTITUDE: It is found in altitudes between 300-1000m.
RAINFALL: Prefers annual rainfall ranging from 120 to
2200mm but the tree is drought resistant and can survive
salinity and waterlogging. SOIL: The best soils are sandy
loam which may be neutral or slightly alkaline, but it will grow
on a wide variety of soils. It is also able to survive injury and
fire damage.
Propagation: No pretreatment is needed, but storage of seed 8AB
for 4 months before sowing improves germination. Will germinate in 3-4 weeks if you remove fleshy seed coat and crack hard outer shell before sowing. For
fastest germination, extract the internal seed from the hard shell. This is easiest done utilizing a mortar and pestle. Be care, though, not to damage the fragile seeds in the process. SACKS: Sow 3-4
seeds per sack. Seeds require full sunlight to germinate, and seedlings should be grown in full sunlight.
Pest and Disease: The greatest enemies of the jujube in India are fruit flies, Carpomyia vesuviana
and C. incompleta. It has been found that treatment of the ground beneath the tree helps reduce the
problem.
Page 47

Lesson Objective: By the end of Lesson 9, YOU will be able to: 1) list the 7 major guidelines in seed
collection; 2) briefly explain important steps in processing seeds; 3) list and explain the 5 major factors in seed storage, and 4) explain why and how we pretreat seeds.
Seed Morphology & Function of Seed Components (figure 9A)
Radicle - the plants complete root
system develops from these cells. All
seeds have some type of point or bulge
that is the radicle.
Cotyledons - these are the first
leaves seen when a plant emerges.
They are generally waxy and look different from true leaves that emerge
later
Endosperm - the food for the seed
Seed Coat - protects the seed embryo,
the living part of the seed
Germination / Pretreatment
Most forestry tree species
require pretreatment to induce germination (moringa is one notable exception). Pretreatment refers to techniques that help water enter through
the hard seed coat. Page 50 demonstrates a hot water soak which is an
appropriate pretreatment for most
seeds.
Figure 9A: Seed Morphology

seed coat
endosperm
cotyledons
radicle
point of attachment
Side View
Front View
Seed Selection and Collection Guidelines

a. Identify the parent trees for trunk/branch formation, resistance to pests/diseases, & growth rate.
b. Collect seeds of the same species from sites separated by over 100m to ensure genetic diversity.
c. Avoid trees that are isolated from others of the same species. This limits genetic diversity.
d. Harvest only mature seed from ripened fruits. Fruit sold in markets is often harvested before ripening, and so fruit from markets may not be a good seed source
e. To ensure genetic variation, collect fruits equally from all parts of the trees crown (top, sides, and
bottom), as these parts may have been pollinated at varying times from different sources. Use long
sticks or rakes to reach seeds in high places.
f. Collect throughout the full natural range of habitat. Include trees that cover environmental
extremes.
g. Man-made stands like live-fencing, plantations, or windbreaks should be utilized with caution.
How We Process Seeds
Step 1: Remove husks. This is done in order to remove insects that make the husks their homes.
Also, husks are home to larvae, attract many pests, and make seeds bulkier to store.
Step 2: Pick out bad seeds (e.g. disfigured or irregular formed seeds, boring insects, etc.),
Step 3: Dry in shade after washing/removing leftover fruit membrane
Step 4: Prevent rot by avoiding moisture build-up in storage (air out regularly, store in good location).
Page 48

Major Considerations for Storing Seeds
a. Moisture
Moisture causes rot. Make sure seeds are dry when placed in storage. Remove lids once per
month to expel built up moisture and to also check for larvae which could have hatched.
b. Temperature
Keep seeds in a dark, cool place. Some species cannot survive in temperatures above 40C.
Fruit tree seeds should be refrigerated and may only be stored for a short time. Other seeds,
such as Acacia seeds, may be stored in cool places for several years (Teketay,1996).
c. Atmosphere
Containers should be kept off floors and away from walls due to insects and dampness.
Place containers where air can circulate around them; this helps with cooling and dryness.
d. Containers
Plastic, glass, and metal containers all have their pros and cons. Just be careful and
try to avoid: 1) breakable containers, 2) containers that let in a lot of light, and 3) containers
that mice can chew through. Use some ash and/or insecticide to protect the seeds from
pests.
e. Knowledge
For all seeds you store, be sure to label the container or bag with name, collection date,
place of origin, name of collector, and the date when seeds should be pretreated and sown.
Germination is influenced by the following external factors (specific to each species)
a. Alternate heating and cooling (even fire)
b. Alternate wetting and drying
c. Sensitivity to day length or light
d. Passage through and animals digestive tract
e. Activities of soil organisms, fungi, insects
Why is pretreatment required?
a. All seeds must absorb water to germinate
b. Some seeds have waxy seed coats that keep them from absorbing water
c. Some seeds have hard, thick seed coats that keep them from absorbing water
d. Pretreatment assures that all seeds in a nursery germinate at the same time
Types of Pretreatment
a. hot water soak - Boil water and pour hot water onto the seeds. Usually from 4-48 hours;
generally, seeds with harder coats. (Acacias, Leucaenas, Albizzias and others)
b. cold soak - air dry seeds, then soak them in cold water before planting (Neem, Papaya)
c. clipping and/or scarifying - use nail clippers, rocks, or other coarse surfaces to
break/scratch/cut the seed coat. Clip the seed coat until you see the white interior. (Leucaena,
Acacia, Delonix regia).
d. acid bath - dip in sulphur - this technique is not popular. Many communities feed seed pods
to animals and collect the manure, spreading it on fields where they want the trees to grow.
DO NOT FORGET:
1) Seeds will swell when pretreated in water - dont plant any seeds until they begin to swell!
2) Every seed has a radicle, a small bump or point visible from the exterior of the seed. Roots
grow from the radicle - dont damage the radicle!
By pretreating seeds, we imitate natures methods of breaking seed dormancy

Page 49

Lesson Objective: By the end of Lesson 10, YOU will be able to: 1) cite four benefits to the barestem
method and 2) identify the dates when bareroot nurseries should be started in your community.
Around 1979, Trees for the Future stopped using
plastic bags to grow seedlings of many species, for sever- 10A
al reasons.
(a) The bags cost a great deal of money, both
to purchase them and the labor to fill them.
(b) Transporting bags holding 1.5-2 kg of dirt from the
seedbed, to the planting site, and often up steep hills, and
then digging large holes, requires a great amount of
unnecessary labor.
(c) The bag limits the size of the seedlings so there is less
growth in that initial, very important, rainy season.
(d) The nursery area where the seedlings are grown is
much larger and therefore requires far more water for
daily irrigation.
We further noted that with good seedbed management, larger and stronger seedlings are being produced
through the barestem method. Therefore the survival rate
has been higher, averaging about 91% as compared to
about 85% with plastic bags.
A seedbed nursery should be located near the
house of the family tending it, and also close to a source of
water, because daily watering in the late afternoon is very Pic 10A: After the soil has been double dug and
mixed with compost, pretreated seeds are plantimportant (Evans,1992: 122-170). We recommend that the ed in equally-spaced rows. As many as 300
bed be "double dug", that is, the soil should be loosened
seedlings will grow in this square meter.
down to about 30 cm in the ground, to get the strongest root
systems. As it is dug, compost and/or animal manure should be added. If the soil is acidic, some agricultural lime should also be added.
There is a fungus that that attacks young seedlings under very humid conditions, causing a condition known as "damping off." The primary leaves fall away and the young plant dies. In humid conditions, you should mix some fungicide with water and sprinkle this mixture on top of the seedbed.
Most tropical tree seeds have a hard seedcoat, which is nature's way of protecting them from
extended drought, epidemics, and other disasters. To achieve higher success rates the seedcoats
must be scarified before planting. Depending on the species, this is done by: (a) scratching them on
a hard or coarse surface (be sure NOT to damage the radicle); (b) pouring boiling water over them
(followed by cold water); or (c) soaking them in warm water until they begin to swell up. Then they
should be placed on top of the soil and lightly covered with loose dirt (Evans,1992:122-170).
Most young seedlings cannot tolerate strong and continuous sunshine. For at least the first few
weeks of growth, they should have partial shade. This can be accomplished by building a rack above
the seedbed and laying palm fronds on it. As the seedlings get taller, this can be removed.
Because many of the desired tree species are leguminous, the soil should have nitrogen-fixing
bacteria. If there are leguminous crops around, such as soybeans or mung beans, these bacteria probably already exist in the seedbed soil. If not, you can take soil from a distant field where these crops
have been grown and mix it in your seedbed.
Many leguminous tree species can be planted closely together in the seedbed (for the leucaenas, we recommend planting at distances of 2-3 cm (pic 10A). In this way, we can expect to get more
than 300 viable seedlings from one square meter of seedbed.
(continued on page 52)
Page 50

Lesson Objective: By the end of this page, YOU will be able to list the 5 steps in making a nursery.
starting your
Bareroot Nursery
PLANT THE SEEDS DURING THE
DRY SEASON - ABOUT 100-120 DAYS
BEFORE THE RAINS ARE EXPECTED
STEP 1: PREPARING THE SEEDS

First read the propagation section for the
specific seeds used. Place the seeds in a
flat pan. Add enough boiling water to cover
them. Wait listed time, add cool water and
let soak. They will triple in size.
et
er
1 meter
1 meter
20 cm
between rows
----------------2 cm between
seeds
STEP 2: THE SEEDBED

Double-dig a raised bed, adding compost.
Smooth it out. If the soil is acidic, add a little
lime or wood ash. Plan to grow about 300-320
seedlings per square meter for smaller seeds.
STEP 3: PLANT THE SEEDS

Make small trenches about 20 cm apart and plant
the small seeds about 2 cm apart within the
trenches. Be sure only to use seeds that have
begun to swell. Cover them lightly with soil. Keep
them in partial shade for the first couple of weeks.
STEP 4: WATER THE SEEDBED
8-10
liters
daily
Every other day toward the evening, use a

watering can and provide 8-10 liters per
square meter of seedbed.
STEP 5:PROTECT YOUR SEEDLINGS

Against chickens, animals, strong sunlight, and
strong winds. Keep small seedlings in the shade
for the first couple weeks. Build a fence around
the seedbed (you can use thorny brush or whatever is available).
For more information on nursery production, there is a PowerPoint Barestem Presentation on the
accompanying CD, as well as a copy of the book Good Nursery Practices: Practical Guidelines for
Community Nurseries by Kevyn Wightman.
Page 51

In the dry season, the dark
green leaves of the seedlings in the 10B
nursery will attract livestock and
wildlife, so the seedlings must be protected. Where brush is available with
long sharp thorns, it can be cut and
piled as a fence around the seedling
nursery.
In most tropical areas, there is a
distinct rainy season, ranging from 4-6
months. It's important to get the maximum growth possible in this first rainy
season. The seedbed should be
established about 100-120 days Pic 10B: Using the barestem method, these children can easily transport
hundreds of seedlings to the top of this mountain.
before the rains are expected. It
This
is
what
the "barestem" system can achieve: more trees, better
should be watered daily and more
trees, with far less labor and less out-of-pocket costs.
compost should be added weekly to
maximize the growth and health of the seedlings.
Transplanting Barestem Seedlings
Protecting hillsides and the water supply for a typical upland community will require the planting of thousands of trees, along with the labor of local families who are already working long hours to
produce their food. Fortunately, much of the work of growing seedlings is in the dry season when people have more time to spare. Using the barestem system can save even more time as the trees are
transplanted (pic 10B).
When the rainy season arrives, it is not necessary to transplant seedlings immediately. We
mention this because this is a time of major activity for a farm family to get their food crops in the
ground. During those first critical weeks, the seedlings can be left alone in the seedbed.
With these fast-growing trees, the goal is to have seedlings 1-1.5 meters tall when they are
transplanted. When it is time to transplant them, the seedbed should be thoroughly soaked to the point
that the tree can be pulled from the ground without damaging the roots. As they are gently pulled from
the ground, they should be stripped of their branches and leaves, except for the terminal buds at the
very top. There are two important reasons for removing the leaves and branches. First, it often happens that the real rainy season has not actually arrived; the winds may shift direction and there may
be no rain for many days. Without leaves to desiccate from the hot wind, they remain dormant until the
rains return. Secondly, root hairs break off when the seedlings are transplanted, and therefore they will
not be able to provide enough water for all the leaves. Removing some of the leaves relieves stress
on the roots as they become re-established.
In our experience, a team of three people working together can transplant more than 120 seedlings per hour. One
man can carry a bundle of about 250 seedlings up a
steep hill. One person cuts the grass where the seedlings
will be planted. A second uses a heavy bar with a sharp
point to punch a hole in the ground wide enough and
deep enough to accommodate the root. The third person
feeds the root into the hole and packs the soil around it.
Can you meet the lesson objective at the top page 50?
Page 52

Lesson Objective: By the end of studying this page, YOU will be able to list the 5 steps in planting
a barestem seedling.
planting your
Barestem Seedlings
DURING AN AFTERNOON, OUTPLANT THE
SEEDLINGS EARLY IN THE RAINY SEASON
WHEN THE SOILS ARE WET. SEEDLINGS
SHOULD BE 1 TO 1.5 METERS TALL
STEP 1: Make the seedbed soil very very

wet so the seedlings can be pulled from the
ground without damaging the roots.
STEP 2: Pull the seedlings from the bed,

being careful not to damage the roots. You
may need to dig along the side of the
seedbed to make removal easier.
STEP 3: Strip the leaves from the

seedling (this method is called barestem
transplanting). Dip the roots of the
seedlings in a mud slurry, and wrap them
with a wet cloth so they wont dry.
STEP 4: Make a hole in the ground about 2025 cm deep with a digging bar. It must be deep
enough to receive the entire root of the seedling
without making it curl at the bottom. The distance
between seedlings depends on the planned use.
20-25 cm
STEP 5: Carefully place the root system

(taproot and secondary roots) in the hole and
pack the dirt around it so there are no air
pockets inside and so moisture will not
escape. Be sure the root is straight in the hole
and that it does not curl at the bottom.
20-25 cm
20-25 cm
Note: You may need to trim the very bottom of the roots to a length of 25 cm if
they are too long.
For more information on nursery production, there is a PowerPoint Barestem Presentation on the
accompanying CD, as well as a copy of the book Good Nursery Practices: Practical Guidelines for
Community Nurseries by Kevyn Wightman.
Page 53
Lesson 11: Vegetative Propagation

Lesson Objective: By the end of this section, YOU will be able to 1) List and explain the reasons for
vegetative propagation and give examples of trees that can be successfully propagated this way in
your region and 2) List and describe the most common vegetative propagation techniques.
Overview
Trees are most often grown from seed, but some species can be easily and rapidly propagated (reproduced) by techniques such as cutting, layering, division, and grafting, which are all forms of
vegetative propagation. When plants are grown from seed, each one will be different. However,
with vegetative propagation, all of the offspring will be exactly identical. This can be very useful, as
you will be able to preserve desirable features from the parent plant such as high productivity, superior fruit quality, or high tolerance to stress.
Cutting and Layering
Many shrubs & vines, and some important trees such as Moringa, Jatropha, Gliricidia,
Spondias, Pomegranate, and tropical Bamboo, can be easily rooted from stem cuttings. It can help to
use a rooting hormone, for species that are difficult to root, but for easily rooted species it is not necessary. Typically the best wood to use for cuttings comes from the current seasons growth, and is
soft enough to bend but hard enough to get damaged when bent more than 2/3. If you can bend it
completely without any damage, it is probably too soft.
Make a well-drained, sandy soil mix, and thoroughly water it BEFORE you start taking cuttings.
To take a stem cutting, cut off about 4-10 inches of a stem (the size can be much larger when making
living fences from species such as gliricida). This piece of stem must have at least 2 nodes (the place
on the stem where a leaf or other branch grows from). Leave the top 2-4 sets of leaves, and remove
the rest, or significantly reduce them in size by cutting them in half. This helps to protect the cutting
from drying out. Gently place the cutting into the soil mix, with at least 1 node 5 - 15 cm below ground.
Since the new cuttings do not have roots, they must be kept in the shade, preferably within an area of
high humidity, such as a greenhouse, or inside a large plastic bag or tent. It can take from 2-4 weeks
(or longer) for the cuttings to grow roots. The plants can be transplanted withing 2-4 months after rooting, though some may need up to a year to fully root.
For plants that are difficult to root, or when you only need to propagate a small number of plants,
layering is a good option. With layering, you make the stem grow roots, but without cutting the stem
from the main tree! This is done in 2 ways. One, called ground layering is to bend a branch of the
tree to the ground, burying part of the branch 15-20 cm below the soil, while leaving the growing tip
above ground. (fig 11A). It can help to put a small rock on top of the buried part of the branch, so that
it will remain below ground. The other way, called air layering, brings the soil to the tree. To do this,
take a fist sized ball of coconut coir (or sphagnum moss) and wrap it around the stem with polythene
film (a cut up plastic bag will work well).
Make sure the coir is soaked for at least 2
11A
11B
hours before using, and squeeze out the
excess water before applying to the tree,
as this will help prevent fungal infection.
Secure the top and bottom of the polythene with rubber strips from a bicycle
tube, or with tape. (fig 11B)
Before layering, it is helpful to
wound the stem by making a 2-4 cm vertical cut with a knife. After layering, it can
take 1-2 months for roots to form. Once a
good number of roots are visible through
Fig 11: Ground layering (a) and air layering (b)
Page 54
Lesson 11: Vegetative Propagation

the polythene, you can cut the stem from the rest of the plant. When cut from the plant, the layered
cutting will be tender and must be treated with care to keep it from drying out. After 2-4 weeks of hardening off, it should be ready for full sun.
Grafting
Grafting is very important for producing high quality fruit. Most fruit trees started from seed will
have fruit that is very different, and often of lower quality, from the parent. Grafting produces trees with
fruit that is identical to the parent, and is widely used for this purpose. Grafted fruit & nut trees bear
fruit faster, sometimes much faster, than seedlings. Grafting requires skill, but with practice, creativity, and a sharp knife, it is possible for anyone to have success without needing expensive equipment.
Grafting is a technique for joining a stem from a tree with high quality fruit onto a seedling of the
same species (mango on mango, avocado on avocado) or, sometimes, a closely related species
(many of the Annona species can be grafted on each other). There are two pieces that are grafted
together: the stock and the scion. The stock is the bottom part (which has the roots), and the scion
is the top part (which makes the fruit). Grafting is the process of joining a scion with a rootstock,
so that they grow as one.
In order for the scion and stock to join, the CAMBIUM on the two pieces must line up (fig.
11C). The cambium is the green circle of living tissue that you will see when you cut a stem in half.
Try finding it on any stem - it is usually very easy to see. This tissue moves water and nutrients around
the plant, and once the cambium from the scion and the stock join, the two will grow as one.
There are many different techniques for grafting, but these different techniques are all just different ways of getting the cambium to line up. The key to grafting is having the cambium line up well,
and to keep it from drying out. In order to do this, it is very important to securely bind the scion and
the stock together utilizing tightly wrapped plastic. 10cm x 1cm strips of bicycle tubing can be bound
around the plastic, to help the stock and the scion make good contact.
Grafting follows the following procedure: 1) Prepare stock 2) Prepare scion 3) Insert scion
4) Align scion properly 5) Bind and seal graft 6) Proper care 7) Success! The grafted trees must
be treated with care, so that the grafts do not dry out until they have solidly healed. They should be
kept in the shade, preferably in a high-humidity area. It can take 3-6 weeks for a graft to take. Once
the grafted scion is actively growing, remove the plastic and all ties, and allow the plant to slowly adjust
to the full sun.
In Senegal mango trees are commonly grafted utilizing the whip and tongue grafting method
(fig 11 C-F). In areas with wild fruit trees, older trees can be top-worked to new varieties with superior fruits using the cleft graft. You can find more information on various types of grafts in the grafting
pdf file on the accompanying CD.
11C
11E
11D
11F
Fig 11: Steps in the whip and tongue grafting method. 11C shows the tissues of a tree that are joined by grafting.
from University of Missouri Extension
Page 55

Lesson Objective: By the end of studying Lesson 11, YOU will be able to explain four (4) major ways
to protect seedlings in their first dry season.
Each year we receive a number of
reports from project leaders telling us that 12A
livestock, mostly goats (pic 11A), cattle, and
horses, as well as brush fires, destroy many
of the seedlings they work so hard to plant.
This is especially true in the dry season
when forage is generally coarse, dry, and in
short supply. It extends into the early part of
the rainy season when grass still has not
started to grow in sufficient amounts.
Through all this time, hungry animals wander
about, sometimes pushing through fences, to
get at green, succulent forage.
We can readily sympathize: a lot of
hard work and a whole planting season lost.
Unless planted within an enclosed area,
seedlings are most vulnerable to grazing animals during their first dry season. Protection
for seedlings can come from weed management and low-cost barriers and deterrents.
Here are some ideas on how to increase
seedling survival rate while keeping out-ofpocket costs to a minimum.
Protection at the Nursery Stage
We recognize that metal fencing, as
sold in most developing countries, is expenGoats ! ! !
sive, so we suggest utilizing thorny bushes
or dead fences made of thorny branches;
anything to protect the seedlings. One can
plant a living fence around the nursery area, 12B
or, if you are just getting started, collect a
bunch of thorny branches and build a dead
fence. Placing thorny branches around the
perimeter of the nursery - leaving one as a
retractable gate - is extremely effective
against livestock and wildlife.
We recommend starting trees in a
seedbed nursery (see Lesson 10). A
seedbed can produce more than 300
seedlings in a square meter by planting
seeds 2-3 cm (1-1.5 in.) apart. The compact
size of a bareroot bed minimizes water
requirements and reduces the length of the
Pic 12B: The firebreak cleared around this field to protect it from
required protective fence.
brush fires is too small! Firebreaks should be as wide as 20
meters to ensure that brush fires do no not destroy your field.
Page 56

Weed/Fire Management
One must also consider weed and fire management (pic 11B). Though weeds can serve as
camouflage for seedlings during the dry season, they can also aid in the spread of brush fires that can
destroy entire fields very quickly. We recommend eliminating the strongest weeds around each of the
seedlings, leaving some brush cover for protection from animals, AND we recommend creating a firebreak around every planting site. The best fire breaks are made by clearing 4 meters of land using
rakes, then leaving a space of 12 meters, and then clearing another band 4 meters wide. The 12
meter band of grass in between the two other cleared areas is then control-burned, ultimately leaving
a 20 meter wide firebreak!
Protection with Local Materials
There are numerous low cost barriers and deterrents to use. The most important thing is to use
local materials creatively. We have seen people use old straw mats, bricks, and even old tires to protect seedlings. Some of the most successful methods are described below.
For new fruit tree plantations, individual trees, which are often spaced 6-12 meters apart, can
be covered with rice sacks, onion sacks, or any other similar bag that allows for some sun and air circulation. These plastic mesh sacks can be purchased at most local stores or markets throughout the
developing world. They can protect a seedling by fitting them over three large sticks. Just hammer
three sticks into the ground around the seedling, and fit the sack on top like a glove. Make sure the
sticks are sunk deep into the ground, so that passing cows and goats do not knock them over if they
use the tepee to scratch their heads with. Just a few inches of wire to bind the sack to the stakes will
hold the sack in place until the next rainy season. Sacks also provide shade from harsh dry season
sun and winds, as well as protection from many large insects (grasshoppers, locusts, beetles). The
sacks should be checked periodically for damage from sun and animals.
Sticks and thorns can also be used to protect individual trees (pic 11C). If chicken wire or sacks
are not available or are too expensive, thorny branches can be woven in between stakes and sticks.
Farmers have also claimed success in sprinkling hot pepper, rotten milk, and livestock urine on
seedlings to send an instant chemical message to animals; we have not yet tried these methods.
There are also numerous products on the market such as repellents and plastic seedling covers, many of which can be expensive. We recommend trying some of the methods mentioned above;
the most important thing is to use local resources creatively. The most crucial step is to help
seedlings survive their first dry season. By the end of the second rainy season, trees are usually tall
and strong enough that animals can only cause minimal damage. We are always looking for new ideas
on seedling protection, please let us know what you are doing!
12C
Can you meet the lesson objective at the top of page 56?
Page 57
References
Abebe, T. 2005. Diversity and dynamics in homegardens of southern Ethiopia.
Agus, F., Garrity, D.P., Cassel, D.K., and Mercado, A. 1999. Grain crop response to contour
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Glossary- As it Applies to Agroforestry

A-frame: Three poles lashed together in the form of an "A", which is used to mark the contours on a
hillside for terrace farming.
Afforestation: Establishing a forest or forest species on land which has not previously been forested in recent times.
Agroforestry System: Is the combination of agriculture and forestry technologies and/or livestock to
create more integrated, diverse, productive, profitable, healthy and sustainable land-use systems.
Alley Cropping: An agroforestry technique in which trees are planted in rows or alleys within agricultural fields. The trees provide numerous benefits such as soil conservation, organic fertilizers,
and water conservation to the agricultural system. Also known as hedgerow intercropping.
Alluvial: Soil that has been deposited by flowing water.
Budding: A common but difficult form of propagation in which the bud of one tree is grafted onto a
rootstock to develop into a new tree.
Canopy: The cover formed by the leafy upper branches of the trees in a forest.
Carbon Sequestration: The removal and storage of carbon from the atmosphere into carbon sinks
(such as oceans, forests or soils) through physical or biological processes, such as photosynthesis.
Compost: Decomposed organic matter that is produced when bacteria in soil breaks down leaves,
rinds and other organic waste, creating an organic fertilizer.
Conservation: The preservation and protection of trees and forests for the benefit of the environment and the health of the local people.
Contour Planting: The planting of trees along slopes and mountainsides to decrease rain-fed soil
erosion and to increase water infiltration and groundwater supplies.
Coppicing: A method of encouraging regrowth in certain tree species by cutting the stem close to
the ground.
Cuttings: An easy and popular form of propagating trees in which the branch of a tree or shrub is
planted directly into the ground to develop into a new tree.
Deforestation: The loss of forests due to overcutting of trees.
Endemic: To belong to a certain region or environment.
Environmental Services: It describes the benefits that trees bring to the local and global environment. These services include erosion control, hydrology, carbon sequestration, and supporting plant
and animal biodiversity.
Erosion: The loss of precious topsoil as a result of wind, moving water or ice, and by such processes as landslides or slow movement of soil over time.
Exotic: Commonly used to refer to a plant or other organism introduced from a foreign country or
region. For example, Grevillea robusta, which comes from Australia, is an exotic tree species in
Ethiopia.
Firebreak: In agroforestry, an existing barrier, or one constructed before a fire occurs, from which
flammable materials have been removed, to prevent fires from damaging fields and homes.
Fodder: Leaves, flowers or pods that are used as food by livestock.
Grafting: A common method of tree propagation in agroforestry in which a scion from a highly desirable species is fused to the rootstock of another species.
Green Manure: A type of cover crop grown primarily to add nutrients and organic matter to the soil.
The cover crop is then plowed or mixed into the soil. Green manures usually perform multiple functions including soil improvement and soil protection.
Indigenous: A species (e.g. plant or animal) which is native to a given region.
Invasive: A non-indigenous species (e.g. plant or animal) that adversely affects the habitats they
invade (economically, environmentally or ecologically).
Page 60
Live fence: A way of establishing a boundary by planting a line of trees and/or shrubs at relatively
close spacing and then fixing wires to them, interweaving the lateral branches, or placing bamboo or
wood posts to them. Also called a 'living fence'.
Lopping: Cutting all lower and secondary branches to encourage a tree to grow straighter.
MPFG: Refers to multi-purpose, fast-growing trees. These are trees which, in addition to growing
quickly, provide numerous environmental services including carbon sequestration, soil regeneration
and erosion control. They also provide benefits such as fuel wood, food, fodder, and medicine.
Multipurpose Tree: A tree that is purposefully grown to provide more than one significant contribution to the environment or peoples livelihoods. Also called 'agroforestry tree'.
Multistory System: An agroforestry system, such as a homegarden, that has a number of plant
species of different size so that several layers of canopy are formed.
Native: A tree which originates naturally from a particular region or environment (same as indigenous)
Nitrogen Fixing: The process by which trees convert nitrogen in the atmosphere into nitrogen compounds in the soil to be consumed by the tree or other plants
Pollarding: Cutting the branches at the top of the tree to prevent the tree from growing beyond a
certain height. Similar to coppicing, but higher up off the ground.
Reforestation: Planting trees on lands where trees are depleted or have been recently deforested.
Rootstock: The bottom half of a graft, which provides the roots. It is selected for its adaptability to
the local environment, and also at times for having a dwarfing effect to create a semi-dwarf fruit tree.
Scarification: A form of seed pretreatment that nicks the protective seed coat to allow for seed germination.
Scion: The top part of a graft, which is selected for its flowers, fruits, leaves or stems. It is grafted
to the rootstock to develop into a new tree that is identical to the tree from which the scion was cut.
Seed Germination: The first stage of growth for a seed, when the protective seed coat breaks
down and water enters the seed. This happens only under the right environmental conditions.
Silvopastoral System: Any agroforestry system that include trees or shrubs with pasture and animals.
Sustainable Land Use: Land use that achieves production to meet the needs of present and future
populations while conserving or enhancing the land resources on which that production depends.
Slash-and-burn Agriculture: A kind of shifting cultivation in which existing vegetation is cut,
stacked and burned to provide some nutrients to the soil and clear fields for future farming; also
called 'swidden cultivation and shifting cultivation.
Wind Break: Usually a long line of tall and short trees and shrubs along a field or garden to block
the wind from removing precious topsoil.
Terrace: A broad surface running along the contour. It can be a natural or man-made. They serve
the purpose of reducing soil erosion, conserving moisture or to provide adequate soil for plants to
grow.
Zero-grazing: A method of raising animals that involves bringing fodder to them rather than letting
the animals graze freely. It is commonly done where land is in short supply. Napier grass
(Pennisetum purpureum) is a common element in zero-grazing systems in East Africa, for example.
Trees that can be coppiced, like Leucaena leucocephala, provide an important addition to these systems. It is also a function of a silvopastoral system.
Please suggest additional terms that you feel should be included in this glossary
Page 61

Trees for the Future - www.plant-trees.org - info@treesftf.org
Planted in 2004
The Same Windbreak in 2005
Offering technical and material support to communities world-wide
The Land Devastated
The Same Place Today
Most of the Dang Valley in Nepal has been deforested in

a similar manner as this 65 acre site, which is
causing serious soil erosion.
Today the same 65-acre site in the Dang Valley

of Nepal. Now the community shares
sustained income from this project.

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Agroforestry Training Program

Agroforestry Training Program

Agroforestry Training Program

Lesson 1: Sustainable Land Management

Lesson 1: Sustainable Land Management

Lesson 1: Sustainable Land Management

nutrients, it takes trees with strong, deep tap roots

Lesson 1: Sustainable Land Management

fungi is directly related to nutrient amounts in the

Lesson 2: Trees & Global Climate Change

Lesson 2: Trees & Global Climate Change

Lesson 3: Agroforestry Technologies - Introduction

A living fence in Senegal

Lesson 3: Agroforestry Technologies - Introduction

Figure 3A1. Classification of agroforestry systems based on

Both time and space are important

Spatial Arrangement of Trees in Agroforestry Systems

Trees in Cropland (large scale)

Trees in Cropland (small scale)

Figure 3A2. Spatial arrangement of trees in Agroforestry systems

Lesson 3: Agroforestry Technologies - Windbreaks

Can you design the orientation and make-up of a windbreak?

Lesson 3: Agroforestry Technologies - Windbreaks

Figure 3F: Openings in a windbreak can cause the winds to

Lesson 3: Agroforestry Technologies - Living Fences

Desirable characteristics of trees used in living fences:

Design: Thorny species (Acacia sp., Parkinsonia, Prosopis,

Lesson 3: Agroforestry Technologies - Senegal Case Study

munities to establish multipurpose windbreak/living fences. This agroforestry intervention directly

Do you understand how to combine windbreak and living fence technologies?

Lesson 3: Agroforestry Technologies - Alley Cropping

Lesson 3: Agroforestry Technologies - Alley Cropping

Pic 3L: Let the trees grow tall during

Pics 3M & 3N:

Pic 3P: Mix the leaves into the soil

Lesson 3: Agroforestry Technologies - Terraces & Contour Plantings

Lesson 3: Agroforestry Technologies - Terraces & Contour Plantings

Step 2) Prepare the Lines: Using your markers

Step 5) Diversify: Beginning in the 2nd year,

Lesson 3: Agroforestry Technologies - Terraces & Contour Plantings

Use either a level OR

Lesson 3: Agroforestry Technologies - Firebreaks

Brush fires, frequently caused in the sahel by

Lesson 3: Agroforestry Technologies - The Forest Garden

It incorporates the symbiotic relationships among plants animals and microbes

It avoids the risk of economic dependence on one, or a very few, crops

It provides a continuing supply of food and other crops

It allows nature to provide organic fertilizers and pest controls

Lesson 3: Agroforestry Technologies - The Forest Garden

Zone 10: Carbon

Zone 9: Biofuels (jatropha, coconut, jojoba,

Zone 6: Hardwood Trees

Zone 5: Fruit and nut

Lesson 3: Agroforestry Technologies - The Forest Garden

Canna edulis (perennial root crop)

Tropical squash (annual vine)

Pic 3X: A forest garden in Calamajue, Cuba, at the

Lesson 3: Agroforestry Technologies - Integrated Production Systems

Lesson 4: Agroforestry for Livestock Management

Lesson 4: Agroforestry for Livestock Management