The Palm Oil Industry From

The Perspective of Sustainable

Development:
A Case Study of
Malaysian Palm Oil Industry
A Research Report Submitted
In Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the
Award of the Degree
Of
Master of Science in International Cooperation Policy
(Development Economic)

From
Graduate School of Asia Pacific Studies
Ritsumeikan Asia Pacific University Japan
By

Suhaila Binti Alang Mahat

September 2012

ABSTRACT

Demand for vegetables oils has been growing strongly since the last decade
due to increased in global population and oils consumption. Palm oil is one of the
most important vegetable oils in the world and each year million tonnes of palm oil
has been traded globally to be consumed by million people around the world. The
palm oil industry in Malaysia particularly is evolved dramatically since the last three
decades and hence produced varieties of products such as crude palm oil, palm kernel
oil, palm kernel cake, oleo-chemical as well as new bio-fuel products to fulfil the
demand from food and non-food industry in the world. However, the rapid
development in this industry creates many questions on the issues of sustainable
development of palm oil. Palm oil industry in the Southeast Asia region suffered
various criticisms and negative reports from the international non-government
organizations on the issue of sustainability. As one of the main producer of palm oil,
Malaysia is also being accused for conducting unsustainable practices in developing
this industry although the industrys history spans across for more than 100 years.
Malaysia was the main producer and exporters of palm oil since 1960 before it has
been surpassed by Indonesia due to limitation of land for further expansion.

This study was conducted to investigate into Malaysian experience in

developing this industry with regard to sustainable development as well as identify its
policies and initiatives towards preservation of the environment. Any policies and
initiatives implemented by this industry will be categorized based on economy,
environment and social perspectives in order to identify whether the palm oil industry
in Malaysia is conducted within the framework of sustainable development. This

ii

study applied qualitative approach in completing the research by using case study and
literature reviews methodology. Case study is an appropriate method used to narrow
down a very broad field of research into one easily research-able topic. In order to
save time and money, this study only focused on one of the palm oil producing
country to investigate the whole structure of this industry and relates it with the issue
of sustainable development and for this purpose, this study selected Malaysia.

According to the findings of this paper, Malaysians government has included

various policy efforts in an attempt to conduct the industry within the framework of
sustainable development. This industry has been regulated by at least 17 major
regulatory frameworks to cover all kinds of environment aspects including land,
environment, and pesticide as well as wildlife protection. These regulations have been
imposed since 1960s with collaboration from various government agencies. In term of
economic perspective, the National Biofuel Policy is launched to enhance the
contribution of palm oil to economy and at the same time to create renewable energy
that is safe and consume less energy. In term of social perspective, palm oil is the
development tool in eradication poverty program launched since 1960. As a result,
Malaysia is successful to reduce the incidence of poverty rate among poor. However,
this study reflects some recommendations that need to be addressed by the
government for future direction of palm oil industry. This study suggested that
Malaysia should focus more on developing the downstream sector that is yet to be
captured based on vast opportunity on new existing global market. Since Malaysia is
one of the main palm oil producing countries in the world, it is a time to establish new
independent accreditation organization with other producing countries, to support the
industry from various issues pertaining sustainability.

iii

It is anticipated the finding of this study will positively influence both parties
including international NGOs as well as industry players and government to be
mutually understanding about each responsibility in ensuring the sustainable
development of this industry. At the same, the information regarding Malaysians
experience in developing this industry can be used as important tool to guide other
newly producing countries in this industry. The list of recommendations proposed at
the end of this study is expected to contribute towards strengthening the position of
palm oil to Malaysian economy and source of main important supply of vegetable oil
at the global market.

iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to Allah Almighty, the most gracious and the most merciful,
for the blessing to accomplish this task.

First and foremost, I would like to take this advantage to express my gratitude to both of my
supervisors:
To Professor Igusa Kunio, thank you very much for your guidance and supports during my
initial preparation of this study. Although you are unable to supervise this study until the end,
the commitments are indeed appreciated.
To Professor Tsukada Shunso, I am really grateful to be supervised under your supervision.
Having the opportunity to work under your guidance is a great experience as I have been
endowed with suggestions and constructive criticisms in improving this study. With your
precious suggestion, guidance and credence, I am able to complete this study.

My appreciation is also extended to all lecturers and staff of Ritsumeikan Asia Pacific
University, my course mates and friends either in APU or Malaysia who had rendered their
helps in one way or another towards the completion of this study. I also would like to thank
all my bosses and colleagues at Agriculture Section, Economic Planning Unit, Putrajaya for
their courage, concerns and assistance during my two years study in APU.

To my beloved husband, Juni Mohd Noor and my lovely daughters, Nurin Imanina, Nurin
Izzati and Nurin Izz Dania, thank you very much for the sacrifices and loves. I owe a great
deal on your understandings, unwavering supports and motivations to enable me to complete
this study. Not forgetting my beloved parents for their morale supports and prayers
for my success.

Last but not least, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to the Government of
Malaysia, especially the Public Service Department, for giving me this precious opportunity
to pursue the Master degree in Japan.

CONTENTS
Page
Abstract

ii

Acknowledgements

Contents

vi

List of Tables

ix

List of Figures

List of Acronyms

xi

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1

Research Background

1.2

Problem Statement

1.3

Research Objective

1.4

Methodology

1.5

Potential Significance

10

CASE STUDY: MALAYSIAN PALM OIL INDUSTRY

12

2.1

General Facts on Malaysia

12

2.2

Historical Background

13

2.3

Oil Palm Ecology and Growing Conditions

16

2.4

Role and Contribution of Palm Oil to Nation Development 19

2.5

Supply Chain in Palm Oil Industry

21

2.6

Government Institutional Framework

25

2.7

Competitiveness of Malaysian Palm Oil

28

2.8

Palm Oil Benefits and Advantages

30

2.9

Conclusion

33

CHAPTER 2

vi

Page
CHAPTER 3

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF PALM OIL

INDUSTRY

34

3.1

Introduction

34

3.2

Agriculture and Environment

35

3.3

Concepts of Sustainable Development

37

3.3.1

Three Pillars of Sustainable Development

40

3.3.2

Theoretical Framework of Sustainable Development41

3.4

Linkage between Economy Growth and Environment

45

3.5

Effect of the Palm Oil Development

47

3.5.1

Economy Perspective

48

3.5.2

Sociology Perspective

50

3.5.3

Environmental Perspective

52

3.6

Debate on the Issue of Palm Oil Sustainability

53

3.7

Palm Oil Industry: Driven or Disaster?

59

CHAPTER 4

INITIATIVES TOWRDS ACHIEVING

SUSTAINABLE PALM OIL INDUSTRY

65

4.1

Introduction

65

4.2

Environment Compliance

66

4.2.1

Regulatory Framework

66

4.2.1.1 Environment Matters

67

4.2.1.2 Land Matters

68

4.2.1.3 Wildlife Matters

72

4.2.2

Palm Oil Code of Practices

73

4.2.3

Best Development Practice

75

4.2.4

Life Cycle Assessment

76

vii

4.3

4.2.5

Palm Oil Act as Carbon-Sink

77

4.2.6

Roundtable of Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO)

78

Economic Compliance

82

4.3.1

National Biofuel Policy

82

4.3.2

New Key Economic Areas

84

4.4

Social Compliance

86

4.5

Awareness and Concern from the Industry Players

90

4.6

Conclusion

91

CHAPTER 5

CHALLENGES, RECOMENDATIONS AND

CONCLUSION

93

5.1

Introduction

93

5.2

Palm Oil and Food Security

93

5.3

Future Challenges

94

5.3.1

Trade Barriers

95

5.3.2

Land Scarcity for Expansion

95

5.3.3

Labour Shortages and Limitation of Mechanization 97

5.3.4

Competition from Neighbouring Countries

97

5.3.5

Low Palm Oil Yield among Smallholders

98

5.3.6

RSPO Credibility

98

5.4

Recommendations

99

5.4.1

Accelerating the Downstream Sector

100

5.4.2

Establishment of Independent Accreditation

5.4.3
5.5

Organization

103

Real Threat of Palm Oil

105

Conclusion

107

References

109
viii

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1:

Oil Palm Planted Area by Category, 2011

Table 2:

Yield Per Hectare For Major Vegetable Oils

Table 3:

Land Area in Malaysia

Table 4:

Land Use Change (LUC) Other Crops to Oil Palm

Table 5:

Forest and Deforestation Rate for Selected Countries

Table 6:

Projects Carried Out With MPOWCF Funding

Table 7:

RSPO Certification of Palm Oil by Country And Company

Table 8:

Oil Palm Plantation as Source of Employment

Table 9:

Level of Income of Oil Palm Smallholders

ix

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1:

World Production Share Of Major Vegetable Oil In 2009 & World Major
Palm Oil Producers In 2009

Figure 2:

Extent of Oil Palm Cultivation In 2006

Figure 3:

Major Importing Countries of Palm Oil 2008

Figure 4:

Distribution of Palm Oil Planted Area by State, 2011

Figure 5:

Cross Section of Fruitlet

Figure 6:

Palm Oil Industry Supply Chains In Malaysia

Figure 7:

Vitamin E Content in Major Vegetable Oils

Figure 8:

Extraction fromthe Brundtland Report

Figure 9:

Environmental Kuznets Curve: Relation between Environmental Degradation

and Income per Capita

Figure 10:

EKC Relation between Deforestation and Income per Capita

Figure 11:

Palm Oil Industry Regulatory Framework

Figure 12:

Players in the Sustainable Palm Oil

Figure 13:

Proportion of Members ofthe RSPO

LIST OF ACRONYMS

ASA
BMP
CIFOR
CoP
CPKO
CPO
DOE
EKC
ETP
EPP
EU
FELCRA
FELDA
FFB
FAO
FoE
GDP
GNI
IFC
IPOA
IPM
ISO
IUCN
IPM
KLSE
KPPK
LCA
MPOA
MPOWCF
MPOGC
MPOA
MPOB
MPOC
NEP
NGO
NKEAs
PORAM
R&D
RAN

American Society of Agronomy

Best Management Practice
Center for International Forestry Research
Code of Practice
Crude Palm Kernel Oil
Crude Palm Oil
Department of Environment Malaysia
Environmental Kuznets Curve
Economic Transformation Program
Entry Point Program
European Union
Federal Land Consolidation & Rehabilitation Authority
Federal Land Development Authority
Fresh fruit bunches
Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations
Friend for Earth
Gross Domestic Product
Gross National Income
International Financial Corporation
Indonesia Palm Oil Association
Integrated pest management
International Standard Organization
International Union for conservation of Nature
Integrated Pest Management
Kuala Lumpur Stock Exchange
Ministry of Plantation Industry and Commodity, Malaysia
Life Cycle Assessment
Malaysian Palm Oil Association
Malaysian Palm Oil Wildlife Conservation Fund
Malaysian Oil Palm Growers Council
Malaysian Palm Oil Association
Malaysian Palm Oil Board
Malaysian Palm Oil Promotion Council
New Economy Policy
Non-Governmental Organization
New Key Economic Areas
Palm Oil Refiners Association of Malaysia
Research and Development
Rainforest Action Network
xi

RISDA
RM
RSPO
UNEP
UNCED
WCED
WWF

Rubber Industry Smallholders Development Authority

Ringgit Malaysia
Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil
United Nations Environment Program
United Nation Conference on the Environment and Development
World Commission on Environment and Development
World Wildlife Fund

xii

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1

RESEARCH BACKGROUND
Demand for vegetables oils has been growing strongly since the last decade

due to global population growth and increased in oils consumption. Growth in

vegetable oil consumption is driven mainly by economic expansion in developing
countries. In most developing nations, vegetable oil consumption per capita rose
considerably in the 1990s, by 65 per cent in Indonesia and 94 per cent in India, due to
increase in income and people consumed more oil (Murphy 2007). Oil crops have
played a key role in improving food energy supplies in developing countries (FAO,
2002).

Palm oil and soy bean oil together account for nearly two-thirds of world
utilization, and most of the world's recent production growth. Previously soybean oil
was the most consumed edible oil but in 2005 this oil lost its leading global position
to palm oil. Palm oil is now the most important tropical vegetable oils in the global
market for oils and fats markets, as measured by either production or international
trade (World Growth, 2010). In the period 1995-2010 palm oil production is more
than tripled to 46.7 million tonnes, mainly produced by two major producing
countries, Indonesia (47%) and Malaysia (38%) (Product Board MVO, 2010). In
2009, palm oil contributed 27.6 per cent to world oils and fats production share with
its production of 45.5 million tonnes as compared to soy bean, which accounted for
21.8 per cent share with production of 35.9 million tonnes (Oil World, 2010) as
shown in Figure 1.
1

FIGURE 1: WORLD PRODUCTION SHARE OF MAJOR VEGETABLE OIL IN 2009

WORLD MAJOR PALM OIL PRODUCERS IN 2009

Although oil palm was originated in Africa, it has been planted in almost 43
countries in tropical regions of Southeast Asia, Africa and South America as shown in
Figure 2. Indonesia and Malaysia are the two major producers of palm oil in the
world, contributed 21.1 and 17.6 million tonnes respectively in 2009. Significant
increase in production is also occurred in other countries such as Thailand, Ecuador,
Columbia and Papua New Guinea. In 2006 Indonesia surpassed Malaysia as the
leading global producer of palm oil due to stagnation of Malaysias palm oil
production in expanding the plantation area. The growth of the industry has increased
tremendously, as shown by the expansion of planted hectare which started from less
than 2 million hectares in 1980. In 1995-2010 periods, the global mature palm oil area
increased from 8 million hectares to 12.8 million hectares (Product Board MVO,

2011). This impressive growth mainly contributed by the strong demand and economy
reforms implemented in response to Asian financial crisis in the late 1990s.

(Source: Koh and Wilcove 2008a)

FIGURE 2: EXTENT OF OIL PALM CULTIVATION IN 2006

Global palm oil imports rose from 10.3 million tonnes in 1995 to 35.8 million
tonnes in 2009, growing by more than 35% in the last five years of this period. The
major importing countries of palm oil in 2008 are China (6.3 million tonnes), India
(4.8 million tonnes) and European Union (4.1 million tonnes) which accounted for
52% of the global imports. Most of the imported palm oil either in the form of crude
palm oil of palm kernel oil is mainly used in food and non-food industry for cooking
oil and feedstock for processing activities including mixed in animal feeds.

FIGURE 3: MAJOR IMPORTING COUNTRIES OF PALM OIL 2008

1.2

PROBLEM STATEMENT

Palm oil is one of the most traded agriculture commodities in the world.
Global palm oil production is increasing every year, prompted largely by expanding
bio fuel markets in the European Union (European Commission 2006) and by food
demand in India and China (Clay, J. 2004). In Malaysia, palm oil industry has been an
important agriculture sector in the economy for the past three decades. The important
role of this industry to the Malaysians economy is not only because Malaysia
depends substantially on oil palm for its foreign exchange earnings, but also because
palm oil is used a development tool in poverty alleviation program for the past three
decades.

Rapid growing of global demand of palm oil in the past decade reflects the
total cultivation of oil palm in the producing countries, particularly in Malaysia and
Indonesia. In order to meet the overwhelming demand, oil palm area needs expansion
thus more lands are required for plantation. In some producing countries, expansion of
oil palm leads to new areas is opened up for plantation and in most cases it involves
deforestation. Conversion of primary forest to oil palm plantation accounted for more
than 10 per cent of deforestation in Indonesia and Malaysia between 1990 and 2010
(Koh et al. 2011). It is reported that tropical land occupied by palm oil plantation
increased from 1.55 million hectares in 1980 to about 12.2 million hectares in 2009
(IFC, 2011). During the UN Climate Change Conference (UNCCC) in Copenhagen, it
had been mounted that conversion of forest land to other uses by developing countries
including oil palm plantation is considered as deforestation. Deforestation is a major
source for greenhouse gasses emissions and this activity should be curbed. This
scenario attracted the attention from the world particularly international nongovernment organizations (NGOs) on the issue of sustainable development in the
palm oil industry.

The palm oil industry particularly in the Southeast Asia region suffered
various criticisms and negative reports from the global NGOs to discredit palm oil.
The whole industry has to face the growing accusations made by NGOs about the
potential impact of palm oil plantation on environment and people. Some of them also
launched anti palm oil campaign to harness support against palm oil. These issues
could escalate to cause significant damage in the eyes of a consuming public that
consider it as socially conscious. This intensive campaign is attacking companies
reputations and public trust over the production. Large international companies and

owners of top-level brands are particularly vulnerable to criticism and often become
target group in palm oil campaigning program (Nikoluyuk et al, 2010). Some of the
global environment organizations accused this industry is not being conducted within
the boundary of sustainable development and contributing to a loss of biodiversity,
uncontrolled green gas emissions, conduct unsustainable farming practices, soil, air
and water pollutions, chemical contamination as well as land disputes and social
problems.

Contrary, palm oil producers accused western NGOs are unfairly targeting
Southeast Asias oil palm industry while ignoring agricultural activities in other
regions that also harm biodiversity, such as soy bean cultivation in South America.
They also argued that oil palm cultivation is not a threat to biodiversity and
deforestation because it is only cultivated in the designated allowable agriculture
zoning area thus less disturbance to original habitats and permanent forests. Some
analysts also stressed that cultivation of palm oil is able to maintain the biodiversity
and preserve the flora and fauna.

Intense media debates between environmental NGOs and industry player will
be continued if the appropriate solution to overcome this issue is not giving attention
by the world. It will affect the future development of palm oil industry as this issue is
concerned about the trade-off between economic development and environmental
protection, in which, at the end will reflect the social development of local
communities. While at the same time, the earth must be protected from further
deterioration elements, to ensure the safety of future generations.

1.3

RESEARCH OBJECTIVE

Why the issue of sustainable development in the palm oil industry is important
to be addressed? Palm oil is one of the most important vegetable oils in the world and
each year million tonnes of palm oil has been traded globally to be consumed by
millions people around the world. The industry is evolved dramatically and hence
produced varieties of products such as crude palm oil, palm kernel oil, palm kernel
cake, oleo-chemical as well as new bio-fuel products to fulfil the demand. However,
the rapid development in this industry creates many questions on the issues of
sustainable development of palm oil. The palm oil industry particularly in South East
Asia regions is being pressured by the international NGOs to prevent the deforestation
activities. In Malaysia palm oil is the most important agricultural commodity in the
country, and contributes substantially to the economy. Unfortunately, the Malaysian
palm oil industry is also being accused for conducting unsustainable practices in
developing this industry. These continuous pressures might affect the wellbeing of
this industry in the future.

I have been interested in this subject after being exposed to many news and
discussions by various parties regarding these issues. Many findings from previous
studies revealed that this industry is one of the major caused of environmental
degradation. However, knowing the facts that all the agriculture activities are the main
driver for ecological impact, it is undeniable fact that oil palm cultivation is
significantly contribute the same effects to the environment. But how big the impact
and is there any mitigation measures has been taken? In this regards, my priority
concern in this topic is not only to identify the environmental impact caused by this

industry, but also to investigate the sustainable practices by the whole industry, if any.
Therefore, this paper attempts to investigate into Malaysian experience in developing
this industry with regard to sustainable development as well as identify its policies
and initiatives towards preservation of the environment. In this regards, the
determination of sustainable development will be based on economy, environment
and social perspective and how these aspects are approached by the palm oil industry.
Any policies and initiatives implemented by this industry will be categorized based on
economy, environment and social perspectives in order to identify whether the palm
oil industry in Malaysia is conducted within the framework of sustainable
development.

In guiding this study to achieve its objectives, there are two questions to be
asked in this study:
a) How the government of Malaysia mitigates negative environmental impact
caused by the palm oil industry considering the concern of international
NGOs?
b) Does the actions and policy being implemented are sufficient in promoting
this industry towards a sustainable manner based on economic, social and
environmental approach?

1.4

METHODOLOGY

Research process begins with identifying of problem or specific issue that

need to be researched. It follows by developing research questions to help the research
achieves its objectives. Problem or issue is identified through observation and

focusing on the situation that happened, then this process will be further explored by
the researcher by conducting literature reviews through the available resources of
information before conducting actual research activities.

This study will apply qualitative approach in conducting the research by using
case study and literature reviews methodology. Researcher Robert K. Yin defines the
case study research method as an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary
phenomenon within its real-life context; when the boundaries between phenomenon
and context are not clearly evident; and in which multiple sources of evidence are
used (Yin, 1984). This qualitative case study is an approach to research that facilitates
exploration of a phenomenon within its context using a variety of data sources
(Baxter.P & Jack.S, 2008). A case study is an in-depth study of a particular situation
rather than a sweeping statistical survey. It is a method used to narrow down a very
broad field of research into one easily research-able topic. In this case, in order to
save time and money, this study only focused on one of the palm oil producing
country to investigate the whole structure of this industry and relates it with the issue
of sustainable development. This is an appropriate technique since almost all the oil
palm producing countries is having a similar climate condition and geographical
advantage that suitable for oil palm plantation.

Choosing Malaysia as a centre of research in this issue is an appropriate

choice as this country is pioneered in the commercial plantation since early 19th
century. The industry was also at the forefront of technology and production (Jomo
and Rock, 1998) both in upstream and downstream sector for the global market. This
study will elaborate more on the palm oil industry in Malaysia including the historical

background of this crop plantation, role and contribution of this sector to the nation
development, supply chain activities and institutional framework. The current status
of this industry with regard to the concepts of sustainable development will be
discussed based on previous studies conducted by academician, NGOs, institutional
financial organizations as well as other interested parties. Then, this study will explore
the actions and role of the government and private sectors in Malaysia in dealing with
this issue.

Literature reviews technique is used as an essential methodology mainly to

search for secondary data and information from the published journal, books, and
published papers presented at various mediums and publications from the
organization websites. Statistical data used to describe about the performance of this
industry are collected both from the international bodies such as World Bank and
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). While for statistical data for Malaysia,
mainly was collected from the monitoring agency on palm oil such as the Malaysian
Palm Oil Board (MPOB), Department of Statistic Malaysia, Ministry of Plantation
Industries and Commodities Malaysia (KPPK) and Economic Planning Unit, Prime
Ministers Department.

1.5

POTENTIAL SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH

With reference to the research objectives, this study will provide opportunity to
describe and analyze the current position of palm oil industry in Malaysia with regard
to sustainability. Research and development in this industry is conducted on
continuous basis, thus there might be new findings on the issue of sustainable as well

10

as new measures taken by the industry in dealing with this scenario. This study will
try to accumulate the information and helps to disseminate various views to
complement the overall augments on the issues of environmental impact and
sustainable development of the industry. It is anticipated that the finding of this study
will positively influence both parties including international NGOs as well as industry
players and government to be mutually understanding about each responsibility in
ensuring the sustainable development of this industry. At the same, the information
regarding Malaysians experience in developing this industry can be used as
important tool to guide other newly producing countries in this industry. The list of
recommendations proposed at the end of this study is expected to contribute to
strengthening the position of palm oil in Malaysians economy and as source of main
important supply of vegetable oil in the global market.

11

CHAPTER 2
CASE STUDY: THE MALAYSIAN PALM OIL INDUSTRY

2.1

GENERAL FACTS ON MALAYSIA

Malaysia is physically split into two parts by the South China Sea, Peninsular
Malaysia consists of 11 states and East Malaysia consists of two states, Sabah and
Sarawak. The total country area is sum up to 329,847km2 with population at just
under 29 million inhabitants. The climate is tropical with even temperature throughout
the year which experiences hot and humid weather. This country is enriched with
natural resources which have been a driver of economy. Previously, tin mining was
the main economy resources that attracted Westerns conquest to Malay states while
Colonial Britishs planters transformed its arable land into rubber and oil palm
plantations. Besides rubber and oil palm, agriculture also involves cultivation of
cocoa, pineapple, pepper while rice paddies are actively cultivated in the northern part
of Peninsular Malaysia.

Malaysia has experienced tremendous economic transformation in the last 40

years and known as one of the best economic records in Asia with GDP per capita of
US$14800. The performance of economy has been largely dependent on its export
sector. The growing average is 7.2 per cent in 2010 which supported by the consistent
growth in services sector by contribution of 48.2 per cent to GDP followed by
manufacturing sector (41.4%) and agriculture sector (10.5%). Malaysia has also
maintained unemployment at its natural rate of about 3.5 per cent. While inflation has
also been kept low mainly on account of a strong balance of payment position driven

12

by strong performance in the export sector and capital inflows from abroad. The
prolong performance has been driven by the government determination on economic
development by introducing appropriate policy direction timely. Malaysia is now
ready towards achieving the status of developed country by year 2020 by enhancing
the development based on knowledge-economy.

About two third of Malaysia is covered by land forest over 130 million years
old. Generally there are three main types of forests, namely rain forest, mangrove and
large area of peat swamp forest. These forests are full with various flora and fauna as
well as animal species and wildlife. Tropical rain forest is often divided into primary
and secondary forest while peat swamp forest is waterlogged forest found in lowlying area (Arhem.K, 2011). A large expanse of tropical rain forest primarily occupies
the hills and mountains and often forms the protected spines of the country in both
Peninsular Malaysia and East Malaysia. Basically land is used for agricultural
activities; urbanisation and township while the remaining 59.5 per cent or 19.52
million hectares is remained forested particularly in Sabah with total forested areas of
44 per cent, Peninsular Malaysia (32%) and Sarawak (24%) (Convention Biological
Diversity, 2012).

2.2

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF OIL PALM PLANTATION

Started by pioneering efforts in the early part of the century, palm oil industry
in Malaysia has grown to become dominant and dynamic industry. Doubtlessly oil
palm is proven to be one of the main drivers of Malaysias agriculture sector,
contributed 30.1 per cent to 32.3 per cent per annum of agricultures GDP for the

13

period of 2006-2010 (Statistic, 2006-2010). Significantly, the role of this industry is

not only towards building the economic based, but also to attainment the socioeconomic objective. The history of oil palm already spans across more than 100 years
in Malaysia, hence giving advantage to this country as one of the successful
contributors of oils and fats in the world (PEMANDU, 2010).

Oil palm had been introduced to Malaya (later known as Malaysia) by the
British government in the early 1871 as ornamental plants for landscaping (MPOC
Publication). During the period, agriculture sector was driven by the contribution of
rubber and tea as the primary commodity. In 1911, Frenchman, Henri Fauconnier
bought the oil palm seeds from the first commercial plantation in Sumatra and planted
at his Rantau Panjang Estate in Selangor (CH.Teoh, 2002). Fauconnier established
the first commercial oil palm plantation in Tannamaran Estate to replace the
unsuccessful planting of coffee (Tate, 1996). In the beginning, most of the plantations
owned by the English owners and most of the labours for the plantation areas were
brought from India by the British to work as plantation workers. The average size of
plantation was quite small, only a couple of hundreds hectares each (Tate, 1996).
Extraction of crude palm oil was mainly exported to European for processing and
used in production of food and non-food products. The colonial government had
imposed an export tax on primary commodities, using much of the revenue to develop
and maintain infrastructure (Lim 1968; Jomo 1986; Rasiah 1995). Lack of
infrastructure, financial support and protection from the government during the
colonial era, is resulted in slow development of downstream sector. However, the
colonial government encouraged the establishment of palm oil industry at the early
period in order to support the economy due to the falling price of rubber.

14

This sector was developed rapidly after the independence in 1957, when the
government started to focus on the various schemes and assistance particularly in
R&D activities in order to steering the palm oil sectors. Since early 1960, government
took initiatives to diversify the economy from rubber and tin to industrialization and
other alternative crops. In relation to agriculture, oil palm cultivation was promoted
by the government with the aim to reduce over dependency of the national economy
on rubber and tin (Basiron & Weng, 2004). The introduction of commercial plantation
scheme system in 1917 had effectively increased the planted area from only 400
hectares in 1920s to 3.4 million hectares in 2000 (Basiron & KW Chan, 2004) and
reached 4.5 million hectares in 2009. In 1960, the total planted area was only 54,700
hectares and was owned by large estates while smallholders and government owned
plantations were non-existent (Pletcher, 1991). Currently, oil palm becomes the
biggest plantation crop in Malaysia due to rapid expansion of cultivation area in
Sabah and Sarawak. Of the total palm oil planted areas in 2011, Sabah has the largest
plantation areas of 1.432 million hectares and while Sarawak covers almost 1.021
million hectares in 2011, as shown in Figure 4.

15

FIGURE 4: DISTRIBUTION OF PALM OIL PLANTED AREA BY STATE, 2011

2.3

OIL PALM ECOLOGY AND GROWING CONDITIONS

Oil palm is an agriculture crop that needs natural resources for growing.
Initially it was planted as ornamental crops before commercial planting started in
1917. However, the large-scale cultivation did not take off until the 1960s, following
the governments crop diversification thrust strategy to reduce the countrys
dependence on rubber (CH. Teoh, 2002). As an industrial crop, suitable land and
climate condition for plantation are important elements in order to optimize growth
and production. The palm oil plant grows within 10 degrees in latitude from the
16

equator; however ideal growing conditions are within five degrees. Therefore, most of
palm oil producing countries are located around the equator that hold the highest
density of palm trees around Southeast Asia region, including Malaysia that is
naturally endowed to plant oil palm. Cultivation of oil palm is deem suitable in the
deep well-drained medium loam soil, rich in humus with a well-distributed rainfall of
2500 to 4000 mm per annum and a temperature range of 19-33 C. It is a water-loving
crop and it requires adequate irrigation. However, this crop responds well to drip
irrigation and yields are reported to increase by at least 20 per cent. Oil palm is
planted in triangular system at spacing of 9 X 9 X 9 m accommodating 143 plants in a
hectare. Planting can be done in any seasons, but the best period should be around
June to December. Oil palm requires adequate irrigation, as it is a fast growing crop
with high productivity and biomass production. For yielding palms of above three
years of age, a minimum of 150 litres per day is required while for the older
plantations the requirement goes up to 20 litres per day. In short, oil palm plantation is
deems suitable to be planted in the lowland evergreen tropical rain forest particularly
peat swap area that support the highest biodiversity of any terrestrial ecosystems and
covered almost all areas in Southeast Asia particularly Malaysia and Indonesia.

There are three oil palm varieties, Dura, Pisifiers and Tenera, use for industrial
production. The oil palm fresh fruit brunches (FFB) are unique crop product which
can produce two types of oil. Crude palm oil (CPO) is obtained from the mesocarp
while palm kernel oil can be obtained from the kernel within the nuts (S.Vijaya, et al
2010).

17

FIGURE 5: CROSS SECTION OF FRUITLET

Once harvested, the FFB must be treated in an oil mills within 24 hours to
preserve quality of oil. In normal circumstances processing mill plants will be built
within the area of plantation. Supply of high quality seed, seedling and young palms
from breeders and nursery operation are among important factor for every plantation
to be success in long term. Usually a germinated seed will be cultured in the prenursery for three months before moving up to nursery for additional nine to 10
months. After this initial phase, the plant will be moved to plantation area for normal
growing. The first harvestable fruit brunch will be produced after 30 to 36 months in
the plantation area and usually only weight between two to three kg. The peak
productivity of fruit brunches will occur in the 8th to 15th years of plantation. The
tree can reach up to 70 to 100 feet in height and typically will be removed from
production once reach 25 feet which coincides with the industry limit weight. The unbranched oil palm tree can live up to 200 years, but economically viable life of span is
about 22 to 25 years before cutting down for replanting.

18

2.4

ROLE AND CONTRIBUTION OF PALM OIL TO NATION

DEVELOPMENT

The palm oil industry is currently ranked as the fourth largest contributor to
the national economy with contribution of RM53 billion in gross national income
(GNI) accounts. Palm oil is set to remain as the major commodity, expected to
contribute to the nation economy for at least up to 10 years with a total of GNI of
RM178 billion in 2020 (PEMANDU, 2010). The continuous achievement of this
industry was driven by the decision made by the government to diversify the economy
from solely dependence on rubber and tin to the oil palm, resulted in successful
development of oil palm sector. Following the recommendation made by the World
Bank mission in 1955, government of Malaysia decided to promote the plantation of
oil palm as one of new agriculture commodity beside rubber. It was an important
decision made in order to expand the narrow base of economy and diversify it further
to generate better economic growth. The diversification strategy involved the
initiatives to develop manufacturing through establishment of industrial estates and
expand the export of palm oil outputs (Rulianda 2008). During that time, most of the
plantation started to combine both rubber and oil palm trees in their cultivation areas
as the return from oil palm was better than rubber (Basiron.Y, KW. Chan, 2004).

The development of palm oil industry embarked on a new dimension in

economy base by creating wealth to nation as well as functioned as appropriate tool in
alleviating poverty among poor. The emergence of palm oil into the Malaysian
economy during the late 1950s and early 1960s could not have come at a better time
to assist the country in alleviating poverty, especially in the rural areas (Arief Simeh

19

2001). Rural development and poverty alleviation had been priority agenda of the
government and it was clearly stated in the Second Malaya Plan (1961-1965).
Incidence of poverty among the agricultural farmers recorded a highest rate of 68.3%
in 1970. In 1960s government embarked on the new scheme of planting palm oil as
one of the poverty eradication programme which aims to alleviate poverty in the rural
areas. Three rural development agencies had been set up by the government to drive
the establishment of large plantation areas through land rehabilitation programme and
newly opened land namely:
a) Federal Land Development Authority (FELDA)
b) Federal Land Consolidation and Rehabilitation Authority (FELCRA)
c) Rubber Industry Smallholders Development Authority (RISDA)

In general, selected poor landless people will be selected to enrol in these

programmes and placed as settlers in the new opened areas established by the
respective agencies. Government built common infrastructures such as housing area,
community hall, shop, health clinic and school to facilitate them with new life.
Supports and loans were provided to them until the oil palm matured, and they could
sell the agriculture revenue to pay back their loans and support their life. In this
regards, government used oil palm as vehicle to improve the standard of living of
poor in the rural areas and it was shown by the decreasing rate of poverty of
agriculture sector by 21.2 per cent in 1990 (Arief Simeh 2001). By 2008, the
smallholdings in the settlement areas managed to earn monthly income of RM1386
(US$355) from oil palm plantation, not including other additional income, which is
far above the national poverty line of RM529 (US$139) (Global Oil & Fats Mag,
2008).

20

FELDA is the world's biggest oil palm planter with planted area close to
900,000 hectares in Malaysia and Indonesia. FELDA considers as a key driver for the
promotion of palm oil industry in the country. It was established by the government in
1956 with the socio-economy responsibility of developing plantation land for the
landless and rural poor Malays (Yaacob, 1991). During the initial establishment,
FELDA involved in the development of agriculture-based settlements, planted with
plantation crops, initially with rubber and subsequently with oil palm by opening new
plantation areas, mainly by logged over forest land (CH.Teoh, 2002). The focus
gradually changed to commercial development management of plantations on a
commercial basis since there was limited of forest land to be developed. The first
planting of oil palms under the FELDA scheme was in 1961 at the Taib Andak
Complex in Johor, Peninsular Malaysia and involved 8,100 hectares of land. In 1965
the total planted area under the FELDA increased to more than 11,000 hectares, or
11.4 per cent, of total oil palm areas (Pletcher, 1991). The involvement of FELDA in
oil palm plantation was one of the initiatives under the new economy strategy known
as New Economy Policy (NEP), announced in 1971.

2.5

SUPPLY CHAINS IN PALM OIL INDUSTRY

The palm oil industry is one of the highly organized sectors in the agriculture
system; consists of upstream and downstream sector which are successfully
complement each others to become more developed and diversified sector. However,
the development of this industry is still heavily skewed towards upstream activities
and the downstream is still yet to be fully explored. Over the last 50 years, R&D
activities and technology have helped raising yield and thus maximizing the

21

production of oil palm. Generally the palm oil supply chain can be divided into four
big segments of upstream production, midstream activities (trade and transport),
downstream processing and consumer production (Sime Darby, 2009). These
segments can be narrowed down to major players that have direct involved in the oil
palm production such as plantations or growers, millers, refiners, processors,
manufacturers and retailers (CH. Teoh, 1999).

The upstream sector of the oil palm industry consists of several groups of
producers that have important role to ensure the sustaining supply of this important
vegetable oil to the whole world. Palm oil sector has unique combination of
ownership and is mainly divided into two big entities of private ownership and
smallholder. Smallholders can be further grouped into organised smallholder under
the management of government agencies and independent smallholders which
accounts for 25 per cents and 14 per cents of total cultivated area respectively
(MPOB, 2012). While the rest of 61 per cents of total cultivated area is dominated by
large plantation companies either solely owned by the private or government-linked
company, as shown in Table 1.

Category

Hectare

Private Estates
FELDA
FELCRA
RISDA
Other Government/States Agencies
Independents Smallholders

3,037,468
703,027
162,259
79,743
319,786
697,826

SOURCE:MPOB WEBSITE

TABLE 1: OIL PALM PLANTED AREA BY CATEGORY, 2011

22

Per
centage
60.7
14.1
3.2
1.6
6.4
14

According to the definition used by the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil

(RSPO), independent smallholders are defined as farmers who are producing palm oil
based on family-enterprise ownership and usually own less than 50 hectares of land.
This group of farmers has freedom in making decision on their land, self-managed,
self-financed and not contractually bound with any mills or associations. They
manage the land without direct assistance from the government or private company
and sell their crops directly to mills or traders. However, in order to ensure the
productivity of palm oil, government through respective agency will provide the
assistance and supports. On the other hand, consolidated smallholders which are
characterized as farmers who contractually bound by credit agreement and certain
planning as well as being supervised in planting and management technique by either
government schemes or mills. In Malaysia, this type of smallholder enrolled into the
special government scheme and managed by the rural development such as FELDA,
RISDA and FELCRA.

The biggest palm oil cultivation areas are owned by the private through
plantation companies ownership. The private sector has been the main driver for
growth in the development and production of palm oil in the last two decades (B
Ramasamy, 2005). This entity holds 61 per cent of total cultivated oil palm areas
since 1980 with total areas of 3.07 million hectares in 2011. The sizes of palm oil
companies vary considerably, depending on the size of their plantation estates which
range from a few hundred hectares to more than 100,000 hectares. Most of the
companies are listed in the main board of Kuala Lumpur Stock Exchange (KLSE) in
Malaysia as well as on the foreign security boards.

23

The downstream industry covers all activities for processing oil palm into
semi-finished materials in the form of refined oil before exporting to other countries.
Most of the plantation companies have their own refinery plants and crushing mills in
the plantation areas. Producing refined oil provides a tight margin which in the end is
giving low return on equity. However, for companies that gets into the more value
added parts of the chain, which is processed food production, health foods, oleo
chemicals, and branded products, margins might go up significantly. Therefore, the
industry is currently shifting the focus from the general refined products to the more
specialized high value added products to move up the value chain. In the oleo
chemical industry, palm oil and palm kernel oil are used to produce various chemical
feed stocks, such as fatty acids and fatty esters, which are required in the
manufacturing of various non-food products. In addition, palm oil can also be directly
used to produce bio fuel.

24

FIGURE 6: PALM OIL INDUSTRY SUPPLY CHAINS IN MALAYSIA

2.6

INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK

The continuous achievements of this industry are supported both by the

private and public sector. Although the palm oil industry is driven by the private
sector, the government has played a significant role in determining the direction of the
development of this sector (CH. Teoh, 2010). History has shown that the
government's decision to harnessing the potential of palm oil to drive the development
of the country after the Independence, has successfully alleviated poverty and placed
Malaysia as a top palm oil producer in the world. The dynamic progress of the

25

industry is largely attributed to the strategic approach by the government in

developing agriculture land.

Emphasis is not only attributed to just merely efforts in enhancing production,

but was also accompanied by initiatives in penetrating and deepening of markets,
research and development activities and a conducive regulatory framework (Arief
Simeh, 2001). This was supported by the establishment of strong government
institutional with collaboration and involvement from private sectors. In the early
year, originally there were three main institutions involved to carry out the stipulated
policy objectives, namely Palm Oil Registration and Licensing Authority (PORLA),
Palm Oil Research Institute of Malaysia (PORIM) and Malaysian Palm Oil Council
(MPOC).

PORLA was established in 1976 to carry out task to set the quality standards
for palm oil products to ensure a supply of high quality export products. These were
involved two major inspection programs, firstly was the quality of oil products at their
strategic points of processing and secondly was trade, including ports of export, to
ensure that only palm oil products with the appropriate quality were delivered.
Licenses were compulsory for people involved in transportation, sale, purchase,
broker, export, import, storage, and survey or testing of any palm oil product. The
quality control of palm oil products undoubtedly benefited the overall quality of palm
oil products and thereby the reputation (Lars C. Bruno, 2010). PORIM was
established in 1978 mainly for developing technologies which aimed to increase the
efficiency of palm oil production and increased the usages of palm oil. The research
done at PORIM could be divided into three main areas of biology, chemistry and

26

technology as well as techno-economic and provide technical advisory services.

However, in the mid of enhancing the government capability in development of this
industry and strong institutional support, PORIM and PORLA were merged to form a
new agency, Malaysian Palm Oil Board (MPOB) in 2000. As a premier agency in
monitoring the industry, MPOB is responsible to promote and develop national
objectives, policies and priorities for the well-being of the industry growth.

At the same time, MPOC is tasked to develop a comprehensive strategy to

position Malaysia as an international leader in the oils & fats market through
promotional activities. Seeing the need for product development in order to sustain
the upstream development of palm oil, the industry was flagged for sectoral support
under the Industrial Master Plan of 1986 (IMP1). The IMP1 emphasized the
rationalization of refining and fractionation to increase efficiency and competitiveness
of Malaysian palm oil in the world market (Sime Darby, 2009). As a result, Malaysia
became a hub of palm oil downstream processing and thus leads in exporting the
refined oil. In IMP2, government focused on the expansion of cultivation area to East
Malaysia and encouraged private sector to seek raw materials for downstream
activities abroad. R&D activities had been intensified particularly to increase oil palm
productivity and further value-added in product development. Government is very
serious on deepening the advantage of this industry thus set palm oil as one of the key
areas to be focused in the latest governments policy to boost the economy and
achieve a high income status by 2020. Three areas will be given priority attention
including increase the upstream productivity, expansion of downstream as well as
sustain the sustainability of palm oil industry.

27

2.7

COMPETITIVENESS OF MALAYSIAN PALM OIL

Malaysia overtook Nigeria as the worlds leading exporter and producer of

palm oil in 1966 and 1971, respectively (Gopal 2001: 122; Hacaharan Singh Khera,
1976; Malaysia, 1975). Since then Malaysia keeps the position as the biggest producer
of palm oil in the world and contributes almost half of the world production of palm
oil. The current status of palm oil as it is today is without doubt due to the significant
contribution of Malaysian palm oil industry, as a pioneer in this industry since 1960s.
Malaysia becomes a role model for many other producing countries to spur their
economy through agriculture sector. Although the world position had been taken over
by Indonesia, it was primarily due to constrains on land for further expansion. The
area under cultivation in Malaysia has reached the saturation point thus hinder the
expansion activity (Okamoto.S, 1997). The natural climates that is hot and wet along
the year with temperature marks ranging from 25 to 35 degree Celsius and has evenly
distributed rainfall of 2000mm per year, is an advantage to Malaysia in palm oil
plantation context. Since not many countries has the similar pattern of climate though
located only 10 degree latitude away, oil palm becomes the golden crop which
drastically change the landscape of Malaysia agriculture and economy since 1960s
(Ariff Simeh, 2001). In term of land utilization, palm oil cultivation covers almost
58% of the total cultivated land in Malaysia as compared to other crops such as
rubber, cocoa and food crops. Half of the agricultural employments in the country are
provided by this commodity either at the upstream level or at the downstream level;
hence oil palm is an important socioeconomic crop for Malaysia (Basiron.Y, 2005).

28

The commercialisation of the palm oil industry in the 1960s allowed Malaysia
to gain a first mover advantage in terms of expertise and technological advancement
over other nations who only started commercialised planning much later. This
industry has progressed well due to good insight and governance by the government
and strong support by the private enterprises. Having advantage as the pioneer in the
development of palm oil sector in the world, Malaysia is successful leading the R&D
in all aspects of palm oil including pioneering the technological breakthroughs in the
palm oil industry. The industry has adopted innovative techniques and sustainable
practices in ensuring that oil palm cultivation remains in harmony with the
environment. Malaysia will continue to forge ahead with new innovations covering a
wide spectrum of the industry from upstream to downstream and in particular, the
new emerging sectors of oleo-chemical and bio diesel to enhance the industrys
performance

A major reason for the slowdown in growth was limitation on land available
for development. However, study conducted by Sumathi, Chai and Mohamed in 2008
stated that Malaysia is the largest producer of palm oil in the world, having supply
almost 50% of the worlds palm oil demand through exports. Craven in 2010 also
revealed that in terms of global supply, Malaysia is still the leading country which
indicates that this country has always been a leading supplier of palm oil in the global
market. Thus, to remain competitive in the global market, productivity must be
increased through innovation as well as expand the value added at every level of value
chains.

29

Although Malaysia is now ranked second after Indonesia, interestingly, almost

25 per cent of oil palm area in Indonesia is owned by private plantation companies
from Malaysia. Expansion of cultivation in Malaysia is limited due to low available
land for plantation; therefore it is easier to expand plantation in Indonesia rather than
diminishing returns in further development in Malaysia. Of the global oilseed planted
area of 239.82 million hectares in 2009, Malaysian oil palm accounted for just 1.9%.
Yet, this 1.9% was able to supply 11.1% (18.25 million tonnes) of global vegetable
oils and fats output and accounted for 25.6% (16.37 million tonnes) of Malaysias
export trade in oils and fats in 2009 (Sime Darby). Today, 4.7 million hectares of land
in Malaysia is cultivated with oil palm, producing 17.57 million tonnes of palm oil
and 0.66 million tonnes of palm kernel oil. Malaysia is one the largest producers and
exporters of palm oil in the world, accounting for 11% of the worlds oils and fats
production and 26% of export trade of oils and fats (MPOC 2010). China, the
European Union, Pakistan, United States, India, Japan and Bangladesh are the major
importers of Malaysian palm oil. In 2006, these countries altogether accounted for
65.3% or 9.41 million tonnes of the total export volume.

2.8

PALM OIL BENEFITS AND ADVANTAGES

Palm oil has emerged as the important source of vegetables oils in the global
market due to its competitiveness and advantages as compared to other oilseed crops.
Many studies reveal several factors that contribute to the successful of oil palm in the
global oils and fats market. Price of palm oil is more competitive than other
vegetables oils. As a result the consumption of palm oil recorder high growth rate of
7.9 per cent annually compared to soy oil which recorded growth rate of 5.6 per cent

30

during the past 40 years (Basiron, Balu & Chandramohan, 2004). The productivity per
unit area of palm oil is higher than any other crop (Ming & Chandaramohan, 2002).
Production of palm oil is more sustainable than other vegetables oils since it
consumes considerable less energy in production due to long productive lifespan of 25
years, uses less land in terms of broad-acre cultivation method and generates more oil
per hectares compares to other oils. In term of yield, oil palm produces the highest
tonnage of oil per hectare per year compare to other vegetable oils, as presented in
Figure 6. In comparison with soybean oil which produces 446 litres/hectare, palm oil
is able to produce 5,950 litres/hectare that is 12 times more.

TABLE 2: YIELD PER HECTARE FOR MAJOR VEGETABLE OILS

Another contributing factor leads to increase demand of palm oil in the global
market is due to increase health awareness among consumers. This trans-fat-free
edible oil contains two types of Vitamin E as antioxidant: tocotrienols and
tocopherols (Figure 7). Tocopherols can be sourced from other vegetable oils such as
soy oil, canola and sunflower while tocotrienols are only available in high
concentrates in palm oil. Tocotrienols is more powerful anti-oxidant and more potent
than tocopherols which able to lower the blood cholesterol levels, regress the
atherosclerotic plaques in stroke patients, inhibit the entry of white bloods cells into
arterial wall and able to inhibit blood clot formation in the bloodstream. By this way,
palm oil helps protect a person from some chronic diseases as well as delay the ageing

31

process of the body. In this regards, palm oil is the most obvious option choose by
food producers due to its natural semi-solid feature.

FIGURE 7: VITAMIN E CONTENT IN MAJOR VEGETABLE OILS

Unlike other oils, palm oil is a balanced oil as it contains equal amounts of
both unsaturated (mainly oleic) and saturated (mainly palmitic) fatty acids, with the
former constituted mostly by the preferred mono-unsaturates. The main saturated fatty
acid in palm oil is palmitic acid that is neutral and does not raise blood cholesterol
levels. Other saturated fatty acids, in particular myristic, are known for their
cholesterol raising effects.

Palm oil is the most versatile oil as it can be used in various food and non-food
applications with or without only minimal modification. It receives very high demand
since it can replace animal and other vegetable oils used in the processing industries.
An estimated of 74 per cent of global palm oil usage is for food products and 24 per
32

cent is for industrial purposes (USDA 2010). Palm oil extractions are widely used as
an ingredient in the food products such as margarine, cookies and milk.

Oleo

chemical from palm oil is used in the production of non-food industry to produce
household products such as detergents and soap. The recent application of palm oil as
bio fuel for automotive indicates its important role in the development of alternative
fuel source (Belamina, 2010). These will create another new opportunity to be
explored by the producing countries.

2.9

CONCLUSION

Through its long, colorful and historic journey, the Malaysian oil palm
industry has and will continue to prosper while continuing to assume a significant role
in the country. The good demand for the oil as well as new opportunities in the form
of bio diesel as an alternative fuel will ensure that the journey forward will be equally
exciting. The Malaysian oil palm industry is undoubtedly the pride of the nation.
However, issue on environmental and sustainable of this industry is part of challenges
faced by this industry in the future.

33

CHAPTER 3
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF PALM OIL INDUSTRY

3.1

INTRODUCTION

Concern over the environment impact caused by the human development

activities has increased recently. People around the globe, regardless of nationality,
age, education background and ethnic keeps on talking about global warming,
greenhouse effects, deforestation and other environment impact caused by improper
development. Government and private sectors are being urged to commence all
development projects within the concept of sustainable development. Sustainable
development becomes the main word uses in almost all planning proposal to reflect
the impact of the proposed development.

Therefore, this chapter will discuss the concept of sustainable development

particularly within the framework of agriculture sector and its evolution. Palm oil is
one of the agriculture sub sector thus this chapter will describe how the development
of this industry affected the environment based on the three main pillars of sustainable
- environment, economy and sociology. The emergence of dispute among the industry
players and global environmentalists on the impact arise from oil palm development
will also be highlighted in this chapter.

34

3.2

AGRICULTURE AND ENVIRONMENT

Agricultural expansion is one of the major drivers of tropical biodiversity loss

worldwide (Foley et al., 2005; Green et al., 2005). An expanding global population
and burgeoning demands for food have resulted in agricultural areas increasing
dramatically in the tropics with 80% of the worlds new agricultural land coming
from the conversion of tropical forest (Gibbs et al., 2010). Agriculture is the most
important user of the natural resources such as water, forest, nutrients and pastures.
Thus, this activity can negatively affect the environment through overuse of the
natural resources as inputs or through their use as a sink for pollution (DFID, 2004).
Experience has shown that agriculture based on intensive use of inputs is prone to
mismanagement that leads to environmental degradation, particularly where the
system of incentives is inappropriate (Conway, 1997).

In 1960s, concerns were voiced about the environmental risks caused by

agriculture, driven by the book written by Rachel Carson entitled Silent Spring
(Carson, 1963). According to the report by the United Kingdom Department for
International Development (DFID) 2004, agricultural intensification and extension
have had negative impact in these four critical areas:

a) Land degradation
Land degradation threatens the productivity of existing farmland and pastures. In
many developing countries, agricultural land has soil that is low quality or prone
to degradation. About 1.2 billion hectares (almost 11% of the earths vegetated
surface) has been degraded by human activity over the past 45 years. An estimated

35

512 million hectares are lost annually to severe degradation in developing

countries (Pretty and Koohafkan, 2002). Causes of degradation include water and
wind erosion, contamination from industry and agriculture (including excessive
use of pesticides and fertilizers), and overuse of irrigation water causing
desalinization. Soil degradation appears to be most extensive in Africa, where it
affects 65 per cent of the area used as cropland, compared with 51 per cent in
Latin America and 38 per cent in Asia.

b) Water use and availability.

Irrigated agriculture is a major user of water and is crucial to the world food
supplies. One fifth of the worlds cropland is irrigated, and this produces 40 per
cent of the food supply for world. In Southeast Asia, over 80 per cent of water
resources are now used in agriculture. Despite great investment, water use
efficiency in irrigation is generally very low and there are major concerns
regarding resource depletion and persistent conflicts over water rights.
Unsustainable exploitation of groundwater may lead to unforeseen problems such
as arsenic contamination of drinking water.

c) Loss of biodiversity.
Diverse agricultural systems and landscapes are resilient to shock and stresses,
with various plants, insects and animals help control pests and keep soils fertile.
Many of the world modern agricultural systems have become highly-simplified,
and no longer making the best use of this beneficial biodiversity. Deforestation
is one of the primary threats to biodiversity in tropical forests around the world.
Deforestation has many direct causes, including conversion of forests to pasture

36

for livestock, expansion of agricultural lands, commercial logging, and

urbanization. Indirectly, deforestation is influenced by a host of other factors,
including road construction, technological change, agricultural prices, household
incomes, and land tenure and security.

d) Declining genetic diversity in agriculture itself.

Currently, 150 plant species are cultivated for food worldwide, however only
three types of plants (rice, wheat and maize) supply 60 per cent of the worlds
calories. Genetic diversity in crops has been spiraling downwards some 30,000
varieties of rice were grown in India 50 years ago; now only 10 varieties cover 75
per cent of all the rice-growing area. Reductions in agro-biodiversity increase
disease and pest problems (Pretty, 2005).

These activities will be prolonged as the world populations are kept increasing
and agriculture is one of the main source for generating foods. Every year, the global
food demand is increasing and still many people around the world particularly in the
African countries face hunger as ability to reach foods is very limited. According to
report by Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations (FAO), in 2009 around
one billion of people around the world are considered undernourished. In the
developing countries, agriculture is considered as the income generator and proven to
be an effective tool to alleviate poverty among poor people.

3.3

CONCEPTS OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

The concept of sustainable development emerged from the post-war

environmental movement, which recognized the negative impact of human growth
37

and development on the environment and communities. Sustainable development can

be defined and be interpreted in many ways but its core approach is about balancing
between needs and awareness of the environment, social and economy limitations of
the nation. The most frequently quoted definition is from the Our Common Future
report, also known as the Brundtland Report, produced by the World Commission on
Environment and Development (WCED) in 1987. The report defined sustainable
development as development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. This
definition emphasised two important keywords; needs where priority should be given
to the needs of poor; and limitations imposed by the ability of technology and social
organisation in meeting the present and future needs. This concept became most
popular approaches and helped shape international agendas as well as attitude towards
economic, social and environmental development.

The Brundtland proposed seven major interrelated proposals for sustainability

(i) reviving growth; (ii) changing the growth quality; (iii) meeting essential needs for
jobs, food, energy and water; (iv) ensuring a sustainable population level; (v)
conserving the resource base; (vi) reorienting technology and managing risk; and (vii)
merging environment and economic decision making (WCED, 1987). Nevertheless,
this report did not establish any blueprints for policy development. Every country has
to create its own approach that reflects its own needs. Thus, it created many different
interpretations on the concepts particularly among developed and developing
countries. Recognizing that each country has unique problems, development
priorities, and information needs, it was felt that there was a need to analyze
sustainable development at the national level (Palanivel.T, 2009).

38

Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
A world in which poverty and inequity are endemic will always be prone to ecological and
other crises. Sustainable development requires that societies meet human needs both by
increasing productive potential and by ensuring equitable opportunities for all.
Many of us live beyond the world's ecological means, for instance in our patterns of energy
use. At a minimum, sustainable development must not endanger the natural systems that
support life on Earth: the atmosphere, the waters, the soils, and the living beings.
In essence, sustainable development is a process of change in which the exploitation of
resources, the direction of investments, the orientation of technological development; and
institutional change are all in harmony and enhance both current and future potential to meet
human needs and aspirations.
From the Brundtland Report, Our Common Future

FIGURE 8: EXTRACTION FROM THE BRUNDTLAND REPORT

Developed countries emphasized the integration between environmental and

economic consideration into decision about development, which means any decision
today do not have any negative impact for the next generation. However, the priority
concern is that in striving to avoid environmental degradation, the decisions should
not jeopardize economic competitiveness at global scale. On the other hand,
developing countries are more concern about meeting the needs of present generation
with belief that people who do not meet present needs will not worry about long-term
environmental degradation. Their focus are more toward achieving economic growth,
through enhancing infrastructures, increasing the food supply through agriculture as
well as creating more job opportunities for people.

39

3.3.1

THREE PILLARS OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

In the early years, the world perceived development solely as economic

growth. However, the perception started to change gradually as any approaches to
development creates many challenges including environmental and social aspects
such as poverty issue, disparity of income as well as social disturbances. These
challenges are being perceived as unsustainable developments. These aspects have
been highlighted in the Brundtland report which introduced a new approach in seeing
the importance of sustainable development for future survival. Sustainable
development is a visionary development paradigm consists of three pillars - economic
growth, environmental protection and social equity. Ensuring the development is
conducted within the boundaries of sustainable, thus it must take into consideration
the interrelation between these pillars. Recently many development projects in various
countries regardless the development status, generated conflicts to environment and
people due to improper planning and short-vision development. Thus, it creates
negative impact to environment such as pollution, land erosion, and disaster which
later affect the social well-being of local populations. Although it has been past 20
years, the unsustainable action continues and sustainable become elusive and difficult
to achieve.

This general definition of sustainable development is being adopted by other

sectors to reflect the core activities of each sector. In agriculture sector, term
sustainable agriculture has been widely used and one of the definitions used in the
United States was defined by the American Society of Agronomy (ASA) in 1989.
Sustainable agriculture is one that, over the long term, enhances environmental

40

quality and the resource base on which agriculture depends; provides for basic human
food and fibre needs; is economically viable; and enhances the quality of life for
farmers and society as a whole. This wide definition is taking into consideration the
main aspect of sustainable development that cover economic, ecology or environment
and social perspectives.

The three pillars in sustainable development are also being described in

defining the concept of agricultural sustainability in the report by DFID in 2004. The
conceptual parameter in defining agricultural sustainability is not only a concern on
initial change on environmental or ecological aspect, but further includes the
economic and the wider social and political dimensions (Cernea, 1991).
Environmental and social sustainability of productive resources are much depends on
economic profitability to do the reinvestment in order to maintain the resources. In
this regards, achieving a balance between these three are the greatest challenges to
envisage the concept of agricultural sustainability (DFID, 2004).

3.3.2

Theoretical Framework of Sustainable Development

Ulrich Grober in 2007 stated that the concept of sustainable development was
originally synonymous with sustainability which both words are derived from the
older forestry term "sustained yield". It had been published in a comprehensive
handbook of forestry written by the German nobleman Hanns Carl von Carlowitz
(1645 - 1714), entitled The Sylvicultura oeconomica. This book precisely explained
about the concept of sustain-yield which was much related to the forestry sector later

41

became the acceptable concept in every development that concerns about

environment.

The serial discussion about sustainable development at the international arena

was first held in 1972 in Stockholm and considered the first truly international
conference devoted exclusively on the environment issue and marked the emergence
of international environment laws (BacDorin Paul). The outcome Stockholm
Declaration- set out the principles for various international environmental issues
including human rights, natural resource management, pollution prevention and the
relationship between development and environment. Since that the word sustainable
became a popular topic in all academic and research papers, meeting of local
authorities and corporations as well as international organizations forums.
Unfortunately the word is only a fashionable concept in theory but it is considered
expensive to be put in implementation.

The term sustainable development came to prominence through the United

Nations (UN) Brundtland Commission which produced the report entitled Our
Common Future in 1987 which aimed to raise awareness among developed countries
as well as pledged the international cooperation concern on the global environment
change. The report highlights the seriousness of environmental problems due to
unsustainable productions and consumptions caused by many industries around the
globe. It was coincided as effort to bring the environmental issue to the attention of
the mainstream and created awareness among them in overcoming the escalating
problem. Sustainable development has since then formed an important framework and
basis for numerous conventions and agreements made in concern for developmental

42

and environmental issues (Mattias J, 2008). Eventually, this concept received further
attention at the United Nation Conference on the Environment and Development
(UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, attended by 10,000 participants from 178
countries. The key outputs of the conference was the Rio Declaration, Agenda 21 and
the Commission on Sustainable Development which had been set up to complement
each others. Agenda 21 is a comprehensive plan of action to be taken globally,
nationally and locally by organization of the UN and has proved to be influential in
the design and development of national policies and programs of legislation on the
environment (Roberts, 1995).

Agenda 21 was clearly articulated the commitment of leaders from around the
world to support the sustainable development whereby 178 countries adopted the
program prepared their own national sustainable development strategy with the
objectives of improving quality of life, efficient use of natural resources, protection of
the global commons, management of human settlements, and sustainable economic
growth. It also recognizes that the persistence of severe poverty in several parts of the
world alongside a standard of living based on wasteful consumption of resources in
other parts is not a sustainable model, and that environmental management must be
practiced in developing and industrial countries alike.

The next international conference on environment concern held at Kyoto,

Japan in 1997 which adopted the Kyoto Protocol with the aim to reduce the emission
of greenhouse gas. Under the agreement, 37 countries rectified the protocol commit
themselves to a reduction of four greenhouse gasses produced by their industries with
the ultimate objective of stabilizing the gas concentration in the atmosphere at the

43

level that would prevent dangerous interference with the climate system. In 2002, the
World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg took place as a main
platform to review the progress on environment concern since Rio Conference 1992
and to agree on a new global deal on sustainable development. Some authors consider
the summit as a progress in moving the concept of sustainable development toward a
more productive exploration of the relationship between economic development and
environmental quality (Asefa, 2005).

Since the concept of sustainable development emerged vis-a-vis the Bruntland

report and vigorously discussed in Rio Summit, this concept has been universally
accepted and adopted either by public or private sectors in conducting their activities.
Sustainable development concept has been integrated into the operations and
governing mandates by almost all prominent international bodies particularly
international financial organizations in awarding development project to the hostess
countries. Although it has been interpreted differently by different countries and
entities of business, dominantly it is agreeable that all economic growth should make
it environmentally sensitive in order to protect the environment and secure the wellbeing of people. Governments and organizations have taken up sustainable
development as a desirable goal and developed metrics for sustainable development;
concerns not only focus on environment, but also to the economy and social wellbeing.

The year 2012 has marked the 20th year after the first UNCED Rio Summit in
1992. Although twenty years has passed, the issue on sustainable development is still
become prominent aspect in many international conferences. Sustainable development

44

is not a short-term planning and can be achieved within the current scope of
development. Every year, population of the world keeps on increasing, new problems
keep on arising thus any sustainable approaches should consider and adjustable to the
current situation. The proposed Rio +20 Summit is hoped to strengthen the
commitment from all developed and developing countries towards achieving the
sustainable development that integrate these three pillars of economic, environment
and social aspects.

3.4

LINKAGE BETWEEN ECONOMY GROWTH AND ENVIRONMENT

Sustainable development requires that societies meet human needs both by

increasing productive potential and by ensuring equitable opportunities for all. In
order to meet the needs, economy should have enough supply of goods and services
by conducting activities that able to generate enough supply. The economic activities
that provide those products ultimately depend on natural resources and inevitably lead
to some disruption of the natural environment (Perman.R et el, 1996). This causal
relation emerged by the idea of sustainable development embodied in the famous
empirical model that link the relation between growth and environment known as
Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) (Figure 9).

45

FIGURE
9:
ENVIRONMENTAL
KUZNET
CURVE:
RELATION
ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION AND INCOME PERCAPITA

BETWEEN

EKC hypothesis contends that pollution increases initially as a country

develops its industry and thereafter declines after reaching a certain level of economic
progress (Azmi Sharin et al,) which is known as turning point. This implicitly
suggests that environmental damage is unavoidable in the initial stage of economic
development, but beyond some level of income, this trend reverses, so that a high
income levels economic growth leads to environmental improvement. It is shown by
the inverted U-shape curve relation between various environment degradation
indicators and income per capita or growth. From this empirical model, it can be
explicated as developing or poor countries, environmental degradation tends to
happen in large scale while the wealthy countries, the growth is slow thus efforts to
reduce pollution is being addressed by policy changes.

EKC have been acceptable as a standard features in the technical literature of

environmental policy although their application is strongly contested. Some of the
advocates argued that the scale of Kuznets curve may differ for different
environmental impact and regions. However, this EKC may apply in the case of
deforestation for economic development (Figure 10).
46

FIGURE 10: EKC RELATION BETWEN DEFORESTATION AND INCOME PERCAPITA

A study by Bhattarai and Hamming (2001) investigated the relationship

between income and deforestation across 66 countries in three regions: Latin
America, Africa and Asia proved that the inverted U-shape EKC supported the
relationship. Effendi Agus Waluyo et al in his study on Environmental Kuznets Curve
for Deforestation in Indonesia also found there is evidence to support the existing of
inverted U-shape in his study. This implies that while the deforestation rate increases
at the initial stage of economic growth and declines after the threshold point of
US$990.40. The empirical evidence shows by EKC supported the scenario that
happened in the palm oil industry in Southeast Asia particularly in Malaysia and
Indonesia.

3.5

EFFECT OF THE PALM OIL DEVELOPMENT

Rapid expansion of palm oil industry is caused by highly demanded of

vegetables oil in the global markets. This scenario attracts the global attention and
47

question on the sustainable of this industry becomes intense debates recently. The
expansion of oil palm plantation area creates impact on the environment, economy
and social in either positive or negative manners. View from most of the academic
writings or reports tenderly to focus on one side arguments either to protect the
industry or to accuse the industry for environmental degradation, basically based on
the writers aims on the report. In order to discuss this issue, this study will take some
example from other producing countries in providing fair and balance explanations.

3.5.1

Economy Perspective
It is undeniable fact about contribution of palm oil towards the economic
development of the producing countries. In Malaysia, this industry is
successfully contributed to economy growth, eradicate poverty, provide
hundreds of job opportunities to local and foreign worker, improved
infrastructure and housing need as well as generate towards future
development to the nation. As the worlds cheapest edible oil, it is now the
primary cooking oil for many people in developing countries in Asia, Africa,
and the Middle East. In 2009/2010, four Asian countries imported 35 per cent
of the global supply: India, China, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. Domestic
markets in Indonesia, Malaysia, Nigeria, and Thailand met their own needs,
consuming 24 per cent of global production. However, the primary consumer
base in these regions is large, growing, and highly price-sensitive in regard to
staple food products, thus major reductions in the production of palm oil could
potentially lead to increase in cooking oil prices. Dissatisfaction due to
increase in cooking oil price will lead to food riots as what had happened in
2007-2008, when the world faced the food price crisis that leads to several

48

demonstrations and food riots among people in developing countries. The food
riots that erupted on virtually every continent caused massive destruction to
the country economy and political stability.

Although producing country like Malaysia imposed restriction on opening

new area of palm oil in the tropical forest area, these activities still prolonged
due to lack of enforcement. Permanent forest had been cleared for timber logs
only and in some cases the areas remained implanted with palm trees. In
Indonesia, government is eagerly to open a new plantation due to the lucrative
of palm oil industry leads to many grants to establish oil palm plantations are
being distributed. However, in many cases, the company only interested to
clear the forest for timber, but failed to grow the oil palm. As a result, many
cleared-forest become useless grassland and vulnerable to loss of soil during
heavy rain. This kind of unethical activities generated loss to economy and
waste of resources.

Plantation companies are still having difficulties in seeking local labours to

work at plantation areas; therefore they are highly depending on foreign
labours. While salaries of foreign labours are not high as those of the local
workers, there are hidden cost involved in hiring foreign labours such as costly
agent fees and levies fees. This will add cost to the overall production in term
of paying levy to legalise the working permit for foreign workers. In addition,
these workers are going back to their country, mostly are Indonesian, after
being trained in the local plantations. This is considered indirect impact to

49

economy when these trained labours worked at the plantation companies in

competitors country like Indonesia.

3.5.2

Sociology Perspective
In developing countries, this industry has been seen as one of the source of
income and effective tool to combat poverty among poor people. Socioeconomic benefits of a sustainable oil palm plantation could include poverty
alleviation and long-term employment opportunities. Profit sharing may
provide a further incentive, attracting more workers to the palm oil sector,
along with better living and working conditions (Alban and Cardenas, 2007).
Depending on the role played by authorities and smallholder cooperatives,
smallholders may benefit substantially from oil palm production in due to its
higher returns to land and labour, compared to other commonly grown
agricultural products (Rist et al 2010). For instance, oil palm might be an
alternative for farmers to invest in and benefit from the higher returns they
offer, instead of destroying forest for cattle pasture (Butler 2011a).

In Malaysia, the palm oil industry is played a significant role in poverty

alleviation among smallholders and the rural population (Arif Simeh & T.
Ariff, 2001). However, independent smallholders in this industry are perceived
to be inefficient and unproductive (Rahman et al, 2008). Some of them in
particular those who are living in Sabah and Sarawak were earning only
equivalent of a plantation foreign workers and are heavily reliant on
remittances from family member working elsewhere (Porter, 2010). These
independent smallholders are more vulnerable to the oil palms price volatility

50

which impacted their daily remunerations and ability to spend on basic need
particularly foods.

Palm oil also created a number of adverse social impact, in particular to

displace people and indigenous communities, who are affected by
deforestation and changes in land use. Some issue as housing and land right,
low wages received as plantation workers as well as poor treatment are among
the main issues surrounding this industry, mainly happened during the new
area opened up phase. This industry is inherently labour-intensive, requiring
an average of five workers per hectare while competing oils only need one
worker for every 200 hectares. Malaysia is highly depending on foreign labour
in particular from Indonesia since most Malaysian observed to be reluctant to
work in oil palm plantation due to tough working condition and poor wages
(AAB Dayang et al, 2011). Increasing population of foreign workers in the
country, particularly from the low-class communities create social problems
and endangered the national security aspect.

For some of indigenous communities particularly in remote area of Sabah and

Sarawak, forest and rivers become part of their places for important livelihood
activity and primary source of income. Some of them still depends on forest
and river for fishing, hunting and small scale activities. Conversion of forest
areas into oil palm plantation in Sabah and Sarawak areas resulted in drop of
fish stock, loss access to forest resources and loss of cropland (AAB Dayang
et al, 2011). River pollution is consider as one of the factor in lessen the fish

51

population while deforestation leads to decrease in forest resources such as

rattan, herb resources and wild fruits.

3.5.3

Ecology (Environment) Perspective

It is undeniable that the development of oil palm cultivation creates impact to
the environment, same alike other agriculture crops. Deforestation,
biodiversity loss, land conflicts among major agriculture crops, climate change
and threat to wildlife habitats are among major environmental impact that
have been discussed in almost all papers on oil palm development. One of the
main reason that contribute to environment impact to the ecology system in
the Southeast Asia region is due to its natural features that are not native to the
region. Therefore, the expansion of the alien oil palm plantation in the area
might affect the local ecosystem.

Another reason is caused by the monoculture cultivation practices by the

industry. Monoculture is the agricultural practices of producing or growing a
single crop or plant species over a wide area for a long conservative period.
Based on economy of scale aspect, oil palm is viable to be planted on the huge
areas and usually the replanting only take place after 25 years when the tree is
not productive. In normal condition, the rain forest is able to absorb and
softening the impact of heavy rain with its thick foliage. However, the
monoculture of the oil palm plantation is unable to protect the ground to the
same extent therefore suffers from landslides and the washing away of the
upper soil-layer, which hold most of the nutrition (Mattias. J, 2008).

52

The development of palm oil industry contributes positively from the

economic and social perspective while from the environmental perspective, this
industry contribute negatively. The sustainable development concept deems
applicable to this industry in which holistic approach between this three perspectives
should be used to balance between this two impacts. This industry is a very important
source of income, generate employment and help reduce the poverty rate and at the
same time contribute to environmental degradation through deforestation and loss of
biodiversity.

3.6

DEBATE ON THE ISSUE OF PALM OIL SUSTAINABILITY

Debates and negative campaigns on palm oil are never encountered any
endings. Palm oil first attracted opposition from competing fats due to its popularity
and dominance in the food and oleo-chemical sectors in 1980s. An outraged
millionaire industrialist Phil Sokolov suffered a heart attack and started campaigning
themed "The Poisoning of America" featured nationwide full-page newspaper
advertisements describing the dangers of saturated fats found in palm oil. This
manifested itself in several anti-palm oil campaigns mounted in the United States,
centred on blocking its importation. More seriously, concerns were raised on the
purported link between palm oil and saturated fats in raising blood cholesterol levels.
This persisted despite studies that proved otherwise. Science has shown that palm oil,
unlike trans fatty acids found in other oils, addresses concerns over cholesterol levels
linked to rising incidence of heart diseases. All these myths and outright untruths have
been debunked by research, which has forced the palm oil opponents to open a new
battlefront, shifting the focus to the environment.
53

Today, palm oil has to face the same scenario. Divergent opinions between
industry players and NGOs about the impact of oil palm plantation create un-finished
debates over the issue of its sustainability. NGOs contend the expansion of oil palm
agriculture in Southeast Asia destroys huge tracts of tropical forest and threatens the
survival of many native species while palm oil producers have accused NGOs of
unfairly targeting Southeast Asias palm oil industry while ignoring the agriculture
activities in other regions that also harm the biodiversity (Nature, 2007). The debate is
highly polarized with the pro-development side asserting that palm oil is a highly
sustainable industry that feeds the world while the pro-conservationists have blamed
the palm oil sector as being the underlying cause of deforestation and other
environmental and social illness (CH. Teoh, 2010).

This vigorous campaigns to denigrate the palm oil industry that is being
mastermind by NGOs spreading to Australia and European Unions governments with
the aims to pressure processed food manufacturers and consumers into boycotting
palm oil (World Growth, 2009). The basis contention is based on claims that this
industry damages the environment and threatens endangered species such as orangutan and other wildlife animals. However, it is agreeable fact that the expansion of oil
palm has been taking place for more than 30 years. The massive expansion in the
palm oil industry did not really catch the attention of the major NGOs until the the
year the world caught fire (WWF, 1997). In that year, which also coincided with the
Asian Financial Crisis, vast forest fires occurred in Indonesia, Papua New Guinea,
Brazil, Colombia and Africa (CH. Teoh 2010). A follow-up study by World Wildlife
Fund (WWF) and International Union for conservation of Nature (IUCN) identified

54

the use of fire for clearing land prior to oil palm cultivation as one of the major causes
of the forest fires in Indonesia (Rowell and Moore, 2000). These initiated the
continuous campaigns by other NGOs around the world as well as attracted several
financial organizations including the World Bank into the massive actions to condemn
this industry as the major caused for environment degradations. Australian
government had imposed compulsory regulation to all foods that contain palm oil
ingredient to be labelled appropriately in order to inform the consumer the presence of
palm oil by approved the Food Standard Amendment (Truth in Labelling- Palm Oil)
Bill 2009 in 2010. This is part of their NGOs campaign to further discriminate palm
oil industry. The primary objective of food labelling should be address information
asymmetry between producers and consumers on health and safety issue; instead it
has become a tool for political campaign by activist as political instrument (T.
Wilson, 2011).

According to Greenpeace, an independent global campaigning organization in

the United Kingdom, huge areas of tropical rain forest and peat swamp lands in
Southeast Asia are being destroyed to make way for oil palm plantations. They
believe this scenario will create disaster for natural biodiversity and local
communities, as well as release vast amount of greenhouse gasses into atmosphere,
which leads to accelerate the climate change phenomenon. Their actions are fully
supported by a few other NGOs such as Friend for Earth (FOE) and Rainforest. FOE,
in their report entitled The Oil for Ape Scandal that 90% of the worlds palm oil
exports come from the oil palm plantation in Malaysia and Indonesia, situated on the
islands of Borneo and Sumatra. The cultivation of oil palm favours the lowland areas
of forest that is the only remaining habitat of the orang-utan. The report also stressed

55

that the orang-utan is endangered because the habitat loss and palm oil becomes the
greatest threat enemy of orang-utan and their continued survival in the wild.

There are two common allegations thrown by these NGOs which relates to
environment in Southeast Asia; deforestation for oil palm plantation releases carbon
dioxide and diminishing of the peat swamp forest. According to their reports, the high
demand for palm oil has caused massive destruction of rain forest in Indonesia and
Malaysia, to make way for oil palm plantation. When the trees are cutting down, more
carbon dioxide has been released to atmosphere, thus reduce the ability of the planet
to process greenhouse gases back into oxygen. Deforestation also destroys the wildlife
habitat and in turn endangers the species that rely on that habitat. On the contrary,
deforestation also leads carbon dioxide have been sequestered rather than released
back into the atmosphere by replanting activities. Replanting new trees allow the
lands to be covered with a new young, actively-growing trees in which make
absorption of carbon dioxide at a fast pace. Leaving forests for a long time will
probably make the tree dies in the wild then become rotten thus release the wasting
carbon dioxide to the atmosphere.

Oil palm is deemed suitable to be planted in the peat swamp forest. Oil palm
which belongs to palmae group is an important part in biodiversity of peat swamp
forest due to its ability to survive in water logged conditions and high acidic contents
(Mukhtar, 2001). This scenario becomes the focus of NGOs to accuse this industry for
destroying the forest. Peat swamp is important to the global climate for their ability to
hold huge amounts of carbon above ground in vegetation and below ground in slowly
decomposing organic material. Clearance of this kind of forest will make the area

56

become drain and allow the carbon to release to atmosphere thus turn this dry land to
become prone to flood and fire. Peat lands contain twice the carbon stock compared
with other type of forest land (P.O Lee, NST 2011).The conversion of Southeast Asia
peat forests is estimated to account for 6-7 per cent of the total global release of
carbon dioxide into the atmosphere (UNEP, 2007). Conversion of natural peat swamp
forest into oil palm plantation is initiated and implemented by stakeholders from
outside the forest area such as national companies, government and international
companies (FAO). Up to 2002, about 11 per cent of palm oil plantation in Malaysia
and Indonesia were established on deforestation peat swamps (Koh et al 2011).

The continuous critics made by NGOs disappointed the industry player

particularly in Malaysia and Indonesia and is seen as a threat to newly producing
countries that is highly depending on oil palm as food security. Critics made are
unjustifiable, misinformation and failed to analyze the palm oil industrys
contribution to prosper the socio-economic perspective and accept the truth facts, but
instead, only linked it to the environmental issues. None of the critic supported by any
means of fair solutions to the problem and people who involve directly in this industry
particularly the smallholders.

Despite all the criticism and negative campaigns received, this industry is also
obtained fair and full supports from international world organizations that
comprehend the important of palm oil to the producing countries as source for
economic growth as well as to the world as food security. They believed though this
industry is one of the major impedance to environment, appropriate measures can help
mitigate the problems. Producing countries are encouraged to adopt the sustainable

57

approach in dealing with this issue. According to Biodiversity Support Program

(2001), in recent years, sustainable agriculture has been promoted as an effective tool
to reduce deforestation in tropical areas by using certain techniques for specific
suitable conditions. The palm oil industry and pro-development organizations argue
that the palm oil industry has been sustainable for a long time. The positive attributes
and contributions of palm oil to national economies and local well-being were
promoted by organizations such as the MPOC and pro-development NGOs, World
Growth. MPOC stated that palm oil is the only product able to sustainably and
efficiently meet a large portion of the worlds increasing demand for oil-based
consumer goods, foodstuff and bio fuel (MPOC 2009). In its report, Palm Oil The
Sustainable Oil, World Growth reviewed the accusations against the palm oil
industry and assessed the impact of palm oil on sustainability and economic
development (World Growth, 2009). Most of the pro-development assertions are
based on the comparative advantage of palm oil have based on actual performance of
this industry as compared to allegations made by most of the environmental NGOs
which based on the bias and baseless statements. It is believed that some of the false
statements made by them will undermine public confidence on them. As mentioned
by Koh (2010), environmental activists can also be guilty of inflating claims and
employing scare tactics to win public support for their causes. As claim made by the
Rainforest Action Network (RAN) that orang utans are predicted to become extinct
by 2011 but noted that this is unlikely to happen as there are at least 50,000
individuals in numerous wild populations in Sumatra and Borneo.

The counter debates between these two parties keep on prolonged, although
accused governments are volunteered to set a roundtable dialogue with the respective

58

NGOs. However many attempts were failed as NGOs failed to turn up. This scenario
will generate threat to newly producing country particularly in the African continents
in which food security is one of the prime challenges. Since palm oil is a very
important commodity not only to the producing countries as well as to importing
countries, appropriate solution towards ending the conflict at the international level
should be discovered to ensure the continuous production of palm oil.

3.7

PALM OIL INDUSTRY: DISASTER OR DRIVEN?

Sustainable development in agriculture sector particularly palm oil sector

becomes a new topic and attract attentions from various parties at the global arena.
Although numerous academic studies have been conducted within the framework of
sustainable development of palm oil sector specifically in Malaysia and Indonesia,
this area is still considered new. Most of the studies or reports provide a picture of this
industry in the context of environmental aspect; however none is making a connection
based on theoretical approach of sustainable development which covers the three
pillars of sustainable development. Thus in-depth and continuous observations should
be undertaken to improve the scenario particularly in terms of develop solutions to the
problem arise in a holistic manner.

Due to recent debate between international environmentalist NGOs and palm

oils players on the issue of sustainable development of this sector, there are increasing
numbers of reports produce for certain organizations and conferences to elaborate on
this important issue. Based on the internet search on 29 May 2012, there were about
2.5 million results on the topic of sustainable development in palm oil industry. The

59

search engine gave result on the topic that cover entire world while searched on the
same issue that cover only Malaysia produced about 541,000 results. The results
indicated that the whole world has been addressing this issue due to the importance of
palm oil in the global market as main ingredient used in food and non-food
applications.

Oil palm Elaeis guineensis is grown across more than 13.5 million hectare of
tropical, high-rainfall, low-lying areas, a zone naturally occupied by moist tropical
forest, the most biologically diverse terrestrial ecosystem on Earth (Corley, et P.B.
2003). The two largest oil palm producing countriesIndonesia (4.1 million ha) and
Malaysia (4.7 million ha)are located in Southeast Asia (FAO 2007). Coincidentally,
this region also contains 11% of the worlds remaining tropical forests (Iremonger et
al. 1997), and harbors numerous endemic or rare species, many of which are restricted
to forest habitats (Koh, 2007). As such, the potential impact of oil palm expansion on
tropical forests and biodiversity in the region are a major conservation concern (Koh
& Wilcove 2007). Tropical land occupied by palm oil plantation increased from about
1.55 million hectares in 1980 to about 12.2 million hectare. In order to address
growing concerns from European government agencies, environmentalists and
consumers of oil palm products, the oil palm industry in Southeast Asia has argued
both that oil palm plantations are beneficial to biodiversity, and that expansion of oil
palm cultivation has not come at the expense of forests (MPOC 2008).

According to McMorrow and Talip (2001) the problem of forest decline began
since 1890 with logging, tobacco and rubber plantations and is continuing today
partly because of the palm oil development. Mattias Johansson (2008) in his study on

60

the Indonesia palm oil sector found that palm oil industry is a very complex issue, but
it can be approached in many ways when it touched the issue of sustainable. Mattias
evaluated the level of sustainable development of palm oil industry in Indonesia by
studying the link between three pillars of sustainable development which are
economically, environmentally and sociology. His study concluded that the palm oil
sector in Indonesia is not functioning within the frames of sustainable development.
The industry is failed to balance the need to be environmentally and sociology
sustainable due to economic interest of the sector. Strive for economic growth leads to
highly depending on the expansion of this industry which able to generate vast
income to Indonesia. The palm oil industry is a lucrative business, thus grants to open
up new plantation areas are given by the decision maker to attract new investment
without giving consideration to the negative impact on environment and social life of
local people. According to FAO, Indonesia has experienced the greatest destruction of
forest of the other country in the Asia Pacific region, losing 1.212 million hectares per
year from 1981 to 1990 and another 1.084 million hectares per year from 1991 to
1995 (Okamoto.S, 1997).

Mohd Rafi Yaacob revealed in his study in 2007 about the environmental cost
involved due to expansion of palm oil industry in Malaysia. This research investigated
the environmental practices by the palm oil companies listed in the main board of
KLSE, Malaysia and the relationship of these practices with stakeholders pressures,
environmental effectiveness and competitiveness. Although this industry creates
environmental impact such as deforestation, water and air pollution as well as
depletion of flora and fauna, actions have been taken to mitigate the effect due to
pressure by the stakeholders. The palm oil companies perceived deforestation and

61

exploitation of rain forests as legitimate practices for economic gain, as those

activities were conducted according to the law even though this was at the expense of
the natural environment. His study also identified that even though there are wide
ranges of environmentally friendly alternatives or techniques to increase production
yield, identified through research and development activities, the responding
companies preferred plantation expansion as the means to increase palm oil yields.

Klara Arhem (2011) in her study about environmental consequences of the

palm oil industry in Malaysia agreed that due to several driver factors, oil palm
plantation in Malaysia and Indonesia keep on expanding and this creates primary
environmental issues that surrounding both countries thus created debates among
international NGOs. The simplest way to reduce environmental impact would be,
stopped producing and planting oil palm; however this is not realistic action as the
demands from global markets keep on increasing. Deforestation is also not a specific
issue surrounding oil palm sector but also concern on other crops plantation. She
suggested that the government and companies to take immediate action to implement
the best management practices and sound-use policy in determining the consequences
of future oil palm expansion.

In 2007, Sune Hansen conducted a feasibility study of performing a Life Cycle

Assessment (LCA) on the crude palm oil production in Malaysia. Initially this
assessment used to indicate the environmental threat posed by the crude palm oil
production and the result showed that there were evidence that these activities created
a significant environmental impact due to vast production quantities. It was suggested
that environmental investments should be enhanced and fully support from the

62

government is needed by impose certain incentives. This will allow more industry
players to adopt cleaner technology investments in their processing activities.

Among the latest research on evaluating the issue of sustainable development

of palm oil was undertaken by the Center for International Forestry Research
(CIFOR) in early 2012 focused on the palm oil sector in Indonesia. By using several
research methodologies such as remote sensing technique and interview with
stakeholders this study concluded that palm oil sector in Indonesia is not carried
within the sustainable development dimension. Research findings indicated the
environmental and socioeconomic impact happened including deforestation,
pollution, uneven benefits received by employees and local people as well as land
scarcity particularly at the designated plantation areas. Almost 25 per cent of palm oil
areas in Indonesia are owned by the plantation companies from Malaysia.

Although the government and the industry players denied the unsustainable
practices in the plantation practices, however there is evidence that able to counter the
claims. Casson (2003) in his study revealed the data of land use change between oil
palm and other crops such as rubber, cocoa and coconut plantation in Malaysia
between 1990-2002 period. During the period, oil palm had replaced the other
unproductive crops for a total of 841,200 hectares however the increased plantation
areas of palm oil was about 1.6 million hectares. The remaining 47 per cent or
758,000 hectares areas of new plantation might involve deforestation as it was
supported by the data on Malaysia deforestation for the period 1995 to 2000 which
accounted for about 87 per cent.

63

Most of the debate about this industry is framed in terms of trade-off between
economy contributions and environmental conflicts, while the effect on social is
derived in either way. A simple conclusion derived from several research conducted
above confirmed that the palm oil industry is a major threat to the environment since
it is part of agriculture sub sector which depends on specific ecology and biodiversity
systems for growing. Despite all the negative impact to environment, it is proven from
all the studies conducted that palm oil industry creates wealth and prosperous to the
producing countries in terms of economic growth and poverty alleviation.

The challenges are enormous; therefore it is crucial tasks of producing

countries in ensuring the industry activities are carried out within the concept of
sustainable development. In maximizing efficiency and applied the concept of
sustainability, the development of policy should consider all the resources available,
integrate modern techniques in production, intensify the use of land as well as
inculcate the use of good agronomy practices in supply chains activities. Increase
productions are not necessarily by expanding the areas, but it should be accelerated by
improving the research and development. However, one of the major obstacles is to
determine which conservation strategies are the most suitable for each case as there
are limited guidelines to enable conservation practitioners to decide the best practices.

64

CHAPTER 4
INITIATIVES TOWARDS ACHIEVING SUSTAINABLE
PALM OIL INDUSTRY

4.1

INTRODUCTION

Although the discussion in the preceding chapter shows that the oil palm
industry as a whole has a favorable environmental profile, there is much scope for
improving the environmental performance of the industry. Regardless of the negative
comments and accusations by various parties towards this industry, the development
of palm oil must be continued as it is an important crop in the world. As mentioned by
Klara Arhem (2011) stop the production of palm oil is not the realistic ways, it
appears as the policymakers have an important role in determining suitable policy to
reduce the environmental impact. In Malaysia, the palm oil industry leaders and even
the government have acknowledged those ecological problems associated with palm
oil both in the past and at present. They have been putting efforts to address and
possibly rectify those ecological problems, for example, through agreements and
existing laws on the protection and conservation of ecology, habitats and species
(Lapeenranta, 2009).

This chapter will explore the initiatives undertaken by the government of

Malaysia in reducing the possible environment impact from this industry. The
commitment of the government towards continuous improvement of palm oil industry
in Malaysia is based on the holistic approach of sustainable development introduced

65

in the Bruntland Report, which focused on people, profit and planet as well as right to
development.

4.2

ENVIRONMENT COMPLIANCE

Environmental conservation is seen as an important agenda being stressed by

the Malaysian palm oil industry. This is proven by various measures and policies
developed by the government to mitigate the impact of this industry to environment.
The countrys record on environmental conservation started as early as 1976 and was
stated in the Third Malaysian Development Plan. It can be said that this industry is
well regulated in which all growers, millers, refiners, processors and traders have to
register and apply licenses before operating.

4.2.1

Regulatory Framework

As the largest producer and exporter of palm oil in the world since four
decades ago, Malaysia has always placed a strong emphasis on the improvement in
various aspects of upstream and downstream activities with regard to sustainable
development. Since in the early development, back in 1950-1960s, this industry has
been governed by various laws and regulations aimed to make this industry viable,
although the word of sustainable has not been used. Palm oil is highly regulated
industry as compared to other crops, currently is adhered to more than 15 laws and
regulations under the four important subsections of environmental regulatory
framework:

66

Environmental Matters:
Environmental Land Conservation Act 1960 revised in 1989
Quality Act 1974 (Environmental Quality) (Prescribed Premises) (Crude
Palm Oil) Regulation 1977
Environmental Quality (Clean Air) Regulation 1978
Environmental Quality (Prescribed Activities) (Environmental Impact
Assessment) Order 1987

Pesticide Use:
Pesticides Act 1974 (Pesticides Registration) Rules 198
Pesticides (Licensing for sale & storage) Rules 1988
Pesticides (Labeling) Regulations 1984
Protection of Wildlife Act 1972
Factories & Machinery (Noise Exposure) Regulations 1989
FIGURE 11: PALM OIL INDUSTRY REGULATORY FRAMEWORK
Wildlife Matters:
Protection of Wildlife Act 1972

Land Matters:

4.2.1.1 Environment Matters

National Land Code 1965

Land Acquisition Act 1960

The government of Malaysia realized the adverse impact of this

industry as early as 1960s and 1970s due to extensive pollution of the
country surface water and pollution of air caused by the oil palm processing
mills. Comprehensive environmental control of the crude palm oil industry
commenced soon after the enactment of the Environmental Quality Act, 1974
(EQA) and the establishment of the Department of Environment (DOE) in
1975. In order to regulate the discharge of effluent from the crude palm oil
industry as well as to exercise other environmental controls, the
Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Crude Palm Oil) Order, 1977
67

and the Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises)(Crude Palm Oil)

Regulations, 1977 were promulgated under the EQA. Palm oil became the first
industry applied the environmental quality control in order to ensure the
sustainability.

Consultative and advisory body had been established with the cooperation
between DOE, the Malaysian Oil Palm Growers Council (MOPGC), and
PORIM (later known as MPOB). The primary task of this body was to initiate
and monitor the progress of waste treatment research, establish appropriate
technology based effluent discharge standards, and recommend an acceptable
implementation schedule. A handbook on Industrial Processing and
Environment: Crude Palm Oil Industry was launched to provide technical
knowledge and pollution control technology to the respective stakeholders with
aim to increase awareness on the environmental regulation and standard. These
approaches were undertaken by the government in augmenting environmental
control of the palm oil industry which has contributed to the improved
environmental management. The compliance rate among the palm oil mills in
the first decade of the implementation of the regulation was impressive and the
average compliance rate was up to 75 per cent (DOE, 1991).

4.2.1.2 Land Matters

In Malaysia, the allocation of land for the purpose of urban

development, agriculture use and foresters reserved is gazette under the
National Land Code 1965.This allocation is based on the pledge made by

68

Malaysian two decade ago at the Rio Earth Summit to set aside 50% of land as
forests to provide for biodiversity and habitat requirement, 25% for
urbanization while another 25% for agriculture purposes. Malaysia has a land
area of 33 million hectares with 56% or 18.5 million hectares is forested land
area as shown in the Table 2:

Population

27 Million

Avg. pop. growth rate (2007 est.)

1.8%

Total land area

33 Million ha

Forested land area (2007)

56% -18.5 mil ha

Total cultivated land

20% -6.6 mil ha

Oil palms

13.6% -4.5 mil ha (2008)

Source:MPOB 2010

TABLE 3: LAND AREA IN MALAYSIA

Study conducted by P. Koh & D.S. Wilcove (2008) indicated that during the
period 19902005, between 55% and 59% of oil palm expansion in Malaysia
can be attributed to conversion of forests, and between 41% and 45% of oil
palm expansion was likely due to conversion from pre-existing cropland
(including rubber plantations). This figure however can still be reverted by
these two tables on Land Use Change 1990-2008 and Forest and Deforest Rate
2000-2010.

69

Year
1990
2000

Palm Oil
(million ha)
2.029
3.377

Rubber
(million ha)
1.836
1.431

Cocoa
(million ha)
0.393
0.076

Coconut
(million ha)
0.314
0.159

Total
(million ha)
4.572
5.043

2002
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008

3.670
3.880
4.051
4.165
4.305
4.480

1.348
1.282
1.250
1.225
1.248
1.247

0.051
0.044
0.033
0.033
0.028
0.021

0.155
0.147
0.144
0.142
0.117
0.115

5.224
5.353
5.478
5.565
5.698
5.863

SOURCE: MPOB, 2010

TABLE 4: LAND USE CHANGE (LUC) OTHER CROPS TO OIL PALM

Total expansion of oil palm plantation from 1990 to 2008 was about 2.451
million hectares, in contrary the total hectares of other crops was decreased for
example; rubber area has decreased from 1.836 million hectares to 1.247
million hectares in 2008. This is part of land use change program between
rubber and oil palm mostly happened in the plantation estates. Recently the oil
palm cultivation takes place only over previously logged land, and mainly on
land converted from rubber, cocoa and coconut cultivation (MPOC, 2007a).
The total oil palm plantations of 4.5 million hectares are planted within the
allowable agricultural land which occupies about 25 % of the total agriculture
land area of the country. According to study conducted by the group Science,
Technology and Society at Utrecht University, Netherland in 2008, the most
important causes of land use change vary per region. In Sabah and Sarawak
the most important causes have been timber extraction and shifting cultivation
while in Peninsular Malaysia, and in recent years increasingly in Sabah, forest
cover has been affected most by conversion to agriculture, mainly palm oil
production.
70

The oil palm industry in Malaysia is a negligible user of agricultural land, and
is not the cause of deforestation as the crop has been cultivated on land set
aside for development and agriculture purposes, as accused by the NGOs.
Deforestation happened in the early year of oil palm establishment as
developing country needs to develop its land for food security and generate
income. The relation between environmental damage and development is well
explained by EKCs hypothesis. It is unavoidable scenario; however, this
country took proper actions to mitigate the negative impact. Malaysia still
managed to maintain at least 55 per cent (of 33 million hectares) of the forest
areas as compared to other countries, as shown in the Table 4.

COUNTRY

FOREST AREA
(MILLION HA)

DEFORESTATION
(MILLION HA)

YEAR

2000

2005

2010

2000-2005

2005-2010

AUSTRALIA

154.92

153.92

149.30

1.00

4.62

INDONESIA

99.41

97.86

94.43

1.55

3.43

ARGENTINA

31.86

30.60

29.40

1.26

1.20

MALAYSIA

21.59

20.89

20.46

0.70

0.30

Source : FAO Global Forest Resources Assessment (2010)

TABLE 5: FOREST AND DEFORESTATION RATE FOR SELECTED COUNTRIES

This is due to the regulation imposed by the government on deforestation of

permanent forest for oil palm cultivation as this forest has been gazette by an
Act of Parliament and conversion into other purpose is not allowable. Under

71

the present policy, the non-forested zone is simply defined for national
development use while the rest remains as permanent forest. The use of land
for oil palm cultivation in Malaysia is insignificant. For example, the land area
occupied by oil palm plantations in Malaysia is less than 0.1% of the total
agricultural area globally. Within the country, oil palm occupies 15% of the
total land area as compared with 55 % forest, indicating a prudent policy by
Malaysia to keep its forest and forgo an opportunity to earn a higher income
from a more sustainable agricultural development.

4.2.1.3 Wildlife Matters

The government took the initiatives to establish the Malaysian Palm Oil
Wildlife Conservation Fund (MPOWCF) in 2006, a special fund for sustaining
the flora and fauna as well as conservation activity of the wildlife including
orang utan. This project received a good response from the plantation
companies particularly from the public listed companies through their
corporate social responsibility program. The initial fund with a total amount of
RM20 million contributed from government grants and industry players,
meant for conducting study and special projects, managed by the MPOC. The
establishment of MPOWCF will serve the following purposes:
i.

Helps to portray the good image of Malaysian palm oil by providing

concrete assurances that its cultivation does not cause deforestation or
loss of wildlife and their habitat through a focused conservation
research program to be undertaken by experts from the academia,
government agencies and NGOs,

72

ii.

Provides funds for continuous studies on wildlife, biodiversity and

environmental conservation while factoring the overall impact of the
palm oil industry on these parameters.

No.

Project

Jungle Patrol Unit

Sabah Forestry
Department

Safeguard wildlife and deter

poaching

Tabin Wildlife
Reserve

Tabin Wildlife
Sanctuary/Sabah
Forestry Dept

Book Tabin-Sabahs greatest

wildlife sanctuary

Sabah Forestry Dept

Study in oil palm plantation

2007

Universiti Malaysia
Sabah

Inventory and environmental

asssessments

2007

Diversity of
Ground
Vegetation
Biodiversity
conservation on
ox-bow lake study

Partner

Purpose

Status
2007- ongoing

2007-2009

Orang Utan Island

MK Land

Orang Utan Awareness programme

for school children and Orang Utan
Infant Care

Orang Utan
Survey

Borneo Conservation
Trust (BCT), Sabah
Wildlife Department
(SWD) & HUTAN (NGO)

Assess population & recommend

solutions to increase population of
orang utan

2008

BCT, SWD, HUTAN

Discuss current status of orang

utan within oil palm landscapes and
Discuss models for Orang Utan
conservation

2009

Wild Asia

Awareness on biodiversity and

wildlife conservation

2010

Wildlife Rescue
Centre

Sabah Wildlife
Dept/ShangriLa Rasa
Ria

Rescue & translocation of

endangered wildlife found in oil palm
landscapes

Sabah Wildlife
Conservation
Colloquium 2012

Sabah Wildlife
Department

Shared/highlighted conservation
efforts and studies, with a focus on
endangered species in Borneo,
Malaysia.

10

Orang Utan
Conservation
Colloquium
(OUCC 2009)
Biodiversity for
Plantation
Managers

2007-2009

2010-ongoing

2012

TABLE 6: PROJECTS CARRIED OUT WITH MPOWCF FUNDING

4.2.2

Palm Oil Code of Practices

In response towards becoming more sustainable in the long run, government

through MPOB has developed its own standard for certification of practices for
sustainable production of palm oil which comprise six areas along the supply chains.

73

The code of practice (CoP) introduced in 2008 is set to enhance the reputation of
Malaysian palm oil in meeting the demands of an increasingly health and environment
conscious market. The six areas of CoP that is certified under the ISO 17021 will
include:
a) Code of Good Practice for Nurseries
b) Code of Good Practice for Palm Oil Estates
c) Code of Good Practice for Palm Oil Mills
d) Code of Good Practice for Palm Kernel Crushers
e) Code of Good Practice for Palm Oil Refineries
f) Code of Good Practice for the Handling, Transport and Storage of Products
from the Oil Palm

These CoPs can be applied along the supply chains including plantation, mills and
across the industry with aims to reduce emission and ensure sustainability in the
industry (Wahid, 2010). Implementation of the code will take into accounts the
elements of hygiene, food safety and quality as well as traceability which is the
important criteria in meeting standard requirements from the importing countries. The
participating countries will demonstrate on how these best practices can be
implemented in their daily operation to ensure global acceptance of their produces,
thus, at the end of the day, it will also contribute to the nations economic growth.

74

4.2.3

Best Development Practices

Over the year, the industry has developed many practices to minimize the
negative impact to the environment particularly during the land clearing and after
planting the crops. Integrated pest management (IPM) and zero burning technique are
among the best developed practices have been used by commercial scale plantation.
The adoptions of the zero burning technique for replanting on a commercial scale
started since 1989 (Mohd Hashim et al, 1993) has been a major factor in minimizing
air pollution by plantation in Peninsular Malaysia. This is the technique used to
reduce the clearing method by burning the old crops which previously had been a
common method of oil palm cultivation. The new technique that complies with the
Environmental Quality Act 1974 and the Environment Quality (Clean Air
Regulations) 1978, includes the disposal of old palms by shredding and
decomposition in the fields, thereby avoiding air pollution and helping return the plant
nutrients to the soil. Malaysia has been successfully implemented this technique by
improving awareness among the plantations and smallholders. This technique has
proven to be the most environment-friendly technique; it was subsequently adopted as
the industry standard in palm oil replanting. It was awarded the Roll of Honor in the
Global 500 at Rio de Janeiro in 1992 for the commercialization of the technique.

The implementation of IPM reduces the use of pesticides in plantations. The

main objective of IPM is to reduce the need for pesticides in the plantation areas by
using natural predators like owls, snakes, and insects to control pests. It is estimated
that about one per cent of the oil palm planted area is treated with pesticides every
year (Wood and Corley, 1990). IPM combines biological control and the judicious use

75

of pesticides and safer application methods, such as trunk injection of insecticides.

Nevertheless, some stakeholders are still concerned over potential chemical
contamination, particularly in the groundwater. MPOB is also collaborating with an
agrochemical company to study the environmental impact from the use of
metsulfuron, a commonly used herbicide (Cheah U.B., pers. com.). IPM is considered
important practices for sustainable development.

4.2.4

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)

Enhancement on the palm oil activity with regard to the environmental impact
of palm oil needs a thorough evaluation on every activity along the supply chain. It is
imperative to consider the ecology effects of the production and processing plants to
show the environmental performance of the palm oil sector. In this regards, MPOB
took the initiative to introduce the use of LCA for palm oil products, including palm
bio diesel, from the crop grown on mineral soils (MPOB, June 2011). LCA is a
process tool to evaluate the environmental impact associated with a product, process,
and activity by identifying and quantifying the energy and materials used and the
waste products released into the environment (Halimah Muhamad et al, 2012).
Through this process, compilations of inflows and outflows within the supply chain
will be evaluated to identify any environmental impact associated with these flows.
Results interpreted in this assessment will help make a decision for improvements to
the environmental performance.

Before introducing this assessment technique to the private sector, MPOB

conducted several studies for the application of LCA on certain supply chain activities
76

including activity in the oil palm nursery. For example, in 2012, MPOB conducted a
study on the environmental impact rise from the oil palm nursery activity and the
result shows that, the production of an oil palm seedling in the nursery had an
insignificant impact on environment (Halimah Muhamad et al, 2012). However, it
was identified that the area contributed to the fossil fuel depletion sourced from the
use of seedling poly-bags and use of pesticides dithiocarbamate to protect the
seedling. In this regards, recommendation will be made on the type of poly-bags and
pesticide to reduce the impact on environment. LCA envisaged the government
commitment through cooperation from the private sectors in contributing to the
sustainable development of the palm oil industry. Companies engage in LCA will
gain additional credibility thus inspire trust and confidence in their products, services
and events by demonstrating conformity assessment to meet environmental and
societal needs as well as global market requirement.

4.2.5

Palm Oil as Carbon Sink

Studies have shown that oil palm plantations are as effective as rain forest in
acting as carbon sink-areas of dry matter that serve to absorb the harmful greenhouse
gases from the atmosphere. Oil palm plantations are capable of assimilating up to 36.5
tonnes of dry matter/ha/year, which is significantly more than the 25.7 tonnes of dry
matter/ha/year assimilated by rain forest. With the industry in its growth phase, most
oil palms are still growing to maturity; and oil palm agriculture helps to enrich soil
organic matter. A study on seedlings shows that doubling of CO2 can increase the
photosynthetic rate by nearly 10-fold.

77

During planting, several measures are taken to prevent soil degradation and
conserve soil fertility. On hilly land, contour terracing is carried along steep slopes.
Silt pits help reduce the length of slope while trapping soil and plant nutrients. Pruned
fronds placed along the slope minimize soil erosion and fertilizer loss. Very often,
hilly forest areas with slopes greater than 250 meter are left untouched. Oil palm trees
are unique in a way that they have higher leaf area index that allows them to have
better photosynthetic efficiency. As a results, palm trees will produce more oxygen to
the air and absorb more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. A study has shown that
an oil palm tree has a leaf area index of 5.6 which is comparable to that of the rain
forest.

4.2.6

Roundtable of Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO)

Growing concerns about the environmental impact of palm oil initiated the
formation of Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO), a nonprofit, industry-led
trade organization with the objective of promoting growth and use of sustainable oil
palm products through credible global standards and engagement of stakeholders.
This organization was initiated by WWF, established in 2004, unites stakeholders
from seven sectors (Figure 10) of the palm oil industry from all over the world to
develop and implement global standards for sustainable palm oil.

78

FIGURE 12: PLAYERS IN THE SUSTAINABLE PALM OIL

Malaysian palm oil industry is one the founding member of RSPO and has
been actively participating in RSPO discussions. By March 2011, the ordinary
members of RSPO are 432 members account for approximately 35% of the palm oil
produced worldwide and the proportion is shown below (Figure 11).

FIGURE 13: PROPORTION OF MEMBERS OF THE RSPO

79

The main vehicle of RSPO is to promote the growth and use of sustainable
palm oil through co-operation within the supply chain and open dialogue with its
stakeholders. RSPO adopted the concept of sustainable development that is composed
of legal, economically viable, environmentally appropriate and socially beneficial
management and operations. RSPO has established eight fundamental principles and
39 criteria regarding the production of sustainable palm oil. A key criterion is that
new plantations must not replace primary forest areas or areas required to maintain or
enhance one or more High Conservation Values. The other criteria deal with
respecting the rights of local inhabitants and employees and conserving the habitats of
endangered animal species. The Roundtable has set up certification schemes to assure
oil processors and consumers that the sustainable palm oil they purchase indeed
supports plantations that operate in a sustainable way. Independent, well-established,
RSPO-approved certification bodies are responsible for carrying out audits at the
entire supply chain including plantations and mills.

Implemented in a holistic manner, the RSPO could serve as the basis for
overall sustainability management. For instance, RSPOs Principle 8 on continuous
improvement could be a key driver for long-term economic viability. A survey
conducted by Teoh Cheng Haiin in May 2011, among nine plantation companies that
collectively accounted for about 45% of total production of certified sustainable palm
oil (CSPO) globally showed that implementation of the RSPO principles had resulted
in considerable improvements in their triple-bottom line performance (economic,
social and environmental). At the plantation level, effective implementation of best
practices required by the RSPO standard had resulted in improvements in operational
efficiencies and reductions in costs. At the corporate level, the respondents reported

80

that certification had enhanced their corporate image and reputation and provided
better access to international markets.

Palm oil obtained from plantations that meet the RSPO will qualify to be
labeled as Certified Sustainable Palm Oil. Two large plantation companies from
Malaysia, United Plantations Bhd., and Sime Darby Plantation Sdn. Bhd. became the
first company to be certified under the RSPO scheme in 2008. In total, there are about
34 mills (Table 6) around the world has been certified with RSPO certification, in
which 20 mills are located in Malaysia and owned by local company.

TABLE 7: RSPO CERTIFICATION OF PALM OIL BY COUNTRY AND COMPANY

RSPO Secretary General Darrel Webber confirmed the commitment shown by

Malaysia in achieving its significant milestone as the second largest RSPO
membership by country after United Kingdom; contributes 45% to the total volume of
global CSPO; makes up 36 per cent of certified grower companies around the world;
and almost 50 per cent of total mills certified globally are from Malaysia. Malaysia is

81

believed to continue its success and leadership towards sustainable palm oil as the
business model of the future (Darrel Webber, 2012).

4.3

ECONOMIC COMPLIANCE

Palm oil industry has proven to be important sources of income to the nation and
has been successful in eradicate poverty among poor. This industry creates multiplier
effect by creating various supporting industries including the set-up of small and
medium industry particularly in the oil palm plantations. Oil palm has many applications
either in food or non-food or due to successful research and development activities,
respective R&D palm oil agency in Malaysia found new applications. Therefore,
government takes initiatives to establish supporting policy and guidelines to enhance the
contribution of palm oil to the nations economy.

4.3.1

The National Biofuel Policy

The government of Malaysia launched the National Biofuel Policy in March

2006. The original mandate was to stabilize the price of the CPO and exploitation of
new export market opportunities (Chin, M. 2011). The establishment of policy came
in time as currently Malaysia has to face many negative comments regarding the issue
of sustainable of the palm oil industry. The fast depletion of fossil fuels, coupled with
the increasing awareness of environmental issues, concern for increasing greenhouse
gas emissions and escalating petroleum prices, has led to concerted efforts in the
search for renewable and environmentally friendly alternative energy sources. In this
regards, bio fuels have an important role to play as alternative sources of energy. For

82

instance, bio fuels can lessen the dependency on fossil fuels and contribute to energy
security national strategies.

Moreover bio fuels are targeted in international and national agendas as means
to comply with Kyoto Protocol targets and as Climate Change mitigation measures.
This increasing interest on bio fuels has created a new market opportunity especially
for developing countries in the tropics, where the production of bio fuels and their
feedstock can be very lucrative and have the potential to contribute to poverty
alleviation directly by the development of domestic industry, employment and
national economic health. As the worlds largest producer and exporter of palm oil,
the Malaysian government realized its potential to become a pioneer in the bio diesel
industry (Lim and Teong 2010).

The commercial interest in biodiesel dates back to the early 1980s. Continuous
efforts on R&D had been carried out by MPOB to explore further potential of these
new findings. The first commercial-scale bio diesel plant began operations in Pasir
Gudang, Johor in 2006 (Abdullah et al. 2009). During AugustDecember 2006, 55
000 tonnes of bio diesel was produced in Malaysia before the production increased to
almost 130 000 tonnes in 2007 (MPOB 2008). In term of export, in 2009 the export
volume of Malaysian bio diesel increased by 24.9 per cent to 230 000 tonnes, from
180 000 tonnes in 2009 (Basri, 2010). The European Union was the largest bio diesel
export market, accounting for 119 000 tonnes (or 52.4% of total bio diesel exports),
followed by the United States with 40 000 tonnes (17.4%) (Basri 2010). It was
reported by MPOB that the export revenue generated from bio diesel was RM605.8
million in 2009. To date, Malaysia has 25 biodiesel plants, with the total capacity of

83

2.6 million tonnes; however current production is less than 10 per cent of the total
installed capacity (PEMANDU 2010).

However, many of these proposed projects have been delayed or cancelled due
to the dwindling viability of bio diesel, resulting from increasing palm oil prices and
decreases in fossil fuel prices (Abdullah et al. 2009). The industry is extremely
vulnerable as a result of fluctuating palm oil and petroleum prices and restrictive bio
fuel policies in key consumer markets. The Malaysian government will need to decide
on the role of bio fuels in the economy for the coming decade. Will bio fuels
primarily be produced for export earnings, capitalizing on demand from EU and US
markets? Or, will bio fuels be consumed primarily in the domestic transport sector? In
order for the domestic bio diesel market to be viable, the domestic bio fuel sector
should be encouraged to diversify the choice of feed stocks (e.g. animal fats and waste
oil) to reduce dependency on palm oil.

4.3.2

New Key Economic Area

Realizing the importance of the palm oil industry to the countrys economy,
palm oil industry had been selected by the government of Malaysia as one of 12 New
Key Economic Areas (NKEAs) towards achieving high income status by year 2020.
This inspiration had been announced in the 10th Malaysia Plan (2011-2015) in 2010.
As one of the NKEAs, this industry will be positioned as the core of the Economic
Transformation Program (ETP) and will receive special support from the government
in term of funding and special talents. Palm oil industry is set to raise its GNI
contribution from the current RM52.7 billion to RM178 billion by 2020 and this will

84

be achieved through the implementation of eight core entry point projects (EPP) (Ng
et al, 2011).

The Palm Oil NKEA is aimed at improving upstream productivity and

expanding downstream areas, whilst focusing on its sustainability. In this regards,
independent smallholders will also receive attention and support from the
government. At the same time, downstream sector that is still yet to be fully captured
will be enhanced while the role of private sector will be reinforced in steering the
industry. The palm oil industry is expected to grow by seven per cent over the next 10
years determined by these three main factors:
a)

Further gains in average productivity of fresh fruit bunch yields and the oil
extraction rate;

b)

Expansion of new land by Malaysian companies abroad due to land limitation;

c)

The venture of large companies into high potential downstream activities such
as processed food, bio diesel and oleo chemicals.

In order to achieve this economic target, two important elements that should
not be neglected are the social well-being and environment soundness. With the
implementation of EPP, it is targeted to improve the salary of independent
smallholders by 47 per cent by 2020. Dependency on the foreign labors will be
reducing up to 15 to 20 per cent as a result of major gains in workers productivity. In
addition, new jobs opportunity is created at the upstream and downstream levels by
41,600 jobs and 81,800 jobs respectively. The above data signifies the government
strategies to strengthen the palm oil industry and improve farmers' quality of life, in
parallel.

85

4.4

SOCIAL COMPLIANCE

Malaysia strives to strike the sustainable development through the holistic

approach in balancing between environment, economic and social. As mentioned in
Bruntlands report, one of the focus areas in sustainable development is that the needs
of the poor in all nations must be met hence, sustainability efforts should address the
eradication of poverty in the nations. In this regards, the vision to eradicate poverty
among poor people, back in early years has been achieved by using palm oil as tool
for development.

The palm oil industry as a major employer protects people in the widest sense
by the eradication of poverty, creating jobs, a decent livelihood, providing
infrastructure and a contribution to social stability. The palm oil industry is a major
source of employment, and as the planted area grew from 1.2 million hectares in 1980
to 4.7 million hectares in 2009 (a 3.9-fold increase) (MPOPC, 2010), the industry
generated a 4.9-fold increase in employment as illustrated in the Table 7. Based on
estimated 5-person per household, the total number of people in Malaysia dependent
on the oil palm industry could well be around 2.26 million.

86

TABLE 8: OIL PALM PLANTATION AS SOURCE OF EMPLOYMENT

The economic contribution of palm oil and other plantation commodities

provided the assurance of a remunerative source of income and unlimited
employment opportunities throughout the year. A day at work of harvesting oil palm
fruits can provide a person with an income of more than US$30 (Basiron.Y, 2011). In
a country where two meals per day would cost only US$4, such an income is rather
remunerative. Nobody should be deprived of a better life or even resort to begging as
long as he or she is willing to put in a few hours of work in a day in the oil palm
plantation. The unemployment rate in Malaysia is recorded as 3.4 per cent (DOS,
2012) which means the country is enjoying full employment rate. However, this also
means that, there is still not enough supply of labor particularly in plantation sector.
This is where employment opportunities offered by the plantation industries in
Malaysia also benefit labor from other countries. The income earned by the 300,000
foreign workers employed in the Malaysian oil palm industry, ensures that there is
food on the table on a daily basis for 1 million of their family members living back
home in Indonesia, Bangladesh, the Philippines and other neighboring developing
countries (Basiron.Y. 2011). In simple terms, the oil palm industry not only provides

87

an income to Malaysians, but shares this benefit with an additional one million
foreign workers.

The oil palm industry is also a major source of income for the government
through the collection of corporate taxes. The benefits from such income will be more
prevalent as the multiplier effects of government spending will be extended to other
sectors such as education, health and infrastructural development. The government
taxes the palm oil industry in the form of a windfall tax and uses the money raised to
make cooking oil affordable to the public. It is clear that palm oil provides solutions
on many fronts: affordable food, lucrative income and overall stability to the country.
This is one of the factors for preserving social stability in the country that has been
enjoyed by Malaysian.

In terms of eradicating poverty among poor, government through land

development agency, FELDA, was tasked with carrying out land development and
resettling the landless in the country, and now has developed 853,313 ha of land and
resettled 112,635 families (Ahmad Tarmizi, 2008). FELDA has successfully helped
eradicate poverty amongst settlers. The success story of the FELDA scheme has
helped ensure that the income levels of the schemes settlers has remained well above
the national poverty line, with the gap between settlers mean income and the national
poverty line widening consistently. In 2006, the estimation of monthly income
received by FELDA smallholder was RM1338 and increased to RM3000 in 2010,
which is far above the national poverty line of RM720 per month as shown in Table 8.

88

TABLE 9: LEVEL OF INCOME OF OIL PALM SMALLHOLDERS

In Malaysia, smallholder sector which makes up 40 per cent of oil palm

planted areas in Malaysia is among crucial components in the palm oil industry. There
is more than 300,000 small farmers throughout Malaysia cultivate oil palms,
contributing to more than 18 million tonnes of palm oil exported to the world every
year. These small farmers, in addition to earning income from cultivating oil palms,
have also adopted an entrepreneurial spirit, raising livestock and cultivating fruits and
vegetables amid their oil palms. As a result, palm oil has directly contributed to the
adoption of ingenious new practices that raise the productivity of agriculture
production as well as improve the standard of living throughout the country. Hence,
over the years, the oil palm industry has consistently contributed to poverty
eradication and narrowing of the income gap between rural and town-folk, created
rural townships where workers reside and enjoy good quality of life with adequate
social infrastructure such as housing, health, religious facilities.
89

4.5

AWARENESS AND CONCERN FROM THE INDUSTRY PLAYERS

The implementation of any sustainable measures imposed and suggested by

the government of Malaysia will not be effectively carried out if the industry players
fail to give adequate responses. As mentioned in the previous chapters, the palm oil
sectors in Malaysia is driven by the private sectors, accounted 60% of the plantation
areas. In order to identify the level of commitment by the private sector, this study
chooses five major plantation companies in Malaysia to find out their response on the
issue of sustainability. Due to limited time, this study only reviews the companies
policy which can be found in their official website. The sample is taken from the
companies already listed in KLSE as follows:
a) Genting Plantation Berhad
b) Kulim Berhad
c) TDM Berhad
d) United Plantation Berhad
e) Sime Darby Plantation Berhad

All five companies endorse the principles of sustainable in their daily

activities based on the holistic approach of protecting the planet, people and profit. A
number of initiatives have been developed by these plantation companies, which aim
to define and provide a framework for sustainability in production. All these
initiatives share some common features; in particular, they use environmental, social
and economic indicators to define sustainable or good management practices at the
field level. Their commitments are articulated in their Corporate Social Responsibility
statements and it can easily be found in their official websites. Through the concerted

90

efforts that have been put in years by these companies had shown tremendous result in
which three companies, United Plantation Berhad, Genting Plantation Berhad and
Sime Darby Berhad already received the certificate from RSPO while the other two
companies are due to receive it by 2012. Hence, the commitment presented by the
respective plantation companies show very clear objectives and responsibilities in
adopting appropriate management strategies in compliance with sustainable concepts.

4.6

CONCLUSION

Does all the pro-active measures taken by government of Malaysia in

confirming the palm oil industry is conducted within the boundary of sustainable is
sufficient? Should palm oil industry continuously be blamed and be accused for the
environmental degradation caused by this industry? Should Malaysia stop producing
this crop to avoid further disaster to the environment? What is alternatives economy
activities should be carried out to replace oil palm plantation?

The exponential population increase in recent decades has increased the

practice of agricultural land conversion to meet demand for food which in turn has
increased the effects on the environment. Climate change and agriculture are
interrelated processes, both of which take place on a global scale. Global warming is
projected to have significant impact on conditions affecting agriculture, including
temperature, precipitation and glacial run-off. Environmental impact caused by
agriculture activities including oil palm plantation definitely cannot be eliminated, but
it can be reduce by taking appropriate actions and imposed laws and regulations on
the sector. Thus, any initiatives taken by any related parties including Malaysia and

91

RSPO in reducing the environmental impact with aims towards creating a sustainable
environment should be tolerated by global world particularly the respective
international NGOs.

Malaysias efforts to promote sustainable development has resulted in her

being ranked number 38 among 146 countries worldwide by the Environmental
Sustainability Index Study 2005, Yale University. In addition, a follow-up 2006 study
ranked Malaysia ninth among 133 countries in terms of efforts taken to reduce
environmental stress on human health and protecting ecosystem vitality.

92

CHAPTER 5
CHALLENGES, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION

5.1

INTRODUCTION

In the next decade, it is expected that the consumption of vegetable oils will be
increased by more than 25 per cent to 184.3 million from current 46.8 million in 2010,
due to increase in world population and improving purchasing power. Palm oil is
expected to play a dominant role in meeting the demand. As one of the main
producing country, the future direction of the Malaysian palm oil industry is very
much depending on this scenario since most of its products are for export market.
Thus, in order to remain competitive in the market-place, the industry needs to
improve the productivity, explore opportunities to diversify the income base, widen
the end-use- base for palm oil and explore new marketing approaches.

5.2

PALM OIL AND FOOD SECURITY

Food security is defined in the World Food Summit 1996 as existing when all
people at all times have access to sufficient, safe, nutritious food to maintain a healthy
and active life. According to the World Health Organisation (WHO), food security is
built on the available of food, accessible to food and use of food. Palm oil is the
cheaper vegetable oils available in the market and has been a constant supply of
cooking oil in the major developing countries. In this regards, palm oil industry plays
an important role in enhancing food security among the developing countries and has
long been an acceptable and affordable food source to the majority of the world

93

populations. Even doubling the oil palm cultivated area in Malaysia would not have
any significant additions to global greenhouse emissions but it would significantly
provide an additional 25 per cent increases in supply of edible oil for the world
market. As palm oil is clearly proving to be the only source of supply for those
countries with a net import need for edible oils, it makes a lot of sense to increase the
supply of palm oil for meeting food security needs of the world. Therefore, any efforts
to reduce or limit the role of palm oil in the developing world would be likely to have
an adverse impact on food security; both in the countries that currently produce it as
well as those that consume it as a food staple (World Growth, 2010). Restriction of oil
palm expansion contributes to the increase in the price of food and limits the supply
of edible oil, thus it will result in decreasing the accessibility to get cheaper cooking
oil. Ensuring adequate supply of edible oils for the world market at affordable prices
is very important to low income people of the developing world.

5.3

CHALLENGES

Over the past 50 years, Malaysia has been a world leader in palm oil industry,
able to manage a systematic productive plantation with a variety of palm oil products
as a result of intensive and continuously research and development activities. Within
30 years, this industry had shown a tremendous growth for almost 600 per cent,
averaging around seven per cent growth per annum (USDA, 2011). However, this era
of growth may be coming to the end due to arising of many obstacles and challenges
that hinder the overall performance of the industry. Malaysia was the main producer
and exporter of palm oil since 1960 before being surpassed by the neighbouring
country, Indonesia. Major issues and challenges faced by the palm oil industry in

94

Malaysia have been discussed in many academic writings, conference papers and
publication journals, as being stated in the next section.

5.3.1

Trade Barriers

The rapid globalization and dismantling of trade barriers is resulting in many

change in todays international trade environment. The future of food-based
agriculture crop like palm oil is becoming more complex due to changing of
consumers lifestyles and growing concern about health, food safety, and the
environment. Consumers become more demanding on the safety and quality of food
and the source of raw materials for preparing the food products. These requirements
have important implications on trade, particularly on the market access and
development when certain countries imposed stringent standard in international trade.
For example, concern over deforestation has led to unfair restrictions on imports of
palm oil in the EU and the United States (USA). The proposed imposition of stringent
certification for sustainability on investment in oil palm cultivation by the World
Bank would reduce the expansion and development of the palm oil sector.

5.3.2

Land Scarcity for Expansion

Malaysia was the main producer and exporter of palm oil since 1960 before
being surpassed by the neighbouring country, Indonesia due to limitation of available
land for expansion. Governments commitment in sustaining at least 50 per cent of
land in forested form and pressured from the international NGOs on the issue of
deforestation constrained the expansion of oil palm. With 4.7 million hectares out of

95

6.6 million hectares of agricultural land already planted with oil palm, this industry
faces the shortage of prime agricultural land for the further expansion. Although most
of the producers already shifted to Sabah and Sarawak, the best land has been
delineated and mostly planted (Khoo.K.M, 2002). New developments are thus shifting
more and more to the marginal areas with poorer soils, terrain and rainfall. Inevitably,
such plantings will cost more to develop, will be less productive and will lead to
higher production costs. In addition, this kind of land may create more issue on
environmental degradation by the NGOs. Therefore, industry should consider a better
solution to increase the productivity of oil extraction without increasing the area of
cultivation.

One of the best solutions is through enforcing the replanting policy with
special attention is given to palm trees owned by individual smallholders with current
areas of 365,000 hectares (Pemandu, 2010). It is estimated that 25-30 per cent of palm
trees already passed the productive year. However the replanting rate is still low due
to longer waiting period for new tree to start producing (USDA, 2011). In the context
of increasing demand for palm oil and related environmental and social concerns
about palm oil expansion, there is a need for extension knowledge on how to increase
the average palm oil yield per hectares in a sustainable way, thus increasing overall
palm oil production without additional land use. In contrary, there is a huge
opportunity for the neighbouring competitor to expand their area due to available land
for expansion. In fact, some of the Malaysian companies already started venturing to
other countries such as Indonesia and Liberia to expand their investments. Currently,
Malaysian companies have collectively established over 1 million hectare of active

96

palm oil plantation in Indonesia and own a further 1 million hectare of land bank
(USDA, 2011).

5.3.3

Labour Shortage and Limitation of Mechanization

Palm oil industry in Malaysia is still highly dependent on foreign labours for
harvesting, general up keeping and maintenance of plantation areas. Too many
foreign labours in the plantation area create social disturbance with local people as
well as increase the criminal rate in the country. High labour requirement in the
upstream sector hinder the process of mechanization in the plantation areas.
Mechanization must meet stringent criteria such as able to reduce the labour cost,
increase productivity as well as improve the product quality. Thus it is one of the key
challenges of the plantation in scale up its mechanization level.

5.3.4

Competition from Neighbouring Countries

The palm oil industry faces increasing competition from the neighbouring
countries such as Indonesia and Thailand mainly on the issue related to the cost of
production. Indonesia overtook Malaysias position as the main producer of palm oil
in 2006. This year, it is predicted that the competition becomes more challenging due
to change in Indonesia export tax structure. Indonesia has slashed its export tax on
palm oil product by more than half in Oct 2011 while Malaysia charges high duty on
crude palm oil shipment to protect the domestic refining industry. This recent policy
may lead many local downstream producers to import processed palm oil from that
country. Indonesia is also able to produce palm oil with relative low cost due to high

97

supply of cheap labour and available land for expansion. Competition is also derived
from another palm oil producing country in the South American continents. Brazil has
announced the plan to scale up their palm oil cultivation areas to more than 850,000
hectares in the Amazon forest, which is suitable for palm oil plantation. Brazil aims to
become a good producer though not a big producer by inculcate the concept of
sustainable development in their plans.

5.3.5

Low Palm Oil Yield among the Smallholders

Currently, the average yields produce by the independent smallholders are 17

tonnes per hectare compared with 21 tonnes per hectare and 23 tonnes per hectare for
organised smallholders and plantations, respectively (The Edge, 2010). The average
plot size per family is around 3.9 hectare and normally these smallholders are lacked
of knowledge in the latest technology and lack of exposure to implement the
plantation best practices. They are scattered geographically, disorganised and highly
dependent on the middlemen to channel their FFB to the nearest mills. If they are not
being assisted, these smallholders will leave behind and probably with effect the total
production and quality of palm oil produce in the country.

5.3.6

RSPO Credibility

RSPO has been set up with the objective of promoting growth and use of
sustainable palm oil products through credible global standards and engagement of
stakeholders. However, until now, RSPO keeps on receiving criticism from the
industry players as well as the NGOs on their credibility. According to Laurance

98

(Laurance et al, 2009) RSPO has been dominated by palm-oil producers and it was
suggested that this organization should be restructured to give more weight and
decision-making power to environmental organizations and experts. However,
Malaysia Star editorial claimed that palm oil producers representing only 18 per cent
of the organization membership, thus this disproportionally membership created
discrimination on the producers part. Palm oil producers also claimed that this
organization has been dominating by the NGOs such as Greenpeace and Friend of
Earth. Although efforts have been intensified by the producers to certify their
products, but much have been said by the NGOs on the sustainable of palm oil. As a
result in 2011, the biggest Indonesia Palm Oil Association (IPOA) has withdrew the
membership in RSPO while Malaysian Palm Oil Association (MPOA) urged their
members to stop seeking new RSPO certification for the production of certified
sustainable palm oil due to poor uptake of the RSPO-certified palm oil. About 60 per
cent of certified palm oil is remained unsold (Rajesh Chhabara, 2011). One of the
weaknesses of RSPO is related to their establishment that based on voluntary basis.
Recently, Indonesia and Malaysia, the main producer of palm oil accounted for more
than 80 per cent of world share is proposing to establish their own accreditation
guideline through setting up of Indonesia-Malaysia Palm Oil Group.

5.4

RECOMMENDATIONS

With Malaysian economy hugely dependent on revenue from palm oil,

accounting for eight per cent or almost RM52.7 billion of the nation GNI, it is very
important for this industry to identify the needs to stay on the top of the game. Based
on the commitment to ensure the sustainable in this industry, this study will try to

99

provide some recommendations for the industry to spur the growth. There are three
important aspects to be considered by the industry in order to remain resilient in the
global market. First, Malaysians palm oil should accelerate the downstream sector as
measure to mitigate the problem of scarce land for expansion, insufficient supply of
cheap labors as well as rising competition on production of crude palm oil from other
producing countries. Second issue is related to the need to establish an international
accreditation body to endorse the supply of palm oil that complies with sustainable
criteria. There is also a need to raise awareness among the international communities
about the real threats of palm oil industry in the future.

5.4.1

Accelerating the Downstream Sector

With strict obligation to maintain forest cover as well as inconsistent supply of

cheap labors, it is difficult to expand the new plantation area. Therefore,
governments decision to accelerate the downstream sector and intensify the value
added products appear in an appropriate time. Malaysia cannot rely on exports of
primary commodities solely as cost of production in term of wages and land price are
kept increasing. Currently, the industry has yet to capture the full potential of existing
downstream opportunities. In 2009, only 18.5 per cent of the palm oil output is
exported as downstream products as opposed to 81.5 per cent exported as upstream
products either in crude form or processed form (PEMANDU, 2010).

In order to ensure the consistent growth, the industry has to integrate and
invest the resources into the high potential downstream applications. There are a lot of
opportunities for the industry to explore in order to widen the demand base for palm

100

oil products including in the nutraceuticals, pharmaceuticals and high value food
applications. On the other hand, a vast quantity of biomass is available to be
converted into value added products which can generate additional income to the
industry. Oil palm biomass is one of the answers to growing concern over
environmental issues affecting natural forest conservation. Each year, the oil palm
industry generates more than 80 million tonnes of biomass in the form of empty fruit
bunch, oil palm trunks and oil palm fronds in which less than 10 per cent is being
exploited. Utilisation of palm biomass into value-added products such as pulp and
paper, automotive components and MDF have the potential to generate additional
revenue.

Oil palm as one of the main resource-based industries can be considered the
backbone for the Malaysian industrial sector if any difficulties arising in the upstream
sector. The resource-based industries have enabled the Malaysian economy to be
more diversified and this has accorded more resilience condition. Although there has
been a noticeable progress in the downstream activities, there is a need to accelerate
the production of higher value-added products for the export markets. This will
require further upgrading of technology and more market-driven product development
activities through intensive R&D initiatives. In this regard, more severe collaboration
between MPOB and private R&D agencies are essential.

With increasing competition from other producing countries, this industry

cannot rely on existing global market that is currently being dominated by China and
India. New market penetration particularly among the Muslim countries in Asia and
African continents should be explored. In this regards, producing consumer products

101

either food or non-food that is safe and syariah-compliance can contribute to the
boost in demands among Muslim communities. There is an increasing trend among
consumers to choose products based on natural or plant-based resources for cosmetics
and personal care products. Palm oil by-product in oleo-chemical form is one of the
suitable plant-based ingredients in most of the household products.

Malaysia should encourage either local or international companies to set up

local processing factory to complete the overall supply chain in the country. This can
be accelerated by providing more conducive business environment in term of taxation
structure as well as infrastructure facilities. High dependency on low skilled foreign
plantation workers can be reduced and at the same time more local skilled workers
can be trained. However to ensure sufficient amount of raw materials for the
downstream processing, production from the upstream sector should be consistent
with the industry needs. Government should enforce the replanting scheme and make
it mandatory particularly among independent smallholders to cut down their trees
after 25 years and start the replanting with new high grade seedlings that able to
increase the yield. Malaysian is targeted to reach the yielding rate of six tones per
hectares by 2020, as compared to current rate of four tons per hectare.

Comprehensive supporting facilities should be parallel with the development

of downstream industry. Appropriate government policy, sufficient R&D facilities
and available grants, establish training center, upgrading infrastructure facilities are
part of favorable business environments to support the success of downstream
activities. The most important is structural transformation should in placed where

102

attention is no longer on primary exports, but on downstream activities related to

developing high value-added products targeted for the export market.

5.4.2

Establishment of New International Organization for Accreditation

Currently, most of the palm oil producing countries depends on RSPO as

medium to certify that their products are complied with the sustainable practices
although the membership of RSPO only represented 35 per cent of palm oil producers
in the world. Depending on RSPO as a medium for accreditation is not an efficient
and reliable guideline for a long-term period. There are many factors that contribute to
the raising of criticism over the credibility of RSPO as an organization that has the
power and ability to certify the palm oil industry:

a) RSPO is only voluntary organization established by European NGOs

which do not have the power to make rule and being consider them as the
right actor to manage this issue and right to make a decision on the behalf
of public. In addition, two third of palm oil comes from Asian producers,
thus it creates continuous doubtful on European influence in this
organization.

b) The membership of RSPO is based on voluntary concept and open to every

party that share the same interest in this issue. Thus disproportionately of
membership that represent each sector shows the weaknesses of RSPO in
solving problems arise in each sector and being the centre of criticism
from various members on the credibility issue. Any members can

103

withdraw their memberships at their own consideration since it is not a

compulsory participation although it representing the main player in the
industry.

c) RSPO can be considered new type of private governance which becomes a

normal trend in many global commodity chains. As private governance,
this round table can only be participates by private party which aims to
improve the sustainability of a specific global commodity chains (G.
Schouten, 2011). It is a multi-stakeholders platform and government are
only stepped in as observer party.

With recent criticisms on the credibility of RSPO, it is a time for Malaysia as

one of the main producers of palm oil products considered about new measure for
palm oil accreditation. However, initial plan to create its own certification palm oil
organization is not an efficient ways to solve the problems. Instead, Malaysia should
initiate the way together with other producing countries such as Indonesia to propose
an establishment of new accreditation organization at international level. Discussion
at multilateral or through the regional organization is one of the efficient measures to
avoid any discrepancies in the future. In this regards, this industry should not compete
on sustainable benchmark between producing countries, but should strengthening the
existing practices in ensuring the sustainable practices. Accreditation organization
should be independent and be responsible for managing the accreditation system and
able to conduct the on-going supervision on the industry. Any accreditation to be
acceptable and reliable should be conducted within the guidelines of International
Standard Organization (ISO).

104

5.4.3

Real Threat of Palm Oil

Communication on the socioeconomic benefit of palm oil vis-a-vis

deforestation and treat to wildlife must be made available to the global through
diplomatic channel and multilateral organization. Malaysians commitment in
balancing the development between economy, environment and social aspects should
deserve merit. Global communities should be well informed about the real threat of
palm oil sector. Malaysia has been involved in this industry for almost 100 years, and
already being pioneered in this industry, both upstream and downstream sector. Most
of the agriculture land has been converted to palm oil plantation; hence there is
unavailable agriculture land for expansion.

To date, most attention has focused on the major palm oil producing countries
in Southeast Asia, Malaysia and Indonesia, which contributed more than 80 per cent
of world supply. However, there are still other producing countries showing gradual
expansion including Thailand, Papua New Guinea and Brazil. Instead of agricultural
zoning land, forest has been converted into plantation of this monoculture crop,
building processing mills and construction of road for transportation. In Indonesia,
palm oil expansion is still captured in line with aim to increase the area up to 45
million hectares by 2020, compared to current areas of 24 million hectares in 2009
(ScienceDaily, 2012). Brazil has announced its plan to scale up the palm oil
plantation, an additional of 850,000 hectare in the Amazon forest. In Papua New
Guinea, the palm oil is rapidly expanded from current area of 134,000 hectares in
2008 to propose 330,000 hectares in 2037.

105

However, in Malaysia, this practice has been stagnant due to limited land for
expansion thus the government shifts the focus to replanting on existing land and
enhancing the downstream sector. At this point of time, environmental impact from
deforestation and land clearing activities will slowly decreasing. While at the same
time due to increase in GDP and matured palm oil industry, more R&D activities had
been conducted to mitigate the impact of environmental, therefore more policy and
action has been in placed to ensure the sustainability.

This phenomenon is described by the explanation on the Environmental

Kuznets Curve in the chapter 3. Inverted U-shape curve of EKC explained the
possibility of environmental degradation that occurred during the initial stage of
economy growth and slowly declining when the country reaches its certain level of
economic progress. This implicitly suggests that environmental damage is inevitable
in the initial stage of economic development and it should be tolerated until the
inversion effect take place. In this regards, NGOs should increase their understanding
about the relation between economic development and environment impact. For
developed countries, they have moved from creating the mass to the environment
since they have developed the economy up to acceptable levels, while developing
countries are now in the process of developing the economy. Therefore environmental
damages are unavoidable at this stage. NGOs are urged to stop attacking Malaysians
palm oil industry by distorting facts and figures to suit their arguments against
economic development and poverty alleviation.

106

5.5

CONCLUSION

Oil palm is one of the agriculture sub sector, thus impact to environment is
one of the obstacles for future development. Deforestation, soil erosion, emission of
carbon dioxide is among the potential threats to the environment particularly when
new area is needed for palm oil expansion. However, due to increasing awareness and
pressures from stakeholders, palm oil producing countries are taking prompt decisions
to ensure the development of palm oil in the country is within the boundary of
sustainable development. Malaysia as one of the main palm oil producer and exporter
is also considering various policies and regulation to control the level of environment
degradation caused by this industry. Since early 1960s, laws and regulations have
been imposed to this industry including upstream and downstream sectors to mitigate
the negative impact. Malaysia is opts for a holistic approach in maintaining the
development of the palm oil industry which taking into account the economy,
environment and social well-being of people involved in this sector. Sustainability in
the palm oil industry means ensure the growth to generate more income in order to
create multiplier effect for the nation development and at the same time making
minimal impact on the environment. However, although many actions have been
taken to ensure the overall operation of this industry reduces the impact to
environment; this industry is still being the global attentions and criticisms
particularly from international NGOs.

Malaysia is always intended to balance the goals of socio-economic

development and need to bring the benefits of development to a wide spectrum of
population, keeping in mind the maintenance of sound environmental condition

107

(Shafari, APO 2000). Therefore, good existing laws and regulations had been imposed
to cover palm oil as a prime agricultural commodity. Policies are typically more of
combining different applicable instruments to regulate palm oil production and the
industry as a whole. The National Biofuel Policy in Malaysia is an example of new
policy decided upon through multi-stakeholder consultation. The Roundtable on
Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO) is new platform in forwarding new policy measures to
ensure the sustainability of palm oil. As the Malaysian Palm Oil Council notes that
the nations oil palm industry has been the backbone of Malaysias social and
economic development, thus to ensure that the industry continues to expand,
sustaining its competitive edge remains the most important challenge for the industry
in the future.

108

REFERENCES

Abbai Belai, Daniel Boakye, John Vrakas, Hashim Wasswa, 2011," The Malaysian Palm Oil
Cluster Final Report Microeconomics Of Competitiveness".
Abdul Raufu Ambali, 2011, Policy of Sustainable Environment: Malaysian Experience,
European Journal of Scientific Research ISSN 1450-216X Vol.48 No.3 (2011), pp.466-492
Arif Simeh and Tengku Mohd Ariff, 2001 The Case Study On The Malaysian Palm Oil,
Paper Prepared For The UNCTAD/ESCAP Regional Workshop On Commodity Export
Diversification And Poverty Reduction In South And South-East Asia, Bangkok, 35 April
Azmi Shahrin, Abdul Halil Abg Naili,"Introduction to the Environmental Kuznets Curve".
BacDorin Paul, A History of the Concept of Sustainable Development: Literature Review,
University of Oradea.
BACP, 2008, "Market Transformation Strategy for Palm Oil", Biodiversity and Agricultural
Commodities Program, May 2008
Baker. S. 2006,Sustainable Development. Routledge, UK
Belarmina Lucia Capitine, 2010, "Development of Cluster and the Supply Chain Management
of Palm Oil Industry in Mozambique'' Edinburg Napier University
Bhattarai. M, and M. Hamming, 2001, "Institution and the Environmental Kuznets Curve for
Deforestation: A Cross-country Analysis for Latin America, Africa and Asia", World
Development, 29:995-1010
Butler, R.A., Koh, L.P. And Ghazoul, J. 2009. REDD In The Red: Palm Oil Could
Undermine Carbon Payment Schemes Conservation Letters Xx (2009) 17: Wiley
Periodicals, Inc.
Carson, R. 1962, Silent Spring, Boston: Houghton Mifflin
Chandran, M. R. 2005, Competitiveness Of Malaysian Palm Oil Industry, Paper Presented At
The Australia-Malaysia FTA Conference, Held In Melbourne, 10 March 2005.

109

Cheng Hai Teoh, 2002,The Palm Oil Industry In Malaysia: From Seed To Frying Pan, WWF
Malaysia.
Cheng Hai Teoh, 2010, "Key Sustainability Issue in the Palm Oil Sector: A Discussion Paper
for Multi-Stakeholders Consultations, World Bank Group
Cheng Hai Teoh, 2000, Land Use and the Oil Palm Industry in Malaysia, Abridged Report
Produced For The WWF Forest Information System Database
Chin, M. 2011 "Biofuels In Malaysia: An Analysis Of The Legal And Institutional
Framework"", Working Paper 64. CIFOR, Bogor, Indonesia
Corley, R.H.V. and Tinker, P.B. 2003, "The Oil Palm", Blackwell Science
Craven. C, 2010, "The Honduran Palm Oil Industry: Employing Lessons from Malaysia in the
search for economically and environmentally sustainable energy solution", Energy Policy.2
Darrel Webber Press Conference On 21 June 2012 - RSPO Continues To Make Headway
Towards Its Vision
Dayang Norwana, A.A.B., Kunjappan, R., Chin, M., Schoneveld, G., Potter, L. And Andriani,
R. 2011 "The Local Impact Of Oil Palm Expansion In Malaysia: An Assessment Based On A
Case Study In Sabah State". Working Paper 78. CIFOR, Bogor, Indonesia.
FOE. (2004b). Greasy Palms: The Social And Ecological Impact Of Large-Scale Oil Palm
Plantation Development In Southeast Asia. London: Friends Of The Earth.
Foley et al., 2005."Global Consequences of Land Use", Science 309
Foreign Agricultural Services, 2011, "Malaysia: Obstacles May Reduce Future Palm Oil
Production Growth", United States Department of Agriculture
Green RE et al, 2005,"Farming and the Fate of Wild Nature", Science 307
Greenpeace, 2007,How the palm oil industry is cooking the climate, Greenpeace
International
Halimah Muhamad etc 2012," A Gate To Gate Case Study Of The Life Cycle Assessment Of
An Oil Palm Seedling"' MPOB

110

Harcharan Singh Khera, 1976, "Oil Palm Industry: An Economic Study:, Kuala Lumpur:
University of Malaya Press.
Iremonger, S., Ravilious C., Quiton T. 1997, "A Global Overview Of Forest Conservation",
Center For International Forestry Research And World Conservation Monitoring Centre
(CIFOR-WCMC), Cambridge.
Jomo, K. S., Phang, Y. T., Khoo, K. J. 2004, Deforesting Malaysia: The Political Economy
And Social Ecology Of Agricultural Expansion And Commercial Logging, London: Zed
Books & Unrisd.
Klara rhem 2011, Environmental consequences of the palm oil industry in Malaysia, Lund
University
Koh, L.P. And Wilcove, D.S. 2008. Is Oil Palm Agriculture Really Destroying Tropical
Biodiversity?. Conservation Letters 1 (2008) 6064: Blackwell Publishing, Inc.
Koh, L.P., Wilcove D.S. 2007, "Cashing In Palm Oil For Conservation", Nature 448
Lappeenranta 2009, "Sustainability Of Palm Oil Production And Opportunities For Finnish
Technology And Know-How Transfer" , University Of Technology
Lars C. Bruno, 2010," Industrial Policy And The Technological Development In The
Malaysian Palm Oil Sector: A Case Study".
Lian Pin Koh, David S. Wilcove, 2007, Cashing in Palm Oil for Conversation, Nature
Publishing Group
Lian Pin Koh, Jukka Miettinen, Soo Chin Liew, and Jaboury Ghazoul, 2010,"Remotely sensed
evidence of tropical peatland conversion to oil palm', PNAS
Margoluis, R., S. Myers, J. Allen, J. Roca, M. Melnyk, and J. Swanson. 2001, "An Ounce of
Prevention: Making the Link Between Health and Conservation', Washington, D.C:
Biodiversity Support Program,
Mattias Johansson (2008), Sustainable Palm Oil: How Does the Indonesia Palm Oil Industry
Affect Indonesia Ecologically, Socially and Economically? Umea University

111

McMorrow J and Talip MA, 2001.Decline of Forest in Sabah, Malaysia: relationship to state
policies, land code and land capability. Global Environ Change 11:217-230
Miranda A. Schereurs (2012), 20th Anniversary Of The Rio Summit : Taking A Look Back
And At The Road Ahead, Freie University Berlin
Mohd Rafi Yaacob, 2007, An Investigation Of The Malaysian Palm Oil Industrys
Environmental Strategies, Stakeholders Pressure, Environmental Effectiveness And
Competitive Advantage University Of Newcastle, NSW, Australia
Okamoto.S, 1997,"The Movement and Activities of Environmental NGOs in Indonesia",
Policy Trend Report 2001
Pletcher, J. (1991). Regulation With Growth: The Political Economy Of Palm Oil In Malaysia.
World Development, 19(6), 623-636.
Rajah Rasiah and Azmi Shahrin, 2006, "Development of Palm Oil and Related Products in
Malaysia and Indonesia", University of Malaya.
Rajesh Chhabara, Nov 2011, "Companies Soft On Hard Issue" Ethical Corporation, YTL
Group
Roger Perman, David I. Stern 1996,"Sustainable Development, Growth Theory, Environmental
Kuznets Curve and Discounting", Economics Interactions with other Disciplines-Vol I
Roundtable On Sustainable Palm Oil.2005. RSPO Principles And Criteria For Sustainable
Palm Oil Production. Public Release Version, 17 October, 2005. RSPO, Kuala Lumpur
Roundtable On Sustainable Palm Oil.2007. RSPO Certification Systems. RSPO, Kuala
Lumpur
Sheil, D., Casson, A., Meijaard, E., van Nordwijk, M. Gaskell, J., Sunderland-Groves, J.,
Wertz, K. and Kanninen, M. 2009. "The impact and opportunities of oil palm in Southeast
Asia: What do we know and what do we need to know?", Occasional paper no. 51. CIFOR,
Bogor, Indonesia

112

Sumathi. S, S.Chai, Mohamed. A, 2008,"Utilization of Palm Oil as a Source of Renewable

Energy in Malaysia', Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews
Takata.M, 2008," The Development And Current Issue Of The Malaysian Palm Oil Industry",
Winter 2008.
Tate, D.J.M., 1996, "The RGA History of the Plantation Industry in the Malays Peninsular",
Oxford University Press, New York.
Theodore Panayotou, 2000,"Economic Growth and the Environment, Center for International
Development at Harvard University
Ulrich Grober, 2007,"Deep Roots-A Conceptual History of Sustainable Development"
Vijayasubramaniam, Chooyuen May, Halimah Muhammad, Zulkifli Hashim, Yew Ai Tan And
Puah Chiei Wei, 2010, "Life Cycle Assessment Of The Production Of Crude Palm Kernel Oil
(Part 3a)"
World Bank Framework For Engagement In The Palm Oil Sector Aug 2010
World Commission on Environment and Development.,1987, Our Common Future", Oxford
University Press, UK
World Growth (2010) Palm Oil and Food Security: The Impediment of Land Supply.,
World Growth Organization December 2010
WWF Interanational.1997. The Year The World Caught Fire - Discussion Paper. WWF
International
Yandle,Vijaharagan, and Battarai, 2002, "The Environmental Kuznets Curve", PERC Research
Study 02-1
Yusof Basiron, 2002, "Palm Oil and its Global Supply and Demand Prospects", Oil Palm
Industry Economic Journal, Vol 2 No 1.
Yusof Basiron, 2006, "Walk the Talk for Sustainability", Global Oils and Fats Business
Magazines, Vol. 3, 2006

113

Yusof Basiron, 2009, Malaysian Palm Oil: Commitment Towards Food Security and
Sustainability, Global Oil and Fats Forum 2009
Yusof Basiron, Balu, N. & Chandramohan, D., 2004, " Palm Oil: The Driving Force Of World
Oils And Fats Economy", Oil Palm Industry Economic Journal, Volume 4(1)/2004
Yusof Basiron, Chan Kook Weng (2004), The Oil Palm and Its Sustainability , Journal of Oil
Palm Research Vol 16 No 1, 2004

114