Construction Technology

Prashani Ulapane
KD/HNDCIVIL/07/27
ICBT Kandy Campus
Construction Technology
Unit/Module
Assessment
Lecturer
Student name
Date handed over
Initial
submission
date
Tick if attempted
Civil engineering construction technology

Civil engineering construction technology final
Eng. Thakshila Gunathilaka
Prashani Ulapane
KD/HNDCIVIL/07/27
ID
01/08/15
31/08/15
Date due
29/08/15
Re-submission
date
Grading
Criteria met?
opportunity
Initial
On
resubmission
P 1.1
P 1.2
P 1.3
P 2.1
P 2.2
P 2.3
P 2.4
P 3.1
P 3.2
P 3.3
P 3.4
P 3.5
P 4.1
P 4.2
P 4.3
M1
M2
M3
D1
D2
D3
Done
Done
Done
Done
Done
Done
Done
Done
Done
Done
Done
Done
Done
Done
Done
Done
Done
Done
Done
Done
Done
Assessed by (name)
Signature
Students signature and comments: Prashani
Date
Plagiarism
While research and discussion are an essential part of an assignment, the deliberate copying of
someone elses work or unacknowledged copying from printed or electronic sources is NOT
permitted. You may be subjected to disciplinary procedure if you do this. You should sign this sheet
to show that you comply with these regulations.
Students signature
: Prashani
Date
: 29/08/15
KD/HNDCIVIL/07/27
Page 1
Acknowledgment
Apart from the efforts of myself, the success of any project depends on the encouragement and
guidelines of many others. I take this opportunity to express my gratitude to the people who have
been instrumental in the successful completion of this project.
So first of all I would like to thank my lecturer Mrs. Thakshila Gunathilaka for the valuable advice,
encouragement & guidance throughout the project. I am obliged to ICBT staff members, especially
the project coordinator for giving a very convenient submission date and I am grateful for their cooperation during the period of my assignment.
Also I would like to thank my parents and friends for their tremendous support and comments.
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Contents
Acknowledgment ............................................................................................................................... 2
Task 01 ................................................................................................................................................... 6
Cave-ins or excavation collapses ..................................................................................................... 13
People & vehicles falling into excavations ...................................................................................... 15
Materials falling into excavations .................................................................................................... 16
Undermining nearby structures ........................................................................................................ 16
Underground facilities ..................................................................................................................... 17
Ground and surface water inflow ..................................................................................................... 17
Hazardous atmospheres ................................................................................................................... 17
Slips, trips and falls .......................................................................................................................... 18
Ground stability ............................................................................................................................... 18
Ground water ................................................................................................................................... 24
Task 02 ................................................................................................................................................. 27
Duties of the CDM Coordinator ...................................................................................................... 30
Duties of the Principal Designer ...................................................................................................... 31
Duties of the Principal Contractor ................................................................................................... 32
Deep excavations ............................................................................................................................. 34
Working in confined spaces ............................................................................................................. 35
Working on structures ...................................................................................................................... 37
Working within temporary work ..................................................................................................... 39
Health and Safety Plan ......................................................................................................................... 41
1.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 43
1.1
Project description and key dates .......................................................................................... 43
1.2 Key Contact Details ................................................................................................................... 43

1.3 Extent and location of existing records and plans relevant to health and safety on site and
details on work sequencing .............................................................................................................. 44
2.0 Site Health and Safety management plan .................................................................................. 44
2.1 Program of works highlighting residuals risks which needs to be managed ............................. 44
2.2 Management structure and responsibilities for health and safety .............................................. 45
2.3 Health and safety targets for the project-setting standard .......................................................... 45
2.4 Arrangements for: ...................................................................................................................... 45
3.0 Arrangements for controlling significant site risks .................................................................... 47
4.0
Health and safety file............................................................................................................. 47
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4.1 layout, format and content ......................................................................................................... 47
4.2 Arrangements for collecting and gathering information ............................................................ 47
Health & safety plan record of communication ............................................................................ 47
Appendix A Site induction............................................................................................................ 48
Appendix B method statements .................................................................................................... 49
Appendix C - Toolbox talks ............................................................................................................. 57
Appendix D - Health & safety file ................................................................................................... 58
Task 03 ................................................................................................................................................. 60
Pile installations techniques ............................................................................................................. 60
Displacement piles ........................................................................................................................... 60
Non-displacement piles (boring methods) ....................................................................................... 63
Piers.................................................................................................................................................. 67
Caissons ........................................................................................................................................... 67
Pile foundations ............................................................................................................................... 68
Cofferdam ........................................................................................................................................ 72
Strip foundations .............................................................................................................................. 74
Raft foundations ............................................................................................................................... 74
Pad foundations ................................................................................................................................ 75
Open drains ...................................................................................................................................... 76
Close drains ...................................................................................................................................... 76
Horizontal drains .............................................................................................................................. 76
Drainage after construction .............................................................................................................. 76
Foundation drains............................................................................................................................. 76
Blanket drain .................................................................................................................................... 77
Interceptor drains ............................................................................................................................. 77
Formwork ......................................................................................................................................... 83
False work ........................................................................................................................................ 85
Task 04 ................................................................................................................................................. 88
Cold water supply systems............................................................................................................... 88
Hot water supply systems ................................................................................................................ 91
Heating systems ............................................................................................................................... 93
Ventilation........................................................................................................................................ 97
Air conditioning systems ................................................................................................................. 98
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Gas installation................................................................................................................................. 99
Drainage systems, sewage treatment & refuse disposal ................................................................ 100
Sanitary fitments & appliances: discharge & waste systems ......................................................... 104
Security installations ...................................................................................................................... 107
Mechanical conveyors Lifts, Escalators & Travelators .............................................................. 108
Fire prevention ............................................................................................................................... 111
Lighting systems ............................................................................................................................ 115
Electrical installations .................................................................................................................... 119
Alternative and renewable energy ................................................................................................. 122
Factors to consider for the proper selection of services ................................................................. 123
Service integration ......................................................................................................................... 123
References ...................................................................................................................................... 131
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Task 01
Q.1 Explain the use of excavating and earth moving equipment.
For effective and economic earth work operations, selection of the right equipment is very important.
A suitable choice of equipment can only be made after due consideration of,
Class/type of materials
Topography of the site
Volume of work
Unit cost of the equipment
Productivity of the equipment
Equipment used for excavation -Motor Scraper

These are large motorized machines used for cleaning, pushing, and excavation, hauling and leveling
out materials in a variety of construction jobs. This machine consists of large open bucket & the
capacity is 8-50m3. It also has a blade which is at the bottom of the bucket which can be raised or
lowered. Running on massive rubber tires, these machines can quickly move large quantities of soil
over considerable distances. Motor scraper can be used for maximum 1:30 gradients. The 4 main
types,
Standard motor scraper- this is comprised of bucket, an apron to drop down over a load of
material in order to retain it & an ejector to hydraulically push out the load.
Fig.1.1.1
Elevating motor scraper instead of an apron, these machines include a hydraulically or

electrically driven elevator, made of 2 chain equipped with a series of crossbars. Purpose of
this is to aid in loading material into the bucket. Dumping material is achieved by siding the
floor of the bucket backwards so that the elevator can be reversed in order to assist in
dumping the load evenly.
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Fig.1.1.2
Auger- it is a self-loading scraper. Two vertical augers are mounted inside the bucket. They
are hydraulically rotated, assisting in raising material into the bucket.
Fig.1.1.3
Push-pull- this particular machine has a system enabling the scraper to be either pushed or
pulled. It is achieved by coupling 2 standard scrapers during the load of material. By utilizing
this system, machine can self-load & the engines power is used to load each bucket in turn.
Bulldozer/Crawler tractor
Bulldozers are used in cleaning, pushing, and excavations and for hauling purposes. The 3 most
important parts of this machine is,
Blade- this is fixed to the front of the vehicle & this is a heavy metal plate used to push
objects & scoop up large quantities of material. S, U & S-U are the common shapes of blades.
Tracks-the most common designs are oval & triangular arrays. This enhances the balance
and traction across all applications in the machine. Tracks generate excellent ground hold
&weight distribution. Vast amount of torque is generated by the engine & torque divider
allows substantial loads to be carried out.
Ripper- this is attached to the rear of the machine. This tool usually resembles a toothed
blade and issued to breakup hard ground so it can be scooped up or pushed by the blade.
Fig.1.1.4
Fig.1.1.5 (rippers)
Hydraulic Excavator
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Main operations of this machine are excavation and loading. But this can also be used for cutting
steel, drilling holes, laying gravel & crushing rocks. Usually these have an operating weight of 9000
kg or higher. Basically there are 2 types of excavators 3600 and 1800 for their ability swivel in
motion.
The arm-this comprises of 2 hydraulic cylinders, a bucket and a boom. The bucket capacity
is between 0.3-1.7m3. in the inner part of the cylinder, there is a rod and at the end a piston.
This enables the arm to move with the help of the oil. By controlling the amount of oil which
is circulating through the cylinder, the accuracy of the arm can be easily manipulated.
The swing-this enables the excavator to turn. The swing circle consists of an outer race, inner
race, ball bearing and a pinion. As the outer race turns the pinion runs alongside the
unmoving inner race. The ball bearings are used to ensure that this is done smoothly.
Cab-the upper structure where drivers seat is located & the controls are positioned. By using
levers driver can move & at the same time control direction and height.
The feet- two types of excavator bases are wheel and crawler type. Wheeled one is used on
hard surfaces and crawler type has the ability to dive on less-stable surfaces (mud, sand).
Fig.1.1.6
Fig.1.1.7 (swings)
Shovel
Shovel is basically used in open pit and undergrounds mine operations. It also can be used in loading
purposes as well. There are two types of shovels such as electric and hydraulic shovels. Electric
shovel comprises with bucket and the capacity is ranging from 20-100m3. Powerful electric motors
are used to raise and lower the bucket.
Fig.1.1.8
KD/HNDCIVIL/07/27
Fig.1.1.9
Page 8
Backhoe loader
This heavy equipment is used for excavation, loading, spreading & grading purposes. These are very
common in urban constructing projects because they are relatively small and versatility. Travelling
speed is approximately 25mph-40kmh. three main tools are the front shovel, bucket, backhoe &
tractor. Hydraulically controlled backhoe is made of 3 distinct parts: the boom, stick & the bucket.
This equipment is stabled but stabilizer legs which reduces strain on the machine and its tires by
taking the majority of the weight. Grouser shoe and the rubber-padded shoe are the two common
types of shoes at the bottom of the legs.
Fig.1.1.10
Motor Grader
A motor grader, also known as a road grader is a heavy machine that is used to create a smooth,
wide, flat surface. Though its main function is to flatten surfaces before the application of asphalt
presently, these machines are also commonly used for fine grading, spreading, and earthmoving. A
variety of attachments convert the motor grader into a more versatile machine, enabling the machine
to do things such as dig shallow holes. The main components of the motor grader are the moldboard,
frames and articulation joints.
Moldboard- The moveable blade of the machine. Standard moldboards range from 3 to 4.9
m, but can be up to 7.3 m wide. The moldboard is attached under the graders frame with a
ring that can be swiveled vertically to adjust the casting angle of the blade. By adjusting this
way, the grader is able to work sideways, enabling it to do jobs such as pulling ditches and
sloping banks.
Frames- Each motor grader has one of two types of frames such as rigid and articulated. An
articulated frame is beneficial as it provides great maneuverability and versatility on a wider
range of jobs than a rigid framed motor grader.
Articulation Joints- There is two main types of articulated motor graders of which the joint
is in front in the cab and behind the cab.
KD/HNDCIVIL/07/27
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Fig.1.1.11
Dump Truck
A dump truck is mounted on a truck chassis with an attached dump bed or dump body. This is used
for hauling aggregate material such as sand, gravel, dirt, or hot asphalt in construction, road building
and surface mining applications.
Fig.1.1.12
Roller
Rollers are used to compact loose foundation, such as soil, gravel, asphalt, and bituminous materials
and are primarily used for most of the construction applications. The rolling process ensures that
foundations are compacted thoroughly so the materials are solid and do not come loose. Rollers,
although their purpose has remained the same, according to the different features that are attached to
it obtain an accurate level of soil compaction. Most commonly used rollers are static weight rollers
(smooth Wheel Roller); sheep foot roller, double drum roller, pneumatic tyred roller and vibrating
roller.
Static Weight Rollers- The roller compact the materials on the ground by pushing the soil up
in the direction of the movement.
Three-wheeled Roller- The three-wheeled roller is best for compacting bituminous material
in thin layers, leaving below 150 m unstable. It has a wide roller in the front of the machine
and two narrower rollers in the rear.
Rubber Tire Roller- A self-propelling machine, the rubber-tire roller is best for compacting
large fills and working on loamy soil.
Sheep's Foot Roller- This is best used with cohesive materials and covers small surface
areas, compensating the small size for high pressure.
Smooth Drum Roller- Smooth drum rollers are used to compact sand, gravel, and asphalt
with vibration. They are used mostly in road building applications.
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Fig.1.1.13 (drum roller)
Fig.1.1.14 (pneumatic roller) Fig.1.1.15 (sheep foot roller)
Concrete Mixer Truck

Concrete mixer trucks are used to mix and transport ready-mix concrete from the batch plant to the
job site. The drum has its own hydraulic drive, which means the truck does not have to power the
drum. There are a couple of different types of mixer trucks: Transit mixers, volumetric trucks, which
are loaded with raw materials and mix the concrete to spec on site and agitator or agitator trucks,
whose bodies have an open top and an agitator paddle inside the box.
Fig.1.1.16
Tower Crane
These are commonly used in high rise buildings. There is a mast affixed to the crane typically a
triangulated lattice structure, 0.9 m2. Attached to the very top of the mast is the slewing unit
comprised of a gear and motor that gives the crane the ability to rotate. This slewing unit consists of
three parts: a long horizontal jib or working arm is the part of the crane that carries the load, fastened
to the jib is a trolley that moves the load in and out from the center of the crane; the machinery arm
contains the cranes motors and electronics as well as large concrete counter weights.
The crane operators cab is also located on top of the crane just below the horizontal boom. Tower
cranes can also be controlled on the ground by remote control. Tower cranes can have a maximum
unsupported height of 80 m. the maximum height it can reach is 70 m and maximum lifting power is
16,642 kg with counter weights of 20 tons and two limit switches are used to ensure the operator
does not overload the crane.
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Fig.1.1.17
Fig.1.1.18
Tunnel Boring Machine

A tunnel boring machine (TBM) is used to dig tunnels in anything from hard rock to sand and
anything in between, producing a smooth tunnel wall. The machine consists of several rotating
cutting wheels on a large shield, which ranges in size from 0.9 to 18 m.
There are two models of TBM such as single and doubled shield, each designed for boring different
materials. Single shield models are ideal for hard rock strata, whereas double shielded models are
generally used for less stable rock strata. The whole machine works like a moving factory, and
TBM is 390 m long.
Fig.1.1.19
Fig.1.1.20
Q1.2 Discuss appropriate techniques to ensure safe activities when carrying out deep excavations.
Almost all construction work involves some form of excavation and every year many construction
site workers are killed or injured due to collapses, falling materials etc. a deep excavation is an
excavation in soil or rock typically more than 4.5m deep. Before starting an excavation, there are few
factors that is to be taken into account and these factors can be determined through studies,
observations, test borings for soil type or conditions and consultations with local officers & utility
companies. Considering these factors, the amount, kind & cost of safety equipment can be
determined. The major hazards of deep excavations are,
Cave-ins or excavation collapses
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People & vehicles falling into excavations

Materials falling into excavations
Undermining nearby structures
Ground and surface water inflow
Hazardous atmospheres
Slips, trips and falls
Cave-ins or excavation collapses

Although there are many potential hazards when working in excavations, probably the most common
hazard at any worksite is the threat of cave-ins or excavation collapses. In general these accidents
occur in weak soils 7 when the undisturbed natural soil is been disturbed while the excavation
proceeds. Cave-ins suddenly taking place so that the appropriate actions should be taken at the
beginning. The 3 most commonly used techniques to minimize the accidents are shoring, shielding
and sloping and each protective system is accepted by OSHA. (Occupational Safety and Health
Administration)
Fig.1.2.1
Shoring
Shoring systems are structures of timber, steel braces or hydraulic systems that support the sides of
an excavation.
Sheeting is a common type of shoring that retains the soil in the excavation. These sheets can
be driven into the ground or work in conjunction with shoring system. Driven sheeting is
most often used for excavations open for long periods of time. Another method of sheeting is
in which plates or shoring grade timber (plywood) is used in combination with strutted
systems such as hydraulic or timber shorting. These strutted systems also can cite as active
systems. The most popular active system is aluminium hydraulic shores because they are
lightweight, re-usable and cam installed & removed completely from the ground.
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Fig.1.2.2
Shielding
Shielding devices are also referred to as trench boxes, shields of coffins and shielding is an excellent
type of preventing cave-ins because they are acting as shield as well as preventing the walls from
collapsing. These type of system is used when there are continuous installations are contemplated.
Shielding devices are placed in the excavation and dragged along with the progress of the work.
When shielding is used as the protective system,
The labors should be out of the excavation when the shielding is being removed
The top of the shield should extend at least 18inches above the level of any materials
that could fall into the excavation
Fig.1.2.3
Sloping
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Sloping is a method of excavating in such a way that the wall of an excavation are laid back to an
angle of repose suitable to the type of soil. The sloping angle varies according to the soil type.
OSHA classifies soil into 3 categories.
Type A-clay, silts clay. Sandy lay
Type B-include both cohesive & non-cohesive soils. Silts, sandy loams,
medium clay, unstable rock
Type C- most unstable soil (soil is submerged, water is seeping from the sides
of excavation-probably type C)
Fig.1.2.4
Fig.1.2.6
Fig.1.2.7
Fig.1.2.5
Fig.1.2.8
People & vehicles falling into excavations

Construction always involves a constant movement of people and material. The use of mechanized
equipment in that process shoes significant crushing & striking hazards, particularly in excavation
work. In order to reduce this risk,
Set up barricades around the edges of excavation
Edges of excavation should be protected with substantial barricades where people may fall into them.
This can be achieved using guard rails, toe boards. These can be inserted into the ground. All
excavations in public areas should be suitably fenced off to prevent the public approaching.
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Fig.1.2.9
Place warning signs to warn people of the excavation
Fig.1.2.10
Fig.1.2.11
Divert traffic away from the excavation area

Vehicles passing close to the edges of excavation may lead to severe accidents. By using baulks or
barricades, the vehicles can be kept away from excavation area. The ways of placing those barricades
are to point them, mark them and also install flashing amber lights for night-time warning.
Also where vehicles have to load or unload materials, a sufficient distance should be given away
from the edges to avoid the danger of edge breaking due to the heavy weight.
Materials falling into excavations

All the in-situ plants and vehicles which load or unload materials should be parked or stored away
from the excavation area. The extra loadings from materials can make the sides of excavations more
likely to collapse. Again edge protection and hard hats should be provided.
Fig.1.2.12
Undermining nearby structures

In this particular situation, the advice of the structural engineer & surveying details about the
foundation is needed. Since many garden and boundary walls have very shallow foundations, these
can be easily undermined by even small trenches, causing the wall to collapse the sides. The best
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Page 16
way to prevent this is, to make sure excavations do not undermine the scaffold footings, buried
services or foundations nearby structures.
Underground facilities
Many severe accidents have occurred when buried services such as electric lines, oil & gas lines,
telecommunication lines etc. have been damaged during excavation work. To avoid such accidents, a
thorough investigation should be done to identify the locations of underground facilities. This can be
achieved by checking with public & private utilities and the landowner for the existence of services
and obtain service plans.
The line of any identified services should be recorded and the route marked with point on paved
surfaces as soon as possible.

Basically there are two types of water hazards when carrying out deep excavations, such as flooding
and water accumulation. This may be caused by an excavation near a groundwater source in wet
conditions or because of equipment that uses water for operation neat the excavation site.
Necessary actions to prevent this are, the supports to the side of excavation should be designed to
control the entry of groundwater and the design could take additional water loading into account.
The water accumulated in the excavation needs to be channeled to sumps where it can be pumped
out. In major cases alternative de-watering techniques can be used. Such methods are well points,
deep wells, educator wells and relief wells.
Fig.1.2.13
Hazardous atmospheres
Unfortunately hazardous atmospheres frequently go unrecognized by workers until it is too late.
Indeed 60% of all workers who die from such atmospheres are the rescuers themselves. This may
come from soils that are moved or from pipes and conduits disturbed during excavation.
To prevent this issue, if the atmospheric hazard is present, the first priorities must be, to eliminate or
control the hazard and entry to the excavation. Proper ventilation must be installed, operated and
maintained to ensure the protection of workers. If ventilation is not practical, then some personal
protective equipment must be provided. (If there is a lack of oxygen an approved self-contained
breathing apparatus SCBA should be provided). Also petrol & diesel engines in excavations may
improvise hazardous fumes such as CO2. Such equipment must be parked away from the excavation
area.
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Fig.1.2.14
Fig.1.2.15 (SCBA)
Slips, trips and falls

Again these incidents are common around excavations, especially in entering and exiting an
excavation. So that a safe means of entering and exiting is required. Where an excavation is more
than 1.5m deep the workers have to travel between excavated areas, it is necessary to provide ladders
and step ladders. Also walkways constructed for use an excavation must be built and maintained for
safe use of workers. Adequate protection such as guard rails and toe boards must be provided for
those workers as well as pedestrian so no one can come near the edge of the excavation. Make
certain that the ladders are not over-loaded or over reached for the protection of the people.
Fig.1.2.16
Fig.1.2.17
Q 1.3 specify temporary work required to deal with ground stability and ground water.
Ground stability
Virtually all civil engineering construction involves the soil. Hence it is compulsory to identify the
correct soil type & characteristics. If the soil conditions are not good enough to carry the both dead
and live load of the structure then the failure of it is definite. Since the ground stability is a major
factor in construction when the soil conditions are substantially weak, some ground improvement
techniques has to be adopted. Prime purpose of soil improvement is to provide better performance
under design and operational loading conditions. Soil improvement techniques can increase soil
strength, stiffness and reduce permeability. For the stability of poor soils following can be
manipulated.
Replacing the soil with better material
Design the structure to allow for the behavior of the weak ground under load
Treat the soil to improve its properties
Following are some ground improvement techniques.
Replacement
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Replacement is the most simple concept and reliable technique. Soil replacement involves
excavating weak soil and replacing it with better material. The excavated soil can sometimes be
compacted again to a satisfactory state or it may be treated with admixtures and then be replaced in a
correct manner. Weak soils like Soft soil, mostly soft clay or highly organic clay under or near the
expected structure is removed and replaced by a good quality foreign material up to the extent
required to maintain stability or to avoid unfavorable settlement of the structure.
Drainage and Surcharge
Drainage and Surcharge is quiet an old method of ground improvement. Here consolidation
properties of the soil and the spacing of the vertically installed drainage elements will govern the
design and construction schedule. Ground stability issues may require staged loading and longtime
duration to ensure safe constructions. This method offers cost advantages in soft silt and clayey soil
if the project schedule permits adequate construction time.
Densification
The purpose of densification is to increase strength and to reduce settlement of loose granular soils.
Most common methods of this are dynamic compaction, vibroflotation, sand compaction pile
method, compaction grouting, and heavy tamping.
Vibroflotation Method
Vibroflotation is used for compacting thick deposits of loose, sandy soils up to 30m depth. This
equipment consists of a cylindrical tube, about 2 m diameter, fitted with water jets at the top and the
bottom. It contains a rotating eccentric mass which develops a horizontal vibratory motion.
The equipment is sunk into the loose soil up to the desired depth using the lower water jet. As water
comes out of the jet, it creates a momentary quick condition ahead of the vibroflot due to which the
shear strength of the soil is reduced. The vibroflot settles due to its own mass. When the desired
depth has been reached, the vibrator is activated. The vibroflot then vibrates laterally and causes the
compaction of the soil in the horizontal direction to a radius of about 1.5m.
The water from the lower jet is transferred to the top jet and the pressure is reduced so that it is just
enough to carry the sand poured at the top of the bottom of the hole. Vibration continues as the
vibroflot is slowly raised to the surface. Additional sand is continually dropped into the space around
the vibroflot. By raising the vibroflot in stages and simultaneously backfilling, the entire depth of the
soil is compacted.
Usually the spacing between the holes is 2 to 3m on a grid pattern. Up to 70% of the relative density
can be achieved in sandy soils. This method is not suitable in cohesive soils.
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Fig.1.3.1
Fig.1.3.2
Terra Probe Method

This method is also similar to the vibroflotation method and yet faster than it. The terra probe
consists of an open-ended pipe, about 75 cm diameter. It is provided with a vibratory pile drive.
When the machine is activated, it gives vertical vibrations to the terra probe and it goes down. After
reaching the desired depth, it is gradually raised upward while the vibro driver continues to operate.
Thus, the soil within and around the terra probe is densified.
Dynamic Compaction
Densification by dynamic compaction is performed by dropping a heavy weight of steel or concrete
in a grid pattern from heights of 30 to 100 ft. It provides an economical way of improving soil for
mitigation of liquefaction hazards. Local liquefaction can be initiated below the drop point making it
easier for the sand grains to densify. When the excess pore water pressure from the dynamic loading
dissipates, additional densification occurs.
Fig.1.3.3
Sand Compaction Pile Method
The equipment of the Sand Compaction Pile Method resembles with the equipment for sand drain
installation. When the equipment reached a desired depth, the equipment is withdrawn leaving a
loose sand pile of predetermined length through its mandrel. Then with the aid of a vibrator at the top
of the mandrel, the mandrel compresses the sand pile and expands its diameter. By the sequence of
this process, compacted sand piles are created and the surrounding soils are also densified.
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Fig.1.3.4
Stone Columns (Vibro replacement)
The Vibro Stone Column technique is one of the most widely-used ground improvement processes in
the world. In cohesive soils, excess pore water pressure is readily dissipated by the stone columns
and for this reason, reduced settlements occur at a faster rate than is normally the case with cohesive
soils. The size of the stones used for this purpose range from 6 to 40 mm. The stones are placed in a
pipe instead of sand and yet the technique of constructing stone columns remains the same as that for
sand piles. Stone columns are placed 1 to 3 m apart over the whole area. Some of installation
methods in stone columns are, wet top feed, wry bottom feed, offshore bottom feed.
Vibro Piers
These are capable of densifying surrounding granular soils up to a 5 foot radius. In weak or
compressible soils, Vibro Piers are typically spaced at 6 to 10 foot centers under embankments, tank
foundations, and poor slabs. Closer spacing is utilized under spread footings. This method is
advantageous in contaminated soils. In addition, the costly installation of a temporary casing is not
required to maintain a stable hole when working in collapsible soils or when installation is below the
water table. For very weak cohesive or organic concrete can be pumped through a depth vibrator
creating a Vibro Concrete Column.
Vertical wick drains
Soil consolidation using prefabricated vertical drains can reduce settlement times from years to
months. Consolidation of fine-grained soil occurs very slowly because the low permeability of these
soils impedes the escape of pore water from the soil voids. The installation of prefabricated vertical
drains greatly reduces the distance the water must move to reach a free drainage path, and therefore
greatly increases settlement rate. Drain spacing may be adjusted to match the required settlement
time. Prefabricated vertical drains are installed vertically to depths exceeding 65 meters. The drains
are usually placed in a triangular configuration of 1 to 4 meters depending on the desired
consolidation time.
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Fig.1.3.5
Fig.1.3.6
Grouting is the injection of a special liquid or slurry material called grout into the ground for
the purpose of improving the soil or rock. Cement and chemical grouting are two types of
grouting.
Jet Grouting
It is an erosion-based system that relies on kinetic energy of high velocity jetted to break down the
soil structure and remove a portion of it while mixing it with cement grout slurry. The resulting soil
cement mixture is referred to as shot Crete thus the jet grouting is composed of a combined process
of cutting soil with high pressure and filling the space created by cutting with grout.
Fig.1.3.7
Chemical Grouting
Chemical grouting is a grouting technique that transforms granular soils into sandstone-like masses,
by permeation with a low viscosity grout. The soils best suited for this technique are sands with low
fines content. Typically, a sleeve port pipe is first grouted into a predrilled hole. The grout is injected
under pressure through the ports located along the length of the pipe. The grout permeates the soil
and solidifies it into a sandstone-like mass. The grouted soil has increased strength and stiffness, and
reduced permeability.
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Chemical grouting equipment is well-suited for tunneling applications in urban environments,
whether for stabilizing soil around break-ins or break-outs, or for mitigating settlement of overlying
structures within the influence of the tunnel alignment.
Fig.1.3.8
Heating
Heating or vitrifaction breaks the soil particle down to form a crystalline or glass product. It uses
electrical current to heat the soil and modify the physical characteristics of the soil. Heating soils
permanently alters the properties of the soil. Depending on the soil, temperatures can range between
300 and 1000 degree Celsius. The impact on adjacent structures and utilities should be considered
when heating is used.
Fig.1.3.9
Ground freezing
Ground freezing is the use of refrigeration to convert in-situ pore water to ice. The ice then acts as a
cement or glue, bonding together adjacent particles of soil or blocks of rock to increase their
combined strength and make them impervious.
Fig.1.3.10
Admixture Stabilization
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Page 23
Admixture stabilization consists of mixing or injecting admixtures such as cement, lime, fly ash or
bentonite into a soil to improve its properties. Admixtures can fill voids, bind particles, or break
down soil particles and form cement.
Soil Nailing
Soil nailing is an earth retention technique using grouted tension-resisting steel elements (nails) that
can be design for permanent or temporary support. The walls are generally constructed from the top
down. Typically, 3 to 6 feet of soil is excavated from the top of the planned excavation. Nearhorizontal holes are drilled into the exposed face at typically 3 to 6 foot centers. Tension-resisting
steel bars are inserted into the holes and grouted. Bearing plates are then fixed to the heads of the soil
nails. The soil at the base of this first stage is then removed to a depth of about 3 to 6 feet. The
finished soil nails produce a zone of reinforced ground.
Soil nailing equipment is small so that it can easily negotiate restricted access. Soil nailing has been
used to stabilize slopes and landslides, provide earth retention for excavations of structures and
repair existing retaining walls.
Fig.1.3.11
Fig.1.3.12
Ground water
The control of groundwater is one of the most common & complicated problems encountered on a
construction site. The purpose of construction dewatering is to control the surface and sub-surface
hydrologic environment in such a way as to permit the structure to be constructed in the dry.
Generally the meaning of dewatering is the separation of water from the soil or perhaps taking the
water out of the particular construction problem completely.
Accumulation of surface water can occur due to rainfall, construction operations, seepage through
cut-off walls and most probably the natural ground water table is high. Dewatering has existed as a
major issue in construction, consequently a number of well-established techniques have been
developed to lower the ground water during excavation. Most common methods of dewatering
includes,
Sumps and sump pumping
A sump is simply a hole in the ground from which water is being pumped for the purpose of removal
existing water. They are often used in large excavations. Sump pump installation can be done up to
maximum level of 83 in depth and for greater depths submersible pump is required. These are most
KD/HNDCIVIL/07/27
Page 24
suitable for gravels and coarse sands. Instability can occur in fine-grained soils such as silts and fine
sands where fine particles are drawn out of the soil, resulting ground movements and settlements.
The pump should be preferably lined with a filter material which grain size gradation in compatible
with the filter rules. For extended pumping, the pump should be prepared by,
Driving a sheet around the sump area for the full depth
Install cage inside the sump
Fill the filling material in space outside the cage
Withdraw sheeting
Even though the sump pumping is the cheapest & simplest method, disposal of the water from
pumping may have a high sediment load which can cause environmental problems.
Fig.1.3.1
Well point systems
This technique is widely used in excavations of shallow depths such as pipeline trench excavations.
A typical well point system contains a series of small diameter wells connected through a header
pipe, to the suction side of a pump. These are 5-7.5cm diameter metal or plastic pipe and 60-120cm
long which is perforated and covered with a screen. The lower end of the pipe has a driving head
with waterholes for jetting. These are connected to small pipes known as raiser pipes and are inserted
into the ground by driving or jetting. The upper ends of the riser pipes lead to the header pipe which
is connected to the pump. The header pipes are 15-30cm diameter. The ground water is drawn by the
pump into the well points through this header pump and discharged. Usually the spacing between the
well points is 1.3m and drawdown is limited to 5 or 6m below level of pump due to suction lift
limits.
Fig.1.3.2
Fig.1.3.3
Shallow wells
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Shallow wells consists surface pumps which draw water through suction pipes installed in bored
wells. The limiting depth this method can reach is about 8m. Because the wells are pre bored, this
method is used when hard or variable soil conditions are available. Very effective in very permeable
soils and can be used to extract large quantities of water from a single hole.
Deep wells
Deep wells are used when the water has to be extracted from depths greater than 8m. Deep wells are
cased boreholes which can be sunk using well drilling or bored piling gigs to a certain depth lower
than the required dewatered level. Pimping from each well lowers the groundwater level and creates
a cone of depression or drawdown around itself.
The diameter will be 150-200mm larger that the inner casing, which in turn sized to accept the
submersible pump. The inner well casing has a perforated screen over the depth requiring and
terminates below in 1m of imperforated pipe which may severe as a sump for any material which
passes the filter. After the casing has been installed, it is surrounded by backfill over the
imperforated pip length and with graded filter material over the perforated length as the outer casing
slightly withdrawn.
The spacing between the wells is ranging 10-60, from a ring around the outside of excavation. Also
an electric submersible pump is installed in each well. This method is suitable for gravels to silt fine
sands and in water bearing rocks.
Educator wells
Also known as jet educator system. Eductor wells are similar to well point system. Instead of
employing a vacuum to draw water to the well points, this system uses high pressure water and riser
units, each about 30-40mm in diameter. A high pressure supply main feeds water through a venture
tube immediately above the perforated well screen, creating a reduction in pressure which draws
water through the large diameter rise pipe. The high pressure main feed off the return water. The
advantage of this system is that in operating many well points from a rising pump station the water
table can be lowered in one stage from depths of 10-45m. This method is very economical in low
permeable soils. Drawdown is limited to 25-30m below pump level.
Fig.1.3.4 (deep wells)
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Fig.1.3.5 (educator wells)
Page 26
Task 02
Q 2.1 identify the common hazards in civil engineering construction sites and asses them in tabular
form considering type of accident, possible causes and necessary actions for preventing.
Fig.2.1.1 Fatal occupational injuries, by major event, 2012
Type of
accident
Falls
Possible causes
Access to and from the

workplace is not adequate
Lack of instructions,
supervision & presence of
unskilled labors
When workers are not aware
of the risks
Poor lighting
Unprotected edges
Uneven walking surfaces
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Necessary actions for preventing
Keep a clean worksite

Use protective means of equipment
Administrative controls (provision of
safety nets etc.)
Plan ahead to get the job done safely
Train everyone to use equipment safely
Page 27
Mobile
plant
Construction plant can be

heavy
Poor visibility to the driver
when operating on muddy &
uneven grounds
Reversing of plant when
people are around
Vehicle overturning
Falling
material
&
collapses
Electrical
accidents
Lifting equipment are

overloaded
When the material
containing work platforms
are not safe
Materials or spoils may fall
into excavations
Pre maturely loaded
formwork
Weak foundations
Undermining nearby
structures
False work are overloaded
Hit by debris when carrying
out demolition work
Use of unsafe equipment
Contact with overhead power
lines and buried cables
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Plan & manage the site to minimize the

no of vehicle movements
Plan& manage the routes on the site
Use proper signs & instructions to
inform the public, the workers that
mobile plant is operating
Put barricades to protect work areas
Make sure the vehicles are not
overloaded
Train everyone to operate equipment
safely
Use appropriate equipment for the
purpose
Continuous inspection of proper
maintenance of equipment
Provide edge protecting systems (guard
rails, toe boards, scaffolding)
Tie down loose material & remove
debris from scaffold platforms
Use debris chutes when removing debris
into a skip. Cover the skip to stop flying
debris and cut down dust
Proper selection, installation, use &

regular maintenance of electrical
systems & equipment
Establish electricity power supply
requirements before any work takes
place
Well trained & competent workers &
instructions by a qualified person
Check with all public, private utilities for
existing buried cables & identify the
locations
For overhead power lines, carry out the
work in an area well clear and if it is not
possible, keep a distance of at least 415m.
Page 28
Trips
Reckless use of ladders and

other types of false work and
corridors, stair walls and foot
paths.
Manual
handling
Repetitive lifting heavy and

awkward loads
Asbestos
Careless use of asbestos
Noise &
vibration
Machinery used for

demolition, excavation or
piling and from compressors
and concrete mixture
Poor maintenance of tools
KD/HNDCIVIL/07/27
Keep the work & storage areas tidy

Make sure corridors, stair ways, foot
paths & other areas used by pedestrian
Have proper arrangements for the
disposal & waste materials
Ensure everybody on site wears footwear
that provides good grip
Regular maintenance of stairs, footpaths,
ladders
Avoid unnecessary handling
Identity operations which involve either
lifting heavy or awkward loads or
repetitive lifting operations
Position loads by machine & plan to
reduce the height & distance over which
they leave to carry.
Order bugged materials in small sizes
Use gin wheels, hoist & mobile cranes to lift loads
Workers involved in work which

contains asbestos should be protected by
the risk of inhaling asbestos dust
Check thoroughly whether there is any
asbestos is present
Take action to manage the risk so that no
one will likely to disturb it
Evacuate the area & provide protective
breathing equipment
Control the risk under the control noise
at work regulations 2005 & the control
of vibration at work 2005 which sets out
levels at which action must be taken.
Always inquire the manufacturers
information & where possible, choose
low-noise & vibration tools
Get the noise levels assessed by
someone with the skill to measure noise
& vibration
Try and reduce the noise at source &
provide hearing protection to workers
It is better for workers to keep their
hands warm to get a good flow of blood
into the fingers to reduce the effects of
vibration
Page 29
Chemicals
Direct exposure to hazardous

substances such as cements
& solvents
Fire
Refurbishment work when

there is a lot of dry timber
Buildings which uses
flammable materials such as
adhesives, insulating
materials
Follow the regulations to prevent

exposure or adequately control the risks
Suggest less hazardous alternatives
Provide personal protective equipment
Make arrangements for workers to have
regular examinations by an health
professionals to detect early signs of skin
complaints
Provide protective clothing, washing
facilities, soap
Keep the site & storage places tidy
Establish emergency routes & ensure
they are not obstructed
Make site rules
Take necessary precautions when using,
keeping & carrying flammable materials
Have an extinguisher
Provide adequate & appropriate
equipment for first-aid according to the
health & service first-aid regulations
1981.
Q 2.2 Explain the role of CDM coordinator in construction work and how his duties will distributed
among Principal Designer and Principal contractor.
The CDM (Construction Management & Design) regulations are aimed at improving the overall
management and coordination of health, safety & welfare throughout all stages of a construction
project to reduce the large number of serious and fatal accidents and case of ill health which happen
every year in the construction industry.
The role of planning supervisor was created by the CDM coordinator in 1994 which carried
responsibility for coordinating H & S aspects of the design and the planning phase of construction
project is to be replaced by a CDM coordinator in 2007.
Then the 2007 CDM regulations are due to be substantially revised in 2015 and then the role of
coordinator was transferred to the Principal Designer & Principal Contractor for the benefaction of
the project. Dominantly Principal Designer is responsible in pre-construction phase and Principal
Contractor is responsible in construction phase.
Duties of the CDM Coordinator

According to the CDM regulations 2007, CDM Coordinator is the person who is appointed by the
client where a project is notifiable to perform the duties as soon as is practicable after initial design
work or other preparation for construction work has begun. Following are the duties of the CDM
Coordinator.
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Page 30
Give suitable and sufficient advice and assistance to the client regarding the health, safety &
welfare of the people and construction phase plan.
Ensure the suitable arrangements for the coordination of health, safety measures during
planning and preparation for the construction phase.
Liaise with the Principal Contractor regarding,
The contents of the H & S file
Information which the Principal Contractor needs to prepare the construction
phase plan
Any design development which may affect planning & management of the
construction work
(According to the CDM Regulations 2007 14(2) Principal Contractor is appointed by the clients but
if it is not, then the coordinator is responsible for above duties as well.)
Follow all reasonable steps to identify & collect the pre-construction information.
Provide all the pre-construction information to the relevant personal such as the designers and
contactors.
Ensure the designers comply with their duties.
Ensure the cooperation between the designers, contractors and clients
Maintain the H & S file which is containing information related to the project which is likely
to be needed during any subsequent construction work to ensure the H & S of every person.
[preparing the file, review & updating]
Notify details of the project to HSE. (Health and Safety Executive).
According to the CDM regulations 2015, organizations or individuals can be one or more duty holder
for a project. As a result of that, the duties of the CDM Coordinator have been distributed between
the Principal Designer & Principal Contractor. Also the requirements of CDM regulations 2015
apply whether or not the project is notifiable.
Duties of the Principal Designer

The Principal Designer should appoint as early as possible in the designing process, if possible at the
concept stage. It is clients responsibility to appoint the P.D and it is his duty to manage H & S in
pre-construction stage.
P.D is an important role because in liaison with the client and Principal Contractor. The P.D has an
important role in influencing hoe the risks to H & S should be managed and incorporated into the
wider management of a project. It is his responsibility to ensure the significant and foreseeable risks
are managed throughout the design process. Duties of the P.D includes,
Planning, managing, monitoring & coordinating the pre-construction phase

Identifying, eliminating or controlling foreseeable risks
Ensuring coordination and cooperation
Liaising with the Principal Contractor
Planning, managing, monitoring & coordinating the pre-construction phase-the P.D
should plan, manage & monitor the pre-construction and coordinate matters regarding the
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health & safety during the pre-construction phase. He must ensure that the solutions are far as
reasonable & the project can carry out without risks to H & S. This is very important when
design, technical & organizational aspects are being decided in order to plan the various
stages of work which are to take place simultaneously or in succession and estimating the
time duration required to complete such work.
Identifying, eliminating or controlling foreseeable risks- P.D must identify and eliminate
or control foreseeable risks to the H & S of any person when,
Carrying out or liable to be affected by construction work.
Maintaining or cleaning a structure.
Using a structure designed as a work place.
Ensuring coordination and cooperation- he must ensure that all persons working in relation
to the pre-construction phase are cooperating with the client, the Principal Designer and each
other. Also it is his responsibility to provide the pre-construction information to the client &
every designer in the project.
Liaising with the Principal Contractor- the Principal Designer must liaise with the
Principal Contractor and share the information relevant to the planning, managing &
monitoring of the construction phase and the coordination regarding H & S matters during the
construction phase. If the P.Ds appointment finishes before the end of the project, they must
ensure that the P.C has all the relevant information so that he,
Is aware of the risks which have not been eliminated in the designs.
Understands the means employed to reduce or control those risks.
Understands the implications for the design work for the rest of the
project.
Duties of the Principal Contractor

The P.C is the person who is appointed by client which is responsible of the construction phase. P.C
is an important when good management of H&S on site is crucial to successful delivery of a
construction project. He also has an important role in managing the risks of the construction work &
providing strong leadership to ensure the standard is being followed. Duties of a P.C includes,
Planning- planning means covering & calculating all the risks that can affect everyone in the
construction. This includes,
The risks likely to arise during construction work
Giving the instructions to all who can affect. For that hen can provide
maintenance and right plant & equipment, necessary information, instruction
& training and better supervision.
Managing- Principal Contractor must ensure that,
Those engaged to carry out the work are capable of doing so
Effective, preventive & protective measures are put in place to control the
risks
The right plant, equipment & tools are provided
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Managing people to prevent & control risks require leadership and in order to do that P.C can
demonstrate visible leadership through the actions of their managers. P.C can introduce a systematic
method to ensure workers understand,
The risks & control measures in the project

Who has responsibility for H&S
That consistent standards apply throughout the project & will be checked
frequently
Where they can locate H&S information which is easily understandable
That incidents will be investigated
Monitoring- P.C must check the standards regularly. Effective monitoring includes,
Time and effort.
Treating H&S similarly to other important aspects of the project
Taking suitable action where necessary.
Routine checks of site access, work areas, plant & equipment and
investigating near-miss incidents and injuries.
Coordinating- it is P.Cs duty to ensure to check risks in the construction phase and those
affected is monitored correctly. He must ensure that the employs apply the general principles
of prevention and where required, they are following the construction phase plan. The P.C
should also work with the client to ensure there is cooperation with others outside the
construction such as neighbor sites who may be affected by the activities on site.
Providing suitable site inductions- it is his responsibility to make sure that every site
worker is given a suitable site induction. Some of specific information that the workers
should be aware of includes,
Senior management commitment to H&S
Outline of the project
Management of the project
First-aid arrangements
Accidents & incidents reporting arrangements
Arrangements for briefing the workers on H&S matters
Individual workers responsibility for H&S
Also these inductions should be given to those who are not regular (students) and the visitors should
be aware of the main hazards they might be exposed.
Preventing unauthorized access to the site- P.C must ensure reasonable steps are taken to
prevent unauthorized access. The people who are permitted to access should liaise with the
contractor & also he must take special concerns to issues like,
Rights of way through them
Other work areas next to them
Occupied houses next to them
Children or vulnerable people nearby
Providing welfare facilities- it is his responsibility to ensure that suitable and sufficient
welfare facilities are provide & maintained throughout the construction phase.
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Liaising with the Principal Designer- the P.C must liaise with the P.D for the duration of
the project.
The additional duties of the P.C include consulting & engaging with workers to ensure their
H&S.
Q2.3 design appropriate solutions to reduce the hazards from following civil engineering problems.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Deep excavations
Working in confined spaces
Working in structures
Working within temporary works.
Deep excavations
On site use the excavation permit to Work to control the Risks.

Before beginning excavation, establish the locations of underground and overhead utilities
and services. Contact utility companies and advise them prior to the start of excavation.
Remove or support all obstacles for the safety of workers.
All the workers should have provided an adequate and safe means of exit, such as ladders,
steps or ramps available at no more than 25 feet of lateral travel.
Do not permit employees to go underneath the loads of lifting or digging equipment.
If the atmosphere of the excavated area appears to be harmful, immediately evacuate the
workers, test and control the atmosphere to prevent exposure to harmful levels.
When the excavated hole is much deeper, and contains removable-type steel casings then the
individually manned lifelines and harnesses should be provided.
Workers must not work in excavations in which there is accumulated water unless they
follow necessary safety precautions. ( dewatering method)
Additional underpinning, shoring or bracing may be required when adjoining utility lines,
foundations, walks and footings are endangered
Store spoils, equipment and other materials may fall into the excavation; those materials must
keep away at least 2 feet away or must use effective retaining devices.
If superimposed loads, such as mobile equipment working close to excavation, substantial
barricades or stop logs should be placed.
Have a competent person on-site who is capable of identifying existing and predictable
hazards and has the authority to take prompt corrective action. He might be either principle
designer or principle contractor.
A competent person should be able to identify soil classifications and the protective systems
necessary for the excavation.
A competent person must make ongoing daily inspections of excavations, adjacent areas and
protective systems, including after every rainfall or other hazard-producing occurrence. ( P.D
or P.C).
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Walkways or bridges and guardrails should be provided for crossing over excavations.
Back fill excavations upon completion.
Working in confined spaces

Confined spaces are significantly more hazardous than normal work places. According to the confide
spaces regulations 1997, a confined space can be either,
A places which is substantially though not always entirely closed or
A place where there is a reasonably foreseeable risk of serious injury from hazardous
substances or conditions within the space or nearby.
The injuries that occur may potentially fatal. A simple mistake we make in a confined space may
result in a tragic accident. Furthermore there is a propensity for multiple causalities in confined
spaces could be vulnerable due to following reasons. The presence of
Flammable or explosive atmospheres

Free flowing solid or an increasing level of liquid
Harmful gas, fumes or vapor
Excess of oxygen
The lack or reasonably foreseeable lack of oxygen
Excessively high temperature
Following are some solutions to reduce the hazards in confined spaces.
Fig.2.3.1
Training, supervision and suitability
Adequate instruction & training is required for every person involving in confined space work. The
complexity of the task & the responsibility of the role will determine the level of training required.
Personal entering a confined space should be fully informed and have a complete understanding of
the potential hazard that the work entails.
Permit-to-work procedure
This is a solution of achieving effective control of a system of a work through formal written
documentation which is known as a permit-to-work form. Use of a permit-to-work procedure as an
element of a safe system of work is required where there is a need to coordinate & control different
activities & individuals involved in confined space work.
Gas purging and ventilation
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Where the presence or possible presence of flammable, toxic gasses or vapors has been identified,
there may be a need to purge the gas or vapor from the confined space so that the risk can be
minimized. The atmosphere will need to be tested to check that purging has been effective so that it
is safe to allow people to enter without breathing apparatus.
Ventilation of the confined space may be necessary during the work, the contaminated air with fresh
air. The risk assessment will determine the type of ventilation system, complex or simple, forced or
natural which is required.
Fig.2.3.2
Dangerous residues
If the purging of the contents of a confined space may do not remove the toxic atmosphere entirely.
There may be some residues so that it may be harmful for personal entering. When there is a risk of
remaining residues, the precautions to be taken includes,
Implementation of a rigorous cleaning of residues before entry

The insulation of work practices which avoid the disturbance of residues.
The use of breathing apparatus
Or other respiratory protective equipment
Testing and monitoring of the atmosphere

Testing of the atmosphere within a confined space may be needed prior to entry to ensure that the
quality of the air is satisfactory. The choice of testing equipment will depend on the circumstances of
the work, the conditions of the workplace & knowledge of possible contamination.
Mechanical, electrical and process isolation
All material & energy sources are potentially hazardous to confined space entrants so it should be
disabled for the duration of entry. Energy sources include mechanical, electrical, radioactive,
hydraulic, and pneumatic & effects of gravity or other stored energy. Disabling of an energy source
means isolation, locking out, disconnecting & if necessary restraining the equipment.
Respiratory protective and other personal protective equipment
The risk assessment may identify that the use of respiratory protective equipment are necessary.
Different types of equipment for breathing include SCBA, CABA.
Safe use of work equipment
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Equipment & material introduced into a confined space for the purpose of facilitating the work
process can be potentially hazardous to confined space entrants. A careful identification of using
these equipment & material is necessary.
Communications
An effective & reliable means of communication between individuals inside and those outside is
essential. Such communication systems include speech, hand signals, telephones and radio.
Access and egress
A safe convenient way in & out of the confined space should be provided.
Combustible materials
The use or storage of combustible materials in a confined space should be carefully controlled.
Readily flammable materials which are ignitable by flying sparks should be given particular
attention. Smoking should always be prohibited in confined spaces & in the vicinity of access point.
Fig.2.3.3
Working on structures
Working on structures mostly includes working at heights because in present most of the structures
are high rise buildings. When working on this type of structures the most common accident is falling
from heights. Hence falling from heights is the largest cause of accidental death in the construction
industry. Following are some practical solutions to reduce the hazard.
Avoid working at heights unless it is essential. (To achieve this guard rails on steel work at
ground level and use the crane to position the guard rails & steel etc.)
Use an existing safe place of work. (flat roof with permanent edge protection)
Use protective means of work equipment that minimizes the risks. ( equipment fitted with
guard rails, MEWPs, MCWPs)
Use work equipment that protects the individuals. (Podiums, safety harness etc.)
Use work equipment to minimize the distance & consequences of a fall and protect all those
at risk. (safety nets, soft landing systems)
Use work equipment to minimize the distance & consequences of a fall and protect the
individual.(personal fall arrest systems, rope access systems)
Mitigate falls through training, instruction or other means. (ensure ladders are inspected
regularly, provide adequate lighting, providing suitable wear-safety helmets, boots, jacket,
glasses)
Mobile Elevating Work Platforms

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Basically there are 3 types of MEWPs.
Scissor lift- gives a vertical lift
Telescopic boom- gives vertical lift and outreach
Articulating & telescopic boom- vehicle mounted
Fig.2.3.4
Mast Climbing Work Platforms
This equipment is often used when carrying out repairs to (or refurbishment) high rise building.
These are designed to provide access to working positions and they are not designed to act as
material hoists. Only specialists should erect, alter or dismantle mast platforms. It is particularly
important that the correct sequence is followed.
fig2.3.5
Suspended access equipment
Where it is not possible to use mobile access equipment, Suspended access equipment can be used.
This enables the workers to place themselves in the position required to carry out the work and
includes Suspended access cradles & boatswains chair.
Fig.2.3.6
Safety nets and soft landing systems
Safety nets and soft landing systems (fire-retarded polystyrene-filled bags, air bags etc.) can be used
as leading edge protection to mitigate the consequences & distance should fall occur. They are not
substitute for the use of fall prevention measures but can be used in conjunction with them if the risk
KD/HNDCIVIL/07/27
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of a fall cannot be eliminated. Nets are a complex energy-absorbing system, which should only be
installed by trained & competent people. Nets should be positioned as close as possible to the
working level.
Fig.2.3.7 (Nets)
Fig.2.3.8 (soft landing)
Rope access techniques

This technique can be used for inspection & other similar activities but not for general construction
work. It should only be used where an access technique from higher up the hierarchy cannot be used.
Fig.2.3.9
Safety harnesses (Personal Fall Arrest Systems)
Fall-protection equipment can prevent people falling when it is used as a work restraint system.
When used in this way, the lanyard is kept as short as possible while allowing operators to reach
their place of work. This prevents them from getting into a fall position, as they are physically unable
to get close enough to the open edge. Using a harness in this way is acceptable for light short
duration work and for inspection & maintains purposes. In some cases a permanent or temporary
horizontal lifeline could allow safe working. A harness can also be used as a work restraint when
working from MEWPs.
Fig.2.3.10
Fig.2.3.11
Working within temporary work

Temporary work includes working in scaffolds, guard rails, toe boards and ladders.
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General access scaffolds
General access scaffolds provide a means of working at height 2hile preventing falls & should be
provided whenever possible. Scaffolds should be designed, erected, altered and dismantled by
competent people & the work should always be carried out under the direction of a competent
supervisor. Scaffolds should always adopt methods of work to prevent falls during the erection. This
can be achieved by using an advanced guard rail system. Otherwise harness should be worn.
Scaffolds should never be erected or dismantled over people or busy pavements.
Ensure the scaffold is based on firm, level foundation. The surface should be capable of supporting
the weight of the scaffold and any loads likely to be placed on it.
Fig.2.3.12
Fig.2.3.13
Guard rails, Toe boards and brick guards

Guard rails, Toe boards and other similar barriers should be provided to prevent falls whenever
practicable. To ensure the safety of these, they should,
Be strong & rigid enough to prevent people from falling & be able to withstand other
loads likely to be placed on them.
Be fixed to a structure or part of a structure capable of supporting them. To achieve
this include,
A main guard rail at least 950mm above any edge
A toe board & brick guards where there is a risk of objects rolling or being
kicked off the edge of the platform
A sufficient number of intermediate guard rails or suitable alternatives
positioned so that unprotected gap does not exceed 470mm.
Brick guards are designed to prevent falls of material between the gaps in the guard
rails.
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Fig.2.3.14
Fig.2.3.15
Q2.4 for notifiable projects under CDM, if you are the principal contractor CDM coordinator you
are required to prepare, develop and implement a written plan which sets out hoe health and safety
will be managed during the construction phase. Prepare health and safety plan for a two storey
dwelling traditionally built with pre-stressed pre-cast concrete floors, trussed roofs and associated
groundwork.
Health and Safety Plan

Contents
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Project description and key dates
1.2 Key contact details
1.3 Extent and location of existing records and plans relevant to health and safety on site
and details on work sequencing
2.0 Site health and safety management plan
2.1 Program of works highlighting residuals risks which needs to be managed
2.2 Management structure and responsibilities for health and safety
2.3 Health and safety targets for the project-setting standard
2.4 Arrangements for:
a)
Regular liaison between parties on site
b)
Consultation with the workforce
c)
Handling design changes during construction phase
d)
The selection and management of sub-contractors
e)
The exchange of health and safety information between contractors
f)
Arrangements for site security/access
g)
Site induction
h)
On-site training
i)
Welfare facilities and first aid arrangements
j)
Reporting of accidents and incidents
KD/HNDCIVIL/07/27
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k)
Production and approval of method statements
l)
Site rules
m)
Fire and evacuation procedures
3.0 Arrangements for controlling significant site risks
4.0 Health and safety file
4.1 Layout, format and content
4.2 Arrangements for collecting and gathering information
Appendices
Appendix A site induction
Appendix B method statements
Appendix C toolbox talks
Appendix D - health and safety plan
KD/HNDCIVIL/07/27
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1.0 Introduction
1.1 Project description and key dates
Project
- proposed two storey dwelling plan for Mr. K. Attanayake
Project number
- K84572
Contract start date
- 02.08.2015
Contract duration
- 10 months
Summary of work
-workplace- Kandy
- No 234 B/1,
- Aniwatta rd., Kandy.
- The work include,
- the construction of two storey dwelling traditionally built with prestressed pre-cast concrete floors, trussed roofs and associated
groundwork.
1.2 Key Contact Details

Client
Name
- Mr. Kamal Attanayke
Address
- No 243B/1, Aniawtta rd., Kandy.
Phone
- 081-5987866
Email
- kamal@gmail.com
Architect
Name
- Mr. Russell de Silva
Address
- No 63/B, Kings Avenue, Kandy.
Phone
- 078-5661282
Email
- russelh@gmail.com
Quantity surveyors
Name
- Mr. Nimesh Karunathila
Address
- No 20/D, primrose, Kandy
Phone
- 071-5556555
Email
- nimeshk@yahoo.com
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CDM coordinator
Name
- Miss. Prashani Ulapane
Address
- No 51/B, reed avenue, Kandy
Phone
-078-8741203
Email
-prashani@gmail.com
Principal contractor
Name
- Mr. Sunil Fernando
Address
- No 445, Peradeniya
Phone
- 074-8541221
Email
- sunilf@hotmail.com
Safety adviser
Name
- B. Siripala
Address
- No7/C, katugastota Rd, Kandy
Phone
- 074-1458726
Email
- siripala@gmail.com
1.3 Extent and location of existing records and plans relevant to health and safety on
site and details on work sequencing
In relation to these work, the following documents are contained in the companys health & safety
folder within the site office.
health & safety policy

RIIDOR reporting arrangements
Risk assessments
Training records
Plant maintenance and inspection records
COSHH safety data and information sheets
Service mark up drawings including relevant contact details
2.0 Site Health and Safety management plan

2.1 Program of works highlighting residuals risks which needs to be managed
(An example of a program of work set out in the form of a Gantt chart has been provided on the CD
supplied with the health & safety folder.)
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2.2 Management structure and responsibilities for health and safety

The responsibilities of the site management team such as the site manager, site foreman and health &
safety adviser can be found within the companys health & safety policy within the health & safety
folder in the site office.
2.3 Health and safety targets for the project-setting standard
This project will be completed with no major injury accidents.

All workers will attend appropriate tool box talks and this will be recorded & monitored.
2.4 Arrangements for:

a) Regular liaison between parties on site
This is achieved via progress meetings, which will include a health & safety item on the agenda.
(It is expected that at least 4 meetings will be held throughout duration of the project.)
The discussions and actions arising from each meeting will be noted and distributed to all
interested parties for further dissemination within their respective organizations.
The site foreman will carry out tool box talks on the site on the topics detailed in the appendix C.
The site foreman or site supervisor will consult directly with sub-contractors, suppliers, the site
manager, the public (including neighbors) and local primary schools if appropriate.
b) Consultation with the workforce
Employs and sub-contractors are encouraged to raise health & safety issues and concerns with
the site foreman on an ongoing basis and during toolbox talks.
Safety data information sheets (SDIS) will be made available to any employee or sub-contractor
who wishes to see them.
c) Handling design changes during construction phase
The site manager will consult with the client, architect and CDM coordinator if any significant
design changes arise during the course of construction which gives rise to additional significant
risks. These can be discussed during the progress meetings.
d) The selection and management of sub-contractors
The selection and control of sub-contractors will be referred to within the companys health &
safety policy, which will be kept in the companys health & safety folder which is located in the
site office.
e) The exchange of health and safety information between contractors
All health & safety information will be communicated to sub-contractors via site manager during
progress meetings. Any health & safety issues the sub-contractors may have can be raised with
site manager at any time.
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f) Arrangements for site security/access
The site security requirements identified in the site security risk assessment will be fully
implemented.
g) Site induction
all those working in site will be brief during the induction stage on the main risk associated with
the site and relevant information which can be found in appendix A. the site foreman will check
for evidence of competence when personnel arrive on site which may be include training records.
Visitors will be given a brief site induction- they will be accompanied at all times. Young
persons risk assessment will be carried out at this stage for personnel who are under 18 years of
age and this will be held in the companys health & safety folder located in the site office.
h) On-site training
Where appropriate, on the job training will be given under the supervision of a competent person.
Details of training will be recorded and held in the companys health & safety folder located in
the site office.
i) Welfare facilities and first aid arrangements
Welfare facilities such as site office, canteen facilities and a toilet connected to a foul sewer will be
on site within a compound for the duration of the contract. The welfare facilities provided will
contain hot running water, heating and facilities for heating food.
During the induction all employees, sub-contractors and visitors will be advised of the location of the
welfare facilities and canteen.
There will be an appointed person/first aider on site, along with a fully stocked first-aid kit located in
the site office. There will be a mobile phone on site to summons an ambulance if needed. Details of
the local hospital will be located within the site office.
The name of the first-aider is - Mr. Nimal Perera
To prevent the infestation of the rodents all food will be consumed within the designated canteen
area. Personnel are not permitted to consume or be under the influence of alcohol or illegal
substances on site.
j) Reporting of accidents and incidents
All accidents must be recorded (see health & safety folder located in the site office.) an accident
book will be using for this purpose and all accidents will be investigated to prevent any preoccurrence.
The site foreman will be responsible for completing a RIDDOR form where necessary and will
advise the site manager of all accidents, incidents and near-misses. All RIDDOR forms will be
forwarded into HSENI by the site manager. (Via online)
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k) Production and approval of method statements
The residual risk register provided by the designer, the SDIS and the risk assessments will be used to
inform the method statements for the project. Method statements are contained in appendix B. (the
residual risk register, safety data information sheets & risk assessments will be held in the companys
health & safety folder located in the site office.)
In addition, specialized sub-contractors are required to produce site specific risk assessment and
method statements which will be reviewed by the site manager. All sub-contractors will be expected
to work in accordance with the site rules and their method statements.
The site manager/site foreman will review & explain all method statements to the appropriate
personnel, who will be carrying out or affected by the particular work activity.
The site manager will arrange for any additional risk assessments and method statements to be
written if necessary. All method statements can be found within the companys health & safety
folder located in the site office.
l) Site rules
All those working on this project will be briefed on the site rules during the induction stage. (See
appendix A)
m) Fire and evacuation procedures
Fire and evacuation arrangements will be displayed in the site office or canteen.
3.0 Arrangements for controlling significant site risks

A number of detailed method statements have been prepared by the site manager for controlling
significant risks. (See appendix B) the risk assessment can be found within the companys health &
safety folder located in the site office.
4.0 Health and safety file

4.1 layout, format and content
Information for the health & safety file will be agreed with the CDM coordinator at the start of the
construction project. (See appendix D)
4.2 Arrangements for collecting and gathering information

The information for the health & safety file will be prepared and collated throughout the contract by
the site manager and forwarded to the CDM coordinator. The CDM coordinator will finalize health
& safety file and make it available to the client on completion of the project.
Health & safety plan record of communication

Name
R.
Samaraweeara
M. Silva
Company
Samaraweera foundations ltd
Sivilima roofs ltd
KD/HNDCIVIL/07/27
Signature
Date
4/08/15
4/08/15
Page 47
H. Gamage
Gamage constructions ltd
4/08/15
Appendix A Site induction

Senior management to health and safety
Senior management will provide an adequate and appropriate level of supervision for
workers.
According to the RIDDOR (reporting of injuries, diseases and dangerous occurrences
regulations 2013) all accidents and incidents will be recorded & reported to the senior
management and necessary solutions will be taken.
Liability insurance will be paid to the employers injured during the construction.
If needed health surveillance will also be provided.
Individuals immediate line manager & other key personnel

Workers are being advised to come and contact the safety officer in the site at any time.
Health and safety risks
Underground electric cables

Asbestos
Manual handling hazardous substances
Control measures on the site
All the workers (including operatives) will be informed of and expected to comply with the
site rules. Site rules includes,
Smoking is prohibited near the gas supplies and alcohol and other means of drugs are also not
allowed during work hours.
Any sickness of employees should be reported to the health & safety officer.
Attending to the toolbox talks is necessary for every worker.
Every step of the construction must be carried out under the supervision and workers must
follow the safety precautions.
A permit will be taken for the excavation.
The construction area will be enclosed to the public and egress, ingress signs will be shown
to notify the public. Also a security officer will be on the site day and night.
Screens, barriers and enclosures are being used to reduce the noise and the time will be
limited to people who is working with the noisy equipment.
Personal protective equipment will be provided for the workers carrying out excavations, roof
work, painting and handling asbestos. PPE are as follows.
Eyes safety spectacles
Head & neck safety helmets
Ears earplugs, earmuffs
Hands & arms gloves
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Legs & feet safety boots

Lungs respiratory protective equipment
A temporary place will be built to store the materials and the harmful substances will be kept
away from the rest room, gas & electricity supplies. A separate place will be provided for the
waste material.
Facilities available for the workers include,
Rest room
Sanitary facilities
Pure drinking water
Washing facilities
Good lighting and ventilation
Emergencies people will be well trained and competent. Enough escape routes will be
provided and they will be marked and unobstructed. Every worker will be given a complete
training about safety and emergency procedures. The extinguishers and other means of safety
equipment will be located in the rest room and site office. Some people will be nominated to
take control in an emergency.
A trained, competent person will be appointed to take charge of the first aid arrangements. A
suitably stocked first-aid box will be provided.
All accidents, near-misses and incidents during the construction phase will be reported to the
relevant authorities (HSE). And everything will be recorded as well.
Finally it is the workers responsibility to ensure the health & safety of himself according to
the given training.
Appendix B method statements

Method statements for excavations - strip foundations & storm & sewerage to connect
to existing buildings.
Site details
Name
- R. Samaraweera, Samaraweera foundations Ltd.
Contact number
- 07953214785
Attendances
Cable detection tolls will be used to identify electric service locations and will marked on the
ground.
Vehicle routes will be carefully planned so that plant does not have to approach close to the
edge of the excavation.
Welfare facilities will be available to the groundwork sub-contractor.
Work activity
Pre-start checks- the pre-start check covers the availability of plant & equipment to be used, ground
conditions, proximity hazard & welfare facilities.
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Description of the contract excavation and casting of strip foundations (600mm*1.5m deep
excavation). Construction of the storm & foul sewers (12m long) falling from a depth of 1.2m to
2.0m and connecting them into existing storm & foul manholes)
Sequence of work for strip foundation
On this particular site the average depth of excavation is 1.5m. It has been identified that the
ground conditions will allow for the trench sides to stand vertically without the use of
shutters. Strip foundations are to be excavated and concrete foundations poured on the same
day.
No operatives are to enter excavation. The concrete will be poured directly into the
excavation and moved using rakes without the workers having to enter the excavation.
The area to be excavated will be clearly marked on the surface using lime.
Physical barriers will be erected around the excavation where appropriate.
A 3600 excavator will be used to dig a 600mm wide by approximately 1.5m deep excavation.
The material from the excavation will be loaded into a dumper & tipped away from the
working area so it does not apply a surcharge to the side of the excavation. The dumper will
be fitted with roll-over protection & the driver must wear the seat belt. No edge tripping is to
take place.
A banks man will be used to assist in the safe operation of the plant and to observe the area
being excavated to ensure there are no undiscovered services.
Loose soil from both the base & sides of the trench is to be removed prior to placing concrete
using the excavator.
Formation level to be inspected & passed. The excavation is to be filled with concrete to the
required level as set out using a laser.
Ready mixed concrete will be used. Where the concrete cannot be poured directly into the
excavation via the chutes on the concrete lorry, the concrete will be placed in the clean
excavator bucket which will then place the concrete in the strip foundations.
Sequence of work for excavations to lay storm & foul sewers and to connect into existing
manholes
A drag box (size 4.0m long by 2.0m high will be selected to provide support to the sides of
the excavation as battering back the excavation is not an option on this site. A 3600 15tonne
excavator is to be used in conjunction with the drag box.
The ground water during the excavation will be pumped out by sump pumping. Work will
commence at the 1.2m deep end. A 3600 excavator will be used to excavate the trench to the
recommended width, pipe alignment & invert. The drag box will be lowered into the pre0dug
trench using the excavator.
Excavated material will be stock piled away from the excavation using a dumper.
Operatives must never use an unsupported section of the trench to gain access. Access to the
excavation will be by means for a secured ladder which extends 1m above the step off level.
The sewer pipes will be bedded on pea gravel, minimum depth 150mm.
KD/HNDCIVIL/07/27
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The trench will be progressed by digging ahead of the dag box and the excavator dragging the
box forwarded by pulling on the leading strut.
Before operatives enter the foul manhole to connect incoming pipe, they must use a gas tester
to check the atmosphere to identify whether there is a risk of oxygen deficiency, toxic gas,
fire or explosion.
If flammable or toxic gasses are present they need to be purged from the manhole and the
atmosphere checked to ensure that purging has been effective.
The drag box will be carefully removed by fitting and dragging the front strut when
operatives are well clear.
The pipe surround will be placed as soon as the pipes have been laid, jointed & inspected.
Selected backfill from the trench excavation which is free from stones larger than 40mm and
vegetable matter will be used to complete the backfilling of the trench. Mechanical
compaction is to be avoided until the fill is at least 450mm above the pipe-work.
It is the responsibility of the groundwork foreman to check the safety of the excavation,
At the start of the shift
After any event likely to have affected the strength or stability of the
excavation
After any material unintentionally falls or is dislodged.
If excavation work lasts longer than 7 days an inspection record is to be completed by the
foreman.
Plant details the foreman will inspect a thorough examination certificate for the excavator & the
inspection report on the dumper.
Personnel
Foreman- Mr. Sunil Gunarathna will identify himself to the site manager on arrival at site.
Banksman- Mr. Kasun Weerakoon
Driver- Mr. Martin Perera
Training
All operatives will be fully trained & copies of training certificates for the following will be available
for inspection.
Other site operations/third parties
Where cooperation & coordination with other site operations/third parties is required this must be
stated.
Health & safety management & control measures
Personnel protective equipment will be provided gor the workes. All operatives will be
informed of an expected to comply with the rules.
Specific site hazards- any specific hazard will be idnetified and dealt with prior to any
excavation work.
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Access to work area- safety signs and safe means of access will be provided.
Falls into excavation- guard rails, toe boards and safety signs will be provided near the
excavation.
Amendments & additional information
Should any part of this method statement require amendment or alteration, this must be
notified for agreement by all relevant parties prior to it being enforced.
Communicate method statement- communicate to all relevant parties & ensure it is signed
by all personnel.
This method statement was prepared by: R. Samaraweera

Date: 20/08/15
Method statement record
name
R. Samaraweera
company
Samaraweera foundations Ltd.
E. Silva
S. Bandara
Samaraweera foundations Ltd

Samaraweera foundations Ltd
signature
date
20/08/15
20/08/15
20/08/15
Method statement for the installation of pre -stressed pre-cast concrete floor slabs
Name
- H. Gamage
Contact number
- 07456214852
Transfer of information from client/contractor to flooring sub-contractor
The person responsible for the provision of carnage must be agreed.

Flooring contractor will be informed about the identified hazards.
The structural stability of the receiving structure will be confirmed.
Structural obstructions which will foul or hinder the safe operation of the crane or safe
placing of the floor units must be removed & eventually replaced by the contractor who is
responsible for obtaining the approval of the structural engineer.
Attendances
Provide & maintain hard access roads, hard standing for the crane (a 12m*8m consolidated,
level hard standing, capable of carrying the outrigger loads as specified in the lifting plan)
and stacking area/off-loading area.
Consider the site access from the public road onto and around the site before vehicles arrive
on site, taking into account the site traffic management plan, the designated work area for the
delivery vehicles & the storage area for materials. Clearly identify and communicate this
information to the sub-contractor.
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Provide and maintain perimeter scaffolding of the working area, together with handrails,
guardrails, platforms or staging required for safe access & to prevent operatives from falling.
Welfare facilities shall be made available to the flooring sub-contractor.
The provision of passive fall protection must be agreed and in place this can be achieved by
working platforms, staging, crash decks, safety nets and other soft landing systems.
Work activity
Pre start checks will cover the crane & lifting reuirements, structural stability, ground conditions,
proximity hazards & welfare facilities.
Description of the contract-mey include the number of visits that will be necessary to complete the
contract.
Sequence of work & method of erection
The units will be fixed in sequence & placed in accordance with working drawings.
Fall protection from trailers is required to mitigate a fall as personnel will be required to
attach lifters to the concrete units & then clip on the relevent chains. Air bags must be erected
around the trailer.
Where aie bags are not a reasonably practical solution, a pole & zip line should be erected to
the trailer and a harness with a fixed lanyard be worn to create a work restraint system. This
will provide the person on the trailer a working area of 1.5m from the center of the trailer & it
should not be possible to reach the unprotected edge.
A ladder will be used to gain access to the trailer. The ladder will be tied to the trailer, set at
the appropriate angle & extend 1m above the working platform.
The slinger/banks man will choke the chains around thee floor units approximately 300mm in
from each end of each unit, with the open face of the hook facing out toward the end of the
slab. Two leg chains with a minimum safe working load of 4.25t will be used to lift the floor
units.the floor units will be lifted horizontally.
If a clamp is used to lift the units instead of chains, the clapm will securely grip the sides of
each unit and lift, safety chains will be placed around the clapm & slab before lifting awat
from the trailer to the building, again under the control of a trained slinger/banks man.
Where necessary, units can be moved into their final position using crowbars or a small
hydraulic jack.
Crane details- crane type is a mobile crane with the maximum tonnage of 2. The supplier is
Mr. Nimal Silva. Communication between crane operative & banks man to be by two-way
radios. Only approved lifting equipment with a current test certificate will be used. The
installation foreman will inspect crane details thoroughly.
Maximum component weights & crane working radius- the maximum weight/radius fro each
component will be stated by the supplier.
Deliveris & site access- floor units to be delivered to the site on articulated lorries & directed
to designate loading areas. Number & size of lorries will be given by the contractor.
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Site cutting of floor units- pre-cast concrete unite should not be cut otherwise altered on site
without consultation with the flooring sub-contractors technical department. When cutting is
to take place PPE will be provided & must wear them.
Structural stability
Stability & bearings- the contractor will ensure that all loading bearing masonry walls are fully cured
& ready to receiver concrete units. External brickwork courses will be either level with or no more
that 225mm below the bearing level coursework.
Personnel
Foreman
- Mr. M. Siripala
Slinger/banksman
- Mr. D. Disanayake
Training- all operatives will be fully trained & copies of training certificates for the relevent people
will be available for inspection.
Appointed person- Mr. T. Silve will be in control of the lifting operations & responsible for
preparing the lifting plans on behalf of the flooring sub-contractor.
Health & safety management & control measures
Presonal pritective equipemnt
For operatives- safety helmet, high visibility vest, gloves, safety footwear
Cutting concrete floor units- safety glasses, ear defenders, dust mask
Site rules- all operatives & erectors will be informed of the site rules & expected to comply them.
Specific site hazards- any specific hazard will be idnetified and dealt with prior to any
excavation work.
Access to work area- safety signs and safe means of access will be provided.
Positioning of components- the foreman will determine the design of temporary support to
components, or if additional bracing is needed by standard methods of positioning.
Work at heights- scaffolding together with handrails, guard rails, platforms and safe access
will be provided and maintained.
Leading edge protection- safety nets air bags and associated inflation equipment will be
provided. The minimum coverage of air bags will be 4.8m ahead of the edge & 2.4m behind.
Welfare facilities will be provided for the workers.
by all personnel.
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This method statement was prepared by: Sean Gunapala
Date 21/08/15
Name
H. Gamage
M. Silva
L. Somapala
Company
Signature Date
21/08/15
21/08/15
21/08/15
Method statement for installation of roof trusses

Site details
Contactor - M. Silva
Contact number- 071-5897743
Transfer information from client to roofing sub-contractor
The structural stability of the receiving structure must be confirmed.

Proximity hazards will be identified and the sub- contractor will be informed.
The person responsible for the provision of carnage or material handling machine must be
agreed the lifting machine will be selected depending on reach and weight of trusses.
Attendances
Hard access roads, hard standing for the crane (a 12m*8m consolidated, level hard standing,
capable of carrying the outrigger loads as specified in the lifting plan) and a stacking area will
be provided.
Site access from the public road onto & around the site traffic management plan, the
designated work area foe delivery vehicles & the storage area for materials will be identified
and will communicate this information to the sub-contractor.
Work activity
Pre start check will cover the crane & lifting equipment, structures stability, ground conditions, and
suspension of work during adverse weather conditions, proximity hazards and welfare facilities.
Description of the work- number of visits that will be necessary to complete will be included.
Sequence of work & method of erection
The trusses will be fixed in sequence & placed in accordance with working drawings.
Safety precautions will be taken to mitigate the falling,
A ladder will be used to gain access to the trailer.
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Where the perimeter scaffolding top working platform is located at a height of less than
950mm below wall-plate level then a safety decking system will be erected at the top floor
level to provide an effective passive collective fall prevention system.
The slinger/banks man will access the lorry via the ladder & band the trusses into separate
bundles in compliance with the cranes materials handling machines safety lifting capacity.
Each bundle will be lifted separately & the slinger/banks man will attach the chains from the
spreader bar to the two node points at each side of the truss as shown below figure.
The bundle of trusses will then be fitted onto the wall plate 7 temporary braced until needed.
The joiners will then mark each position of the trusses, as specified on the drawing, along
each wall plate.
The bundle of trusses will be carefully separated by two joiners & the first truss will be lifted
into position manually and temporary braced to both wall plates. The remaining trusses will
then also be manually lifted into position & temporarily braced back to the first truss.
The diagonal bracing will be fixed to the top of the first truss & nailed to the wall plate using
75mm long galvanized nails.
All longitudinal bracing will be fixed to the trusses, ceiling ties & struts using 75mm long
galvanized nails.
The trusses will thane is fixed to the walls & gables by bracing using galvanized metal
retaining straps.
The two joiners will then remove the temporary bracing & inspect all trusses to ensure they
are aligned vertically & free from bowing.
Lifting equipment details- crane type is a mobile crane with the maximum tonnage of 2. The
supplier is Mr. Nimal Silva. Communication between crane operative & banks man to be by
two-way radios orhand signals if there is good line of vision. Only approved lifting
equipment with a current test certificate will be used. The installation foreman will inspect
crane details thoroughly. This equally applies to materilas hnadling machine.
Maximum component weights & lifting machines working radius- this loading for each
bundle of trusses must be stated.
Deliveris & site access- trusses will be vertically propped & delivered to the site on
articulated lorries & directed to designate loading areas. Number & size of lorries will be
given by the contractor.
Structural stability
Stability & bearings- all wall plates will be leveled & adequately secured to load bearing walls.
Personnel
Foreman
- Mr. M. Siripala
Slinger/banksman
- Mr. D.Perera, L.Samuel
Training- all operatives will be fully trained & copies of training certificates for the relevent people
will be available for inspection.
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Appointed person- Mr. F. Cooray will be in control of the lifting operations & responsible for
preparing the lifting plans on behalf of the roofing sub-contractor.
Presonal pritective equipemnt
All operatives will wear safety helmet, high visibility vest, gloves and safety footwear. All
operatives & erectors will comply with any other specific site requirements.
Site rules- all operatives & erectors will be informed of the site rules & expected to comply them.
Specific site hazards- any specific hazard will be idnetified and dealt with prior to fixing
operationscommencing on site.
Access to work area- safety signs and other safe means of access will be provided.
Work at heights- scaffolding together with handrails, guard rails, platforms and safe access
will be provided and maintained.
Leading edge protection- safe decking system will be provided.
Welfare facilities will be provided for the workers.
by all personnel.
This method statement was prepared by: M. Silva

Date 21/08/15
Name
M. Silva
K. Karunapala
Silva
Company
Sivilima roofs ltd
Sivilima roofs ltd
Sivilima roofs ltd
Signature
Date
21/08/15
21/08/15
21/08/15
Appendix C - Toolbox talks

The following toolbox talks will be given throughout the project at the appropriate stages.
Excavations
Demolition
Existing services
Methods of trench support
Plant & machinery cranes & lifting appliances
Traffic management
Protecting the public
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Work at heights
Ladders/step ladders
Roof work
Site tidiness
Storage of materials
Plant, machinery, cranes & lifting appliances
Hoists
Protecting the public
Health
Asbestos
Dermatitis
Silica
Noise
Vibration
Manual handling
Hazardous substances
Appendix D - Health & safety file

Brief description about the work
The work will take place at Kandy and the project is a two storey dwelling traditionally built with
pre-stressed pre-cast concrete floors, trussed roof and associated ground work. Ground work includes
particular excavations, foundations, de-watering methods and retaining walls. The area of the
dwelling is 3500m2.
Time duration is 9 months the time allocated for each separate work is as follows.
Site investigation
Establishing welfare facilities & site offices
Foundations
Suspended floors ( including beams & columns)
Roof
Doors & windows
Stairs
External & internal finishes
Service installation
- 2 weeks
- 1 week
- 1 month
- 1 month
- 2 months
- 1 month
- 3 weeks
- 1 month
- 1 month
Residual hazards & appropriate solutions

Buried electric cables there are buried electric cables in the land and those cables are a property of
Electricity Board Kandy. Before starting the excavations the correct locations of these underground
cables will be identified with the help of utility services, service plans and existing services.
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Ground & surface water inflow since the ground water table in this area is low water might get
accumulated in the excavations. Appropriate sump pumping system will be used for the removal of
water.
Asbestos residuals asbestos sheets are being used for the roofing to avoid any hazard by inhaling
these dust appropriate personal protective equipment (breathing apparatus & glasses ) will be
provided for the workers who is carrying out the work.
Key structural principles
Behavior of structural materials

Loads and loading
Performance of beams, columns and roof trusses
Section properties
Solution of force systems and wind bracing.
Hazardous materials used special coatings use for wood protection, wooden paints, thinner, paint
Removal & dismantling of plants and equipment
Trained workers will carry out the removal of false work and plants. Removal of equipment
will be carried out by the owners of the particular equipment. Every work regarding the
removal & dismantling will be thoroughly supervised & instructed by the supervisor.
Cleaning & maintaining of equipment.
To ensure the health & safety of the workers and operators the equipment will be cleaned and
maintained properly by the owners. The inspection and maintenance of the equipment will be
carried out twice a week.
The nature, location & markings of significant services
The location of the underground electric cables will be marked before the excavation and
safety precautions will be taken during the excavation near the services.
Firefighting service locations will be established in the site office and every person will be
informed about the location of extinguishers. Also route to the fire-fighting systems will be
free of any obstruction.
Gas supply routes will be also marked safety steps will be followed near the supply systems.
(Smoking is prohibited near the gas supply routes)
Storing the file after the work is complete
Principal contractor will update the health & safety file during the construction phase and
after the work is complete, the client shall update the file normally until the lifetime of the
structure is over.
If the client leases out all or part of the structure, arrangements needs to be made for the file
to be available to leaseholders.
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Task 03
Q 3.1 Explain techniques to install piling systems ground stabilization.
Pile installations techniques

A variety of methods and special equipment have been used for the installation of piles. Usually piles
are made from (Wood, steel and concrete) are driven, drilled or jacked into the ground and connected
to pile caps.
Every pile has a zone of influence on the soil around it. Care must be taken to space the piles far
enough apart so that loads are distributed evenly over the entire bulb of soil that carries them, and not
concentrated into a few areas. So that the designer should be aware that certain equipment and
methods for pile installation have been known to reduce axial and lateral resistance or damage the
pile in certain situations. In order to avoid damages to the piles, during design, installation methods
and installation equipment should be carefully selected.
Fig.3.1.1
The installation process and method of installations are equally important factors as of the design
process of pile foundations. There are two main types of pile installation methods:
Displacement piles
Non-displacement piles (boring methods)
Displacement piles
Dropping weight (Impact hammers)

Vibration (vibratory hammers)
Jacking
Jetting
Explosion
Pile driving by dropping weight

Drop hammers
The drop hammer is the simplest and oldest type of impact hammer. A hammer with approximately
the weight of the pile is raised a suitable height in a guide and released to strike the pile head. This is
a simple form of hammer used in conjunction with light frames and test piling, where it may be
uneconomical to bring a steam boiler or compressor on to a site to drive very limited number of
piles. There are two main types of drop hammers:
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Single-acting hammer - This hammer type utilizes pressure from steam or compressed air to
raise the ram, and then automatically releases the pressure allowing the ram to fall freely and
strike the pile cap.
Double-acting hammer - The steam or compressed air is also utilized to supply additional
energy to the ram on the downward part of the stroke. The combination of pressure on the
down stroke and a short stroke distance results in an operating rate generally ranging from 90
to 150 blows per minute.
Fig.3.1.2
Fig.3.1.3
Diesel hammers
Also classified as single and double-acting, in operation, the diesel hammer employs a ram which is
raised by explosion at the base of a cylinder. In the double-acting diesel hammer, a vacuum is
created in a separate annular chamber as the ram moves upward, and assists in the return of the ram,
almost doubling the output of the hammer over the single-acting type. In favorable ground
conditions, the diesel hammer provides an efficient pile driving capacity, but they are not effective
for all types of ground.
Fig.3.1.4
If installation is to be carried out using pile-hammer, then the following factors should be taken in to
consideration:
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the size and the weight of the pile

the driving resistance which has to be overcome to achieve the design penetration
the available space and head room on the site
the availability of cranes and
the noise restrictions which may be in force in the locality
Pile driving by vibrating

Vibratory hammers are usually electrically powered or hydraulically powered and consists of contrarotating eccentric masses within a housing attaching to the pile head. These are available in high,
medium, and low frequency ranges. The amplitude of the vibration is sufficient to break down the
skin friction on the sides of the pile. Vibratory methods are best suited to sandy or gravelly soil.
Also it is important that a rigid connection be maintained between the hammer and the pile, usually
by means of a mechanical clamp, and a back-up system may be required to prevent release of the
clamp in the event of a power failure.
Fig.3.1.5
Pile driving by jacking
Pile driving is very noisy and causes massive vibrations through the soil. For this reason, it is
sometimes difficult to use them in sensitive locations. The vibrations could also cause structural
damage to older buildings that are close by. In such situations it is possible to use micro piling or
helical piling, neither of which relies on hammering. To install this type of piles jetting method is
used.
Fig.3.1.6
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Pile driving by jetting
Jetting is the use of a water or air jet to facilitate the placing or driving of a pile by means of
hydraulic displacement of parts of the soil. In some cases, a high-pressure air jet may be used, either
alone or with water. In addition, jetting aids in preventing structural damage to the pile from
overdriving. Water is pumped under high pressure through pipes internally or externally attached to
the pile, although air may be used in combination with the water to increase the effectiveness in
certain cases.
This method is used to aid the penetration of piles in to sand or sandy gravel, water jetting may be
employed. However, the method has very limited effect in firm to stiff clays or any soil containing
much coarse gravel, cobbles, or boulders.
Jetting adjacent to existing structures or piles should be avoided if possible. Although driving
vibrations are reduced, extreme caution must be exercised, since jetting causes disturbance of soil
material.
Fig.3.1.7
Fig.3.1.8
Non-displacement piles (boring methods)

Non-displacement piles include.
Cable percussion drilling
Mechanical augers
Under reaming
Non-displacement piles installations techniques
Cast-in-drilled-hole pile technique
Concrete is cast into a hole drilled with the rebar reinforcement already in place. Depending on
ground conditions, these piles can range up to 12-126 inches in diameter and 10-126 feet in length.
There is minimum vibration, although there may be cave-ins if the soil is weak. In wet ground
conditions, slurry may be used for the installation.
Cast-in-steel-shell pile technique
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A steel shell is driven into the ground and then reinforcement bars are put in place. These piles can
accommodate longer length than cast-in piles and are commonly used for bridges & other structures
on low bearing capacity soils. Vibration and noise are usually associated with this type of installation
technique.
Oscillated pile technique
The steel shell has a drill ring attached at the top so that the pile being cast can be oscillated/rotated
into the ground. This installation technique produces much lower ground vibration to the adjacent
soil and structures & less noise than other methods. But at the same time this is slow & expensive.
Geo Jet piling technique
Under this technique, a hole is drilled while mixing cement with the natural soil to produce a soilcement shaft. A circular steel pile is then lifted and lowered into the soil-cement shaft. After setup of
the soil-cement, the pile reacts like cast-in-steel-shell. The diameter and depth are limited to 1.2 and
46m respectively. Ground vibrations are almost eliminated and noise is minimal compared to other
methods.
Tubex grout injection pile technique
A steel shell with a drilling tip is screwed into the ground while injecting grout to form a bond with
the soil. This forms a closed-end system, which may cause soil displacement depending on soil type.
The pile diameter is limited to 30 inches.it produces minimal vibration & noise but ground
monitoring is required due to the potential for soil displacement, which may lift adjacent structures.
Continuous Flight Auger
A Continuous Flight Auger (CFA) pile is formed by drilling into the ground with a hollow stemmed
continuous flight auger to the required depth or degree of resistance. No casings are required. A
cement grout mix is then pumped down the stem of the auger. While the cement grout is pumped, the
auger is slowly withdrawn, lifting the soil on the flights. A shaft of fluid cement grout is formed to
ground level.
This is efficient for unstable ground and high ground water levels. Also quality control is essential
when using CFA.
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Fig.3.1.9
Fig.3.1.10
Sectional Flight Auger

A sectional flight auger pile is formed by drilling into the ground with multiple flight sections
installed to the designed depth. The sectional quality to these machines allows installation in
restricted access zones. It is most common to bore the pile and fill with concrete post extraction;
however this will depend on the ground conditions.
Under reaming
This is used to enable to exploit the bearing capacity of suitable strata by providing an enlarged base.
The soil (Stiff and to hard clays) has to be capable of standing open unsupported to employ this
technique. In its closed position, the under reaming tool is fitted inside the straight section of a pile
shaft, and then expanded at the bottom of the pile to produce the under ream shown. Normally, after
installation and before concrete is casted, a man carrying cage is lowered and the shaft and the under
ream of the pile is inspected.
Fig.3.1.11
Q 3.2 Describe methods of constructing complex foundations for large structures in varying ground
conditions.
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The foundation of the building transfers the load of the building to the ground. Basically there are 3
types of loading such as,
Dead load static or constant weight of the structure
Live load furniture, people, goods the movable
Wind load
Since the weight of the building rests on the soil, the engineers have to study the properties of the
soil very carefully to ensure that it can carry the loads imposed by the building. As a result of that the
primary concerns in designing foundations are settlement and bearing capacity.
The bearing capacity of the substrata is the amount of the weight the ground can support. This
capacity also changes at different depths of soil. In general the deeper one digs, the greater the SBC,
unless there are pockets of weak soil in the earth.
When considering the settlements the concerns are total and differential settlements. Differential
settlement is when one part of a foundation settles more than another part. This can cause problems
to the structure the foundation is supporting. To properly support a building, the soil must be very
firm and strong. It is common for the soil near the surface of the earth to be loose and weak.
Building contractors will usually dig until they reach very firm, strong, soil that cannot be dug up
easily before constructing a foundation.
Fig.3.2.1
Weak/compressible soils (clays, silts, peat) depending on the magnitude of the load either
strip foundations or alternative methods can be designed. When the soil is poor and structure
loads are relatively heavy raft foundations.
Fine cohesive silt and clay soil pile foundations
Expansive soils with heavy loads pile foundations, piers, caissons
Very weak & expansive soils with light loads mat foundations
Sometimes it might be desirable and economically feasible to over excavate remove such
soils that are not of bearing capacity; can remove compact and fill back or import other
engineered soil.
Chalk - Strip foundations
Peat and loose waterlogged sand - If the peat can be stripped back to find suitable loadbearing ground of at least 1.5m depth, strip foundations may be suitable.
Deep foundations are required to carry loads from a structure through weak compressible soils or
fills on to stronger and less compressible soils or rocks at depth, or for functional reasons. These
foundations are those founding too deeply below the finished ground surface for their base bearing
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capacity to be affected by surface conditions, this is usually at depths >3 m below finished ground
level. Deep foundations can be used to transfer the loading to deeper, more competent strata at depth
if unsuitable soils are present near the surface. They include piles, piers and caissons or compensated
foundations using deep basements and also deep pad or strip foundations.
Piers
Concrete piers are vertical structural elements that support the weight of a building or structure.
Typically they are used for bridges and large structures, where large loads and lateral resistance are
major factors. If piers are designed correctly and placed on solid ground or to a depth that the friction
on the sides of the pier is greater than the load placed on the pier, the piers and the structure will not
move.
In general, the bottom of the pier is wider than the top in order to distribute the weight of the
structure over more soil. This adds to the stability of the design and also helps to offset the force of
the wind on the structure and it is very important for complex structures to maintain the stability. The
concrete pier acts like an anchor in a wall. It requires enormous upward force to pull a one-piece
concrete pier out of the ground that has a wide base. When a proper hold-down anchor that's
connected to the pier with a long anchor bolt embedded in the concrete the structure would not blow
over.
Fig.3.2.2
Fig.3.2.3
Caissons
Caissons are prefabricated hollow box or cylinder which is sunk into the ground to some desired
depth and then filled with concrete thus forming a foundation. Caisson foundations are used when
soil of adequate bearing strength is found below surface layers of weak materials such as fill or peat.
This method is suitable when constructing bridge piers & other structures that require foundation
beneath rivers & other bodies of water. The reason the caissons are used in construction related to
water is because they can be floated to the job site and sunk into place.
Caissons are drilled to bedrock or deep into the underlying strata until the soil type is suitable to
carry the building load and the installation method is first a deep hole is created by auguring and then
2 or more stick reinforcing bar are inserted into and run the full length of the hole and the concrete
is poured into the caisson hole. The caisson foundations carry the building loads at their lower ends,
which are often bell-shaped. Types of caissons include,
Box Caissons
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Excavated Caissons
Floating Caissons
Open Caissons
Pneumatic Caissons
Sheeted Caissons
Fig.3.2.4
Pile foundations
Pile foundations are the part of a structure used to carry & transfer the load to the bearing ground
located at some depth below ground surface. The main components of the foundation are the pile cap
& the piles. Piles are long and slender members and wood, steel and concrete types are available.
Piles transfer the load to deeper soil of high bearing capacity. These are effective in expansive soils.
Fig.3.2.5
End bearing piles
End bearing piles are those which terminate in hard, relatively impenetrable material such as rock or
very dense sand and gravel. They derive most of their carrying capacity from the resistance of the
stratum at the toe of the pile.
These piles transfer their load on to a firm layer located at a considerable depth below the base of the
structure and they derive most of their carrying capacity from the penetration resistance of the soil at
the toe of the pile. The pile behaves as an ordinary column. Even in weak soil a pile will not fail by
buckling and this effect need only be considered if part of the pile is unsupported. The founding
depth of the pile is influenced by the results of the site investigate on and soil test.
Friction piles
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Friction piles obtain a greater part of their carrying capacity by skin friction or adhesion. This tends
to occur when piles do not reach an impenetrable stratum but are driven for some distance into a
penetrable soil. Their carrying capacity is derived partly from end bearing and partly from skin
friction between the embedded surface of the soil and the surrounding soil.
Fig.3.2.6 (End bearing)
Fig.3.2.7 (Friction)
Settlement reducing piles

These are usually incorporated beneath the central part of a raft foundation in order to reduce
differential settlement to an acceptable level. Such piles act to reinforce the soil beneath the raft and
help to prevent dishing of the raft in the center.
Fig.3.2.8
Tension piles
Structures which is subjected to large overturning moments and in such cases the resulting forces are
transmitted to the soil along the embedded length of the pile. The resisting force can be increased in
the case of bored piles by under-reaming. In the design of tension piles the effect of radial
contraction of the pile must be taken into account as this can cause about a 10% - 20% reduction in
shaft resistance.
Fig.3.2.9
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Fig.3.2.10
Page 69
Laterally loaded piles
Since all piled foundations are subjected to at least some degree of horizontal loading, the magnitude
of the loads in relation to the applied vertical axial loading will generally be small so that no
additional design calculations is necessary. But the places where the horizontal component is
relatively large and it is critical in design. Ordinary piles have been installed at an angle to the
vertical in such cases, providing sufficient horizontal resistance by virtue of the component of axial
capacity of the pile which acts horizontally. However the capacity of a vertical pile to resist loads
applied normally to the axis, although significantly smaller than the axial capacity of that pile, may
be sufficient to avoid the need for such 'raking' or 'battered' piles which are more expensive to install.
Fig.3.2.11
Fig.3.2.12
Classification of pile with respect to type of material - Timber piles

The Hercules type of pile joint is easily and accurately cast Timber can be used for the manufacture
of temporary piles and when the wood is available at an economical price. It is most suitable for long
cohesion piling and piling beneath embankments. The timber should be in a good condition and
should not have been attacked by insects.
It is essential that the timber is driven in the right direction and should not be driven into firm
ground. Keeping the timber below the ground water level will protect the timber against decay and
putrefaction. To protect and strengthen the tip of the pile, timber piles can be provided with toe
cover. Pressure creosoting is the usual method of protecting timber piles.
Concrete piles
Concrete piles can be divided to pre-cast and cast in place concrete piles:
Pre- cast concrete Piles
It is formed and reinforced in a high-quality controlled concrete, usually used of square, triangle,
circle or octagonal section. They are pre-caste so that they can be easily connected together in order
to reach to the required length. Reinforcement is necessary within the pile to withstand both handling
and driving stresses. Pre stressed concrete piles are also used than the ordinary pre cast as less
reinforcement is required.
Cast in place Concrete piles
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Cast in place concrete piles are the most type commonly used for foundations due to the great
diversity available for pouring concrete and the introduction of the pile into the soil. Piles are poured
in tubes with underneath heels and left when lifting the tubes. These piles are divided to:
Simplex pile- it is a tube of cast of diameter 40 cm, has an underneath heel, it is banged
underground by an automatic hammer until reaching the arable land for the establishment,
then concrete is poured inside it and banged by another hammer. In the meantime, the pipe is
raised with a certain amount so as not to enter the soil inside. This pile can bear about 40 50
ton.
Frankie pile- It is a number of tubes entering each other in order to easily access to great
depths within the earth. This pile can carry a load of 50 80 ton.
Vibro pile- It is a steel pipe of diameter 40 cm, has a conical heel with a separate flange, it is
banged underground by an automatic hammer until reaching the arable land for the
establishment, then the heel is removed and put into a tube, after that concrete is poured. The
tube is moved up and down in order to compact concrete. This pile can bear about 60 ton.
Strong pile- this pile is largely similar to Simplex pile except that the bottom heel is made
from reinforced concrete covered with cast heel. This pile can carry a load of 25 30 ton.
Under rimed pile- this pile is used at black clayey soil and lands of non-residual soil, so this
soil is very dangerous to be established on it.
Strauss pile- Which is very similar to the Simplex pile but without a heel. The maximum
load that can be carried by these piles is from 20 25 ton.
Kimbersol pile- This pile can carry a load of 80 120 ton.
Steel piles
Made of sectors in the form of H, X or of thick pipes. They are suitable for handling and driving in
long lengths. Their relatively small cross-sectional area combined with their high strength makes
penetration easier in firm soil. They can be easily cut off or joined by welding. For the protection of
the pile tar coating or cathodic protection can be employed in permanent works.
It is common to allow for an amount of corrosion in design by simply over dimensioning the crosssectional area of the steel pile. In this way the corrosion process can be prolonged up to 50 years.
Fig.3.2.13
Composite piles
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It is the combination of different materials in same pile. Since timber pile which is installed above
ground water could be vulnerable to insect attack and decay, concrete or steel pile is used above the
ground water level, whilst wood pile is installed under the ground water level.
Micro piles
Micro piles are manufactured with a coupling sleeve and are either hot dip galvanized or left
untreated. Installation equipment for micro piles usually consists of self-contained drill units, similar
to those used for tieback anchor installation. Micro piles are installed mainly by two methods:
Drilling and grouting
Displacement.
Jet grouting and post grouting have recently been used to produce high- capacity piles.
Fig.3.2.14
Cofferdam
A cofferdam is defined as a temporary structure that is constructed any water-bearing surface for
excluding water from a given site to execute the building operation to be performed on dry surface.
The walls of the temporary structure should be practically water tight or at least they should be able
to exclude water to such an extent that the quantity of water that leaks inside the enclosed area can be
easily pumped out. These are classified according to the type of construction. The type of
construction is dependent upon the depth, soil conditions, fluctuations in the water level, availability
of material. Cofferdams are advantageously constructed where a large area of site is to be enclosed
and the hard bed is at reasonable depth.
Considering the material used in their construction, cofferdams may be divided into the following
categories.
Earthen cofferdam- It essentially consists of an earthen embankment built around the area
to be enclosed. It is constructed in places where the depth of water is 13 to 18 in. and the
velocity of the current is very low. The earth embankment should be built from a mixture of
clay and sand or clay and gravel. In order to prevent the embankment from scouring due to
the action of water, side slopes of the bank on water side should be pitched with rubble
boulders.
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Fig.3.2.15
Rock-fill cofferdam- If the depth of water to be retained by the embankment of cofferdam is

of order of 18 to 3 in., stone or rubble is used for the embankment. This construction is
adopted only if the stone is easily available in the nearby areas. The stones are assembled in
the required shape of the embankment and the voids are partially filled with earth and stonechips. The side slope on the water side is protected by pitching.
Fig.3.2.15
Single-walled cofferdam- This type of cofferdam is used in places where the area to be
enclosed is very small and the depth of water is 4.5 to 6 m. Timber piles known as guide piles
are first driven deep into the firm ground below the river bed. Depending upon the velocity of
the current of the water in the river, the center to center spacing of the piles may vary
between 1.8 to 4 m. Steel or wooden sheet piles are then driven into the river bed along the
wales and are secured to the wales by bolts. The sheets on the two faces arc braced by trussed
arrangement of struts. This helps in increasing the stability of walls against the water
pressure.
Fig.3.2.16
Double-walled cofferdam- Double-walled cofferdam is provided when there larger area is

enclosed. There are a pair of walls with a gap in between is used all along the boundary of the
space to be enclosed. This type of cofferdam can be used in depth of water up to 12 m. To
prevent the leakage from the ground below, the sheet piles are driven to a good depth in the
bed.
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Fig.3.2.17
Crib cofferdam- In deep waters where it is difficult to penetrate the guide piles or sheet piles
into the hard bed below, crib cofferdam is used. In this type of construction, the sheet piles
are supported by a series of wooden cribs. A crib is a framework of horizontal timbers
installed in alternate courses to form pockets which can be filled with earth or stones. The
length and breadth of each crib depend upon the depth of water and the current of flow.
Fig.3.2.18
Cellular cofferdam- This type of cofferdam is mostly used for de-watering large areas in
places where the depth of water may be of the order of 18 to 21 m. Cellular cofferdam is
made by driving straight web steel sheet piles, arranged to from a series of inter-connected
cells. The cells are constructed in various shapes and styles to suit the requirements of site.
Finally the cells are filled with clay, sand or gravel to make them stable against the various
forces to which they are likely to be
Circular type cellular cofferdam.
Diaphragm type cellular cofferdam.
Strip foundations
The most common type of foundations and it is mainly used where there is strong soil base and nonwaterlogged areas. Strip foundations are used to support a line of loads, either due to a load-bearing
wall, or if a line of columns need supporting where column positions are so close that individual pad
foundations would be inappropriate. Strip foundations consist of a continuous strip, usually of
concrete, formed centrally under load bearing walls. The absolute minimum thickness of this strip is
150mm. The width of a concrete strip foundation depends on the bearing capacity of the subsoil and
the load on the foundations.
Raft foundations
Raft foundations are used to spread the load from a structure over a large area, normally the entire
area of the structure. They are used when column loads or other structural loads are close together.
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A raft foundation normally consists of a concrete slab which extends over the entire loaded area. It
may be stiffened by ribs or beams incorporated into the foundation.
Raft foundations have the advantage of reducing differential settlements as the concrete slab resists
differential movements between loading positions. They are often needed on soft or loose soils with
low bearing capacity as they can spread the loads over a larger area.
Pad foundations
Pad foundations are used to support an individual point load such as that due to a structural column.
They usually consist of a block or slab of uniform thickness, but they may be stepped or hunched if
they are required to spread the load from a heavy column. Pad foundations are usually shallow, but
deep pad foundations can also be used. This is mostly used when use of the under of building as
parking space or when the other space is not conducive to have foundation. Types of pad foundations
include plain concrete, reinforced concrete, combined pad foundations, continuous pad, pad and
ground beam
Fig.3.2.19
Q3.3 specify the methods used to drain from constructions sites.
The drain consists of three components such as filter, conduit or collector and disposal system.
Drains are of following types.
Open drains
Closed drains
Horizontal drains
Drainage after construction
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Open drains
These are open drains though which seepage water may be diverted.
Close drains
When seepage erosion or piping is troublesome or where a permanent drain is desired, perforated
pipe can be laid at a required depth in ditches and the ditch is backfilled with a suitable filter
material. Pipes should be laid in straight lines As far as possible. Opening should be provided for
every 30-50m to flush out the pipe occasionally. Also manholes should be provided at changes in
direction & at intervals of 100-150m along straight sections.
Horizontal drains
If field situations warrant avoiding open cut work or non-availability of adequate submergence, the
ground water can be lowered by means of Runny drainage systems. This system consists of
reinforced concrete shaft or wells from which a number of horizontal perforated pipes are fixed. The
pipes may be extended to a required length in any direction. Water collected in the well is pumped
out by means of a turbine pump.
Fig.3.3.1
Drainage after construction

Preventing ground water from seeping into a structure may be necessary in order to obtain proper use
of structure or to protect it from drainage. In some situations, the dewatering system utilized during
construction may be further used to protect the structure.
Foundation drains
Where ground water is present in the vicinity of a structure, provision should be made to quickly
carry away the water for building. In the worst condition, ground water effect may be allowed only
on exterior side of the building. When depth below water table is not much, it is feasible to control
the water by foundation drains as shown. However, these drains should not be placed lower than the
bottom of footing. These drains consists of perforated pipes or pipes with open joints so that the
ground water can enter into pipe.
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Fig.3.3.2
Blanket drain
Drainage blankets are sometimes constructed beneath drains and basement floors to provide a highly
permeable drainage path for removal of ground water acting against the bottom of slab. If an escape
path is provided the uplift pressure can be reduced & the possibility of seepage through the floor is
arrested.
The blanket consists of a fine filter layer in contact with the soil followed by a coarse filter cum
collector layer & the latter is in contact with the underside of a masonry dam or basement floor.
Interceptor drains
In paved highways & airfield runways, trench drains are provided parallel to shoulder. Such drains
are termed as interceptor drains which are provided to lower the ground water table to a level
beneath the pavement and to permit easy lateral drainage for water finding its way into the coarse
base material. The purpose of this drainage facility is to keep the base & sub-grade soils to dry so as
to maintain adequate strength & stability.
The drains also provide a means of disposal for surface & near surface wear and shall help to
intercept underground flow trying to enter the pavement from side areas.
Q3.4 select an existing building and discuss the construction methods used in superstructure design
considering on the techniques used to construct wall, floor slabs, staircase & roof elements. The
building may be a house/shop/factory etc. which is functioning.
A superstructure is an element of a structure that projects above the baseline. In the case of a
building, it is generally the portion of the building located above ground, in contrast with the
basement and substructure underground.
Designing superstructures requires considering the pressure and force they will exert on the finished
construction and balancing this to address concerns about safety and stability. The size of the
superstructure is an important factor in base design, as the base of the structure must be able to
support the entire laden weight. In building construction, there may be concerns about structural
integrity in earthquakes and high winds, and a technique known as base isolation may be used to
reduce strain.
The superstructure is also the highly visible part of a structure. It needs to be clad in protective
materials to keep the interior of the structure protected from the weather and may also be decorated
to make it more visually interesting.
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Periodic inspections are conducted to make sure the structure is still sound, checking for issues like
the development of rust, holes, and other issues.
This selected existing building is a two storey dwelling constructed in year 2007. The area of the
whole building is approximately 4134m2. The elements in this structure will be discussed below.
Floor slabs
Cast in place reinforcement concrete columns and beams have been used for the construction.
Typical column sizes are 9 by 9
Typical beam sizes are 9 by 12
Also pre-cast columns are used for the roof terrace & the portico
Floor slabs are 6 thick one way in situ reinforcement concrete slabs.
Properly sized and located reinforcing has been kept to reduce cracks and serviceable.
Hardcore material for the floor is cement (without aggregates) and a polythene sheet has been
used as the damp proof membrane.
Fig.3.4.1
Walls
The primary function of the wall is to enclose or divide space, but in addition it may have to
provide support.
The type of wall construction for this particular house is masonry walls.
Walls may be divided into two types.
Load bearing walls, which support loads from floors & roof in addition to their
own weight.
Non load bearing walls, which carry no floor of roof, loads.
The external walls of the house are load bearing walls so that they are double brick walls.
Since the internal walls are non-bearing walls they are single brick walls.
Internal wall construction
The wall bond type used for this single internal wall is one brick thick stretcher bond.
Stretcher is a masonry unit that has its longest face seen in the wall.
This bond is the most simple to set out and to build.
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The stretchers, laid with the length of the wall, develop longitudinal bonding strength; while
the headers laid across the width of the wall, bond the wall transversely.
Fig.3.4.2
Fig.3.4.3
External wall construction
Double brick construction is used because its a good insulator and the house will be warmer
or cooler in the various seasons.
The major difference between the two wall frame designs is that with the double-wall
construction there are two layers on top of the interior framing as opposed to one layer like
the single-wall design.
The wall bond type used for this double brick wall is Flemish bond.
In this bond, each course of brick consists of alternate stretchers & headers, with the headers
in alternate courses centered over the stretchers in the intervening courses.
Also this wall is a solid brick wall which means there is no cavity between the two brick
layers.
The bricks used for the construction are made of burnt clay of shale sand with the standard
dimensions of 23011076 mm3.
In addition concave joints have been used for the proper bonding & to seal the spacing
between bricks.
To run electrical and other wires or pipes through the house, a long groove in the wall is
chased (cutting) and installed conduit pipes in the wall, fill in the gap around the conduit with
cement plaster, and then pull electrical wires through the conduit.
Fig.3.4.4
Fig.3.4.5
Roof element
Trusses have been used for roof construction and more specifically this is a hipped roof.
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In hipped roofs, the roof slope could be returned onto itself at the ends. This produces a roof
shape of two parallel slopes with slopes normal to these at each end.
Typical details of the roof is demonstrated in the below AutoCAD drawing.
Fig.3.4.6
Doors and windows
Large wooden doors and fully glassed windows have been used in order to get good natural
lighting & ventilation.
Typical details of doors & windows are shown in below figure.
Type
FW1
Size
6-10 8-8
Description
Panel door & Glass French window with
carving
D1
8-0 8-0
Iron Roller Shutter Door
D2
3-0 7-0
Internal wooden panel door & frame
D3
2-0 7-0
Wooden panel door for toilets/bathrooms
D4
W1
3-6 8-8
6-0 6-8
External wooden panel door with carving

Fully glass window with carving
W2
4-0 6-8
W3
2-0 6-8
W4
6-0 5-8
W5
4-0 5-8
FL1
3-0 3-0
Fully glass fanlight with louvers
FL2
2-0 3-0
Fully glass fanlight with louvers
Fig.3.4.7
FW
D
W
FL
- French window
- door
- window
- fanlight
Stair case
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The stair case type of this house is quarter turn with landing and the typical details if the
staircase is shown below.
In-situ reinforcement concrete and brick is used for the construction of the staircase.
Typical details for the staircase: rise- 7.5/ going- 11/ 1st flight- 10 steps, run 65/ 2nd
flight- 8 steps, run 65.
Fig.3.4.8
Fig.3.4.9
Fig.3.4.11
Fig.3.4.13(internal wall)
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Fig.3.4.10 (roof)
Fig.3.4.12
Fig.3.4.14
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Fig.3.4.15
Fig.3.4.16
Fig.3.4.17 (details of D & Ws)

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Q3.5 Explain the use of false work and formwork in reinforcement structures.
Formwork and false work systems are one of the key factors that govern the success of construction
project in terms of speed, quality, cost and safety of works. The construction of a concrete building
requires formwork to support the slabs as well as columns and walls. Formwork is the contact
surface and structural backing needed to contain fresh concrete until it can safely support itself. If it
is not removed, it is called permanent formwork. If it has to be supported from below, the structural
support is called false work. The loads of a structure is self-contained, while for concrete members
such as slabs or beams, false work is used to take the loads to the ground below or to a similar
support. For such members, the actual surface material and its immediate support are considered to
be form work.
Formwork
Formwork is the term used for a temporary mold into which concrete is poured and formed.
Formwork molds the concrete to the desired shape and size, and controls its position and alignment.
Every concrete construction needs formworks. Formwork for concrete must support all vertical loads
that maybe applied until the loads can be carried by the concrete structure itself. Strength and
durability is important, it is frequently stiffness which is the controlling factor in the design. This is
of direct importance to the flatness or straightness of the concrete. It should be sufficiently rigid
under construction loads to maintain the designed shape of concrete. Besides that, it must be stable
and strong enough to maintain large members in alignment. The formwork should be strong enough
its own weight and the concrete weight. Other lateral forces caused by dumping of concrete,
movement of construction equipment and action of wind must be resisted by formwork to prevent
lateral failure. It becomes more crucial to big mass concrete construction. The forms must support all
the applied loads without collapse or excessive deflection.
The usual design of formwork is for wall, slab, column, and beam. (Trench boxes, trench sheets).
There are several types of formwork; timber, steel, aluminum and plastic formwork. The most
preferred formwork is timber and steel.
Timber Formwork
Timber is the most basic material. It is relatively cheap and easy to shape as required. It is easy to fix
inserts and the like on the inside of a form face for casting into concrete. Also it is relatively light in
weight for handling, but it is of limited durability.
Conventional wood system includes formwork for slabs, beams and foundations. The system is
generally built of lumber or a combination of lumber and plywood or moisture-resistant
particleboard. Formwork pieces are made and erected in situ. For stripping, conventional wood
systems are stripped piece by piece, and then cleaned. It is easy to produce but time-consuming for
larger structures, and the plywood facing has a relatively short lifespan. It is still used extensively
where the labor costs are lower than the costs for procuring re-usable formwork. It is also the most
flexible type of formwork, so even where other systems are in use, complicated sections may use it.
Before the installation of the members of formwork, some criteria should be put into considerations.
The crucial criteria that counts are as follows
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Shape of members
Correct position
Correct angles for batters
Accuracy within permitted tolerances
Finishing heights
Other criteria that should also be taken into consideration are the jointing of the members. The joint
of formwork must be flush and tight, nails should not protrude into the concrete. The water stops
should be correctly positioned and fixed suitably supported by the formwork.
Fig.3.5.1
Steel Formwork
Steel can be used both as sheet material for the face of formwork and as hot or cold-formed sections,
used to form the support or framing. It is made out of prefabricated modules with steel frames. It is
now widely used in this industry especially for high cost construction. Steel formwork also produced
good surfacing on the hard concrete. These types of formwork are easy to install and also easy to
dismantled. It can be used for a long period because it is made out of the material that is not affected
by the environment. It is also can reduced the wastage due to its properties. Steel formwork can also
be produced according to the desirable size and shape, because it is made earlier in the factory. Due
to its weight, tower crane and large mobile crane should be able for handling of steel formwork.
Steel sections are used in the fabrication of different formwork components such as,
Steel panel forms

Horizontal and vertical shores.
Steel pan and dome components used for joist and waffle slab.
Steel pipes for formwork bracing.
Steel formwork may be classified in a general way as follows;

Unit forms of various standard sizes for the assembly of slab, beam, and wall and column
forms.
Purpose made the steel forms to specific shapes and sizes
Steel formwork is very durable if it is in thick form. The maintenances are such as handling the
forms carefully when erecting and stripping or moving the formworks. Besides that, the formworks
should be clean and treat so that the concrete will not adhere to the formworks. They can be reused
over 100 times meanwhile traditional timber formwork can be only used for 8-15 times.
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A set of steel formwork can be used to complete a building construction and might still be able to be
used in other projects. It also very strong and able to sustain high load of concrete hence it is very
suitable to be used when high stress occurs. They are more rigid and less possibility to formwork
strength failure which may lead to formwork collapse. Furthermore, steel formwork frames are
stronger and less susceptible to damage. But, steel formworks are very heavy and difficult to handle.
Fig.3.5.2
Aluminium formwork
Aluminium formwork is often used in pre-fabricated formwork, which is put together on site.
Aluminium is strong and light, and consequently fewer supports and ties are required. The lighter
sections will deflect more, but this can be avoided by simply following the manufacturers
recommendations.
Plastic formwork
Glass reinforced plastics (GRP) and vacuum formed plastics are used when complicated concrete
shapes are required. Although vacuum formed plastics will always need support, GRP can be
fabricated with integral bearers making it supporting. Like steel, plastic formwork can be re-used
many times, as long as care is taken not to scour the surface whilst vibrating the concrete.
Fig.3.5.3
False work
False work consists of temporary structures used in construction to support spanning or arched
structures in order to hold the component in place until its construction is sufficiently advanced to
support itself. This usage is specifically called centering. False work also includes temporary support
structures for formwork used to mold concrete to form a desired shape, scaffolding to give workers
access to the structure being constructed, and shoring which is temporary structural reinforcement
used during repairs. The use of the false work helps to prevent collapse of certain sections of the
construction while it is underway and often provides workers with a stable support surface as they
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work on different aspects of the building design. False work remains in place until the construction
is sufficiently completed for the structure to remain intact without the need for any additional
support.
Every construction includes the use of false work in terms of providing support to the structure under
construction and making it easier for workers to do the actual work involved with the project.
Scaffolding
Three basic types of scaffold which can be employed in false work:
Scaffold.
Tubes and fittings.
Prefabricated systems.
The most common piece of structure used in scaffolding is the scaffold tube. The tube generally
comes in two thicknesses, 3.2mm or 4mm.
Once constructed of wooden planking, modern-day scaffolding normally includes a framework
composed of a combination of metal pipes that are joined to create a solid support system for the
construction. Depending on the application, the scaffolding may also be equipped with planks that
are secured in position and allow workers to freely move about in order to work on arches or other
aspects of the structure. While scaffolding is sturdy and offers a great deal of support, the task of
disconnecting the pipes and removing the plans can be accomplished in relatively little time, once
there is no longer a need for the false work.
Fig.3.5.4
Tube and fittings
Tube and fittings used as false work provide the most versatile material available although unlikely
to be the most economic meaning the labor in erecting and dismantling is very high compared with
unit systems.
Prefabricated systems
Prefabricated systems initially designed for simple access scaffolding have made a great impact on
the false work market. The systems usually consist of vertical frames, which are linked together by a
patent bracing system; this form of linking can be visually inspected to ensure stability whereas
normal tube fittings cannot be checked by the same method. Proprietary systems of decking
including telescopic beams or prefabricated beam are often linked with false work systems. The
prefabricated systems therefore offer simplicity of erection coupled with a builtin grit, which give
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high control of components spacing. Prefabricated false work is made from larger diameter tube and
is capable of carrying heavier loads than the normal scaffold units. These systems are used
extensively for supporting bridges and other heavy structure, which require variable false work.
Facade retention
Along with new construction projects, false work can also be helpful when it comes to restoring or
refurbishing an older building. For example, painters would use scaffolding as part of the equipment
when repainting the exterior of a commercial building. In like manner, the false work is helpful when
adding new design elements to an older facade, or simply restoring a damaged facade to its original
appearance.
Facade retention involves supporting existing facades or party walls for renovation and is often used
for works to listed buildings. By retaining the facade, the overall look of a building is preserved
while new internal floor structures and layouts can be constructed to meet the needs of modern
occupants.
Shoring
Shoring is the process of supporting a building, vessel, structure, or trench with shores when in
danger of collapse or during repairs or alterations. Shoring comes from shore a timber or metal prop.
Shoring may be vertical, angled, or horizontal. Different types of shoring include Foundations,
Trenches, Raking Shores, Hydraulic Shoring, Beam and Plate, Square Shoring.
Fig.3.5.5
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Task 04
Q4.1 explain the different types of building services used in civil engineering structures. And what
are the factors that governing proper selection of services.
Building is a structure that has a roof and walls and stands permanently in one place. The primary
function of buildings is to provide shelter to its occupants. But building function cannot be limited to
provide shelter only. Basically building services is what make the building comes to life. So
building should be designed such a way to provide an environment where people can feel
comfortable, work, live and achieve. As a result of that building services contribute largely to the
sustainability and functioning of the building.
A comprehensive list of services that could be provided in a building is as follows.
Cold water supply systems

Hot water supply systems
HVAC systems
Gas installation systems
Electric installation and supply systems
Drainage systems, sewage treatment & refuse disposal
Sanitary fitments & appliances: discharge & waste systems
Mechanical conveyors Lifts, Escalators & Travelators
Fire prevention
Security installations
Alternative & Renewable energy
Cold water supply systems

Water is the essence of life. The provision of safe and hygienic water supply is of paramount
importance, and a considerable amount of engineering is involved in such provision.
Water quality varies with the local geology and can be classified as hard, soft, acidic or alkaline.
Mineral salts of Ca and Mg have soap destroying properties and are considered in the evaluation
of water hardness.
Temporary hardness is due to CaCO3, Ca(HCO3)2 and Mg(HCO3)2 which dissolve in water as it
passes through chalky soil. These salts are deposited as scale on heat transfer surfaces during
boiling, causing serious reduction in plant efficiency.
Permanent hardness is due to presence of the non- carbonate salts CaSO4, CaCl2, MgCl2 and other
sulfates and chlorides. Neutralization of these is achieved by means of chemical reactions.
The pH value denotes of acidity and alkalinity due to the presence of free Hydrogen ions in the
water.
pH < 7 indicates acidity
pH > 7 indicates alkalinity
pH = 7 indicates pure
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As a result of the, before supplying the water into a building it should be purified. Following are
some water treatment methods which can be used for building services.
Pressure filter- rate of filtration 4 to 12m3 per hour. Compressed air clears the sand of dirt.
Diameter = 2.4m.
Slow sand filter bed- filter beds can occupy large areas and the top layer of sand will require
removal 7 cleaning at periodic intervals.
Small domestic filter- the unglazed porcelain cylinder will arrest very fine particles of dirt &
even micro-organisms. The cylinder can be removed & sterilized in boiling water for 10
minutes.
Sterilization by chlorine injection- water used for drinking must be sterilized to make it
completely free of living micro-organisms.
Fluoridation- an additive introduced to drinking water by some supply authorities. The main
objective is to reduce tooth decay of children.
Gravitational distribution- the water from upland gathering grounds s impounded in a
reservoir. From this point the water is filtered & chlorinated before serving an inhabited area
at lower level.
Pumped distribution- water extracted from a river is pumped into a settlement tank,
subsequently filtered & chlorinated.
Disinfection-the process of inactivating bacterial or viral cells, either by destruction or by
eliminating their pathogenic properties.
Cold water is been distributed to the building via mains supply. Mains water is used in 2 ways:
direct from the main and as low-pressure supplies from cold-water tanks.
Water mains have been manufactured from a variety of materials. The material selected must be
compatible with the water constituents. Otherwise corrosion & decomposition of the pipes may
occur. Contemporary materials which suit most waters are ductile cast iron and uPVC.
Mains supply:
At least one tap per dwelling and taps at suitable locations throughout large buildings are
connected to the main for drinking water. The main also supplies ball valves on cold-water
storage tanks and machines requiring a high-pressure inlet. Mains water supply to commercial &
industrial premises must be protected against the possibility of contamination by backflow.
Water meters, valves, taps has been used since the economical use of water is important
for safety, environmental and cost control reasons.
Water meters are installed at the discretion of the local water authority. Meters are either
installed in the communication pipe or by direct annular connection to the stop valve.
The globe-type stop valve is used to control the flow of water at high pressure.
The gate or sluice valve is used to control the flow of water on low pressure
installations.
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Float valves are automatic flow control devices fitted to cisterns to maintain an
appropriate volume of water.
The drain valve has several applications and is found at the lowest point in the pipe
systems, boilers and storage vessels.
The pillar tap is used to supply water to basins, baths, bidets and sinks. Combined hot
and cold pillar taps are available with fixed or swivel outlet.
The bib tap is for wall fixing, normally about 150mm above a sanitary appliance.
Low pressure supplies:

Static water pressures in tall buildings are reduced by storing water at various levels. Sealed
storage tanks are used for drinking water. Open water tanks become contaminated with airborne
bacteria and are only used for sanitary purposes. Cold water services are taken into taps, WC ball
valves, got water storage cylinders and equipment needing low water supplies.
Separation of the contaminated water is being used within the building for washing, flushing, and
sanitary appliances, circulating within heating and cooling air conditioning systems, evaporative
cooling towers, ornamental fountains, agricultural irrigation or manufacturing processes from
potable mains water is achieved by using the following.
A storage tank with ball valve
A permanent air gap between the tap discharge & the contaminated water
level
A single seat non-return valve ( check valve)
A double seat check valve
Cold water storage tanks are expected to contain water of similar quality to that supplied from main
and so must be covered to exclude foreign matter, insects and lights as well as being thermally
insulated and not contaminating the stored water themselves. Tanks are generally not larger than 2m
long by 1m wide by 1m high, and pipe connections must ensure that water flushes through all of
them to eliminate stagnation.
The drinking and food rising water tap at a kitchen sink must be connected to the water main before
any water softener enters and a check valve is required between this tap and the softener. In tall
buildings the pressure required to reach upper floors can be greater than the available head or
pressure than the mains. A pneumatic water pressure boosting system is used.
Fig.4.1.1
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Fig.4.1.2
Page 90
Hot water supply systems

Water expands with changes in temperature. At 40C water is most dense and water expands about
9% by volume. At temperatures between 40c and 1000C or boiling, water expands about 4%by
volume and is significantly less dense. This degree of expansion and reduction in density is the
principle of convective water circulation in elementary hot water systems.
Hot water and heating systems must incorporate a means for accommodating expansion. A safe-fail
mechanism must also be provided should the initial provision malfunction. Heated wholesome water
must be available at:
Sanitary appliances for washing
Any sink used for the preparation of food
Systems of hot water supply must be provided with controls to regulate water temperature in normal
use. Installations must be able to withstand the effects of higher than normal operating temperature
and pressure. Hot water can either be generated by the central boiler plant or stored or produce
closed to the point of use by a more expansive fuel.
Central hot water storage
The low cost fuel is used for the central heating plant in hot water services boiler. This is located
within the main boiler house and a large volume storage cylinder is employed. A small power input
boiler is running continuously, under thermostatic control from the stored hot water. Primary
circulation pipes are kept short and well insulated.
This system can meet sudden large demands for hot water. Secondary circulation pipes distribute hot
water to sanitary appliances. A pump is fitted in the secondary return. Its function is to circulate hot
water when the taps are shut and it does not appreciably assist draw off rates from taps. Connections
from the secondary flow to the tap are known as dead-legs and are limited to 5m of 15mm diameter
pipe. This minimizes the wastage of cold water in the non-circulating pipework when running a tap
and waiting for hot water to arrive.
Decentralized systems
The decentralized system is mainly for small hot water service loads distributed over a large building
or site where it would be uneconomic to use a central storage cylinder and extensive secondary
pipework. Electricity or gas can be used in small storage or instantaneous water heaters located at the
point of use. They are directly connected to the water main.
Mains connected storage water heaters are protected from excess pressure and water temperature by
a combined safety valve. On rise of mains water pressure, an internal spring relieves water to outdoor
through the female-screwed pipe connection.
The indirect hot water system
A cylinder is insulated with 75mm fiber glass and should have a thermostat attached to its surface at
the level of the primary return. Water is stored at 650C, and when fully charged the thermostat closes
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the motorized valve on the primary return. Hot water pipes are insulated with a minimum of 25mm
insulation.
Solar heating
Solar heating can be employed to assist the generation of hot water in secondary storage systems
with a consequent reduction in energy costs. Solar energy is used to provide,
Comfort heating through architectural design in a passive system
Comfort heating using collectors, with air as the heat transfer fluid in an active system
Comfort heating and hot water using collectors, with water as the heat transfer fluid in
an active system
Thermal storage of the energy is needed to balance the supply of solar heat with its time of use,
usually when the supply has greatly diminished.
Flat plate collectors are most popular as they can heat water to 300C -400C without the
danger of boiling.
Evacuated glass tube collectors are used to generate water temperatures of 800c and over for
hot water service heating or air conditioning systems.
Types of boilers include condensing and non-condensing boilers.
Condensing boilers have a greater area of heat transfer surface than conventional boilers.
The overall efficiency is about 90% compared to the conventional boilers. These are ideally
suited to modulating, weather compensated control systems.
Non-condensing boilers are efficiently controlled with thermostatic valves, thermostats and
an interlock facility. These boilers are 80% efficient at best.
Combination boiler systems saves considerably in installation time and space, as there is no
need for cisterns in the roof space, no hot water storage cylinder and associated pipework.
Water heaters includes electric and gas heaters.
An electric immersion heater may be used within a conventional hot water storage cylinder.
Individual or self -contained open outlet heater may be located over basins, baths or sinks.
Energy conservation is achieved with an integral thermostat set between 60and 650C.
Instantaneous water heaters are relatively compact non-storage units suitable for use with
individual sinks, basins & showers. For user safety they are fitted with a pressure switch to
disconnect the electricity if the water supply is interrupted and a thermal cut-out to prevent
the water from overheating.
The storage type of gas heater is a self-contained unit and is therefore simpler & quicker to
install than a gas circulator. Capacities range from 75 to 125 liters.
Condensing water heater is a variation of the storage type heater. The Condensing water
heater is a hot water storage vessel, capable of very rapid heat recovery.
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Fig.4.1.3
Fig.4.1.4
Heating systems
A wide variety of heating equipment is available that can heat the occupied space either directly by
combustion of a fuel or indirectly by utilizing air, water or steam as a heat transfer fluid. Electrical
energy purchased at night can be used to heat water, concrete or cast iron insulated containers. The
stored heat is released when needed.
Automatic controls can monitor water & air temperatures, operational times and weather conditions
to minimize fuel and electricity consumption. In order to take maximum advantage of a buildings
thermal storage capacity, optimum start controllers are used to vary start and stop times for systems
that are used intermittently.
Radiators and convectors are the principal means of heat emission in most buildings. Less popular
alternatives include exposed pipes and radiant panels for use in warehousing, workshops and
factories, where appearance is not important. Embedded panels of pipework in the floor screed can
also be used to create invisible heating, but these have a slow thermal response as heat energy is
absorbed by the floor structure.
Radiators
Heat emitters providing radiation comes into this group. A steel single panel radiator emits about
15% of its total heat output by radiation and the remainder by convection. Originally radiators were
made from cast iron in 3 forms such as hospital, column & panel. Hospital radiators were so called
because of their smooth, easy to clean surface, an important specification in a hygienic environment.
Column radiators vary in the number of columns. The greater the number, the greater the heat
emitting surface is.
Enhancement of radiator performance can be achieved by placing a sheet or reflective foil on the
wall between the fixing brackets. Emitter location is traditionally below window openings.
Types of radiators are,
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Hot water: single, double or triple panel column radiators, skirting heaters, recessed panels,
banks of pipes
Electricity: off-peak storage heaters, radiant appliances, convectors, radiant ceiling systems
Gas, coal and oil radiators
The main characteristics of a radiant, also provide heat output, appliances are as follows.
Steel single panels- neat appearance, high heat output per square meter of surface area, easy
to clean, narrow
Steel double panels- greater heat output per square meter of wall area is used, difficult to
clean, protrude into the room, more costly.
Cast iron panels- heavy & more obtrusive, low heat output, very long service period
Radiant panels- flat cast iron or steel plates with water pipes bonded to their back
Off peak storage- thermal storage heaters taking electricity at night during less expensive
charging periods. The heat is stored at high temperature in cast iron or refractory bricks in an
insulated casing.
Fig.4.1.5
Convectors
Convectors have a steel casing containing a finned heat exchanger. About 90% of the heat emission
is convected and this may be enhanced if a thermostatically controlled fan is also located in the
casing. They are more effective than radiators for heating large rooms and in this situation their extra
bulk can be accommodated. There are two types of convectors.
Natural convectors rely on gravity convection currents produced by the heater. Skirting
heaters have a finned pipe inside a sheet metal casing. Their heat emission is about 480W per
meter run, they are light and easily handled and they are less obtrusive than taller equipment.
Long lengths of wall space are needed. They are always fitted onto two pipes systems can be
fitted inside the casing. Valves and air vents are enclosed in accessible boxes at the ends of
continuous lengths.
Natural convectors have high heat outputs and can be built into walls, cupboards and adjacent
rooms to improve their appearance. Electricity or low or medium temperature hot water can
be used as the heating medium.
Fan convectors have a similar construction to natural convectors with the addition of one or
more centrifugal fans and an air filter. Heat output can be very high and fans may be operated
at various fixed speeds or from variable speed motors. Fan operation is controlled from builtin thermostats or remote temperature sensors. These can be usually sited at doorways to
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opposite incoming cold air & rapidly reheat entrance areas. A two pipe circuit must be used
& fan convectors are installed on separate circuits from hot water radiators as their control
characteristics are different.
Fig.4.1.6
Embedded pipes and cables
Low water hot water heating pipes or electric heating cables are buried in concrete walls, floors or
ceilings to provide a large low temperature surface that is maintained at a few degrees above room
temperature.
Soft copper pipes are laid in position of the concrete floor slab and held by clips, and the ends are
connected to header pipes in service ducts. Joints are avoided for the under floor sections. Steel or
plastic pipes may be used in some situations. Thermal expansion & contraction of the pipework must
be accommodated and the floor surface temperature is limited to avoid the damage to the structure,
surface finishes or occupants.
Radiant panels
Radiant panels employ either high or a low temperature surface to transmit heat by radiation directly
to the occupants & other unheated surfaces, producing an elevated main radiant temperature.
Comfort conditions can be maintained with lower air temperatures than with convective systems.
Convection heat output from the hot radiant source is minimized by placing thermal insulation over
the reflector. High temperature is generated using gas combustion to close ceramic reflectors, which
emit some heat in the visible part of the infrared region and consequently are seen to be contributing
to a feeling of warmth. Domestic gas fires & industrial heaters are in this category.
Warm air
Recirculate room air is heated either directly or indirectly by the energy source. Direct firing of
combustion gases into the air is permissible only in large well-ventilated factory premises. All other
applications require a fuel-to-air-heat exchanger where the combustion products are enclosed in a
sheet metal passageway. Room air is passed over the outside of this heating surface. Heated air is
passed through ducts to the occupied space. It is diffused into the room through a grille, which mixes
it with room air convection currents & avoids draughts.
The main advantages of warm air are quick heating up & respond to thermostatic control. A source
of radiant heat is needed in the sitting room to complement the otherwise purely convective heating.
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Hot water heating
In low temperature hot water heating systems, the boiler water temperature is thermostatically
controlled to about 800C. Systems may be open with a small feed & expansion cistern or mains fed
sealed with an expansion vessel. The type & pipe layout will depend on the building purpose &
space available for pipework. A ring or loop circuit is used for single storey buildings. Drop & ladder
systems are used for multi storey buildings.
Oil firing equipment
Fuel oil is the tar residue from crude oil distillation & can only be burnt economically on such a large
scale. Typically it is burnt by a boiler. Wall flame burners have a rotating nozzle, which sprays oil
onto peripheral plates around the inside of a water-cooled vertical cylindrical combustion chamber.
An electric spark ignites the oil impinging on the plates, establishing a ring of flame around the walls
of the boiler. Correct oil flow rate from the reservoir is controlled by a ball valve.
Combustion
Combustion is an exothermic chemical reaction that liberates heat. Fuel must be intimately mixed
with sufficient oxygen & raised to a temperature high enough for combustion to be maintained. All
the C & H in the fuel are burnt into gaseous products the can be safely vented into the atmosphere.
Hydro-carbon fuels are highly extensive. They require little storage volume & their combustion is
controllable.
Steam heating
Steam systems maximize the latent heat properties of water when evaporating. This is approximately
2260kJ/kg at boiling point. Because of this high heat property, the size of heat emitters & associated
pipework can be considerably less than that used for hot water systems. Systems can be categorized
as gravity or mechanical. In both, the steam flows naturally from the boiler to emitters without the
need for a pump.
District heating
A district heating system is in principle an enlarged system of heating one building, extended to heat
several buildings. It can be sufficiently large to heat a whole community or even a small town from
one centralized boiler plant. An effective plane management service will ensure the equipment is
functioning to peak efficiency. The supply of heat to each dwelling will be controlled by an electric
motorized valve, actuated by a temperature sensor in the heat exchanger, which will enable existing
low pressure hot water systems to be connected.
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Fig.4.1.7
Fig.4.1.8
Ventilation
Construction of modern buildings is to a very high standard of energy efficient insulation &
airtightness. Standards have gradually improved over the past years, initially in response to
diminishing fossil fuel resources & more recently due to concerns about the effects of atmospheric
pollution & global warming.
Air infiltration can be achieved by natural or mechanical means. The former is partly achieved by
background trickle vents in window frames and by air gaps or undercutting to internal doors. Natural
ventilation by these means is difficult to regulate in defined quantities, therefore low energy use
mechanical ventilation systems are becoming quite common in new structures. Requirements for an
acceptable amount of fresh air supply in buildings will vary depending on the nature of the
occupation & activity.
Ventilation a means of changing the air in an enclosed space to:
Provide fresh air for respiration-approx. 0.1 to 0.21/s per person

Preserve the correct level of O2 in the air approx. 21%
Control CO2 content to no more than 0.1%
Control moisture-relative humidity of 30% to 70%
Remove excess heat from machinery, people
Dispose of odors, smoke, dust & other atmospheric contaminants
Relieve stagnation & provide a sense of freshness
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Fig.4.1.9
Air conditioning systems

Air conditioning is achieved by developing the principles of moving air in ducted ventilation systems
to include a number of physical & scientific processed which enhance the air quality.
Central plant system is used where the air condition can be same throughout the various
parts of a building. It is also known as an all air system and may be categorized as low
velocity for use in buildings with large open spaces. (supermarkets, theatres)
Humidifiers are used when incoming fresh air with low moisture content can be humidified
by steam injection, bank of water sprays, and evaporation from a heated water tank or a
spinning disc atomizer. A pre-heater low water pressure coil usually precedes the humidifier
to increase the water holding capacity of the air.
The VAV system (Variable Air Volume) has central air processing unit to produce air at
a specified temperature & relative humidity. The conditioned air from the main unit is
conveyed in ductwork to ceiling diffusers which incorporate thermostatically controlled
actuators.
The 3 main induction systems are perimeter induction units, fan-coil units and induction
diffusers.
Perimeter induction units are usually located under windows and blend primary air from
the air-processing unit with secondary air from within the room. The high velocity processed
air delivery is induced into the unit through restrictive nozzles. This creates a negative
pressure in its wake, drawing in the room secondary air for mixing & discharge.
In Fan-coil units, a low powered fan is used instead of the nozzle & it disperses a mixture
of primary and secondary air reheating or cooling from an energy exchanger within the unit.
Induction diffusers are another alternative which also uses a blend of recirculate room air
with primary air.
Packaged air conditioning systems are factory manufactured units, delivered to site for
direct installation. They contain a vapour compression cycle refrigeration system, using the
evaporator for cooling and the condenser for heating, with fan delivery of the processed air.
They are available in a wide range of power capacity, fan output, refrigeration and heating
load for adaptation to various building types and situations.
Self-contained (single) package is suitable for relatively small rooms and Split (double)
package has 2 separate units and the external unit can serve several interior units.
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Apart from the above systems, dual duct systems, chilled beams & ceilings, refrigeration
cooling systems, air cooled condensers are also being used in buildings.
Fig.4.1.10 (Central)
Fig.4.1.11 (auto)
Gas installation
Gas services are provided to most buildings, and safety is paramount importance. It is used for
heating, hot water production, refrigeration for small and large cooling loads, electrical power
generation and cooking and decorative heating. Gas is converted from its primary fuel state into
useful energy at the point of use. Gas is conveyed in one-way pipe system and is not returned to the
supplier as are electricity and water. The use of natural gas and ultimately an artificially produced
substitute from coal and oil is a highly efficient use of primary resources.
Gas pipe sizing
The maximum allowable gas pressure drop due to pipe friction between the gas meter outlet and the
appliance will normally be 75 Pa.
Gas service entry to a building
The gas service pipe from the road main should slope up to the entry point to the building, at right
angles to the road main and entering the building at the nearest convenient place. Ground cover of
375mm is maintained and new pipework is made of plastic.
The service pipe must not:
Pass under the base of a wall or foundations to a building

Be installed within a wall cavity or pass through it except by the shortest possible route
Be installed in an unventilated void space
Have electrical cables taped to it
Be near any heat source
The gas meter and its associated controls are the property of the gas authority. It should be sited as
close as possible to the service pipe entry to the building, ideally in a purpose-made meter cupboard
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on the external wall. The cupboard should be positioned to provide easy access for meter
maintenance.
Gas service pipes, meters and appliances should always be in naturally ventilated spaces, as dilution
with outside air is the best safety precaution against the accumulation of an explosive mixture with
air. Early detection of leaks is essential, but ventilation assists the dilution of leaks. Gas detectors can
be provided as an additional precaution.
Flue systems for gas appliances
Gas appliances can be flued by a variety of methods, as the products of combustion are mainly water
vapor, CO2, N2, O2 at a temperature of about 950Cafter the draught driver. Flue systems are discussed
below.
Free stand pipe-the pipe will be either asbestos cement or double walled stainless steel with
thermal insulation between the inner and outer pipes.
Balanced flue-it is used for appliance rating up to around 30kW. External wind pressure is
applied equally to the combustion air inlet and the flue gas outlet parts of the combined
terminal.
Se ducts & U ducts-room sealed appliances in multistory buildings are connected to a
vertical precast shaft extending from the fresh air inlet grille at ground level to a terminal on
the roof.
Shunt duct-precast concrete wall blocks, 100mm wide, with a rectangular flue passage are
built into partitions walls or the inner leaf of a cavity wall.
Fan-diluted flue- Fan-diluted flues are mainly used in commercial buildings where a
conventional flue pipe and terminal could not be used or would be unsightly.
Boosted flue- a domestic boiler may have a booster centrifugal fan fitted into its flue pipe to
allow a long horizontal run or even a downward run.
Drainage systems, sewage treatment & refuse disposal

The type of drainage system selected for a building will be determined by the local water authoritys
established sewer arrangements. These will be installed with regard to foul water processing and the
possibility of disposing of surface water via a sewer into a local watercourse or directly into a soak
away.
Drainage systems-combine system
This uses a single drain to convey both foul water from sanitary appliances & rainwater from roofs
and other surfaces to a shared sewer. This method is economical to install but the processing cost of
sewers are high.
Drainage systems-separate system
This has foul water from the sanitary appliances conveyed in a foul water to a foul water sewer. The
rainwater from roofs & other surfaces is conveyed in a surface water drain into a surface water sewer
or a soak away.
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Drainage systems-partially separate system
Most of the rainwater is conveyed by the surface water drain into the surface water sewer. A back
inlet gully can be used for connecting a rainwater downpipe or a waste-pipe to a drain.
Drainage systems-rodding point system
Rodding points or rodding eyes provide a simple and inexpensive means of access at the head of a
drain or on shallow drain runs for rodding in the direction of flow. They eliminate isolated loads that
manholes and inspection chambers can impose on the ground, thus reducing the possibility of uneven
settlement.
Sewer connection
Connections between drains and sewers must be obliquely in the direction of flow. Drains may be
connected independently to the public sewer so that each building owner is responsible for the
maintenance of the drainage system for that building up to the building property. Connection of a
drain to the public sewer can be made with a manhole.
Fig.4.1.12
Fig.4.1.13
Drainage ventilation
Venting of foul water drains is necessary to prevent a concentration of gases and to retain the air
inside the drain at atmospheric pressure. This is essential to prevent the loss of trap water seals by
siphon age or compression. The sewer is independently vented by infrequently spaced high-level
vent stacks. Through ventilation of the drain is by fresh air inlet at the lowest means of access and
the discharge stack. To reduce installation costs and to eliminate roof penetration ventilating stacks,
discharge stacks can terminate inside a building.
Drain laying
The bottom of a drain trench must be excavated to gradient. This is achieved by setting up sight rails,
suitably marked to show the center of the drain. These are located above the trench and aligned to the
gradient required. At least 3 sight rails should be used.
Means of access
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Drain access may be obtained through rodding points, shallow access chambers, inspection chambers
and manholes. Pipe runs should be straight & access provided only where needed,
At significant changes in direction

At significant changes in gradient
Near to or at the head of a drain
Where the drain changes in size
At junctions
On long, straight runs.
Shallow access chambers or access fittings are small compartments similar in size and
concept to rodding points, but providing drain access in both directions and possibly into a
branch.
Inspection chambers are larger than access chambers, having an open channel and space for
several branches.
Manholes are large chambers with sufficient space for a person to gain access at drain level.
Drain pipe materials are vitrified clayware, uPVC, cast iron, concrete, asbestos cement and
pitch fiber.
Anti-flood devices- Interceptor Trap and Gully

Blockage in a public sewer or a period of prolonged heavy rainfall can cause surcharging and back
flooding in drains. In situations where an interceptor trap is installed, an anti-flooding type should be
specified in place of a standard interceptor.
Anti-flood devices- Trunk Valve
Anti-flood valves are an alternative to anti-flood gullies. Located in the drain run, they require less
maintenance and attention than floor or ground level gullies. Anti-flood trunk valves have been in
use for a considerable time.
Drainage pumping
The contents of drainage and pipelines should gravitate to the sewer and sewage processing plant. A
pumping station or plant room can be arranged with a motor room above or below surface level.
Fluid movement is by centrifugal pump, usually immersed and therefore fully primed. For large
schemes, two pumps should be installed with one on standby in the event of duty pump failing. The
high level discharge should pass through a manhole before connecting to the sewer. A sewage ejector
may be used as an alternative to a centrifugal pump for lifting foul water.
Subsoil Drainage
Ideally, buildings should be constructed with foundations above the subsoil water table. Where this is
unavoidable or it is considered necessary to generally control the ground water, a subsoil drainage
system is installed to permanently lower the natural water table. Various ground drainage systems
are available; the type selected will depend on site conditions the simplest is a French drainage. The
layout & spacing of subsoil systems depends on the composition and drainage qualities of the subsoil
and the disposition of buildings.
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Soakaways
Where a surface water sewer is not available, it may be possible to dispose of rainwater into a
soakaway. A soakaway will only be effective in porous soils and above the water table. Water must
not be allowed to flow under a building and soakaways should be positioned at least 3m away. A
filled soakaway is inexpensive to construct, but it will have limited capacity. Unfilled or hollow
soakaways can be built of pre-cast concrete or masonry.
Fig.4.1.14
Cesspools
A Cesspool is an acceptable method of foul water containment where main drainage is not available.
It is an impervious chamber requiring periodic emptying, sited below ground level. In present these
are constructed by factory-manufactured glass reinforced plastic units.
Brick or concrete septic tanks
A septic tank is self-cleansing and will only require annual dislodging. The tank is watertight
chamber in which the sewage is liquefied by an anaerobic bacterial activity.
Klargester settlement/Septic tank
The Klargester settlement tank is a simple, reliable and cost-effective sewage disposal system
manufactured from glass reinforced plastics for location in a site prepared excavation. A standard
range of tanks are produced in capacities ranging from 2700 to 10000 liters.
Bio disc Sewage Treatment Plant
The biological disc has many successful applications to modest-sized buildings such as schools,
prisons etc. it is capable of treating relatively large volumes of sewage by an accelerated process.
Biological Filter
Treatment of septic tank effluent-liquid effluent from a septic tank is dispersed from a rotating
sprinkler pipe over a filter of broken stone, clinker, coke or polythene shingle.
Rainwater Harvesting
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In terms of demand, fresh water is becoming a relatively scarce resource, resulting in an ongoing
program by the water authorities to meter water consumption to all buildings. Rainwater Harvesting
is an economic means for supplementing the use of processed water, thereby reducing utilities bills
and impact on the environment. The process involves intercepting, storing and filtering the surface
water run-off from roofs and hard landscaping.
Fig.4.1.15
Sanitary fitments & appliances: discharge & waste systems

Flushing Cisterns
Bell type-this form of flushing cistern is now virtually obsolete, although some reproductions
are available for use in keeping with the refurbishment of historic premises.
Disc type-manufactured in a variety of materials including plastics and ceramics for
application to all categories of building. Depressing the lever raises the piston and water is
displaced over the siphon. A siphonic action is created to empty the cistern.
Flushing Trough
A flushing trough may be used as an alternative to several separate flushing cisterns where a range of
WCs are installed. They are particularly applicable to school, factory & office sanitary
accommodation. Trough installation is economic in equipment and time.
Flushing Valves
Flushing Valves are a more compact alternative to flushing cisterns, often used in marine
applications. The device is a large equilibrium valve that can be flushed at any time without delay,
provided there is a constant source of water from a storage cistern.
Wash down Water Closet and Joints
The wash down WC pan is economic, simple and efficient. It rarely becomes blocked and can be
used in all types of buildings with color variations to suit internal dcor. Pan outlet may be
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horizontal, P, S, left or right handed. Horizontal outlet pans are now standard. Plastic connectors are
commonly used for joining the outlet to the soil branch pipe.
Bidets
A bidet is classified as waste fitting. The requirements for a discharge pipe from a bidet may
therefore be treated in the same manner as a basin waste of the same diameter-normally 32mm. It is
an ablutionary fitting used for washing the excretory organs, but may also be used as a foot bath. Hot
and cold water supplies are mixed to the required temperature for the ascending spray.
Showers
A shower is more economical to use than a both as it takes less water, it is arguably more hygienic
and it takes up less space. A minimum 1m head of water should be allowed above the shower outlet.
Supply pipes to individual showers are normally 15mm o.d. copper or equivalent.
Pump Showers
Where the 1m minimum head of water above the shower outlet is not available and it is impractical
to raise the level of the supply cistern, a pump can be fitted to the mixer outlet pipe or on the supply
pipes to the mixer. The pump is relatively compact & small enough to be installed on the floor of an
airing cupboard or under the bath.
Baths
Baths are manufactured in acrylic sheet, reinforced glass fiber, and enameled pressed steel and
enameled cast iron. The acrylic sheet bath has the advantage of light weight to ease installation; it is
comparatively inexpensive and is available in a wide range of colors.
Sinks
Sinks are designed for domestic uses. They may be made from glazed fireclay, enameled cast iron or
steel, stainless steel of from glass fiber reinforced polyester. The Belfast sink has an integral weir
overflow and water may pass through this to the waste pipe via a slotted waste fitting.
Fig.4.1.16 (sink)
Fig.4.1.17 (bath)
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Fig.4.1.18 (shower)
Fig.4.1.19 (bidets)
Page 105
Cleaners Sink
These are rarely necessary in domestic situations, but have an application to commercial premises,
schools, hospitals and similar public building. They are usually located in contractors the cleaning
cubicle and are fitted ay quite a low level to facilitate ease of use with a bucket.
Wash Basins
There are various types of basin, ranging in size and function from hand rinsing to surgical use. A
standard basin for domestic application to bathrooms and cloakrooms consists of a bowl, soap tray,
weir overflow and holes for taps and outlet. Water supply is through 13mm pillar taps for both hot &
cold. A standard 32mm nominal diameter waste outlet with a slot to receive the integral overflow
connects to a trap and waste pipe of the same diameter.
Washing Troughs
Washing troughs are manufactured circular or rectangular on plan in ceramic materials or stainless
steel. They are an economical and space-saving alternative to a range of basins, for use in factory,
school and public lavatories.
Unplugged Appliances
To prevent an excess of water use and unnecessary waste, most sanitary appliances are fitted with a
means for plugging the waste outlet. Baths, basins, sinks and similar use appliances intended to
contain a volume of water for washing should have attached or be fitted with a readily accessible
plug or other device such as a pop-up waste closer.
Exceptions
Appliances fitted with spray taps only

Washing appliances with self-closing taps
Shower trays or baths used with only a shower supply
Drinking water fountains
Purpose made appliances for use in medical, dentistry and veterinary situations
Wash basins with water supply restricted to a 0.06liters/second maximum flow
Urinals
These are used in virtually all buildings & public lavatories containing common facilities for male
conveniences. They reduce the number of WCs. Three main formats available are bowl, flat slab
and stall which made of ceramic or stainless steel.
Traps
Foul air from the drain and sewer is prevented from penetrating buildings by applying a water tap to
all sanitary appliances. A water seal trap is an integral part of gullies & WCs, being molded in
during manufacture. Depth of water seal,
WCs and gullies-50mm
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Sanitary appliances other than WCs-75mm
Sinks, baths and showers-38mm
Security installations
The first line of defense against intrusion includes physical measures that resist unwanted entry to
the grounds and structure of a building. Some basic physical measures:
Spring /night latch- the typical front door latch that is in place when the door is closed.
Deadlock- requires to lock it on leaving & when locked cannot be opened from without a key
Telephone- most supplies are now under the ground in service ducts and therefore protected
from abuse
Glazing- double glazed sealed units are difficult to break due to the air cushion between the
panes
Window casement fasteners & stays- can be fitted with locking devices, but these can have
a negative effect if they cannot be opened for an emergency escape.
Simple means of protection- leave sufficient lights on a timed control to eliminate intruders
Alarm installations- hard wired systems are the most reliable &conform. An alternative is a
wire-free or radio frequency installation
Intruder alarms have developed from a very limited specialist element of electrical installation work
in high security buildings to the much wider market. This is largely a result of the economics of
sophisticated technology surpassing the efficiency of manual security.
Selection of switches to affect the alarm will depend on the building purpose, the extent of security
specified, the building location & the construction features. Popular applications include:
Micro switch-a small component which is easily located in door or window openings
Magnetic reed-can be used in the same situations as a micro switch but has the advantage of
no moving parts. It is also less exposed to damage or tampering.
Radio sensor-these are surface mounted to windows and doors. They transmit a radio signal
from an integral battery power source.
Pressure mat-these are a sandwich with metal foil outer layers as part of a detector circuit.
The inner core is soft perforated foam. Pressure on the out upper layer connects to the lower
layer through the perforations in the core to complete the circuit & activate the alarm.
Taut wiring-also available as a window strip. A continuous plastic coated copper wire is
embedded in floors, walls or ceilings, or possibly applied around safes and other secure
compartments.
Acoustic-also known as sonic detectors. They are used mainly for protection against
intruders in commercial & industrial premises.
Vibration-a slender leaf of steel is suspended between two electrical contacts. Hammering or
structural impact produces vibration in the pendulum, sufficient for the contacts to meet and
complete a detector circuit.
Inertia-these respond to more sensitive movements than vibrations, so would be unsuitable
near roads and railways.
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Ultrasonic-the equipment is simply a sound emitter and a receiver containing a microphone

and sound processor. The sounds are at a very high frequency of between 20 and 40kHz.
Microwave-operates on the same principle as ultrasonic detection, except that extremely high
radio waves are emitted at a standard 10.7GHz.
Active Infra-red detector-it uses a light beam from the infra-red part of the electromagnetic
spectrum. The system is based on a transmitter and receiver.
Passive Infra-red detector- these detectors use highly sensitive ceramic infra-red receivers
to recognize radiation from a moving body. Wall-mounted detector units focus the radiation
through a lens which contains curved facets to concentrate the radiation onto two sensors.
Mechanical conveyors Lifts, Escalators & Travelators

Planning Lift Installations
To function efficiently and to provide access for people, modern offices and public buildings are
provided with suitably designed lift installations. Planning should commence early in the design
program. Priority must be given to locating lifts centrally within a building to minimize horizontal
travel distance. Consideration must also be given to position, relative to entrances and stairs. In large
buildings it is usual to provide a group of lifts near the main entrance and single lifts at the end of the
building.
The lift lobby must be wide enough to allow pedestrian traffic to circulate and pass through the lift
areas without causing congestion. For tall buildings in excess of 15 storeys, high speed express lifts
may be used which bypass the lower floors. Requirements:
Necessary in all buildings over 3 storeys high
Essential in all buildings over a single storey if they are accessed by the elderly and
disabled
Minimum standard- one lift per 4 storeys
Maximum walking distance to access a lift- 45m
Floor space & lift car capacity can be estimated at 0.2m2 per person
Electric motors are used for low-speed lifts because they operate quite comfortably with an AC
motor to drive the traction sheave through a worm gear. For faster speed applications a DC motor is
preferable.
High-tensile steel ropes are used to suspend lift cars. They have a design factor of safety of 10 and
are usually at least 4 in number. Ropes travel over grooved driving or traction sheaves and pulleys. A
counterweight balances the load on the electric motor & traction gear. Single wrap 1:1, 2:1, 3:1,
drum drive & compensating rope and pulley are the methods of roping.
Most commonly used lift control systems are as follows:
Single automatic push button system- this is the simplest & least sophisticated of controls.
The lift car can be called and used by only one person or group of people at a time.
Down collective- stores calls made by passengers in the car and those made from the
loadings. As the car descends, landing calls are answered in floor sequence to optimize car
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movement. If the car is moving upwards, the lift responds to calls made inside the car in floor
sequence.
Full or directional collective- a variation in which car and landing calls are immediately
stored in any number.
Controls for two or more cars- this may be coordinated by a central processor to optimize
efficiency of the lifts. Each car operates individually on a full or down collective system.
Door operation is by an electric motor through a speed reduction unit, clutch drive and connecting
mechanism. The types of entrance and doors form a vital part of the lift installation. For general
passenger service, side opening, two speed or even triple-speed side opening doors are preferred.
For the safety of the lifts, following features are attached:
Buffers- located at the base of the shaft.

Over speed governor- a steel rope passes round a tension pulley in the pit and a governor
pulley in the machine room.
Safety gear- hardened steed wedges are arranged in pairs each side of the lift car to slow
down & stop the car by frictional contact with the car guide rail.
Lift performance depends on:
Acceleration
Retardation
Car speed
Speed of door operation
Stability of speed & performance with variations of car load
High rise buildings would require special provisions for fire control. The firefighting lift was
conceived as a means of rapidly accessing the upper floors.
Fig.4.1.20 (Fire-fighting)
Fig.4.1.21
Escalators
Escalators are moving stairs used to convey people between floor levels. They are usually arranged
in pairs for opposing directional travel to transport up to 12000 persons per hour between them.
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The maximum carrying capacity depends on the step width and conveyer speed. Standard steps
widths are 600, 800, and 1000mm, with speeds of 0.5 and 0.65m/s. control gears is less complex than
that required for lifts as the motor runs continuously with less load variations. In high rise buildings
space for an escalator is unjustified, since the full height and the speed of modern lifts provides for a
better service.
To prevent the exposed openings from facilitating fire spread, a water sprinkler installation can be
used to automatically produce a curtain of water over the well. An alternative is s fireproof shutter
actuated from a smoke detector or fusible links.
Escalator configurations vary depend on the required level of service. The one-directional single
bank avoids interruption of traffic, but occupies more floor space than other arrangements. A crisscross or cross-over arrangement is used for moving traffic in both directions.
Fig.4.1.22
Fig.4.1.23
Travalators
Also known as auto walks, passenger conveyors and moving pavements. They provide horizontal
conveyance for people, prams, luggage trolleys and small vehicles for distances up to 300m. slight
inclines of up to 120 are also possible, with some as great as 180,but these pitches are not
recommended for use with wheeled transport.
Applications range from retail, commercial and store environments to exhibition centers, railway and
airport terminals. Speeds range between 0.60and 1.3m/s; any faster would prove difficult for entry
and exit. When added to walking pace, the overall speed is about 2.5m/s.
Stair lifts
Stair lifts have been used in hospitals, homes for the elderly and convalescent homes. Standard 240
volt single-phase AC domestic electrical supply is adequate to power a stair lift at a speed of about
0.15m/s.
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Fig.4.1.24 (Stair lift)
Fig.4.1.25 (travalators)
Fire prevention
Integration of fire-fighting equipment should be planned from the earlier stage of design.
Fire classification
A buildings fire risk is classified according to its occupancy and use.
A fire is supported by 3 essential ingredients: fuel, heat and oxygen. The absence of these anyone
causes an established fire to be extinguished. The fire-fighting system must be appropriate to the
location of the fire and preferably limited to that area in order to minimize damage to materials, plant
and the building structure. Radiation from a fire may provoke damage or combustion of materials at
a distance. Structural fire protection can include water sprays onto steelwork to avoid collapse.
The system of fire-fighting employed depends upon the total combustible content of the building, the
type of fire risk classification and the degree of involvement by the occupants. Fire escape design
where children, the elderly of infirm are present needs particular care so that sufficient time is
provided in the fire resistance of doors and partitions for the slower evacuation encountered. Each
working site or building needs a safety officer responsible for general oversight.
classification
A
B
C
D
E
Fire type
Wood & textiles
Petroleum
Gases
Flammable materials
Electrical
fire-fighting system
Water, cools
Exclude oxygen
Exclude oxygen
Exclude oxygen
Exclude
oxygen,
conducting
non-
Fig.4.1.26
Portable extinguisher
Portable extinguishers are manually operated first-aid appliances to stop or limit the growth of small
fires. Staff is trained in their use and the appliances are regularly maintained by the suppliers.
Water
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Water extinguisher is installed for each 210m2 floor area, with a minimum of 2 extinguishers per
floor. A high pressure CO2 cartridge is punctured upon used and a 10m jet of water is produced for
80s. Water must not be used on petroleum, burning liquids or kitchens as it could spread the fire.
Dry powder
Dry powder extinguishers contain from 1-11 kg treated bicarbonate of soda pressurized with CO2,
nitrogen or dried air. A spray of 2-7m is produced for 10-24sdepending on size. The powder
interrupts the chemical reactions within the flame, producing rapid flame knock down. The powder is
non-conducting and does little damage to electric motors or appliances.
Foam
Portable Foam extinguishers may contain foaming chemicals that react upon mixing or a CO2
pressure-driven foam. They cool the combustion, exclude oxygen and can be applied to wood, textile
or liquid fires.
Fig.4.1.26
Vaporizing liquid
Vaporizing liquid extinguishers use bromochlorodiflouromethene (BCF) or bromotrifluoromethene
(BTM). These are 1-7kg extinguishers containing a nitrogen-pressurized liquefied halogen gas,
which is highly efficient at interrupting the flames of chemical reactions and producing rapid knock
down without leaving any deposit. They are more powerful than CO2 extinguishers and are used on
electrical, electronic and liquid fires. But these are not suitable for enclosed areas because of the
danger to the occupants.
Group Extinguishing agent
Water
1
Dry powder
2
Fire type
Class a
All
Foam
Class b
Carbon dioxide
Classes b, e
Vaporizing liquid
Small fires, class e
Action
Cools
Flame
interference
Excludes
oxygen
Excludes
oxygen
Flame
interference
Color
Red
Blue
Cream
Black
Green
Fig.4.1.27
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Carbon Dioxide
Pressurized CO2 extinguishers leave no deposit and are used on small fires involving solids, liquids
and electricity. They are recommended for use on delicate equipment such as electronic &
computers. There is minimal cooling effect, and the fire may restart if high temperatures have
become established. Water-cooling backup is used where appropriate.
Fixed fire-fighting installations
Various fire-fighting systems are employed in a building so that appropriate response will minimize
damage from the fire and fire-fighting system itself. Some public buildings are protected by a
sprinkler system, which only operates directly over the source of fire. This localizes the fire to allow
evacuation. Where petroleum products are present, a mixture of foam and water is used.
Hose reels
Hose reels are rapid and easy to use first-aid method, complementary to other systems and used by
the buildings occupants. They are located in clearly visible recess in corridors so that no part of the
floor is further than 6m from a nozzle when the 25mm bore flexible hose is fully extended. The local
water authority might allow direct connection to the main, and there may be sufficient pressure to
eliminate the need for pressure boosting.
Fig.4.1.28 (hose reel)
Fig.4.1.29 (sprinkler)
Automatic sprinklers
High fire risk public and manufacturing are protected by automatic sprinklers. These may be
statutory equipment if the building exceeds a volume of 7000m3. Loss of life is very unlikely in a
sprinkler protected buildings. Sprinkler water outlets are located at about 3mcenters, usually at
ceiling level and spray water in a circular pattern. A deflector plate directs the water jet over the
hazard or onto walls or the structure. Water flow is detected and starts an alarm, pressure boosting se
and automatic link to the fire brigade monitoring station.
Foam inlets
Oil-fired boiler plant rooms and storage tank chambers in basements or parts of buildings have fixed
from inlet pipework from a red wired-glass foam inlet box in an outside wall as for the dry hydrant
riser. A 65-75mm pipe runs for up to 18m from the inlet box into the plant room. The fire brigade
connects their foam-making branch pipe to the fixed inlet and pump high-expansion foam onto the
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fire. The foam terminates above the protected plant with a spreader plate. On site foam-generation
equipment may b used for oil-filled electrical transformer stations. In the event of fire the electricity
supply is automatically shut off, a CO2 cylinder pressurizes a foam and water solution and foam
spreaders cover the protected equipment.
Fire detectors and alarms
Detection of a potentially dangerous rise in air temperature or pressure or the presence of smoke is
required at the earliest possible moment to start an alarm. Evacuation of the building and manual or
automatic contact with the fire brigade monitoring switchboard should take place before people are
at risk. Fire detection takes following forms.
Hazard detectors
Temperature rise-a local rise in temperature leads to the melting of a fusible link in a wire holding
open a fuel on a pipe to a burner, thermal expansion of a fluid-filled bellow or capillary tube or
movement of a bimetallic strip to make an alarm circuit.
Flammable vapor detector-gas, oil, petrol or chemical vapor presence is detected by a catalytic
chemical reaction.
Diffusion-butane and propane vapor diffusion through membrane is detected
Explosion-rise of local atmospheric pressure above a set value, or at a fast rate is detected
Ionization smoke detector
Ionization smoke detectors contain a radioactive source of around 1 curie, typically americium-241,
which bombards room air within the detector with alpha particles. Electrical current consumption is
50A. the presence of smoke reduces the flow of alpha ions; the electrical current decreases and at a
pre-set value an alarm is activated.
Visible smoke detector
A source of light is directed at a receiving photocell. Smoke obscures or scatters the light and an
alarm is triggered.
Fig.4.1.30 (Fire detector)
Fig.4.1.31 (smoke detector)
Laser beam
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A laser beam is refracted by heat or smoke away from its target photocell and an alarm is initiated. A
continuous or pulsed infrared beam can be transmitted up to 100m and can be computer-controlled to
scan the protected area. It can also serve as an intruder alarm.
Closed-circuit television
Manned security monitoring also acts as fire and smoke detection. Infrared imaging cameras reveal
overheating of buried pipes and cables and can heat sources unseen by visual techniques. Fire alarms
are statutory requirements. Audible bells, sirens, klaxons, hooters and buzzers are arranged so that
they produce a distinctive warning. A visual alarm should also be provided throughout a building.
Breakable glass call points are located 1.4m above floor level within 30m of any part of the
premises.
Smoke ventilation
Positively removed smoke through automatically opened roof ventilators can greatly aid escape and
reduces smoke damage, often localizing a fire that would otherwise spread.
Lighting systems
Artificial illumination for both functional and decorative purposes is a major consumer of primary
energy, and developed civilizations have become used to very high illumination standards with
consequently high electricity consumption. The use of daylight is encouraged in order to reduce fuel
consumption for lighting but this occurs at the expense of heating and cooling energy consumption at
the building outer envelope, which is in contact with the external environment. A compromise
solution is inevitable, and the building service engineer is at the center of the calculations needed to
minimize total energy consumption for all usages.
Natural and artificial illumination
Natural illumination by penetration of direct solar and diffuse sky visible radiation requires correctly
designed passive architecture. Large glazed areas may provide sufficient day lighting at some
distance into the building bur can also cause glare, overheating and high heating and cooling energy
costs. The other extreme of vertical narrow slot windows limits energy flows while causing very
unequal lighting levels near the rooms perimeter. Reflected illuminations from other buildings,
particularly from those having reflective glazing or metallic architectural features may cause
annoyance. A careful consideration must be given when designing the lighting systems for a
building.
Artificial lighting is providing to supplement daylight on a temporary or permanent basis. Local
control of lights but manual or automatic switches aids economy in electricity consumption. The
colors rendered by objects on the working plane should match the colors under daylight.
Illumination intensity, illuminance, measured in lux on the working plane is determined by the size
of detail to be discerned the contrast of the detail with its background, the accuracy and speed with
which the task must be performed, the age of the worker, the type of space within which the task is to
be performed and the length of time continuously spent on the task. The working place is the surface
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being illuminated. Permanent supplementary artificial lighting of interiors has become common in
modern office accommodation, shops and public buildings.
Fig.4.1.32
Application
Illuminance (lx)
0.2
Emergency lighting
5
Suburban street lighting
50-150
Dwelling
100
Corridors
200
Rough tasks with large detail storerooms
400
General offices, retail shops
600
Drawing office
900
Prolonged task with small detail
Fig.4.1.33 (Typical values of illuminance)
The heat generated by permanent lighting can be extracted from the light fitting (luminaire) by
passing the ventilation extract air through it, thus raising the air temperature to 30-35C, and then
supplying this heated air to perimeter rooms in winter. Further air heating with finned tube banks and
automatic temperature control would be part of a normal ventilation or air conditioning system. The
penetrating of daylight into a building can be enhanced with north-facing roof lights, skylights
having motorized louvers which are adjusted to suit the suns position and weather conditions, or
mirrored reflectors which direct light rays horizontally into the building.
Localized task illumination can be provided in addition to a background lighting scheme but may not
necessary produce a reduction in total power consumption. Desk-mounted lamps produce a range of
up to 9:1 in illuminance values across the working surface and form strong contrasts between
surrounding and working surfaces which may result in discomfort glare. Direct dazzle from
unshaped lamps, reflected glare, shadows around objects and hands and heat radiation can cause
discomfort.
Maintenance
A planned maintenance schedule will include regular cleaning of light fittings and the lamp to ensure
the most efficient use of electricity. Ventilated luminaires in air-conditioned buildings remain clean
for quite long periods as the air flow through the building is mechanically controlled and filtered.
The lamp also operated at a low temperature, which prolongs its service and maximizes light output.
Because of gradual deterioration of the light output from all types of discharge lamps after their
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design service period, lamp efficacy could fall to half its original figure. Phased replacement of lams
after 2 or 3 years maintains design performance and avoids breakdowns.
Utilization factor
The utilization factor is provided by the manufacturer and takes into account the pattern of lightdistribution from the whole fitting, its light-distributing efficiency, the shape and size of the room
which it is being designed and the reflectivity of the ceiling and walls. Values vary from 0.03, where
purely indirect distribution is employed, the room has poorly reflecting and all the light is upward
onto the ceiling or walls, to 0.75 for the most energy-efficient designs. Spot lighting can have a
utilization factor of nearly unity.
The configuration of the room is found from the room index,
Room index = IW
H (I+W)
Surface
Ceiling
Ceiling
Ceiling
Walls
Walls
Walls
Floor
Typical color
Luminance factor range %
White, cream
70-80
Sky blue
50-60
Light brown
20-30
Light stone
50-60
Dark grey
20-30
Black
10
10
Fig.4.1.34 (Luminance factors for painted surfaces)
Glare and reflections

Disability glare is when a bright light source prevents the subject from seeing the necessary detail of
the task. To maximize contrast on the working plane luminaires should be placed in rows parallel to
the direction of view. The rows should be widely spaced to form work areas between them. The zone
of the ceiling that would cause glare or veiling reflections can be viewed with a mirror on the
working plane from the normal angle of the work. A luminaire or direct sunlight should not appear in
the mirror.
Lumen design method
The number of light fittings if found from the total lumens needed at the working plane and the
illumination provided by each fitting using the formula.
Air-handling luminaires
Luminaires that are recessed into suspended ceilings are ideally placed to be extract air grilles for the
ventilation system. The heat generated is removed at its source and the lamp can be maintained at its
optimum heating temperature to maximize light output and color rendering properties. Dust build-up
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should also be less in air conditioned building where all the circulating air is filtered in the plant
room. Up to 80% of the electrical energy used by the light fitting can be absorbed by the ventilation
air as it passes through.
Color temperature
Color temperature is a term used in the description of the color-rendering property of a lamp. Colors
of surfaces under artificial illumination are compared with the colors produced by a black body
heated to a certain temperature and radiating in the visible part of the spectrum between the
ultraviolet and infrared bands.
Lamp types
Following is a summary of lamp types, their performances and application.
Lamp
Lamp
designation
bs color
Incandescent GLS,
tungsten
Incandescent GLS,
tungstenhalogens
White
Fluorescent
Natural
Fluorescent
Warm white
Fluorescent
SOX
Discharge
lamps
SOX
Lowpressure
sodium
SON
Highpressure
sodium
MBF
Mercury
fluorescent
Efficacy Color
(im/w)
temperature
18
2900
Color
rendering
index ra8
100
22
3000
100
Interior displays,
outdoors
80
85
85
183
3500
4000
3000
2000
50
85
85
-
183
2000
Industrial
Commercial
Social
Roads, car parks,
floodlighting
Roads, car parks,
floodlighting
112
2250
29
50
4300
47
Metal halide
MBI
85
4400
70
Mercuryblended
tungsten
fluorescent
MBTF
25
3700
Application
Interiors
Floodlighting,
exteriors, large
hall interiors
Roads,
floodlighting,
factory interiors
Floodlighting,
industrial interiors
Roads,
floodlighting,
factory interiors
Fig.4.1.35 (Lamp Types)
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Fig.4.1.36 (smart lighting system)
Electrical installations
Supply controls
The service cable usually terminates inside the building in a main cut-out, fitted as near as possible to
the service cable entry. A meter is fitted after the main cut-out and everything up to and including the
meter, is the property and responsibility of the electrical company. A switch or circuit breaker is
fitted after the meter and a distribution board follows the switch. The service intake and the control
unit is 240V single phase for domestic or small buildings and for larger buildings a 415V three-phase
supply may be required depending on the load.
Protection against excess current
All circuits must be protected against the current and three devices are available, miniature circuitbreakers, rewire able fuses and cartridge fuses. Since miniature circuit-breakers are virtually tamperproof, their use is to be recommended for circuit protection.
Earthing
The basic principal of earthing is that of limiting the difference in potential between live conductors
and earth. The earthing of most installations is accomplished by connecting the earth wire to the
electricity companys metallic cable sheath. The sheath is connected to an earth electrode at the substation. The earth electrode is usually a large hole in the ground packed with coke, into which metal
rods have been driven.
Conductor and cable rating
The amount of current which a conductor or cable can carry is limited by the heating effect caused
by the resistance to flow of electricity. The maximum permissible current under normal conditions,
must not be so high that dangerous temperatures are attained, which could lead to fires. Even with
cables inside metal conduits or ducts, or where mineral insulated copper or aluminium sheathed
cables are used, although the cables are completely fireproof in themselves, the transmission of heat
to other materials in proximity may still lead to fires.
Electrical installations in large buildings-distribution principles
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Due to the higher electrical load large buildings such as hospitals, factories and office blocks will
require a three-phase supply. The loading in some buildings may be too high for the local low or
medium voltage systems to provide and a private sub-station must therefore be installed, fed from the
high voltage cables from the electricity companies nearest switching station.
The large buildings, there may be one main intake panel incorporating large fuse switches or circuitbreakers each of which control a feeder cable to subsidiary distribution panels in different parts of
the building, or each separate building in a group.
Distribution units
The intake and distribution units any be either made up on site from separate components or standard
factory made cubicle switchboards may be used. The manufactured cubicle switchboards have the
following advantages over control panels made up on site.
Quicker to install
Neater in appearance
Usually take up less wall length
A locked door prevents unauthorized access to equipment
Safer
Current rating
The current rating of the cables and components must never be less than the protective device which
controls it.
Rating discrimination
It is important that the fuses or miniature circuit-breakers should provide discrimination. To ensure
this the ratings of two successive fuses or miniature circuit-breakers must differ by at least 30 per
cent and preferably 50 per cent. To achieve this it may sometimes be necessary to increase the cable
and switch gear ratings so that the main fuse or miniature circuit-breaker cannot operate before the
subsidiary one.
Voltage drop
In larger installations the voltage drop in the cables between the main intake and the subsidiary
distribution panels may be very high. The voltage drop between the main intake point shall not
exceed 2 per cent of the nominal supply voltage.
Methods of distribution
There are three methods of distribution for large buildings.
Radial distribution- the main panel normally consists of a main switch connected to fused
switches through a bus-bar chamber. Several separate feeder cables are run from the main
intake panel to the subsidiary distribution panels which may be situated in separate buildings
or at strategic points inside one building.
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Ring-main distribution- in the case of a large development scheme having several buildings
around the perimeter of the site, a ring-main circuit would be taken around the site with
supplies taken into each building.
Rising main distribution- for buildings above 5 storeys in height, it is normally preferable to
pass conductors vertically through the building. The supply to each floor is connected to the
rising main by means of tap-off subsidiary units. Types of rising main:
PVC or vulcanized rubber insulated cables mounted on porcelain cleats inside
brick or concrete ducts, with hardwood or metal access doors on each floor
Paper, mineral, PVC or vulcanized rubber insulated cables run in sheet steel
vertical ducts
Uninsulated copper or Al bars run in steel sheet vertical ducts
Fif.4.1.37
Fig.4.1.38
Supplies to floors
There are two main methods of supplying each floor,
To pass conductors whether cable or bars into isolation or fused switches at each floor
To pass conductors into and out of a subsidiary distribution board at each floor
Floor ducts
The main purpose of a floor duct system is to enable desks to be moved to any position in the office.
The duct can be used to carry both low voltage electrical supplies for machines and lighting and
extra low voltage supplies for private and public telephones. Types of floor ducts:
Grid
Branching
Perimeter
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Fig.4.1.39
Alternative and renewable energy

Use of fuel as an energy resource is only cost effective and efficient if the building in which it is used
is constructed to a high standard of insulation to resist heat or cool energy losses through the fabric.
Where buildings are designed and constructed to limit fuel energy losses, consideration can also be
given to on-site energy production as a viable alternative to reliance on conventional fossil fuels.
Renewable and other alternative energy sources are as follows:
Wind power
Wind power and hydrogen-powered fuel cells
Wave power
Geothermal power
Solar power
Biomass or biofuels
Anaerobic digestion and biogas
The development of wind power as an alternative energy source is well advanced. However it is
dependent on the fickle nature of the weather & can only be regarded as a supplementary energy
source unless the surplus power produced is stored.
The energy potential in differing water levels has been exploited for centuries through water-mills
and subsequently hydroelectric power. Power potential from waves can also be harnessed by using
their movement to compress air in shoreline chambers. Air pressure built up by the wave oscillations
is used to propel an air turbine/electricity generator.
In geothermal power, heat energy is produced by boring energy two or more holes into the granite
fissures found at depths up to 4.5 miles below the earths surface. Cold water pumped down one
borehole & into the fissures converts into hot water or steam which is extracted from the other
boreholes.
Photovoltaic cells use light as a source of energy. A small scale application is to handheld
calculators with an integral PV window as the power source instead of a conventional dry cell
battery. On the larger scale and as a viable means for producing electrical energy in buildings, PV
cells are arranged into a large array of panels that be located on the roof slope. With sufficient
output, surplus electricity can be stored for use during periods of limited or no light and may also be
traded with the grid supply. There are two types of PV cells such as grid connected and independent.
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Fig.4.1.40 (photovoltaic cells)
Factors to consider for the proper selection of services
Basic needs of the owner.

Occupancy of the building
Architectural and local planning design philosophy
Requirements of legislation
Access, spatial, visual, aural & thermal needs of the occupants.
Climate
Exposure and orientation of the building
Shape of the building
Surrounding buildings
Building form and construction
Pollution
Use of energy during the service period of the building
Sources of energy that are available for the building & the maintainability of the whole
complex
Fig.4.1.41 (total energy efficient building technology & service revenue)

Q4.2 discuss the methods and design appropriate solutions used to integrate building services into
civil engineering structures.
Service integration
The integration of services within the structural elements of buildings leads to economies in the
construction by reducing the floor-to-floor height, which has a double benefit of reducing the
external cladding required and also reducing heat loss through the envelope. In multi-storey
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buildings, service integration can allow extra floors to be provided within the same overall building
height.
Steel frames offer many solutions to integrate building services within the structural floor zone
including systems such as shallow floor construction and long-span beams with regular or tailormade openings in the beam webs. Steel and composite structures can be designed to reduce the
overall depth of the floor zone by integrating major services within the depth of the structure by
achieving the minimum structure depth.
Principles of structure-service integration
There are two general approaches to design to accommodate the horizontal distribution of services:
Minimize the structural zone so that services pass underneath. This is the approach used in
shallow floor construction in which the structural zone is only around 300mm.
Distribute services within the structural zone
Service routes have to extend both vertically between floors and horizontally to serve the floors. The
distribution of services emanates from a vertical riser generally at a core, and so the location of the
cores and the structural arrangement local to the core is very important to the effective distribution of
services. In some systems, local temperature control is provided by a terminal unit which can be
located between the steel beams. The most efficient layout is for the core to be located centrally on
plan.
The provision for these routes and systems should be organized with the objective of minimizing the
space of services and keeping access to services as simple as possible. Prevention of passage of
smoke through service route between floors is also important.
Internal distribution of services
In order to minimize the space allocated to the building services designers should ensure an efficient
use of space for the service distribution system in the vertical and horizontal directions and in the
plant rooms. The following sections review the spatial aspects of the vertical and horizontal service
distribution.
Fig.4.2.1
Vertical distribution of services
Provide continuous and uninterrupted vertical service routes

Maintain a constant cross-section of the service route
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Position the plant room so that it is as close as possible to the center of the plan
Consider the connection between horizontal services and vertical services routes
Provide separate routes for different services. The minimum is two; one for electrics and one
for water pipes,
Horizontal distribution should ideally not extend more than 25 m from a vertical service
route.
Position plant rooms at no more than 10 storeys apart vertically.
Fig.4.2.2
Fig.4.1.3
Horizontal distribution of services

The horizontal distribution of services is arranged within a horizontal layer which is generally
located below the structure and above the suspended ceiling. This layer accommodates the
distribution system (ducts, pipes,), the terminal units and lighting units. The raised floor is placed on
the floor slab and accommodates the electrical and communication cabling. The lighting units are
often located within the ceiling depth.
To determine the spatial allowance for these elements, three design cases may be used corresponding
to different structural configurations:
A flat slab with flexibility of service routing.

A slab and down stand beam arrangement.
A long span beam system with facility for service integration in the structural depth.
When the floor slab is supported by beams of moderate depth, some services can be positioned
between the beams, but ducts and pipes still have to pass beneath the beams. This arrangement is
called 'partial integration' of services. If the beams are deep enough, it is possible to pass the services
through the beams at pre-determined locations so that the structure and services occupy the same
horizontal zone. This is called 'full integration' of services.
Long-span beams with facility for service integration can be designed to achieve a ceiling-floor
depth less than that of traditional construction in which services pass beneath. Often, careful layout
of the structural elements can lead to flexibility in service distribution and ease of future
maintenance. Cross-overs that is possible in a long span steel construction, in this case using cellular
beams with regular circular openings.
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Steel framing options
Following are the main structural steel systems and their characteristics in relation to their
compatibility with services.
Composite construction
In composite construction, steel beams act structurally with an in-situ and lightly reinforced concrete
slab on steel decking, known as a composite floor. A composite beam may be twice the strength of
the equivalent non-composite beam in conventional steelwork, and up to four times stiffer. This
system provides more space or flexibility for placing of services within the same overall floor-tofloor height.
Fig.4.2.4
Shallow floors
The beam consists of an H section with a welded bottom plate. Two alternative floor systems may be
used: either precast concrete units, or a deep deck composite slab. Slim floor construction is
beneficial either in highly serviced buildings, where maximum flexibility of service distribution is
required, or in buildings without air-conditioning, in which the floor depth is minimized.
Fig.4.2.5
Medium span systems
The structural grids used in modern offices are generally based on multiples of 1.5m, and therefore
spans of 7.5, 9, 12, 13.5, 15m and up to 18m are often specified. In the orthogonal direction, spans of
6, 7.5 and 9m are used in order to conform to the span capabilities of the cladding system and so the
floor grid is rectangular on plan. The composite slab spans typically 3 to 4.5 m between the beams
and is 130 to 150mm deep. Secondary beams are used to support the slab and these beams span
between primary beams.
The most efficient layout of the floor beams is where the secondary beams span the longer distance
and the more heavily loaded primary beams span the shorter distance in the floor grid.
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Long span construction
In a typical framing plan, the secondary beams span the longer distance and the primary beams span
6 to 9m depending on the cladding system. The span: depth ratio of long span secondary beams when
designed compositely is typically 20 to 22, which means that the beam depth for a15m span can be
700 to 750mm. It is possible to design a service zone of 400 to 450mm within the structural depth.
Cellular beams, fabricated tapered girders, haunched beams, parallel beam systems, composite
trusses, stub girders and other long span systems
The optimum structural solution depends on the:
Spans of the primary and secondary beams. Fabricated members are often more efficient for
heavily loaded primary beams
Span/depth ratio of the members
Necessity to contribute to the resistance to lateral loads applied to the building
Location and cross-sectional area of major ducts across the span
Structure cost taking account of savings in cladding and other costs
Access and maintenance costs
Future requirements for re-servicing.
Fig.4.2.6
Cellular beams
Lighter deeper sections can be fabricated from structural sections in the form of 'cellular' beams. The
sections are structurally efficient, and relatively large openings can be created through which
services can be passed. Cellular beams are more suitable for use as long span secondary beams than
for primary beams, as the shear capacity of the web is considerably weakened by the openings. They
can also be designed for use as primary members by strengthening the openings where shear forces
are very high, either by infilling the openings or by using horizontal stiffeners. A wide range of
opening sizes and beam sizes is available. The opening diameter is typically 0.6 to 0.8 times the final
beam depth and the centre-centre spacing is typically 1.5 times the opening diameter.
KD/HNDCIVIL/07/27
Page 127
Fig.4.2.7
Fig.4.2.8
Haunched beams
Haunches, or local deepening of beams adjacent to the beam to column connection, can also be used
to reduce beam depths for long spans. Large moments are transferred into the columns, resulting in
more expensive connections and heavier columns, but the beam depth is significantly reduced.
Haunched beams can also be designed to provide the sway stability of the building without requiring
vertical bracing. Therefore, they tend to be used in medium-rise buildings (up to 6 storeys high),
where bracing can be eliminated in at least one direction.
The haunched beam solution requires careful structural design because the beams must frame into
the major axis of columns in order to transfer moments to the required columns. The haunched beam
system is ideally suited to buildings with rectangular plan form and is not generally appropriate for
irregular building plan shapes.
Fig.4.2.9
Fig.4.2.10 (steel beam connection)
Tapered beams
Tapered beams offer advantages in highly serviced buildings. By tapering the beam along its length,
the bending resistance of the section can be made to closely follow the shape of the bending moment
diagram. At the ends of the beam, the depth may be reduced, depending on the required shear
resistance. This saves weight of steel, but more importantly, provides space below the beams for
service distribution. Thus a reasonably sized zone is created in which services may be
accommodated adjacent to the columns. Service distribution in the other direction can usually be
provided in the zone beneath the secondary beams.
KD/HNDCIVIL/07/27
Page 128
Fig.4.2.11
Fig.4.2.12
Composite trusses
Composite trusses may be designed for long span applications of 15 to 20m, and comprise either
angles and Tee sections or for more heavily loaded applications, Square Hollow Sections . The
bracing members are located in a W-form so that sufficient space is provided for large ducts.
Composite trusses are relatively expensive to fabricate but potentially lightweight. The connections
to the columns are generally made through the top chord of the truss and the bottom chord does not
extend to the column which provides a local service zone to the columns.
Fig.4.2.13
Stub girders
Stub girders were sometimes used to provide long spans in two directions for 'dealing room' floors.
Short sections of beams are welded to the bottom chord to provide the longitudinal shear transfer to
the composite slab that forms the top chord to the composite system. The two way spanning system
can span up to 20m but it has the disadvantage that the bottom chord has to be propped until the
concrete slab has gained adequate strength.
Fig.4.2.14
Parallel beam systems
KD/HNDCIVIL/07/27
Page 129
Parallel beam systems comprise pairs of continuous primary beams, generally spaced apart by the
column sections which support the floor. In the orthogonal direction, continuous beams are
supported by the pairs of primary beams. Because the primary beams are continuous, and arranged in
pairs, shallow sections may be utilized. A high degree of service integration is provided in both
directions.
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Page 130
References
1) Lecture notes
2) Hall, F.E. (1994) Building services and equipment. 2nd ed. Vol, 2. London: Pearson education
Ltd.
3) Hall, F. and Greeno, R. (2013) Building services handbook. 7th ed. Abingdon: Routledge.
4) Emmitt, S and Gorce, C.A. (2010) Barrys introduction to construction of buildings. 2nd ed.
England: John Wiley & Sons.
5) Chadderton, D.V. (2007) Building services engineering. 5th ed. Abingdon: Taylor & Francis
group.
6) Health and safety in construction. (2006) 3rd ed. England: Health and safety executive.
7) Managing health and safety in construction: construction (design and management)
regulations 2015. (2015) London: Health and safety executive.
8) Health and safety toolbox: how to control risks at work. (2014) London: Health and safety
executive.
9) Code of practice for working in confined spaces. (n.d.). 1st ed. [eBook] health and safety
authority. Available at:
http://www.hsa.ie/eng/Publications_and_Forms/Publications/Codes_of_Practice/COP_Confin
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10) Health and safety file. (n.d.). 1st ed. [eBook] health and safety NI. Available at:
http://www.healthandsafetyworksni.gov.uk/example_health_and_safety_plan_for_constructio
n__09-11_.pdf [Accessed 20 Aug. 2015].
11) Abebi, A. and smith, I. (n.d.). Pile foundation design: a students guide. 1st ed. [eBook]
Edinburgh.
Available
at:
http://mtp.itd.co.th/ITD-CP/data/PileFoundationDesign.pdf
[Accessed 5 Aug. 2015].

12) Forms and false work. (n.d.). 1st ed. [eBook] Kansas department of transportation. Available
at:
http://www.ksdot.org/Assets/wwwksdotorg/bureaus/burStructGeotech/ConstructionManual/6
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13) Health and safety file. (n.d.). 1st ed. [eBook] health and safety NI. Available at:
http://www.healthandsafetyworksni.gov.uk/example_health_and_safety_plan_for_constructio
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14) Health and safety plan. (2013). 1st ed. [eBook] Washington. DC: AECOM. Available at:
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Prashani Ulapane

Civil engineering construction technology

Project description and key dates .......................................................................................... 43

1.2 Key Contact Details ................................................................................................................... 43

Health and safety file............................................................................................................. 47

Equipment used for excavation -Motor Scraper

Elevating motor scraper instead of an apron, these machines include a hydraulically or

Fig.1.1.13 (drum roller)

Fig.1.1.14 (pneumatic roller) Fig.1.1.15 (sheep foot roller)

Concrete Mixer Truck

Tunnel Boring Machine

People & vehicles falling into excavations

Cave-ins or excavation collapses

People & vehicles falling into excavations

Divert traffic away from the excavation area

Materials falling into excavations

Undermining nearby structures

Ground and surface water inflow

Slips, trips and falls

Terra Probe Method

Fig.1.3.4 (deep wells)

Fig.1.3.5 (educator wells)

Fig.2.1.1 Fatal occupational injuries, by major event, 2012

Access to and from the

Necessary actions for preventing

Keep a clean worksite

Construction plant can be

Lifting equipment are

Plan & manage the site to minimize the

Proper selection, installation, use &

Reckless use of ladders and

Repetitive lifting heavy and

Careless use of asbestos

Machinery used for

Keep the work & storage areas tidy

Workers involved in work which

Direct exposure to hazardous

Refurbishment work when

Follow the regulations to prevent

Duties of the CDM Coordinator

Duties of the Principal Designer

Planning, managing, monitoring & coordinating the pre-construction phase

Duties of the Principal Contractor

The risks & control measures in the project

On site use the excavation permit to Work to control the Risks.

Working in confined spaces

Flammable or explosive atmospheres

Following are some solutions to reduce the hazards in confined spaces.

Implementation of a rigorous cleaning of residues before entry

Testing and monitoring of the atmosphere

Mobile Elevating Work Platforms

Fig.2.3.8 (soft landing)

Rope access techniques

Working within temporary work

Guard rails, Toe boards and brick guards