CHAPTER 1

Introduction /Basic concept

MECHANICS:

Mechanics can be defined as the branch of physics concerned with the

state of rest or motion of bodies that subjected to the action of forces. OR
It may be defined as the study of forces acting on body when it is at rest or in motion is
called mechanics.
Classification of Mechanics
The engineering mechanics are classified as shown
Engineering Mechanics

Mechanics of Rigid bodies

Statics

Mechanics of Deformed bodies

Dynamics

Statics

Mechanics of fluid

Dynamics

BRANCHES OF MECHANICS:
Mechanics can be divided into two branches.
1. Static. 2. Dynamics.
a) Statics
It is the branch of mechanics that deals with the study of forces acting on a
body in equilibrium. Either the body at rest or in uniform motion is called statics
b)

Dynamics:
It is the branch of mechanics that deals with the study of forces on body in motion
is called dynamics. It is further divided into two branches.
i)
Kinetics
ii) kinematics.
i)
Kinetics
It is the branch of the dynamics which deals the study of body in motion under
the influence of force i.e. is the relationship between force and motion are considered or
the effect of the force are studied
ii)
Kinematics:
It is the branch of the dynamics that deals with the study of body in motion with
out considering the force.
Fundamental concept
The following are the fundamental concept used in the engineering mechanics
1. Force
In general force is a Push or Pull, which creates motion or tends to create motion,
destroy or tends to destroys motion. In engineering mechanics force is the action of one
body on another. A force tends to move a body in the direction of its action,
A force is characterized by its point of application, magnitude, and direction, i.e.
a force is a vector quantity.

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Units of force
The following force units are frequently used.
A. Newton
The S.I unit of force is Newton and denoted by N. which may be defined as
1N = 1 kg. 1 m/s2
B. Dynes
Dyne is the C.G.S unit of force.
1 Dyne = 1 g. 1 cm/s2
One Newton force = 10 dyne
C. Pounds
The FPS unit of force is pound.
1 lbf = 1 lbm. 1ft/s2
One pound force = 4.448 N
One dyne force = 2.248 x 106 lbs
2. Space
Space is the geometrical region occupied by bodies whose positions are described
by linear and angular measurement relative to coordinate systems. For three dimensional
problems there are three independent coordinates are needed. For two dimensional
problems only two coordinates are required.
3. Particle
A particle may be defined as a body (object) has mass but no size (neglected),
such body cannot exists theoretically, but when dealing with problems involving distance
considerably larger when compared to the size of the body. For example a bomber
aeroplane is a particle for a gunner operating from ground.
In the mathematical sense, a particle is a body whose dimensions are considered
to be near zero so that it analyze as a mass concentrated at a point. A body may tread as a
particle when its dimensions are irrelevant to describe its position or the action of forces
applied to it. For example the size of earth is insignificant compared to the size of its
orbits and therefore the earth can be modeled as a particle when studying its orbital
motion. When a body is idealized as a particle, the principles of mechanics reduce to
rather simplified form since the geometry of the body will not be involved in the analysis
of the problem.
4. Rigid Body
A rigid body may be defined a body in which the relative positions of any two
particles do not change under the action of forces means the distance between two
points/particles remain same before and after applying external forces.
As a result the material properties of any body that is assumed to be rigid will not
have to be considered while analyzing the forces acting on the body. In most cases the
actual deformations occurring in the structures, machines, mechanisms etc are relatively
small and therefore the rigid body assumption is suitable for analysis
Basic quantities
In engineering mechanics length, mass, time and force are basic quantities
1. Length

In engineering mechanics length is needed to locate the position of a particle and

to describe the size of physical system. Some important length conversions factors
1cm = 10 mm
1 m = 100 cm
1 m = 1000 mm

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1 m = 3.2808 (feet)
1 m = 39.37 Inch
1 Mile = 1.609 km
2. Mass
Mass is the property of matter by which we can compare the action of one body
with that of another. This property manifests itself as gravitational attraction between two
bodies and provides a quantitative measure of the resistance of matter to a change in
velocity. Some important mass conversion factors are given below
1 Kg = 2.204 lbm
3. Time
Time is the measure of the succession of events and is a basis quantity in
dynamic. Time is not directly involved in the analysis of statics problems but it has
importance in dynamics.
Systems of units
In engineering mechanics length, mass, time and force are the basic units used
therefore; the following are the units systems are adopted in the engineering mechanics
1.
International System of Units (SI):
In SI system of units the basic units are length, time, and mass which are arbitrarily
defined as the meter (m), second (s), and kilogram (kg). Force is the derived unit.
1N = 1 kg. 1 m/s2
2.
CGS systems of units
In CGS system of units, the basic units are length, time, and mass which are
arbitrarily defined as the centimeter (cm), second (s), and gram (g). Force is the derived
units
1 Dyne = 1 g. 1 cm/s2
3.

British systems of units

In CGS system of units, the basic units are length, time, and mass which are
arbitrarily defined as the centimeter (cm), second (s), and gram (g). Force is the derived
units
1 lb = 1lbg. 1ft/s2
4.

U.S. Customary Units

The basic units are length, time, and force which are arbitrarily defined as the foot
(ft), second (s), and pound (lb). Mass is the derived unit,
Trigonometry
The measurement of the triangle sides and angles is called trigonometry. Let us
consider right-angled triangle ABC as shown in figure
C
C

A
c
B
A
c
B
Than the following ratio can be considered for both the triangles
Sin = per/hyp = a/b
Sin = per/hyp = c/b

Cos = base/hyp = c/b

Cos = base/hyp =a/b

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Tan = per/base = a/c

Tan = per/base = c/a
The any side of the right angled triangle may be calculated by
b2 = a2 + b2
Similarly consider the following Triangle
C

A
c
B
The any side of the triangle can be calculated by using the cosine law, let suppose
we have to calculate the side AC that is b then
b = a2 + c2 (2bc)cos
Similarly, to calculate sides AB that is c and AC that is a then by using the
cosine lay as below
c = a2 + b2 2abcos
And

a = c2 + b2 2cbcos

The sides of the triangle ABC can be calculated by using the sin law
a
b
c
Sin
Sin
Sin
Principle of transmissibility of forces
The state of rest of motion of a rigid body is unaltered if a force acting in the body
is replaced by another force of the same magnitude and direction but acting anywhere on
the body along the line of action of the replaced force.
For example the force F acting on a rigid body at point A. According to the
principle of transmissibility of forces, this force has the same effect on the body as a force
F applied at point B.

The following two points should be considered while using this principle.
1. In engineering mechanics we deal with only rigid bodies. If deformation of the
body is to be considered in a problem. The law of transmissibility of forces
will not hold good.
2. By transmission of the force only the state of the body is unaltered, but not the
internal stresses which may develop in the body

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Therefore this law can be applied only to problems in which rigid bodies are
involved
SCALAR AND VECTOR QUANTITY
Scalar quantity
Scalar quantity is that quantity which has only magnitude (numerical value
with suitable unit) or
Scalars quantities are those quantities, which are completely specified by
their magnitude using suitable units are called scalars quantities. For example mass, time,
volume density, temperature, length, age and area etc
The scalars quantities can be added or subtracted by algebraic rule e.g.
7kg + 8kg = 15 kg sugar Or 4 sec + 5 sec = 9 sec
Vector quantity
Vector quantity is that quantity, which has magnitude unit of magnitude as
well as direction, is called vector quantity. Or
Vector quantities are those quantities, which are completely specified by
their magnitude using suitable units as well directions are called vector quantities. For
example velocity, acceleration, force, weight, displacement, momentum and torque etc
are all vector quantities. Vector quantity can be added, subtracted, multiplied and divided
by particular geometrical or graphical methods.
VECTOR REPRESENTATION
A vector quantity is represented graphically by a straight line the length of line
gives the magnitude of the vector and arrowhead indicates the direction.
For example we consider a displacement (d) of magnitude 10 km in the direction
of east. Hence we cannot represent 10 km on the paper therefore we select a suitable scale
shown in fig.
Scale
1 cm = 2 km
So we draw a line of length 5 cm which show the magnitude of vector
quantity that is 10 km while the arrow indicates the direction form origin to east ward as
shown in fig.
A
B
5 cm

Point A is called tail that shows the origin.

Point B is called head, which shows the direction of vector quantity.
The length of line is the magnitude of the vector quantity.
anti clock
wise
direction
REC
TANG
ULA
R CO-ORDINATEYSYSTEM
Two lines at right angle to each other are known as co-ordinate axes and their
point of intersection is called origin. The horizontal line is called x-axis while vertical
X used to show the direction of a vector is
line is called y-axis. Two X
co ordinate systems are
a plane. The angle which the representative line of given vector makes with + ve x axis in

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Y
In space the direction of vector requires the 3 rd axis that is Z-axis. The direction
of the vector in space is specified by three angles named , , and with X, Y Z axes
respectively as show
Z

EXERCIS 1
Show the following vectors graphically from 1 to 6
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Force
Displacement
Velocity
Velocity
Force
Displacement

450
30
90
45
135

15 kN
75 km
60 km\h
5 km\h
20 kN
40 k m

with x-axes.
north of east
with x-axes.
with horizontal axes
with x-axes.
north-east.

7. A crow flies northward from pole A to pole B and covers distance of 8 km. It then
flies eastward to pole C and covers 6 km. find the net displacement and direction
of its flight.
Ans: 10 km 53 north of east
8. A traveler travels 10 km east 20 km north 15 km west and 8 km south. Find the
displacement of the traveler from the starting point. Ans: 13 km 23 north west
Free body diagram
A diagram or sketch of the body in which the body under consideration is freed
from the contact surface (surrounding) and all the forces acting on it (including reactions
at contact surface) are drawn is called free body diagram. Free body diagram for few
cases are shown in below
w
w
R

R
60

R1

w
600 N
w

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R2
Procedure of drawing Free Body Diagram
To construct a free-body diagram, the following steps are necessary:
Draw Outline Shape
Imagine that the particle is cut free from its surroundings or isolated by
drawing the outline shape of the particle only
Show All Forces
Show on this sketch all the forces acting on the particle. There are two classes of
forces that act on the particle. They can be active forces, which tend to set the particle in
motion, or they can be reactive forces which are the results of the constraints or supports
that tend to prevent motion.
Identify Each Force
The forces that are known should be labeled complete with their magnitudes and
directions. Letters are used to represent the magnitudes and directions of forces that are
not known.
Method of Problem Solution
Problem Statement
Includes given data, specification of what is to be determined, and a figure
showing all quantities involved.
Free-Body Diagrams
Create separate diagrams for each of the bodies involved with a clear indication of
all forces acting on each body.
Fundamental Principles
The six fundamental principles are applied to express the conditions of rest or
motion of each body. The rules of algebra are applied to solve the equations for the
unknown quantities.
Solution Check:
1. Test for errors in reasoning by verifying that the units of the computed results are
correct
2. Test for errors in computation by substituting given data and computed results
into previously unused equations based on the six principles.
3. Always apply experience and physical intuition to assess whether results seem
reasonable
Numerical Accuracy
The accuracy of a solution depends on
1. Accuracy of the given data.
2. Accuracy of the computations performed. The solution cannot be more accurate
than the less accurate of these two.
3. The use of hand calculators and computers generally makes the accuracy of the
computations much greater than the accuracy of the data. Hence, the solution
accuracy is usually limited by the data accuracy.

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CHAPTER 2.

SYSTEM OF FORCES:

Force

In general force is a Push or Pull, which creates motion or tends to create motion,
destroy or tends to destroys motion. In engineering mechanics force is the action of one
body on another. A force tends to move a body in the direction of its action,
A force is characterized by its point of application, magnitude, and direction, i.e.
a force is a vector quantity.
Force exerted on body has following two effects
1. The external effect, which is tendency to change the motion of the body or to
develop resisting forces in the body
2. The internal effect, which is the tendency to deform the body.
If the force system acting on a body produces no external effect, the forces are said to
be in balance and the body experience no change in motion is said to be in equilibrium.
Units of force
The following force units are frequently used.
A. Newton
The S.I unit of force is Newton and denoted by N. which may be defined as
1N = 1 kg. 1 m/s2
B. Dynes
Dyne is the C.G.S unit of force.
1 Dyne = 1 g. 1 cm/s2
One Newton force = 10 dyne
C. Pound
s
The FPS unit of force is pound.
1 lbf = 1 lbm. 1ft/s2
One pound force = 4.448 N
One dyne force = 2.248 x 106 lbs
Systems of forces
When numbers of forces acting on the body then it is said to be system of forces
Types of system of forces
1. Collinear forces:
In this system, line of action of forces act along the same line is called collinear
forces. For example consider a rope is being pulled by two players as shown in figure
F1
2. Coplanar forces

F2

When all forces acting on the body are in the same plane the forces are coplanar

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3. Coplanar Concurrent force system

A concurrent force system contains forces whose lines-of action meet at same one
point. Forces may be tensile (pulling) or Forces may be compressive (pushing)

4. Non Concurrent Co-Planar Forces

A system of forces acting on the same plane but whose line of action does not
pass through the same point is known as non concurrent coplanar forces or system for
example a ladder resting against a wall and a man is standing on the rung but not on
the center of gravity.
5. Coplanar parallel forces
When the forces acting on the body are in the same plane but their line of actions
are parallel to each other known as coplanar parallel forces for example forces acting on
the beams and two boys are sitting on the sea saw.
6. Non coplanar parallel forces
In this case all the forces are parallel to each other but not in the same plane,
for example the force acting on the table when a book is kept on it.
ADDITION OF FORCES
ADDITION OF (FORCES) BY HEAD TO TAIL RULE
To add two or more than two vectors (forces), join the head of the first vector with
the tail of second vector, and join the head of the second vector with the tail of the third
vector and so on. Then the resultant vector is obtained by joining the tail of the first
vector with the head of the last vector. The magnitude and the direction of the resultant
vector (Force) are found graphically and analytically.
RESULTANT FORCE
A resultant force is a single force, which produce same affect so that of
number of forces can produce is called resultant force

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COMPOSITION OF FORCES
The process of finding out the resultant Force of given forces (components
vector) is called composition of forces. A resultant force may be determined by following
methods
1. Parallelogram laws of forces or method
2. Triangle law of forces or triangular method
3. polygon law of forces or polygon method
A)PARALLELOGRAM
METHOD
According to parallelogram method If two forces (vectors) are acting
simultaneously on a particle be represented (in magnitude and direction) by two adjacent
sides of a parallelogram, their resultant may represent (in magnitude and direction) by the
diagonal of the parallelogram passing through the point. OR
When two forces are acting at a point such that they can by represented by the
adjacent sides of a parallelogram then their resultant will be equal to that diagonal of the
parallelogram which passed through the same point.
The magnitude and the direction of the resultant can be determined either
graphically or analytically as explained below.
Graphical method
Let us suppose that two forces F1 and F2 acting simultaneously on a
particle as shown in the figure (a) the force F2 makes an angle with force F1
B
F2

F1

First of all we will draw a side OA of the parallelogram in magnitude and direction equal
to force F1 with some suitable scale. Similarly draw the side OB of parallelogram of same
scale equal to force F2, which makes an angle with force F1. Now draw sides BC and
AC parallel to the sides OA and BC. Connect the point O to Point C which is the diagonal
of the parallelogram passes through the same point O and hence it is the resultant of the
given two forces. By measurement the length of diagonal gives the magnitude of resultant
and angle gives the direction of the resultant as shown in fig (A).
B

F2

FR

F1
fig (A)

F2

FR

F1

A
Fig (B)

Analytical method
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In the paralleogram OABC, from point C drop a perpendicular CD to meet

OA at D as shown in fig (B)
In parallelogram OABC,
OA = F1
OB = F2
Angle AOB =
Now consider the CAD in which
Angle CAD =
AC = F2
By resolving the vector F2 we have,
CD = F2 Sin
and AD = F2 Cosine
Now consider OCD
Angle DOC = .
Angle ODC = 90
According to Pythagoras theorem
(Hyp) = (per) + (base)
OC = DC + OD.
OC = DC + (OA + AD)
FR = F Sin + (F1 + F2 Cosine )
FR = F2 Sin + F1 + F2 Cos + 2 F1 F2 Cosine
. FR = F2 Sin + F2 Cos +F1 + 2 F1 F2 Cosine
. FR = F2 (Sin + Cos) + F1+ 2 F1 F2 Cosine .
FR = F2 (1) + F1+ 2 F1 F2 Cosine .
FR = F2 + F1+ 2 F1 F2 Cosine .
FR = F1+F2 + 2 F1 F2 Cosine .
FR = F1+F2 + 2 F1 F2 Cosine .
The above equation gives the magnitude of the resultant vector.
Now the direction of the resultant can be calculated by
Sin = CD_ = F2 Sin
1
OR
OC
FR
2
Tan = CD =
F2 Sin
OD
F1+ F2 Cosine
The above two equation gives the direction of the resultant vector that is .
B) TRIANGLE METHOD OR TRIANGLE LAW OF FORCES
According to triangle law or method If two forces acting simultaneously on a
particle by represented (in magnitude and direction) by the two sides of a triangle taken in
order their resultant is represented (in magnitude and direction) by the third side of
triangle taken in opposite order. OR
If two forces are acting on a body such that they can be represented by the two
adjacent sides of a triangle taken in the same order, then their resultant will be equal to
the third side (enclosing side) of that triangle taken in the opposite order.
The resultant force (vector) can be obtained graphically and analytically or trigonometry.
Graphically
Let us consider two forces F 1 and F2 acting on the particle the force F1 is
horizontal while the force F2 makes an angle with force F1 as shown in fig (A). Now
draw lines OA and AB to some convenient scale in magnitude equal to F 1 and F2. Join

point O to point B the line OB will be the third side of triangle, passes through the same
point O and hence it is the resultant of the given two forces. By measurement the length

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of OB gives the magnitude of resultant and angle gives the direction of the resultant as
shown in fig (B).
F2

B
FR
F2

F1

Fig (A)

F1
A
Fig (B)

ANALYTICAL OR TRIGONOMETRIC METHOD

Now consider AOB in which
Angle AOB = which is the direction of resultant vector OB makes with horizon
anal axis.
Angle OAB = 180 - . As we know
Angle AOB + Angle OAB + Angle ABO = 180.
By putting the values we get
+ 180 - + angle ABO = 180
Angle ABO = -
By applying the sine law to the triangle ABO
OA
=
AB.
=
OB
Sin B
Sin O
Sin A
F1
=
. F2 .
=
FR .
Sin ( -)
Sin
Sin (180 )
Note
It is better to calculate the resultant of F1 and F2 by using cosine law we get
FR = F1+F2 + 2 F1 F2 Cosine .
Where
= 180
And the direction of resultant may be determined by using sine law
F1
Sin

. F2 .

Sin

FR
.
Sin

C) POLYGON METHOD
According to this method if more then two forces acting on a particle by
reprehend by the sided of polygon taken in order their resultant will be represented by the
closing side of the polygon in opposite direction
OR
If more than two forces are acting on a body such that they can by represented by
the sides of a polygon Taken in same order, then their resultant will be equal to that side
of the polygon, which completes the polygon (closing side taken in opposite order.
The resultant of such forces can be determined by graphically and analytically.
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Graphically:
Consider the following diagram in which number of forces acting on a particle.
E
F4 D
F3
F2

F5

F4

F3

F1
Fr

F5

F2

A
F1
B
Starting from A the five vectors are plotted in turns as shown in fig by placing the tail end
of each vector at the tip end of the preceding one. The arrow from A to the tip of the last
vector represents the resultant of the vectors with suitable scale.In this polygon the side
AF represents the resultant of the given components and shows the direction. By
measurement of AF will give the resultant and give direction of given scale
Analytically
The resultant and direction can be determined by solving it step-by-step
analytically using formulas of parallelogram, triangle law or trigonometry
EXAMPLE

The screw eye is subjected to two forces F1 and F2 as shown in fig.

Determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant force by parallelogram by using
the graphical or analytical method.

Draw the free body diagram of the given fig.

Given
F1 = 100 N
F2 = 150 N
Required
Resultant = FR =?
Solution
Angle AOB = 90 -15 10 = 65
A) Graphically
Scale 20 N = 1 cm.

1 = 15

2 = 10

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Now draw parallelogram OABC with rule and protractor according to

scale as shown in diagram.
C
B
F2

FR
65

65

F1

O
By measuring
OC = FR = 10.6 cm = 10.6 x 20 = 212 N
= 54 with x axis
Result
Resultant = 212 N Direction = 54 with x axis
B Analytical method
We know that
Fr = F1+F2 + 2 F1 F2 Cosine .
Putt the value and = 65
Fr = (100) + (150) + 2 (100) (150)
Cosine65 Fr = 212.55 N.
We also know that
Sin =
F2 Sin .
R
Sin = 150 Sin 65
212.55

= Sin-1 150 Sin 65

212.5

= 39.665 with force F1

39.665 + 15
= 54.665 with x axis.
Result
Resultant = 212.55 N
Direction = 54.665 with x axis
.
EXAMPLE 3
The plate is subjected to the forces acting on member A and
B as shown. If = 60 determine the magnitude of the
resultant of these forces and its direction measured from
clockwise from positive x-axis. Adopt triangle method
graphically and analytically.

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Given
FA = 400N
FB = 500N
1 = 30 with Y axis 2
= 60 with positive x axis
Required
Resultant
FR =?
Direction = =?
Solution the angle between two forces 60 + (90 30) = 120
A:Graphically
Scale
100 lb = 1 cm
Now draw triangle OAB with suitable scale with the help of
scale and protractor
as
shown
in
diagram
A
120
FA
FB
O
FR
B
By measurement we get,
OB = FR = 4.6 cm x 100 = 460 lb
Angle BOA =
70 = 10
Result
Resultant = 460 lb
Direction =
10
B Analytically:
According to cosine law for given triangle AOB
FR =
FR =

FA + FB 2(FA) (FB) (cosine )

(400) + (500) -2 (400) (500) (cosine (180-

120)
FR = 458.257 lb
According to sine law for given triangle AOB
FB
=
FR
.
Sin
Sin (180-)

And
Result
10.89
Example 4

500
Sin

458.257 .
Sin (180-)

Sin

500 Sin (180-)

458.257
70.89 with force FA
70.89 -60 = 10 with x axis

=
=

Resultant = 458.257 lb

& Direction =

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Four forces act on a body at point O as shown in

fig. Find their resultant.
110 N
100 N

160 N

30
20

45
80 N

Given
F1 = 80 N
F2 = 100 N
F3 = 110 N
F4 = 160 N

0 = 0
1 = 45
2 = 30
3 = 20

at x axis
with x axis
with ve x axis
with x axis

Required
Resultant = FR =?
Direction = =?
Graphically
Scale 20 N = 1 cm.
Starting from O the four vectors are plotted in turn as
shown in fig by placing the tail end of each vector at the tip
end of the preceding one. The arrow from O to the tip of the
last vector represents the resultant of the vectors.
C
20
Sol:

D
30
B

45
A

By measurement
The resultant OB = FR = x 20 = 124 N
The direction of the resultant = = 143 with + ve x
axis.
Result:
Resultant = 119 N
Direction =
143
EXERCISE 2.1
1. Find the resultant and the direction of the following
diagram.
i
6lb

8N

ii

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42
60
5 N
4 lb
Ans: 12.18 N & 26.07
Ans: 8.718 lb &
36.585

iii

iv
24 N

20

N
30 N

10 N

140
30
Ans 26 N & 67.38
N & 69.059 with x-axis.

4.

Ans: 29.826

Determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant force as shown

in fig
Ans:
12.489 N & 43.902

Determine the magnitude and the direction of the resultant of two forces 7
N and 8 N acting at a point with an included angle of 60 with
between them. The force of 7 N being horizontal
Determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant of two forces 20 N
and 30 N acting at a point with an included angle of 40 between
them. The force 30 N being horizontal
5.
Two forces are applied to an eye bolt fastened to a beam.
Determine the magnitude and direction of their resultant
using (a) the parallelogram law, (b) the triangle rule.

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6.

Two forces P and Q are applied as shown at point A of a hook support.

Knowing that P =15 lb and Q = 25 lb, determine the magnitude and
direction of their resultant using (a) the parallelogram law, (b) the
triangle rule.

7.

Two control rods are attached at A to lever AB. knowing that the force in
the left-hand rod is F1 = 120 N, determine (a) the required force
F2 in the right- hand rod if the resultant of the forces exerted by
the rods
on the lever is to be vertical, (b) the corresponding
m
agnitude of FR.

8.

Two structural members A and B are bolted to a bracket as shown.

Knowing that both members are in compression and that the force
is 30 kN in member A and 20 kN in member B, determine, the
magnitude and direction of th e resultant of the forces
pplied
a to the
bracket by me
mbers A and B.

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9.

The two forces P and Q act on bolt A as shown in diagram.

Find their resultant and direction

10.

The cable stays AB and AD help support pole AC. Knowing that the
tension is 500 N in AB and 160 N in AD, determine graphically
the magnitude and direction of the resultant of the forces exerted by
the stays at A using
w, (b) the triangle rule
(a) the parallelogram la

11.

Determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant of the two forces.

- 19 -

12.

Two structural members B and C are riveted to the bracket A. Knowing

that the tension in member B is 6 kN and the tension in C is 10
kN, determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant force
acting on the bracket.

13.

The two structural member one in tension and other in compression, exerts
on point O, determine the resultant and angle

14.

The force P and T act on body at point B replace them with a single force

RESOLUTIO
N
OFprocesses
VECTOR
The
of finding the components of
given vector (resultant) is called resolution of vector. Or
The processes of splitting up of single vector into two or
more vector is called resolution of the vector A vector can
be resolved into two or more vectors which have the same
combined affect as that the effect of original vector
RESOLUTION OF VECTOR INTO RECTANGULAR
COMPONENTS
- 20 -

If vector is resolved into such components

which are at right angles (perpendicular) to each other then
they are called the rectangular components of that vector,
now let us consider a resultant vector F to be resolved into
two components which makes an angle with horizontal
axes as shown in fig.
C
F

O
Now draw a line OC to represent the vector in
magnitude, which makes an angle with x-axis with some
convenient scale. Drop a perpendicular CD at point C
which meet x axis at point D, now join point O to point D,
the line OD is called horizontal component of resultant
vector and represents by Fx in magnitude in same scale.
Similarly draw perpendicular CE at point C, which will
meet y-axis at point E now join O to E. The line OE is
called vertical component of resultant vector and represents
by Fy in magnitude of same scale.
E

Fy

We know that

Analytically or trigonometry
In COD
Angle COD =
90
OC = F
OD = Fx

Fx

D
Angle ODC =
OE = CD = Fy

Cosine = OD.
Cosine = Fx
OC
F
And
Fx = F Cosine
Similarly we have
Sin = DC
Sin = Fy
OC
F
And
Fy = F Sine

RESOLVING
OF
A
FORCE
INTO
TWO
COMPONENTS WHICH ARE NOT MUTUALLY AT
RIGHT ANGLE TO EACH OTHER

- 21 -

If a force or vector is to be required to

resolved into such components which are not at right angle to
each other then it can be determined in reverse manner as we
find the resultant vector of given components by
Parallelogram method, Triangle method or Trigonometry
A) Parallelogram method
Now consider a force FR, which is resolved into
components F1 and F2. The force F makes an angle with
force F1 and force F2 makes an angle with component F1, so
we can make a parallelogram with suitable scale as shown in
fig.
B
C
F2

FR

F1

We can also determine the components of force F by

analytically as we know that direction of the resultant vector
can be determined by
Sin
=
F2 Sin .
OR
1
FR
Tan
=
F2 Sin
2
F1+ F2 Cosine
So we can find F2 from equation 1
F2 =
FR Si n
Sin
Similarly from equation 2
F1 =
F2 Sin - F2 Cosine
Tan
B) Trianglemethod:
Now consider a force F, which is
resolved into components F1 and F2. The force F makes an angle
with force F1 and force F2 makes an angle with component
F1, so we can make a triangle with some suitable scale as shown in
fig.
B

FR

F2

- 22 -

F1

By measurements we get the components F1 and F2.

Similarly we can find the components F1 and F2 by using the
following formula
F1
Sin
For component F1
F1 =

F2
Sin

FR
.
Sin

FR Sin
Sin

For component F2
F2 = FR Sin
Sin
EXAMPLE 5
Resolve the force 200 N into components along x
and y direction and determine the magnitude of
components.
200 N

30
Given:
= 30
Required

Force = F = 200 N

Direction =

Horizontal components = Fx =?
Vertical components = Fy =?

Solution
A) Graphically
Scale 1 cm = 20 N
Now draw a line OC to represent t vector in
magnitude with given scale, which makes an angle 30 with
x-axis. Drop a perpendicular CD at point C which meet x
axis at point D, now join point O to point D, the line OD is
called horizontal component (Fx) of resultant vector.
Similarly draw perpendicular CE at point C, which will
meet y-axis at point E now join O to E. The line OE is
called vertical component (Fy) of resultant vector. As shown
in fig
E
C
Fy
By measuring we get
OD = Fx =

30
Fx

8.6 cm x 20 = 172 N

- 23 -

OE = Fy = 5 cm x 20 = 100 N
Result:
Fx = 173.20 N
Fy = 100 N
B) Analytically
We know that
Fx = F cosine
= 200 cosine30
Fx = 173.20 N
We also know that
Fy = F Sin = 200 Sin 30
Fy = 100
N
Result:
Fx = 173.20 N
Fy = 100 N
EXAMPLE 6
A push of 40 N acting on a point and its line of action
are inclined at an angle of 30 with the horizontal. Resolve
it along horizontal axis and another axis which is inclined at
an angle of 65 with the horizontal.
C
B
F2
F
65 30
A
D
Given

Cosine

Force = F = 40 N
Direction = = 30
Direction = = 65
Required Force component = F1 =?
Force
component = F2 =?
Solution
Graphical Method
Let
Scale 10 N = 1 cm
Now draw the parallelogram ABCD with
given scale as shown in fig
By measurement
AD = F1 = 2.5 x 10 = 25 N
AC = F2 = 2.3 x 10 = 23 N
Result
F1 = 25 N
F2 = 23 N
Analytically
We have
F2 = F Sin =
40 Sin 30
Sin
Sin 65
F2
=
22.06 N
Similarly from equation
F 1 = F2 Sin - F2
Tan
F1 = 22.06 Sin 65 - 22.06 Cosine
65 Tan 30

- 24 -

F1 = 25.32 N
F1 = 25.32 N

Result

F2 = 22.06 N

EXERCISE 2.2
1. Resolve the given forces as shown in following diagrams
into components F1 and F2
i
ii
200 N
10 kP
30

F2

30

F1

25
F1

iii

iv

156 lb
F2

100 N

F2

26
30
34

F1
F1

2. A force of 800 N is exerted on a bolt A as shown in fig.

Determine the horizontal and vertical components of
force.
Ans: 655.32 N & 458.816N

800 N
35

4.

A man pull with force of 300 N on a rope attached to a

building as shown in fig, what are the horizontal and
vertical components of the force exerted by the rope at
point
A
Ans: 180 N & 36.87

8m

- 25 -

6m

5 While emptying a wheel barrow, a gardener exerts on each handle

AB a force P directed along line CD. Knowing that P must have
a 135-N horizontal component, determine (a) the magnitude of the
force P,
(b) its vertical component

6 Member CB of the vise shown exerts on block B a force P directed

along line CB. Knowing that P must have a 260-lb horizontal
component, determine (a) the magnitude of the force P, (b) its
vertical component.

7. The guy wire BD exerts on the telephone pole AC a force P directed

along BD. Knowing that P has a 450-N component along line AC,
determine (a) the magnitude of the force P, (b) its component in a
direction perpendicular to AC.

- 26 -

8. The 50-lb force is to be resolved into components along lines a-a and
b-b knowing that the component along a-a is 35 lb. What is the
corresponding value

9. The ring shown in fig is subjected to two forces F1 and F2. if it is

required that the resultant forces have a magnitude of I kN and are
directed vertically downward. Determine the magnitude of F1 and F2
provided that = 30
Ans: 652.704 N & 446.47 N

10. A jet aircraft is being towed by two trucks B and C. Determine the
magnitude of two forces FB and FC. If the force has a magnitude of FR =
10 KN and it is directed along positive x-axis. Set = 15 Ans:
5.693 K N & 4.512 KN

- 27 -

11. A stake is pulled out of the ground by means of two ropes as

shown. Knowing that the tension in one rope is 120 N, determine
by trigonometry the magnitude and direction of the force P so that
the resultant is a vertical force of 160 N.
120 N
P
Ans: 72.096 N & 44.703
25

12. The boat is to be pulled onto the shore using two ropes,
determine the magnitude of two forces T and P acting in each rope
in order to develop a resultant force of 80 lb in direction along
the keel as shown in fig. take = 40
Ans: 42.567 lb & 54.723 lb

13. A disabled automobile is pulled by means of two ropes as shown.

Knowing that the tension in the rope P is 500 lb, determine the
tension in rope T and the value of so that the resultant force exerted
is as 800 lb force directed along the axis of the automobile
Ans: 442.020 N

- 28 -

15. Find the x and y components of each force and determine

the resultant and direction
i)

ii)

iii)

iv)

- 29 -

16. Find the resultant and direction of following forces as shown in

diagram by resolving method.
i
ii
4 kP
4 kP
60 lb
150

40 lb
80 lb

iii

iv

30

30

150 lb
140 N
62
23

3 KP

200 N
180 lb

45
240

30

100 N
30

130 lb

125 lb

17. Knowing that = 35, determine the resultant of the three forces
shown.

- 30 -

CHAPTER 3
Moment of a force
The tendency of a force to move the body in the
direction of its application a force can tend to rotate a body
about an axis. This axis may be any line which is neither
intersects nor parallel to the line of the action of the force.
This rational tendency of force is know as the moment of
force.
As a familiar example of the concept of moment,
consider the pipe wrench as shown in figure (a). One effect of
the force applied perpendicular to the handle of the wrench is
the tendency to rotate the pipe about its vertical axis. The
magnitude of this tendency depends on both the magnitude of
the force and the effective length d of the wrench handle.
h handle
Common experience shown
that isa less
pulleffective
which this not
perpendicular to the wrenc atically this tendency ofan the
right angle pull. Mathem multiplying force to the m force
(moment) is calculated by
oment
arm (d)

Moment about a point

Consider following body (two dimensional) acted by
a force F in its plane. The magnitude of moment or tendency
of the force to rotate the body about the axis O_O
perpendicular to the plane of the body is proportional both to
the magnitude of the force and to the moment arm d,
therefore magnitude of the moment is defined as the product
of force and moment arm.
Moment = Force x moment arm
M = Fd

- 31 -

Where
d = moment arm
and
F
=
magnitude of force
Moment arm is defined as the perpendicular distance
between axis of rotation and the line of action of force.

Direction of moment of a force

The direction Mo is specified using the right-hand
rule. To do this the fingers of the right hand are curled such
that they follow the sense of rotation, which would occur if
the force could rotate about point O. The thumb then point
along the moment axis so that it gives the direction and sense
of the moment vector, which is upward and perpendicular to
the shaded plane containing F and d.

CLOCK WISE AND ANTI CLOCK WISE MOMENTS

The moment are classified as clockwise and
anticlockwise moment according to the direction in which the
force tends to rotate the body about a fixed point

- 32 -

Clockwise Moment
When the force tends to rotate the body in the same
direction in which the hands of clock move is called
clockwise moment the clockwise moment is taken as positive
or other wise mentioned.
Anticlockwise Moment
When the force tends to rotate the body in the
opposite direction in which the hands of clock move is called
anti clockwise moment which is taken as negative or other
wise mentioned
Unit of moment
S.I unit
F.P.S unit
G.G.S unit

is
is
is

N.m.
(Newton. meter)
lb. ft
(Pound. foot)
dyne.cm (dyne. Centimeter) etc

Example 1
Determine the moment of the force about point
O for following diagram.
1

Given

Force=100 N
Moment arm=2m
Required Mo=?
Working formula: - MO=Force x Moment arm.
Sol putt the values in first w, f
Mo= F x r = 100 x 2
Mo= 200N.m.
Result: Moment = 200N.m
Direction =
clock wise
2
Given

Force = 40lb
Required;
M0 =?
W.FMo = F x d.
Sol
By geometry of fig
Moment arm = 4ft + 2cos 30 = 5.73ft
Put the value in W.F.
Mo = F x r
Mo = 40 x 5.73
Mo = 229.282lb.ft
Resultant
Moment = 229.282 lb.ft
Direction =
clock wise
Example2

- 33 -

Determine the moment of the force 800 N acting on the

frame about points A, B, C and D.
Given

Force = F = 800 N
Required
MA=? MB? MC=? MD=?
Working formula
Moment =force x moment arm.

Sol

Solve

this

question

step

by

Now first consider the Point A.

MA = F x r
MA = 800 x (1.5+1)
MA = 2000 N.m clock wise
Now
Moment
about

step

I
B

MB = F x r = 800x 5
MB = 1200 N m clock wise
(2)
From (1) and (2) it is evidence that when force remain
constant then moment varies with moment arm that is
moment depends upon moment arm. Similarly it can be
proved that moment about any point varies with force when
moment arm remain same.
Now consider point C
Moment = Force x distance
Mc = 800 x 0
Mc = 0.
(3)
As the line of action of force passes through point C
that is point of application it shows that the line of action
should be perpendicular to the point i.e. C
Now consider the point D.
MD = F x r.
MD = 800 x 0.5
MD= 400 N.m
Result MA =2000 N.m
clock wise
Or
MA = + 200 N.m
MB = 1200 N.m
MB = + 1200 N.m
MC
Mc = O
MD =. 400 N.m
MD = - 400N.m

clock wise
=

Or
O.

anti clock wise

- 34 -

Note: - The positive sign shows that the moment is clock

wise direction and it is also proved that moment defends
upon following two factors.
1. The magnitude of the force
2. The perpendicular distance from the line of action of the
force to the fixed point or line of the body about which it
rotates.
PRINCIPLE OF MOMENT/ VARIGNONS THEOREM
It is stated that the moment of a force about a point is
equal to the sum of the moments of the force components
about the point. Or the moment produce by the resultant force
is equal to the moment produce by the force components.
Mathematically
MFo = Mo
Moment produce by the force F about any point O =
Moment produce due to force components. Let us consider a
force F acting at a point A and this force create the moment
about point O which is r distance away from point A as
shown in fig (a)
F
F1
A

F2

A
r
r
O
O
fig (a)
fig (b)
The moment produce due to Force F is given by
MFo = F x r
1
Now resolve the force into its components F1 and F2 in such a
way that
F = F1 + F2 as shown in fig (b)
The moment produce by these components about O is given
by
Mo = 0
Mo = moment produce due to force F1 + moment produce
due to force component F2
Mo = F1 x r + F2 x r = (F1 + F2) r
Put F = F1 + F2 in the above formula

- 35 -

 Mo = F x r
2
By comparing the equation 1 and by equation 2
MFo = Mo
The above equation shows that moment produce by the Force
(resultant) is equal to the moment produce by components F1
and F2.
Note the above equation is important application to solution
of problems and proofs of theorems. Such it is often easier to
determine the moments of a forces components rather than
the moment of the force.
EXAMPLE 3
A 200 N force acts on the bracket as shown determine the
moment of force about A

Given
F=200N
= 45
Required
MA =?
Solution Resolve the force into components F1 am F2
F1= F cos
F1=200 cosine 45
F1=141.42N.
F2= F sin
F2 = 200 sin 45
F2= 2.468N.
We know that MA = 0
MA = moment produce due to component F1+ moment
produce due to component F2.
MA =F1 x r1+ F2 x r2.
Let us consider that clock wise moment is + ve.
MA = F1 x r1+ F2 x r2
MA = - 141.42 x 0.1 + 2.468 x (0.1 +0.1)
MA = - 13.648 N
MA = 13 .648 N anti clock wise.
EXAMPLE 2.4
Determine the moment of each of three forces about B
on the beam.

- 36 -

F1= 400 lb
F3= 500 lb

F2= 250 lb

37.
30.
4ft

4ft

4ft

4ft

Given

F1 = 400lb F2 = 250 lb
F3 = 500lb
r1 = 4 Ft
r2 = 4 Ft
r3 = 4 Ft
r4 = 4 Ft
Required Moment about B = MB =?
Solution
Moment due to force F1 about B:
Consider clockwise moment is positive
MB = 400 x (4+4+4)
MB = 48, 00 lb .ft
Moment due to vertical component of F2
MB = F2 sin x r
MB = 250 Sin 37 x 4
MB = 601.815lb ft clock wise
Moment due to vertical component of F3
MB = F3 sin x R
MB = 500 x Sin 30x 4
MB = 601.815lb clock wise
Result
MB = 48, 00 lb .ft 601.815lb, 601.815lb

EXERCISE
1. Find the moment of the force about O as shown in diagram
i
ii

Ans : 37.5 N m clockw ise

kwise
cloc

iii
- 37

Ans : 42.426

Ans: 21 kN m
2. Find the moment of each force about A as shown in the following
force system.
i
ii
10 ton

20 lb

5 ton
20 ft
60

30
A

30
10 lb

10ft

5 lb

50 ft

50 ft
10

ft

8 ton
Ans: 300 lb ft anti clockwise
236.603 ton ft anti clock wise

Ans:

3. Determine the resultant moment of four forces acting on the rod

about O as shown is diagram. Ans: 333.92 N m clock
wise

- 38 -

4. The Force F acts at the end of angle bracket shown determine

e moment of forces about
O
Ans : 98.56 clockwise

th

5. A force of 40N is applied to the wrench. Determent the moment

f
this
force O about
point

o
Ans: 7.107 clockwise

6. The wrench is used to loosen the bolt. Determine the moment

of each force about the bolts axis passing through point O.
(Ans: 24.1 N-m, 14.5 N-m)

7. Determine the moment of each of the three forces about point A.

Solve the problem first by using each f
orce as a
whole, and then by using the principle of
s.
moment
: 433 NAns, 800 Nm, 1.30 kN-m
m)

8. Determine the moment about point A of each of the three forces

Ans: 600
N-m, 1.12 KN-m, 518
N-m

9. The towline exerts a force of P = 4 kN at the end of the 20

m long crane boom. If = 30, determine the
displacement x of the hook at A so that the force creates a
maximum moment about point O. What is this moment?
(Ans: 24.0 m, 80 kN-m)

- 40 -

10. The tool at A is used to hold a power lawnmower blade stationary

while the nut is being loosened with the wrench. If a force of 50 N
is applied to the wrench at B in the direction shown, determine the
moment it creates about the nut at C. What is the magnitude of force
F at A so that it creates the opposite moment about C?
(
A
n
s:
1
3.
0,
N
m
,
3
5.
2,
N
m
)

11. Determine the direction (0 180) of the force F so

that it produces (a) the maximum moment about po int A and

(b) the minimum moment about point A. Co mpute the
(Ans: 56.3,
moment in each case.
146, 1442 N-m, 0 N-m)

- 41 -

12. Calculate the magnitude of moment about base point O by five

different ways

13. A force F of magnitude 400 N is applied. Determine the magnitude

of moment about point O
Ans: 5.64 N- m

14. A pry bar is used to remove nail as shown. Determine the moment
of the force 60 lb about point O of contact between the pry and the
small support block.
Ans:
70
lb-ft
CW

- 42 -

15. Calculate the moment of force 250 N on the handle of monkey

about the centre of bolt
wrench

16. Compute the moment of the force 0.4 lb about the pivot O
of the wall switch toggle

17. The 30 N force P is applied perpendicular to the portion BC of the

bent bar. Determine the moment of P about point A and B.

18. A force of 200 N is applied to the end of the wrench to tighten a

flange bold which holds the wheel to the axle. Determine the
moment M produced by this force about

- 43 -

the center O of the wheel for the poison of the wrench

shown Ans: 78.3 N-m CW

19. The 120 N forces is applied as shown to one end of the curved
wrench. If = 30, calculate the moment of F about the center O of
the bolt. Determine the value of which would maximize the
moment about O state the value of this maximum moment
Ans: 41.5 N=
m CW 32.2 41.6 N-m CW

20. It is known that a vertical force of 800 N is required to remove

the Nail at C form the board. As the nail first starts moving
determine (a) the moment about B of the force exerted on the nail
(b) the magnitude of the force P which creates the same moment
about B if = 10
(c) the
smallest
ch creates
the same
momen force whi
t about B

- 44 -

20. A sign is suspended from two chains AE and AF.

Knowing that the tension in BF is 45 lb, determine (a) the
moment about A of the force exert by the chain at B (b)
the smallest d force applied AT C which creates the same
moment about A

PARALLEL FORCES
When the lines of action of Forces are parallel to each
other are called parallel forces the parallel forces never meet
to each other. There are two types of parallel forces as
discussed as under
1. Like parallel forces
When two parallel forces acing in such away that their
directions remain same are called like parallel forces

2. Un like parallel forces

When two parallel forces acing in such away that their
directions are opposite to each other called like parallel
forces
.

- 45 -

COUPLE
When two parallel forces that have the same magnitude
but opposite direction is known as couple. The couple is
separated by perpendicular distance. As matter of fact a couple is
unable to produce any straight-line motion but it produces
rotation in the body on which it acts. So couple can be defined as
unlike parallel forces of same magnitude but opposite direction
which produce rotation about a specific direction and whose
resultant is zero
.

APPLICATION OF COUPLE
1. To open or close the valves or bottle head, tap etc
2. To wind up a clock.
3. To Move the paddles of a bicycle
4. Turning a key in lock for open and closing.
Couple Arm
The perpendicular distance between the lines of action of
the two and opposite parallel forces is known as arm of the
couple.
Moment of couple or couple moment
The moment of the couple is the product of the force (one
of the force of the two equal and opposite parallel forces) and the
arm of the couple. Mathematically
Moment of couple = force x arm of couple
Moment of couple = F x r
Let us find the resultant moment of couple about a point O on the
couple arm AB as shown in fig
F
-F
r
r1
A
Moment about O

r2
O

M = Moment about O due to F + moment about

O due to F
- 46 -

M = -F x r1 + (- F x r2)
M = -F x r1 F x r2
M = - F (r1 + r2)
M = F (r1 + r2)
1
From diagram r = r1 + r2 put in equation 1
M = F x r
So the moment produce by the two unlike parallel forces is equal
to moment produce by one of the force of the two equal and
opposite parallel forces.
Therefore
The moment of couple = force x couple arm.
Direction of couple
The direction and sense of a couple moment is
determined using the right hand rule, where the thumb
indicates the direction when the fingers are curled with the
sense of rotation caused by the two forces.

CLASSIFICATION OF COUPLE
The couplet are classified as clockwise couple and
anticlockwise couple
1.

Clockwise couple
A couple whose tendency is to rotate the body in a
clockwise direction is known as clockwise couple

2.

Anticlockwise couple
A couple whose tendency is to rotate the body in
anticlockwise direction is known as anticlockwise couple
EXAMPLE 8

- 47 -

Determine the moment of couple acting on the

moment shown
2
00 N
4m

2m

200 N
Given
F1=200 N L1=4m F2=200 N
Required
Moment of couple = M =?
Working Formula M = F x r.
Solution
Put the values in working formula
M= 200(4+2)
M=1200 N. m
Result

L2 = 2m.

M= 1200 N. m

EXAMPLE 9
Determine the moment of couple acting on the
moment shown.

Given
F1=F2 =90lb
F3 = F4 = 120lb.
Required
Moment of couple = M=?
Solution The moment of couple can be determined at any point
for example at A, B or D.
Let us take the moment about point B
MB = F R.
MB = -F1 x r1 F2 x r2 .
MB = - 90(3) 120 (1)
MB = - 390 lb ft
Result
MB = MA=MD =390 lb .ft
counter clock
wise.
Moment of couple = 390 lb.ft
count cloche
wise
BEAM A beam is a long straight bar having a constant crosssectional area. Beams are classified as

- 48 -

1 Cantilever beam
2
Simply
supported beam
3 Over hanging beam
4
Rightly
fixed or built in beam
5 Continuous beam.
1.
Cantilever beam
A beam, which is fixed at one and free at the other end, is
called cantilever beam. As shown in fig

2.

Simply supported beam

A beam which is pinned (pivoted) at one end and roller
support at other end is called simply supported beam. As shown
in fig

LOAD

The external applied force is called load. Load is in the

form of the force or the weight of articles on the body is called
load.
1.
Concentrated or Point load
A load, which is applied through a knife-edge, is called
point or concentrated load.
30 N

2.

Uniformly distributed load

A load which is evenly distributed over a part or the
entire length of beam is called uniformly distributed load or U
D.L

3.
Uniformly varying load
The load whose intensity varies lineally along the length of beam
over which it is applied is called uniformly varying load.

Note

- 49 -

Any beam may be point, uniformly distributed and

uniformly varying load
EXAMPLE10 Find the reaction of the shaft at point shown.

Given
= 2m

Span = L = 8m
F 1 = 2 KN

x = 2m,

y = 2m,

F 2 = 3 KN

F3= 2 KN.

Required
Shear force and moment diagram
Solution Take moment about A also consider the upward force
and
clock
wise
moment
is
positive
MA = 0
RE (L) F3 (x + y + z) F2 (x + y) F1 (x) + RA
(0) = 0.RE (8) - 2 (6) 3 (4) 2 (2) + 0 = 0
RE = 3.5 KN
Now for RA we can calculate by
F = 0
RA - F 1 - F 2 - F 3 + RE = 0
RA - 2 - 3 - 2 + 3.5 = 0
EXAMPLE 2.11
Find reaction at A and C for shaft shown. The
support at A is a thrust bearing and support C is a
Journal bearing. Also draw shear force bending moment
diagram.

Given
Span = L = 4m.
Load = P = 5 kN.
Required
RA =? RC =?

- 50 -

Solution
Take moment about A also considers upward
force and clockwise moment is positive.
MA = 0
Rc (L) P (x) + RA (0) = 0.
Rc (4) 5 (2) = 0
Rc = 2.5 k N
To calculate the reaction at point A
F = 0
RA - P+ Rc = 0
RA 5 + 2.5 = 0
RA = 2.5 k
N EXAMPLE 2
Find the reaction of a simply supported
beam 6m long is carrying a uniformly distributed load of
5kN/m over a length of 3m from the right hand.
Given
P = 5 k N /m L = 6 m Y = 3m, Z = 3m.
Required Reaction at A & B = RA & RB =?
Solution first of all we will change the uniformly distributed
load into the point load
= 5 x 3= 15 kN
Take moment about A also consider that the upward force or load and
clockwise moment is positive.
MA = 0
Rc (L) P (y + z/2) + RA (0) = 0
RB (6) (15) (3 + 1.5) + RA (0) = 0
RB = 11. 25 kN
To calculate the reaction at point A
F =
0
RA - P+ RB = 0
RA -15 - 11.25
RA = 3.75.kN

Exercise 2
6. Find the moment of couple shown what must the force of a couple
balancing this couple having arm of length of 6ft. Ans: 36 lb ft,
6 lb
7. The tires of a truck exert the forces shown on the deck of the
bridge replace this system of forces by an equivalent resultant
force and specify its measured form point A.
Ans: 12.1 kip, 10.04
ft

- 51 -

8. The system of parallel forces acts on the top of the Warne truss.
Determine the equivalent resultant force of the system and location
measured from point A
Ans: 4.5 kN, 2.22 m

9. A man an means of d a boy carry a mass of 20 kg b/w them by

au
niform pole 1.7m long and mass of 9kg. Where
the weight must placed so that the man may carry twice as
mush
of
weight
as
that
boy.
Ans: 111.18 N, .04646 m
10.
Two unlike parallel forces of magnitude 400 N and 100
N acting in such a way that their lines of action are 150 mm apart.
Determine the magnitude of the resultant force and the point at
which it acts.
Ans: 300 N & 50 mm
11.
Find reaction at point A and B for the beam shown set P=
600lb a = 5ft b = 7ft.

12.

Find the reaction at the points for the beam as shown

- 52 -

13 Find the reaction at the points as shown in diagram

14 Find the reaction at the points as shown in diagram

- 53 -

CHAPTER 3
AND BODY

EQUILIBRIUM OF PARTICLE

Equilibrium of a Particle
When the resultant of all forces acting on a particle is
zero, the particle is said to be in equilibrium.
A particle which is acted aupon two forces
Newtons First Law:
If the resultant force on a particle is zero, the particle
will remain at rest or will continue at constant speed in a
straight line.

- 54 -

Exercise

1. Determine the magnitude of F1 and F2 so that the particle is in

equilibrium

12. Determine the magnitude and direction of F1 and F2 so that the

particle is in equilibrium
Ans:
42.567 lb &
54.723 lb

13. Determine the maximum weight of the engine that can be

supported without exceeding a tension of 450 lb in chain AC
and 480 lb in chain AC.
Ans: 240 lbs

- 55 -

- 56 -

EQUILIBRIUM
A particle is in equilibrium if it is at rest if originally at
rest or has a constant velocity if originally in motion. The
term equilibrium or static equilibrium is used to describe an
object at rest. To maintain equilibrium it is necessary to
satisfy Newtons first law of motion, which requires the
resultant force acting on particle to be equal to zero. That is

F = 0
A
Where F = Sum of all the forces acting on the particle
which is necessary condition for equilibrium. This follows
from Newtons second law of motion, which can be written
as
F = ma.
Put in equation A
ma = 0
Therefore the particle acceleration a = 0. Consequently the
particle indeed moves with constant velocity or at rest.
METHODS FOR THE EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCES
There are many methods of finding the equilibrium but the
following are important
1. Analytical Method
2. Graphical Method
1. Analytical method for the equilibrium of forces
The equilibrium of forces may be studied analytically
by Lamis theorem as discussed under
LAMIS THEOREM
It states, If there are three forces acting at a point be
in equilibrium then each force is proportional to the sine of
the angle between the other two forces.
Let three force F1, F2 and F3 acting at a point and the
opposite angles to three forces are , , and as shown in
figure
F2
F1
Mathematically

F3
EXAMPLE 7

F1
Sin

F2
Sin

F3
Sin

- 57 -

Determine the tension in cables AB and AD for

equilibrium of the 250 kg engine as shown.

TAB
30
TAD
W
Given
Mass of Engine = 250 Kg.
Angle =
= 30
Required:
Tension in the cable = TAB =? TAD =?
Working Formulas
TAD
=
TAB =
W
Sin
Sin
Sin
Solution
We know that W = mg.
W = 250 x 9.81 = 2452.5 N = 2452.5/1000
W = 2.453 KN
From the geometry of diagram we have
= 90 + 30 = 120
= 90
= 180 30 = 150
Put the values in the working formula
TAD
=
TAB =
W
Sin 120
Sin 90
Sin 150
Therefore
TAD = 4.249 KN
Similarly
TAB = 4.906 KN
Result:
TAD = 4.249 KN
TAB = 4.91 KN

- 58 -

Alternate method The same question may be solved by

resolving method
Working Formulas
F=0
Solution
We know that W = mg.
W = 250 x 9.81 = 2452.5 N = 2452.5/1000
W = 2.453 KN
Now resolve force TAB, TAD and W as shown in following
diagram
TAB
30
TAD

Force
#
1

TAB

Magnitude Angle Horizontal

Vertical Components
N

Components Fx
Fy = F Sine
= F Cosine
30
TAB Cosine 30 = .866 TAB Sine 30
=
0.5

TAD

2452.5

90

We know that
+
Fx = 0
.866 TAB TAD 0 = 0
+
Fy = 0
0.5 TAB + 0 2.4525 = 0
From Equation A
TAB = TAD
0.866
Put in equation B
.5 (TAD) + 0 - 2.4525 = 0
0.866
TAD = 4.248 KN
Put in equation C
TAB = 4.248
0.866
TAB = 4.91 KN
- 59 -

TAB
TAD Cosine 0
TAD
2452.5
0

TAB
= TAD Sine 0

Cosine

A
B
C

90 2452.5 Sine 90
2452.5

0
=

Result:

TAB = 4.91 KN

TAD = 4.248 KN

- 60 -

CHAPTER 3
FRICTION
A force which prevents the motion or movement of
the body is called friction or force of friction and its direction
is opposite to the applied external force or motion of the
body. Friction is a force of resistance acting on a body which
prevents or retards motion of the body. Or
When a body slides upon another body, the property due
to which the motion of one relative to the other is retarded is
called friction. This force always acts tangent to the surface
at points of contact with other body and is directed opposite
to the motion of the body.
Explanation
Consider a block resting on, a horizontal plane surface.
Attach a string to one side of the block as shown in Fig.

f the
The other end o
string is connected to the spring balance. Apply an external
force on the balance. Gradually increase the magnitude of the
external force. Initially the body will not move and the effect
of the applied force is nullified. This is because there acts a
force on the block which opposes the motion or movement of
the block. The nature of this opposing force is called friction.
It depends upon many factors. The major cause of friction is
the microscopic roughness of the contact surfaces. No
surface is perfectly smooth. Every surface is composed of
crests and falls as shown in fig b. It is the interlocking
of the crests of one surface into the falls of the other surface
which produces the resistance against the movement of one
body over the other body. When the force exerted is
sufficient to overcome the friction, the movement ensures and
the crests are being sheared off. This gives rise to heat and
raises the local temperature. This is also the reason of the
wear of the contact surfaces. This phenomenon of friction
necessitates the presence o fluid film between the two
surfaces to avoid wear of surfaces. The process of creating
the fluid film is called lubrication.

TYPES OF FRICTION
Friction is of the following two types.
- 61 -

1.

Static Friction
It is the friction acting on the body when the body is
at the state of rest or the friction called into play before the
body tends to move on the surface is called static friction.
The magnitude of the static friction is equal to the applied
force. It varies from zero to maximum until the movement
ensures.

- 62 -

2.

Dynamic Friction
It is the friction acting on the body when body is in
motion is called dynamic friction. Dynamic friction is also
known as kinetic friction. The magnitude of the dynamic
friction is constant.
The dynamic friction has two types
i. Sliding Friction
ii. Rolling Friction
i.
Sliding friction
The sliding friction acts on those bodies, which slide
over each other for example the friction between piston, and
cylinder will slide friction because the motion of the motion
of the piston in cylinder is sliding and there is surface contact
between piston and cylinder.
ii.
Rolling Friction
The rolling friction acts on those bodies which have
point contact with each other for example the motion of the
wheel on the railway track is the example of rolling motion
and the friction between the wheel and railway track is
rolling friction. It is experimentally found that the magnitude
of the sliding friction is more than the rolling friction because
in the rolling friction there is a point contact rather than
surface contact.
LIMITING FRICTION
The maximum friction (before the movement of body)
which can be produced by the surfaces in contact is known as
limiting friction
It is experimentally found that friction directly varies
as the applied force until the movement produces in the body.
Let us try to slide a body of weight w over another body by a
force P as shown in fig
Motion of the body

Pan

A little consideration will show that the body will not

move because the friction F which prevents the motion. It
shows that the applied force P is exactly balanced by the
force of friction acting in the opposite direction of applied

force P. if we increase the force P by increasing the weight in

the pan, the friction F will adjust itself according to applied
- 63 -

force P and the body will not move. Thus the force of friction
has a property of adjusting its magnitude to become exactly
equal and opposite to the applied force which tends to
produce the motion.
There is however a limit beyond which the friction
cannot increase. If the applied force increases this limit the
force of friction cannot balance applied force and body
begins to move in the direction of applied force. This
maximum value of friction, which acts on body just begin to
move, is known as limiting friction. It may be noted that
when the applied force is less than the limiting friction the
body remains at rest, and the friction is called static friction,
which may have any values zero to limiting friction.

- 64 -

NORMAL REACTION
Let us consider a body A of weight W rest over
another surface B and a force P acting on the body to slide
the body on the surface B as shown in fig
R
Body A

P
Surface B

F
W = mg
A little concentration will show that the body A
presses the surface B downward equal to weight of the body
and in reaction surface B lift the body in upward direction of
the same magnitude but in opposite direction therefore the
body in equilibrium this upward reaction is termed as normal
reaction and it is denoted by R or N.
Note
It is noted the weight W is not always perpendicular
to the surface of contact and hence normal reaction R is not
equal to the weight W of body in such a case the normal
reaction is equal to the component of weight perpendicular to
surface.
CO EFFICIENT OF FRICTION
The ratio of limiting friction and normal reaction is
called coefficient of friction and is denoted by .
Let
R = normal reaction
And
F = force of friction (limiting friction)
= Co efficient of friction
F=
R
F=R
ANGLE OF FRICTION
The angle of a plane at which body just begins to slide
down the plane is called angle of frication. Consider a body
resting on an inclined plane as shown in diagram.
R
F
w

- 65 -

The body is in equilibrium under the Acton of the following

forces
1. Weight of the body acting vertically downwards = w
2. Friction force acting along upwards = F
3. Normal reaction acting at right angle to the plane =R

- 66 -

Let the angle of inclination be gradually increased till the

body just starts sliding down the plane. This angle of inclined
plane at which a body just begins to slide down the plane is
called the angle of friction. And it is equal to the angle between
normal reaction R and the resultant between frictional force F
and normal reaction R
w

F
FR
R
Tan = F / R
From
diagram
But
F/R=
Where is the co-efficient of friction,
Tan =
LAWS OF FRICTION
These laws are listed below:
1.

Laws of Static Friction

1 The force of friction always acts in a direction opposite to that in

which the body tends to move.
2 The magnitude of force of static friction is just sufficient to
prevent a body from moving and it is equal to the applied
force.
3. The force of static friction does not depend upon, shape, area,
volume, size etc. as long as normal reaction remains the same.
4. The limiting force of friction bears a constant ratio to normal
reaction and this constant ratio is called coefficient of static friction.
2.

Laws of Dynamic Friction

1 When a body is moving with certain velocity, it is opposed by a

force called force of dynamic friction.
2 The force of dynamic friction comes into play during the motion of
the body and as soon as the body stops, the force of friction
disappears.

- 67 -

3 The force of dynamic friction is independent of area, volume,

shape, size etc. of the body so long the normal reaction remains the
same.
However, to some extent it varies with the magnitude of
velocity of the body. Force of dynamic friction is high for
low speeds and low for very high speeds.
4 The ratio of force of dynamic friction and normal reaction on the
body is called coefficient of dynamic friction.

EQUILIBRIUM OF A BODY ON A ROUGH

HORIZONTAL PLANE
We know that a body lying on a rough horizontal
plane will remain in equilibrium but when ever a force is
applied on the body it will tend to move in the direction of
force. Consider a body moving on a horizontal Plane under
the influence of force P which is inclined at an angle to the
surface. As shown in fig
R
P

F
w
Where

w = weight of the body

P = applied force
= Angle of Repose
F = friction
= angle of inclination of the plane the
horizontal
Resolve the applied force P into its component that
is Horizontal component = P Cos Vertical
component = P Sin
Now consider the horizontal & vertical equilibrium condition
of the body then
F = P Cos
1
And
w = R + P Sin
2
The value of P can be determined by following formula

P=

w Sin . Cos
( )
For minimum force P
- 68 -

P=

W Sin

MOTION OF BODY ON INCLINED PLANE IN

UPWARD DIRECTION
Let
W = weight of the body
P = applied
force
= Angle of Repose = angle of inclination
of the plane the horizontal
Now consider the following two
cases
Case 1) When angle of inclination of the force to plane is
R

w Sine
F

w Cos
w

Consider the forces acting on body which are parallel to the

plane also consider the equilibrium of body
P cosine = w sin + F
P cosine = w sin + R
1
Similarly the forces acting on body normal to the plane and
consider the equilibrium condition
R + P sin = w cosine
2
The magnitude of the force P can be calculated by the
following formula

- 69 -

P=

W Sin ( + )
Cosine ( )

Case 2) When the force is parallel to the plane

R
P

w Sine
F

w Cos
w

By considering the equilibrium of the forces parallel and

normal to the plane we have
P = w Sine + F
P = w Sine + R1 And
R
= w Cosine
2 The force P can be
calculated by the following formula
P=
.W Sin ( + )
Cos
Motion of body on Inclined plane in downward direction
Let
W = weight of the body
P = applied
force
= angle of inclination of the plane the
horizontal
= Angle of Repose
= angle of force P
Now consider the following two cases
Case 1 When angle of inclination of the force to plane is
P
R

F
w Sine

w Cos
w

Now consider the forces acting parallel to the plane also the
equilibrium of forces
P cosine + F = w sin
P cosine +R = w sin
1
Similarly consider the force normal to the plane
R + P sin = w cos
2

- 70 -

The magnitude of the force P can be calculated by the

following formula
P=
.W Sin ( - )
Cos ( )
Case 2 when the force is parallel to the plane
R

P
F

w Sine

w Cos

w
From diagram we
have
P + F = w Sine
P + R = w Sine
1
Similarly
R = w Cos
2
The force P can be calculated by following formula
P=
.W Sin ( - )
Cos

- 71 -

EQUILIBRIUM OF LADDER
A ladder is a device which is used to climb up or down
to the roof or walls. It consists of two long uprights and number
of rungs which makes the steps of the ladder.
Consider a ladder which is resting on ground and leaning
against walls as shown in the fig. Let
L = Length of ladder
w1 = Weight of ladder acts at middle of the ladder
w2= Weight of man climbing up acts at the distance x
from the lower end
f = co efficient of friction between floor and ladder
w = co efficient of friction between ladder and wall
Let us suppose ladder slips down wards
Ff = friction produce between floor and ladder towards
wall as ladder moves away from the wall.
Fw = friction produce between wall and ladder upwards
as
ladder
moves
down
wards
Fw
B

Rw
L2

w2
A

w1

Ff

C
L4
L3

L1
For the sake of convince we consider that the friction at
B is zero i.e. the wall is perfectly smooth. Now take the
moment about B.
Rf x L1 = Ff x L2 + w2 x L3 + w1x L4
Where
F f = f x Rf
Rf x L1 = (f x Rf x L2) + w2 x L3 + w1x L4
A
Similarly consider the friction at A is zero i.e. the floor is
perfectly
smooth
as
shown
in
figure.
Fw
B

Rw
L2

w2 w1
A

C
L4

- 72 -

L3
Therefore
Where

L1
Rw x L2 = Fw x L1 + w1 x L3 + w2x L4
Fw = w x Rw
Rw x L2 = (w x Rw x L1) + w1 x L3 + w2x L4
A

- 73 -

EXAMPLE 1
A horse exerts a pull of 3 KN just to move a carriage
having a mass of 800 kg. Determine the co efficient of friction
between the wheel and the ground
Take g = 10 m/sec
Given
P = 3 KN
Mass = m = 800 Kg
g = 10 m/sec
Required
co efficient of friction = =?
Working formula
F=R
Solution we know that
W = mg
W = 800 x 10 = 8000 N
A little consideration will show that the weight of the
carriage is equal to the normal reaction because that the body
is horizontal to the plane as shown in fig
Therefore
W = R
and
P = F
R
Put the values in working formula we get
300 = 8000

=
0375
P
Result co efficient of friction = 0.375
F
w = mg
EXAMPLE 2
A pull of 490 N inclined at 30 to the horizontal is
necessary to move a block of wood on a horizontal table. If
the coefficient of friction between to bodies in contact is 0.2
what is the mass of the block
Given
P = 490 N
= 30
= 0.2
Required
mass of block =?
Solution
Now consider the following diagram and also resolve the
force P into horizontal and vertical components.
R
P=
490 N

Sine
F= R

P Cosine

w = mg
Now apply the condition of equilibrium the forces acting in x
axis is positive
+
Fx = 0
P Cosine F = 0

- 74 -

P Cosine R = 0
490 Cosine 30 0.2 x R = 0 Therefore

R = 2121.762
Now consider the forces acting in y axis is positive
+
Fy= 0
R + P Sine W = 0
R + P Sine mg = 0
2121.762 + 490 Sine 30 m x 9.81 = 0
m = 241.260 Kg
Result
mass of the wooden block = 241.260 Kg

- 75 -

EXAMPLE 3
A body of mass 100 Kg rests on horizontal plane the
co efficient of friction between body and the plane 0.40. Find
the work done in moving the body through a distance of 20 m
along the plane.
Given
m = 100 Kg = 0.40
d = 20 m
Required
work done =?
Working formula
1 W=Fxd
2 Fs = R
Solution
we know that
R = W = mg
R = W = 10 x 9.81 = 98.1 N
nd
Put the values in 2 working formula we get
Fs = 0.40 x 98.1
Fs = 39.24 N
st
Now put the values in 1 working formula
W = 39.24 x 20
W = 748.8 N
Resultant
weight = 748.8 N
EXAMPLE 4
A weight of 50 N is resting on the horizontal table and
can be moved by a horizontal force of 20 N. Find the co
efficient of friction, the direction and magnitude of the
resultant between normal reaction and frictional force
Given
Required

W = 50 N
P = 20 N
co efficient of friction = =?
Direction = =?
Resultant = S =?
Working formula
1
F=R
w = 50 N
2
S=
R + Fs
3 Tan =
Solution
put the value in 1st working formula
P = 20 N
Fs = R
20 = x 50
F

= 0.4

R
put
S

the

value

in

the

2nd

S=
S=

50 + 20
53.85 N

working

formula

Put the value in the 3rd working formula

Tan =
- 76 -

Tan = 0.4
=21.801
Result Co efficient of friction = = 0.4
Direction = = 21.801
Resultant = S = 53.85 N

- 77 -

EXAMPLE 5
A ladder 5 m long rests on a horizontal ground and
leans against a smooth vertical wall at an angle 70 with the
horizontal. The weight of the ladder is 900 N and acts at its
middle. The ladder is at the point of sliding, when a man
weighing 750 N stands on a rung 1.5 m from the bottom of the
ladder. Calculate the coefficient of friction between the ladder
and the floor.
2.5 m
B
20
L4
x
1.5 m
L3
L2
w2
w1
70
Ff A
L1
C
Rf
Given
Length of leader = L = 5 m weight of leader
= w1 = 900 N
Weight of man = w2 = 750 N inclination
of
leader = = 70
Distance covered by man from bottom = 1.5 m
Required
coefficient of frication between ladder and
floor = f =?
Working formula
Rf x L1 = (f x Rf x L2) + w2 x L3 + w1x
L4
Solution we know that
Rf = w1 + w2
Rf = 900 + 750
Rf = 1650 N
We can calculate L1, L2, by considering the geometry of the
figure. Now consider the triangle ABC
Cos 70 = L1/L = L1/5
L1 = 1.7101 m
And
Sin 70 = L2/L = L2/5
L2 = 4.698 m
Similarly we can calculate the L3 & L4 by considering the
geometry of the figure
Sin 20 = L4/2.5
L4 = 0.85 m
And
Sin 20 = L3/5-1.5
L3 = 1.197 m
Put the values in the working formula to calculate the
coefficient of friction between the floor and ladder
Rf x L1 = (f x Rf x L2) + w2 x L3 + w1x L4
1650 x 1.7101 = f x 1650 x 4.698 + 750 x
1.197 + 900 x 0.85

- 78 -

Resultant

f = 0.149
Coefficient of friction = f = 0.15

EXERCISE 3
1. A block having a mass of 220 Kg is resting on a wooden
table what is the minimum force necessary to impart motion
to the block when the coefficient of friction between the
block and the table is 0.25.
A
n
s
:
5
3
9
N
2. A 12 N force is just able to slide a block of weight of 100 N
on a horizontal plane board. What is the co efficient of
friction? What is the least value of the inclination of the
plane so as to allow the block to slide downward by self?
Ans: 0.21 and 6.0
3. A block of wood weighing 3 lb. rests on a horizontal
table. A horizontal force 1.25 lb. is just sufficient to
cause it to slide. Find the coefficient of friction for the
two surfaces and the angle of friction
Ans: 0.42 & 22.6
4. A block of wood weighing 7.5 kg rests on a horizontal
table and can just be moved along by a force equal to 2 kg
weight. Another 3 kg is placed on the block what is the
least horizontal force which will just move the block
Ans: 2.8 kg & 0.2667
5. A body of weight 6 lb rests on a horizontal table and the
coefficient of friction between the two surfaces is 0.32.
What horizontal force will be required to start the body
moving?
Ans: 1.92 lbs
6. A block of wood of weight 2.5 kg rests on a rough
horizontal board and the coefficient of friction between the
surfaces is 0.4 by means of string inclined at 30 to the
board. A pull is exerted on the block witch is just
sufficient to make it move. Calculate the amount of the
pull.

Ans: 0.938 kg

- 79 -

7. A body rests on a rough horizontal board. This is gradually

tilted until, when it is inclined at 22 to the horizontal,
the body begins to move down the plane. What is the
coefficient of friction between the body and the plane? If
the body weighs 2.5 what is the magnitude of the force of
friction when the body begins to slip.
Ans: 0.936 N
8. A block of wood rests on an inclined plane and the
coefficient of friction between it and the plane is 0.31. At
what angle must the plane be inclined to the horizontal so
that the block begins to move down the plane?
Ans: 17.22
9. A block rests on a horizontal board. The board is gradually
tilted upward and the block begins to slide down the board
when the angle of inclination is 1 is 21. After the block
starts moving, it is found that it keep sliding at constant
speed when the angle of tilt is 15. Find the coefficient of
static friction and the coefficient of dynamic friction between
the block and the board.
Ans: 0384 & 0.268
10. A body of weight is 20 lb is placed on a rough inclined
plane whose slope 37. if the coefficient of friction between
the plane and the body is 0.2 find the least force acting
parallel to the plane required
To prevent the body by sliding down
Ans: 8.842 lbs
To pull the body up the plane
Ans: 15.23 lbs
11. A uniform ladder of length 3.25 m and weighing 250 N is
placed against a smooth vertical wall with its lower end
1.25m from the wall. The coefficient of friction between the
ladder and floor is 0.3. What is the frictional force acting
on the ladder at the point of contact between the ladder
and the floor?
Ans: 52.083 N

- 80 -

CHAPTER 4

CENTRE OF GRAVITY

The center of gravity is a point where whole the

weight of the body act is called center of gravity. As we
know that every particle of a body is attracted by the earth
towards its center with a magnitude of the weight of the
body. As the distance between the different particles of a
body and the center of the earth is the same, therefore these
forces may be taken to act along parallel lines. A point may
be found out in a body, through which the resultant of all
such parallel forces acts. This point, through which the whole
resultant (weight of the body acts, irrespective of its position,
is known as center of gravity (briefly written as C.G). It may
be noted that every body has one and only one center of
gravity.
CENTROID
The plane figures (like triangle, quadrilateral, circle etc.)
have only areas, but no mass. The center of area of such
figures is known as Centroid. The method of finding out the
Centroid of a figure is the same as that of finding out the
center of gravity of a body.
AXIS OF REFERENCE
The center of gravity of a body is always calculated with
referrer to some assumed axis known as axis of reference. The
axis of reference, of plane figures, is generally taken as the
lowest line of the figure for calculating y and the left line of
the figure for calculating x.
METHODS FOR CENTRE OF GRAVITY OF SIMPLE
FIGURES
The center of gravity (or Centroid) may be found out by any
one of the following methods
I. By geometrical considerations
2. By moments method
3. By graphical method
1 Center of Gravity by Geometrical Considerations
The center of gravity of simple figures may be found out
from the geometry of the figure
A)The center of gravity of plane figure
1. The center of g of uniform rod is at its middle point.
A
B

- 81 -

Center of gravity = L / 2 from point A or B

2. The center of gravity of a rectangle is at a point, where its diagonals
meet each other. It is also a mid point of the length as well as the
breadth of the rectangle as shown in fig
C
D
G = L/2
from AD or BC
h
from AB or DC

G = h/2
Area = L x

h
A

B
L

- 82 -

3. The center of gravity of a square is a point, where its diagonals

meet each other. It is a mid point of its side as shown in fig

G = a/2 from any

side
a

Area = 2x a

a
4. The center of gravity of a parallelogram is at a point, where its
diagonals meet each other. It is also a mid point of the length as
well as the height of the parallelogram as shown in fig
C
D
G = L/2
from AD or BC
h
from AB or DC

G = h/2
Area = L

xh
A

L
5. The center of gravity of a triangle is at the point, where the three
medians (a median is a line connecting the vertex and middle
point of the opposite side) of the triangle meet as shown in Fig.
C
G
= 2h/3 from point C
h

= h/3 from point A,B

A
rea = b x h
2
A

6. The center of gravity of the circle is the center of the circle

- 83 -

G = r or d/2 from any

point from the
circumference

Area = x r

7. The center of gravity of the semi circle is at a distance 4 r/3

from diameter AB
G = 4 r/3

from diameter AB

Area = xr
2

G
A

- 84 -

8. The center of gravity of quarter circular at a distance 4 r/3

from diameter AC
C
G = 4 r/3
from radius AC
Area = xr
4
A

B
r

9. The center of gravity of sector is at a distance 2rsin/3 from

center c.

G=

2rsin/3

Area = x r

O
R
10. The center of gravity of a trapezium is at a distance of
h/3x [b+2a/b+a] form the side AB as shown in Fig.
a
G=h

b + 2a

b
3

b+a
h
h

Area = h (a + b)
2
b
11. The center of gravity semi circular arc is at distance 2 r/
from AB
G = 2 r/ from

AB
2xr

Length of Arc =

- 85 -

8. The center of gravity of quarter arc is at a distance 2 r/

B
G = 2 r/
Length of arc AB =
r /2
G
A
r
B) THE CENTRE OF GRAVITY OF SOLID BODY
1. The center of gravity of a sphere is at a distance r from any point
G = r or d/2 from any point from the circumference
Volume of sphere = 4 x x r
3

2. The center of gravity of a hemisphere is at a distance of 3r/8 from

its base, as shown in fig.
G=3xr
8
Volume of
sphere = 2 x x r
3

3. The gravity of right circular solid cone is at a distance h/4 from its
base, measured along the vertical axis
G = h/4
Volume of cone = 1 x x r x h
3

- 86 -

4. The center of gravity of a cube is at a distance of h/4 from every

face (where h is the length of each side).
G = h/4
Volume of cube =

length x width x height

5. The center of gravity of a cylinder is h/2 from diameter AB

G = h/2
Volume of cylinder =

x r x h
h

- 87 -

CENTRE OF GRAVITY BY MOMENTS

The center of gravity of a body may also be found out
by moments as discussed below. Consider a body of mass M
whose center of gravity is required to be found out. Now
divide the body into small strips of masses whose centers of
gravity are known as shown in fig
y
x1

x2
x3
x
x
Let

m1, m2, m3 . = mass of strips 1, 2, 3,

x1, x2, and x3 = the corresponding perpendicular
distance or the center of gravity of strips from Y axis
According to principal of moment
M x = m1 x1 + m2 x2 + m3 x3
Mx=mx
x = mx
1
M
Where m = m1 + m2 + m3 + ..
And x = x1 + x2 + x3 + ..
Similarly
y = my
2
M
The plane geometrical figures (such as T-section, 1-section,
L-section etc.) have only areas but no mass the center of
gravity of such figures is found out in the same way as that of
solid bodies. Therefore the above two equations will become

Or

Or

x = ax
A
x = a1 x1 + a2 x2 + a3 x3 +
a1 + a2 + a3 +
y = ay
A
y = a1 y1 + a2 y2 + a3 y3 +

- 88 -

a1 + a2 + a3 +

EXAMPLE 4
Find the center of gravity of a 100 mm x 150 mm x 30 mm
T-section. As shown in the fig
100 mm
30 mm
150 mm

Given

Height = 150 mm
width = 100 mm
thick ness = 30 mm
Required
center of gravity = y =?
Working formulae
y = ay
or y = a1 y1 + a2
y2 + a3 y3 +
A
a 1 + a2
+ a3 +
Solution
# Body
Area mm
Distance (y) mm
1 Rectangular ABCD a1 = 100 x 30
= 3000 30/2
= 15
2 Rectangular EFGH a2 = (150 30) x 30 = 3600 150-30/2 = 135
= 9600
Put in the working formula
y = a y = 531000
Y = 94.09 mm
A
9600
Result center of gravity = 94.09 mm
EXAMPLE 2
Find the center of gravity of a channel section 100 mm x
50mm x 15 mm.
A
B
C

D
E

100 mm
G
- 89 -

Area x y
3000 x 15 = 45
3600 x135 = 48
= 53100 0

15 mm

50 mm
Required center of gravity =?
Working formula x = a1 x1 + a2 x2 + a3 x3 +
a1 + a2 + a3 +

- 90 -

Solution Consider the rectangle ABC

Area = a1 = 50 x 15 = 750 mm
x1
= 50 / 2 = 25 mm
Consider the rectangle CEFG
Area = a2 = (100 -15-15) x 15 = 1050 mm
x21 = 15 / 2 = 7.5 mm
Consider the rectangle FHIJ
Area = a3 = 50 x 15 = 750 mm
x3
= 50 / 2 = 25 mm
Put the values in the working formula
x = a1 x1 + a2x2 + a3 x3
=
750 x 25 + 1050
x 7.5 x 750 x 25
a 1 + a2 + a3
25 + 7.5 +
25
x = 17 .8 mm
Result

Center of gravity = 17.8 mm

CENTRE OF GRAVITY OF UNSYMMETRICAL

SECTIONS
Sometimes, the given section, whose center of gravity
is required to be found out, is not symmetrical either about xaxis or y-axis. In such cases, we have to find out both the
values of center of gravity of x and y which means with
reference to x axis and y axis
EXAMPLE 3
Find the centroid of an unequal angle section 100 mm x
80 mm x 20mm.
C
D

100 mm
F

G
20 mm

B
E
80 mm
Required center of gravity =?
Working formula
x = a1 x1 + a2 x2
a1 + a2
y = a1 y1 + a2 y2
a1 + a2
# Body
Area mm
1 Rectangular ABCD a1 = 100 x 20
- 91 -

= 2000

Distance (x) mm
x1 = 20/10 =10

Distanc e (y)
y1 =100/2 = 50

2 Rectangular BEFG

a2 = (80 20) x 20 = 1200

x2 = 20 60/2 =50

Put the value in the first working formula

x = a1 x1 + a2 x2
= (2000 x 10 ) + (1200 x
50)
x = 25 mm
a1 + a2
10 + 60
y = a1 y1 + a2 y2
= ( 2000 x 50 ) + (1200 x
10)
y = 35 mm
a1 + a2
10 + 60
Result
x = 25 mm
y = 35 m

- 92 -

y2 = 20/2 = 10

CENTRE OF GRAVITY OF SOLID BODIES

The center of gravity of solid bodies (such as
hemisphere, cylinder, right circular solid cone etc) is found
out in the same way as that of the plane figures. The only
difference between the plane and solid bodies is that in the
case of solid bodies we calculate volumes instead of areas
EXAMPLE 4
A solid body formed by joining the base of a right
circular cone of height H to the equal base of right circular
cylinder of height h. calculate the distance of the center of
gravity of the solid from its plane face when H = 120 mm and
h = 30 mm
Given

cylinder height = h = 30 mm
Right circular cone = H = 120 mm
center
of
gravity

Required
120 mm
Working formula

=?

y = v1 y1 + v2 y2
v1 + v2
Solutio
n
Consider
the
cylinder
30 mm
Volume of cylinder = x r x 30 = 94.286 r
C.G of cylinder = y1 = 30/2 = 15mm
Now consider the right circular cone
Volume of cone = /3 x r x 120 = 377.143 r
C.G of cone = y2 = 30 + 120/4 = 60 mm
Put the values in the formula
y = v1 y1 + v2 y2 = 94.286 r x 15 + 377.143 r x
60
v1 + v2
94.286 r +377.143 r
y = 40.7 mm
Result center of gravity = 40.7 mm
CENTRE OF GRAVITY OF SECTIONS WITH CUT
OUT HOLES
The center of gravity of such a section is found out by
considering the main section; first as a complete one and then
deducting the area of the cut out hole that is taking the area of
the cut out hole as negative. Now substituting the area of the

cut out hole as negative, in the general equation for the center
of gravity, so the equation will become
x = a1 x1 - a2 x2
a1 - a2
- 93 -

Or

y = a1 y1 - a2 y2
a1 - a2

- 94 -

EXAMPLE 5
A semicircles of 90 mm radius is cut out from a
trapezium as shown in fig find the position of the center of
gravity
C

a = 200 mm

D
h = 120 mm

A
B

b = 300
mm

90 mm

Given
Trapezium ABCD
b = 300 mm

a = 200 mm

h = 120

mm
Semicircle
radius = r = 90 mm
Working Formula y = a1 y1 - a2 y2
a1 - a2
Solution
Area of trapezium = a + b x h = 200 + 300 x 120 = 30000
mm
2
2
centre of gravity of trazezium = y1 = h = [ b + 2 a]
3
b+a
4
y1 = 120 [ 300 + 2 x 200] = 56 mm
3
300 + 200
4
Area of semicircle = area of the circle = r = 90 =
89100 mm
2
2
2
Center of gravity of the semicircle = 4 r = 4 90 = 38.183
3
3
Put the values in working formula
y = 30000 x 56 89100 x 38.183
30000 - 89100
Result
Center of the gravity = 69.1 mm

- 95 -

EXERCISE 4
1. An I section has the following dimensions in mm units.
Top flange = 150 x 50
Bottom flange = 300
x100 Web = 300 x 50
Find the center of gravity (centroid)
Ans: 160.7 mm
2. A uniform lamina shown in fig consists of rectangle, a semi circle and a
triangle. Find the centre of gravity

Ans: 71.1 mm
3. Find the centre of gravity of T section with flange 150 mm x 10 mm and web also
100 mm x 10 mm.
150
10

150 mm

Ans: 115 mm
4. Find the center of gravity a T section with top flange 100 mm x 20 mm web
200 mm x 30 mm and the bottom flange 300 mm x 40 mm
100 mm
20 mm

200 mm
30 mm

- 96 -

40 mm
300 mm
Ans: 79mm

- 97 -

5. Find the center of gravity of an unequal angle section 10 cm x 16 cm x 2 cm

10 cm
2 cm
16 cm
Ans: 5.67 mm and 2.67 mm
6. A body consists of a right circular solid cone of height 40 mm and radius 30 mm
placed on a solid hemisphere of radius 30 mm of the same material find the
position of the center of gravity of the body

40 mm

30mm

Ans: 28.4 mm
7. A hemisphere of 60 mm diameter is placed on the top of the cylinder having 60
mm diameter. Find the center of gravity of the body from the base of the
cylinder if its height is 100 mm.
Ans: 60.2 mm
8. A semicircular area is removed from a trapezium as shown in fig determine the
position of the center of gravity

60 mm

- 98 -

30 mm
40 mm
Ans

- 99 -

40 mm

9. A circular hole of 50 mm diameter is cut out from a circular

disc of 100 mm diameter as shown in fig find the center of
gravity of the section

100 mm

50 mm

Ans: 41.7 mm
10.Find the center of gravity of a semicircular section having outer and
inner diameters of 200 mm and 160 mm respectively as shown in
fig.

160 mm
200 mm
Ans: 57.5 mm

- 100 -