C1a 1 Limestone

1.1

limestone

1.2

quicklime and slaked lime

1.3

cement, concrete and glass

C1a 1.1 Limestone

Limestone consists mainly of calcium carbonate (CaCO3)
Limestone can be used to create glass, cement and concrete
When we heat limestone strongly, it breaks down to form quicklime or calcium
oxide (CaO). This is called thermal decomposition and it also produces carbon
dioxide:
calcium carbonate calcium oxide + carbon dioxide
CaCO3

CaO
+
CO2

C1a 1.2 Quicklime and Slaked Lime

When we add water to quicklime we get slaked lime or calcium hydroxide, written
as Ca(OH)2

calcium oxide + water calcium hydroxide

CaO + H2O Ca(OH)2
The above reaction is exothermic, as it gives out heat
We can dissolve calcium hydroxide in water in small amounts, and after filtering it,
produce lime water. When carbon dioxide is bubbled through clear lime water, it will
turn cloudy, because calcium carbonate has formed
calcium hydroxide + carbon dioxide calcium carbonate + water
+
CO2

CaCO3
+
H2O
Ca(OH)2

C1a 1.3 Cement, Concrete and Glass

Heating limestone with clay in a kiln produces cement
Limestone which is heated with clay and other minerals produces Portland cement

which is ground into a fine powder. This solution is mixed with sand and water so it
can be used as a building material which will set when left for a few days
Adding crushed rock to the mixture of cement, sand and water makes concrete
This stone-like building material can be poured around metal rods or bars, and
allowing it to set forms reinforced concrete
When powdered limestone is heated with sand and soda (sodium carbonate), it
forms glass

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C1a 2 Rocks and Metals

2.1

Extracting metals

2.2

Extracting iron - the blast furnace

2.3

Iron and steels

2.4

Alloys

2.5

Aluminium and titanium

C1a 2.1 Extracting Metals

Metals are found in the Earths crust, and most of them are

combined with other elements, usually oxygen, so they must be

chemically separated from their compounds
A rock containing a reasonable amount of a metal is a metal ore
Some metals are so unreactive that they do not combine with
other elements (e.g. gold, silver, platinum) and so are found in
their native state
The way in which we extract metals depends on its place in the
reactivity series
- A more reactive metal will displace a less reactive metal from its
compound in general
- Carbon (a non-metal) will also displace a less reactive metal
from its oxide
- We use carbon to extract metals from their ores commercially
Many metals are found in their metal oxide form, like copper, lead
and zinc. Because carbon is more reactive than these metals, we
can use it to extract them from their ores
When you heat the metal oxide with the carbon, the carbon
removes the oxygen to form carbon dioxide, leaving the pure
element behind:
metal oxide + carbon metal + carbon dioxide
e.g. lead oxide + carbon lead + carbon dioxide
2PbO
+ C 2Pb
+
CO2
We call the removal of oxygen this way a reduction reaction

C1a 2.2 Extracting Iron The Blast Furnace

Iron is the second most common ore in the crust, and iron ore contains oxygen. As

iron is less reactive than carbon, we can remove oxygen from the ore using carbon
We extract iron using a blast furnace
In the blast furnace, we enter three substances:
- haematite, which is the most common iron ore, containing mostly iron(III) oxide and
some sand written as Fe2O3
- a substance made from coal which is almost pure carbon called coke
- and limestone
Hot air is blown into the furnace, making the furnace heat up, forming carbon dioxide
as the coke reacts with the oxygen
C + O2 CO2
The carbon dioxide reacts with the coke a second time, forming carbon monoxide
CO2 + C 2CO

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The carbon monoxide reacts with the iron oxide, removing its oxygen and reducing it
to molten iron, which flows out of the bottom of the furnace
Fe2O3 + 3CO 2Fe + 3CO2

C1a 2.3 Iron and Steels

The iron produced by the blast furnace is only about 96% iron, and is called pig iron
Pig iron contains carbon, but we can treat it to remove this carbon
Removing all the carbon and other impurities makes pure iron, which is soft and

bendy, and not that useful, so to make sure it is really useful, we ensure it has tiny
amounts of other elements in it, including carbon and certain metals
We call a metal containing other elements an alloy
We call iron which has had other elements alloyed to it a steel
There are many different steels, the most common of which being carbon steels,
containing from 0.03% to 1.50% carbon. Carbon steels are the cheapest steels to
make and can be used for a variety of things, including car bodies and building
Low-alloy steels contain 1% - 5% of many other elements, and are more expensive
than carbon steels
High-alloy steels contain between 12% and 15% of other elements, and are even
more expensive to make. An example of a high-alloy steel is chromium-nickel steel,
more commonly known as stainless steel, often used for cooking utensils and
cutlery

C1a 2.4 Alloys

Copper is a useful metal which we have used for thousands of years
Bronze, probably the first alloy made, is formed by alloying copper with tin but we

can also add a range of other elements to give the bronze different properties
More workable than bronze is brass, made by alloying copper with zinc
Aluminium is a metal with over 300 alloys, as it can be alloyed with many elements
If we bend (or deform) alloys and heat them, some will return to their original shape.
These shape memory alloys (or SMAs) are examples of smart alloys

C1a 2.5 Aluminium and Titanium

Aluminium is a metal with many uses. Some of its most useful properties are that it is

a reactive metal, but it does not corrode easily

The most common aluminium ore is named bauxite, and it is mined using open-cast
mining
Because carbon is less reactive than aluminium, carbon will not reduce aluminium
oxide to aluminium, but instead we need to use electrolysis
Electrolysis requires a lot of electricity. The aluminium oxide must be in liquid form,
so high temperatures are needed. During the process, aluminium forms at the
negative electrode and the oxygen forms at the positive electrode. The oxygen
reacts with the carbon electrode and lots of carbon dioxide (and some carbon
monoxide) are formed. The aluminium is released from the electrolysis cell as a
liquid

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C1a 3 Rocks and Metals

3.1

crude oil

3.2

fractional distillation

3.3

cleaner fuels

C1a 3.1 Crude Oil

Crude oil is made of many different chemical compounds
Crude oil contains hydrocarbons, which are compounds of carbon and hydrogen

atoms only
Hydrocarbons which are saturated are called alkanes. Being saturated means they
have as much hydrogen in their molecules as possible
The main alkanes are:
The general formula for
alkane molecules is:
CnH2n+2
This means that for every
carbon atom there is n
there are twice as many
hydrogen atoms plus two
more 2n + 2

C1a 3.2 Fractional Distillation

We can separate crude oil
using fractional distillation
The chains of hydrocarbons
vary in size, and differentlysized hydrocarbon chains
have different properties, as
shown in the table on the
following page
We separate crude oil into
fractions, which are groups
of hydrocarbons with similar
properties
Each fraction of hydrocarbon
molecules contains
hydrocarbons with similar
amounts of carbon atoms,
each of these fractions boil at different temperatures because of the number of
carbon atoms per molecule
- Crude oil is fed into the bottom of the fractioning column as hot vapour. The tower
is kept at high temperatures at the bottom and is cooler at the top, so the column
decreases in temperature as you go up the column
- These different gases condense when they reach their boiling points, and the
different fractions are collected at different levels
- Hydrocarbons with the smallest molecules have the lowest boiling points, and are
collected at the top of the tower. At the bottom, fractions have high boiling points,
they cool to form thick liquids or solids at room temperature

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C1a 3.3 Cleaner Fuels

Burning hydrocarbons

releases substances
such as carbon dioxide
into the atmosphere
Some substances
dissolve in droplets of
water and fall as acid
rain
Carbon dioxide released
by burning fuels is a
greenhouse gas which
reduces the rate at which
energy is lost from the
surface of the Earth by
radiation
We can use cleaner fuels
which dont release any
or as many greenhouse
gases, e.g. gasohol

C1b 4 Products From Oil

4.1

cracking hydrocarbons

4.2

polymers

4.3

plastics

C1b 4.1 Cracking Hydrocarbons

We can break down hydrocarbons in a process called cracking
Cracking is normally carried out at high temperatures using a catalyst. This is known

as catalytic cracking
Catalytic cracking takes place in a cat cracker:
- The fraction produced from crude oil is heated to form a gas
- The hydrocarbon gas is passed over a hot catalyst where thermal
decomposition takes place
- The larger molecules split apart to form smaller molecules, which are more useful

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Here is an example of cracking:

C10H22

800oC + catalyst

(decane)

C5H12
(pentane)

C3H6

(propene)

C2H4

(ethene)
Some
hydrocarbons are
unsaturated
because they
have
carbon=carbon
double bonds.
These are called
alkenes
The main alkenes
are shown in the
diagram to the left

C1b 4.2 Polymers

We can make chemicals from crude oil which we use to make plastics
Plastics are made from huge molecules, which consist of many smaller molecules

joined together. The small molecules are monomers, and the larger molecules are
called polymers
We are able to make many different plastics which all have different properties
Ethene (C2H4) is the
smallest unsaturated
hydrocarbon molecule,
which we can turn into
a polymer known as
poly(ethene) or
polythene
Propene (C3H6),
another alkene can be
used to form the
polymer poly(propene)
or polypropylene
Monomers join together when the double bonds in the alkenes open up and are
replaced by single bonds of thousands of other molecules joining together
This reaction is an addition reaction, and since a polymer is made, we call it
addition polymerisation

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C1b 4.3 Plastics

The atoms in polymer chains are very strong, but the size of the forces between the

molecules differs for different plastics. We call these forces between molecules
intermolecular forces, and the size of them depends on:
- the monomer used
- the conditions we choose to carry out polymerisation
In some plastics, the intermolecular forces waken when heated, and the bonds
become strong again when cooled. Plastics which behave in this way are
thermosoftening plastics
Poly(ethene), poly(propene) and poly(chloroethene) [or polyvinylchloride / PVC for
short] are all thermosoftening plastics
Some bonds are made to be so strong when formed that they cannot be softened.
Plastics like this are useful for things such as kettles, and are called thermosetting
plastics

C1b 5 Vegetable Oils

5.1

extraction of plant oils

5.2

cooking with vergetable oils

5.3

everyday emulsions

5.4

What substances are added to our food?

C1b 5.1 Extraction of Plant Oils

We can use distillation or pressing to extract vegetable oils
Distillation involves boiling the plant and condensing the evaporated oils released

and removing water and other impurities

All vegetable oils have chains of carbon atoms with hydrogen atoms attached
Some vegetable oils have carbon=carbon double bonds. These are unsaturated oils
We can test for unsaturated oils using either bromine water or iodine solution:
- Originally, bromine water is orange/yellow, but will turn colourless if it meets an
unsaturated vegetable oil
- Originally, iodine solution is red/violet, but will turn colourless also
unsaturated oils + bromine water colourless solution
unsaturated oils + iodine solution colourless solution

C1b 5.2 Cooking with Vegetable Oils

Vegetable oils are useful in cooking because:

- they have a high boiling point, and so foods can be cooked in them at very high
temperatures
- they allow food to absorb the oils, increasing their energy content
Vegetable oils can be hardened where they are reacted with hydrogen to increase
their melting and boiling points
To make oils harden, you must use a nickel catalyst and carry it out at around 60oC
Oils that have been treated this way are called hydrogenated oils. Because they
are solids at room temperature, it means they can be made into spreads (e.g. butter
and margarine for bread, etc)

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C1b 5.3 Everyday Emulsions

Oils do not naturally dissolve or mix with water
Oils can be used to produce emulsions which have special properties
Emulsifiers do not dissolve oils in water, they simply mix smaller droplets of oil in

the water
Emulsions made from vegetable oils can be used in foods such as salad dressings
and ice creams

C1b 5.4 What Substances are Added to our Foods?

We use food additives to improve the features of our foods
Approved European food additives are allocated E-numbers
The different E-numbers are:
Additive
E1 Colours
E2 Preserves
E3 Antioxidants
E4 Emulsifiers,
Stabilisers and
Thickeners
E5 Acidity
Regulators
E6 Flavourings

Purpose
Improves the appearance of foods
Helps to keep the foods lives last
longer
Stops foods from reacting with oxygen
Helps to improve the texture of the
food

Example
E150 caramel
E211 sodium
benzoate
E300 vitamin C
E440 pectin

Helps to control the foods pH

E501 potassium
carbonate
Helps to improve the taste of the food
E621 sodium
glutamene
We can detect unknown food additives using chromatography, by comparing their
chromatograms against those of substances we already know
We can also use a mass spectrometer

C1b 6 Planet Earth

6.1

the structure of the earth

6.2

the changing world

6.3

the earths atmosphere in the past

6.4

the earths atmosphere today

6.5

the carbon cycle

C1b 6.1 The Structure of the Earth

The Earth is made up of layers that formed

millions of years ago, when heavy material

sank to the centre of our planet, and lighter
material floated up to the top
The crust and the uppermost part of the
mantle make up the Earths lithosphere

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The crust is the outermost layer, ranging from about 6km under oceans to 35km
under continents
The mantle, found under the crust behaves like a solid but is able to flow very slowly
The core is made up of two parts: the outer core and the inner core. They are both
made of nickel and iron and the outer core is a liquid whilst the inner core is a solid

C1b 6.2 The Changing World

The supercontinent Pangaea is believed to have existed until 250 million years ago
Around 100 million years ago, Pangaea split into two vast continents: Laurasia and

Gondwanaland were formed

50 million years ago, and the continents as we know them today had formed, and
carried on drifting apart
These land masses move because the lithosphere is cracked into a number of large
pieces called tectonic plates
It is due to convection currents which push these plates over the Earths surface
that the plates move a few centimetres each year
Convection currents are there because radioactive decay causes vast amounts of
energy to be produced. This heats up molten minerals in the mantle which expand.
They become less dense and rise towards the surface and are replaced by cooler
material
When tectonic plates meet, earthquakes and volcanoes can happen

C1b 6.3 The Earths Atmosphere in the Past

The early atmosphere was compressed into large amounts of carbon dioxide, water

vapour, methane and ammonia (NH3)

When the Earths surface cooled below 100oC, the steam condensed to form oceans
As the oceans absorbed the carbon dioxide, the carbon dioxide concentration in the
atmosphere fell dramatically
3000 million years ago, simple plant life developed and by photosynthesis
happening, the carbon dioxide concentration further dropped and oxygen produced
In the absence of air, temperatures that were about combined with the pressure
formed fossil fuels, further reducing the carbon dioxide concentration
Shell formations in the oceans reduced carbon dioxide levels even more
Ammonia was removed via nitrification of bacteria (as they evolved), turning
ammonia into nitrates
Denitrifying of bacteria turned the nitrates into nitrogen
Oxygen and ammonia also reacted to form water vapour and nitrogen
CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O
4NH3 + 3O2 2N2 + 6H2O

C1b 6.4 The Earths Atmosphere Today

The atmosphere on our planet is roughly the same as it was 200 million years ago:
- 78% nitrogen
- 21% oxygen
- 0.9% argon
- 0.04% carbon dioxide
- trace amounts of other gases

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C1b 6.5 The Carbon Cycle

The carbon cycle shows how carbon rotates between the rocks, the oceans, and

the atmosphere
The oceans absorb excess carbon dioxide and produce it when it is needed
making them useful carbon dioxide reservoirs
Plants also take in carbon dioxide during the process of photosynthesis
Therefore, plants and the oceans play good carbon dioxide sinks
Carbon dioxide is released back into the atmosphere when animals and plants
respire, as well as when dead animal bodies decompose

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