Chapter 2 Diode

Learning Outcome
At the end of this chapter, students able to:
Describe a structure of diode, pn junction biasing, I-V
characteristics and diode equivalent circuit
Explain and analyze the diode series/parallel configuration
with DC supply
Explain and analyze the operation of clipper
Explain and analyze the operation of clamper
Explain and analyze the operation of voltage multiplier
Explain and analyze the characteristic and application of
zener diode as voltage regulator

Chapter 2 : DIODE

Norsabrina Sihab
Faculty of Electrical Engineering,
Universiti Teknologi MARA
Pulau Pinang
Tel : 04-3823355
Email : norsabrina@ppinang.uitm.edu.my

Chapter 2 Diode

Norsabrina Sihab

ELE232 - Electronics 1

Updated Nov 2013

Chapter 2 Diode

Diode

Diode

Diode is created when a pn-junction forms at the boundary

between the two regions that is n-type and p-type material.
P-region has many holes (majority carriers) and only few
thermally generated free electrons (minority carriers).
N-region has many free electrons (majority carriers) and only a
few thermally generated holes (minority carriers).

Depletion Layer -> Area around a p-n junction is called depletion

layer or region which is depleted of free carriers. Free electrons in
the n-region are aimlessly drifting in all directions. At the instant of
p-n junction formation, the free electrons near the junction in the n
region to diffuse across the junction into the p region where they
combine with holes near the junction. When the p-n junction is
formed, the n region loses free electrons as they diffuse across the
junction. This creates a layer of positive charges (pentavalent ions)
near the junction. As the electronics move across the junction, the
p region loses holes as the electrons and holes combine. This
creates a layer of negative charges form the depletion region.
When at equilibrium the depletion region widened, no electrons can
across the p-n junction.

Figure 2.1 - The basic diode structure at the instant of junction formation
showing only the majority and minority carriers.
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Chapter 2 Diode

Chapter 2 Diode

Diode

Diode
Barrier potential > Any time there is a positive charge and a
negative charge near each other, there is a forcing acting on the
charges. In the depletion region there are many positive charges
and many negative charges. The forces between the opposite
charges form an electric field. This electric field is a barrier to the
free electrons in n region and external energy must be applied to
get electrons to move across barrier of electric field. The potential
difference of the electric field across the depletion region is the
amount of voltage required to move electrons through the electric
field. The potential difference is called barrier potential.

Figure 2.2 Formation of depletion region

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Chapter 2 Diode

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Chapter 2 Diode

Biasing A Diode

Biasing A Diode - Forward Bias

Diode is a 2-terminal device that make from p-type and n-type

materials. Ideally conducts current in only one direction.
3 operating conditions:
No bias - No external voltage is applied: VD = 0V, No current is
flowing: ID = 0A, only a modest depletion layer exists
Forward bias - External voltage is applied across the p-n
junction in the same polarity as the p- and n-type materials.
Reverse bias - External voltage is applied across the p-n
junction in the opposite polarity of the p-type and n-type
materials.

Condition that allows current through the p-n junction

External voltage or VBIAS connected to the p region (+VBIAS) and n
region (-VBIAS) where VBIAS > VB (barrier potential)
Positive terminal of VBIAS will push the holes in the p-region towards
the p-n junction. Recombination occurs and number of negative
ions (acceptors) in the p-region near the junction decreases.
Negative terminal of VBIAS will push the free electrons in n-region
towards the junction. Recombination with positive ion and number
of positive ion decreases.
As a result, the number of positive and negative ions decrease so
the width of depletion layer become narrow. e- in n-region easily
move to the p-type. So large number of majority carrier flow across
the junction.

Figure 2.3 Diode during forward and reverse bias

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Chapter 2 Diode

Chapter 2 Diode

Biasing A Diode - Forward Bias

10

Biasing A Diode - Reverse Bias

Condition that prevents current through the p-n junction
External voltage or VBIAS connected to the p region (-VBIAS) and n
region (+ VBIAS) where VBIAS < VB (barrier potential)
Positive terminal of VBIAS will pulls the free electrons away from p-n
junction and positive ions (donors) in n-region increase.
Negative terminal of VBIAS will pulls the free holes from p-region and
number of negative ions (acceptor) in p-region increase.
As a result, the number of positive and negative ions increases so
the width of depletion layer become widen.
Due to widening depletion region, the p-n junction act like a very
poor conductor and allow minority carrier flows (A). It called
reverse current or leakage current.

Figure 2.4 A forward biased diode

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Chapter 2 Diode

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Chapter 2 Diode

11

Biasing A Diode - Reverse Bias

12

Biasing A Diode
Reverse Saturation Current -> Also called as leakage current
where current in reverse biased condition. The extremely small
current (can be neglected), Is that exist in reverse bias after the
transition current dies out. It caused by the minority carriers in the
n-region and p-regions that produced by thermally generated EHP.

Figure 2.5 A reverse biased diode

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Figure 2.6 I-V characteristics for diode

Updated Nov 2013

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Chapter 2 Diode

Biasing A Diode - Breakdown Voltage

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Chapter 2 Diode

14

Biasing A Diode - Breakdown Voltage

Breakdown Voltage > If the external reverse bias voltage is

increased to a value called the breakdown, the reverse current
will drastically increase. The reverse-bias potential that results
in this dramatic change in characteristics is called zener voltage,
Vz.
Avalance region (Vz) can be brougt closer to the vertical axis by
increasing the doping levels in the p-type and n-type materials.
As Vz decreases to very low levels, such as -5V, other
mechanism, called Zener Breakdown, will contribute to the
sharp change in the characteristics. It occurs because there is a
strong electric field in the region of the junction that can disrupt
the bonding forces within the atom and generate carriers.
Although the zener breakdown mechanism is a significant
contributor only at lower levels of Vz, this sharp change in
characteristic of a p-n junction called zener diodes.
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Chapter 2 Diode

13

The maximum reverse-bias potential can be applied at this

region called Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) or Peak Reverse
Voltage (PRV) or Breakdown Voltage (VBR).
Diode that operating in this region is called Zener Diode which
normally used as a voltage regulator.

Updated Nov 2013

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Chapter 2 Diode

15

Diode Model

16

Diode Model

Has 2 terminal Anode and Cathode

The ideal diode in the non-conduction region (OFF State)

Figure 2.7 Diode structure and symbol

The ideal diode in the conduction region (ON State)

Figure 2.9 Diode OFF state

Diode resistance levels - Semiconductors act differently to DC

and AC currents. There are three types of resistances:
1. DC, or static resistance
2. AC, or dynamic resistance
3. Average AC resistance
Figure 2.8 Diode ON state
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Chapter 2 Diode

Chapter 2 Diode

17

Diode Model

Diode Model

1. DC or Static Resistance, RD
For a specific applied DC voltage VD, the diode has a specific current
ID, and a specific resistance RD.

RD

rd
2. AC or Dynamic, Resistance In the reverse bias region:
In the forward bias region:
The resistance depends on the amount of current (ID) in the
diode.
The voltage across the diode is fairly constant (26mV for
25C).
rB ranges from a typical 0.1 for high power devices to 2 for
low power, general purpose diodes. In some cases rB can be
ignored.
The resistance is essentially infinite. The diode acts like an open.

VD
ID

Figure 2.10 Static Resistance

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rd

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Chapter 2 Diode

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20

Diode Equivalent Circuit

3. Average AC Resistance
AC resistance can be determined by selecting two points on the
characteristic curve developed for a particular circuit.

Norsabrina Sihab

26 mV
rB
ID

Chapter 2 Diode

19

Diode Model

rav

18

1) Piecewise Linear Equivalent Circuit

Total forward voltage, VD across the diode must be greater than VT
before the ideal diode in the equivalent circuit will forward bias.

Vd
(point to point)
I d

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Chapter 2 Diode

Chapter 2 Diode

21

22

Diode Equivalent Circuit

Diode Equivalent Circuit

2.Simplified Equivalent Circuit (Approximate)

Total forward voltage, VD across the diode must be greater than VT
before the ideal diode in the equivalent circuit will forward bias.

3. Ideal Device
The barrier potential is negligible, hence once the circuit ON or
short at zero potential current will flow significantly and VD=0V.

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Chapter 2 Diode

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Chapter 2 Diode

23

Diode As A Switch

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24

Diode As A Switch

It can conduct current in only ONE way direction and can act as
switch (ON/OFF).
2 diode conditions ON & OFF state.
2 basic conditions for diode in ON state.
Diode must in forward bias condition
Voltage supply, Vi must be greater than the diode voltage, VD
(Vi>VD)
VSi=0.7V, VGe=0.3V and Videal diode=0V

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Diode in OFF state act as open circuit. So I=0A.

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Chapter 2 Diode

Chapter 2 Diode

25

Diode in Series with DC Supply

26

Diode in Parallel with DC supply

Example 2
Determine ID, Ix and Vo

Check diodes whether ON or OFF

Redraw diode equivalent circuit including others component.
Apply KVL to determine current or voltage

+20V

IX

Example 1
Determine ID, VR and Vo.

Ge

Si

ID

+ Vo
Ge

Si

10V

2.2k

+ Vo
ID

+
VR
-

5.6k

- 5V

-5V

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ELE232 - Electronics 1

Chapter 2 Diode

Updated Nov 2013

Norsabrina Sihab

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Chapter 2 Diode

27

Exercise

28

Diode Application : Clipper

Basically to clipped-off/eliminate a portion of an AC signal voltage
above or below specific range.
HW rectifier is a basic clipper.
Functions:
1. Altering the shape of the output waveform
2. Circuit transient protection
3. Detection
2 types : 1) series clipper, 2) parallel (shunt) clipper

1) Series Clipper
2 types : a) negative series clipper, b) positive series clipper
The diode in a series clipper circuit clips any voltage that does
not forward bias it:

A reverse-biasing polarity

A forward-biasing polarity less than 0.7V for a silicon diode

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Chapter 2 Diode

Chapter 2 Diode

29

1a) Negative Series Clipper

30

1a) Negative Series Clipper (contd)

Clipped off half negative cycle. Diode forward bias during positive
cycle of Vi.
VT is transition voltage. (VT=VDC+Vdiode)

During negative half cycle.

Diode is OFF for all value of Vi.
VO=0V.

Final output
Vi
20
VT=4V

- 20

During positive half cycle

VT=Vdc+VD=4V
if Vi VT diode will OFF.
Vo=0V.
If Vi > VT diode will ON.
KVL : Vi 4 Vo =0.
Vo=Vi-VT=16V
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Vo
16

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Chapter 2 Diode

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Chapter 2 Diode

31

1b) Positive Series Clipper

32

1b) Positive Series Clipper (contd)

Clipped off half positive cycle. Diode forward bias during negative
cycle of Vi.

During positive half cycle

Diode is OFF for all value of Vi.
VO=0V.

During negative half cycle.

VT=- 4-VD=- 4V
if lVil lVTl diode OFF. Vo=0V.
If lVil > lVTl diode ON.
KVL : Vi +Vo- 4 =0.
Vo= - Vi+4=-20+4=-16V

Final output
Vi
20

VT= - 4V
- 20

Vo

-16

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Chapter 2 Diode

Chapter 2 Diode

33

2a) Negative Parallel Clipper

2a) Negative Parallel Clipper (contd)

During negative half cycle
VT = -0.7-5 = -5.7V
if lVil lVTl diode OFF.
Vo=Vi
If lVil> lVTl diode ON.

KVL : Vo +0.7+5 =0
Vo = VT = -5.7V

The operation is opposite series clipper.

R

Vi
+

20

+
Si

Vi

Vo
5V

- 20

During positive half cycle

Diode is OFF for all value of Vi.
VO=Vi=20V
Vi

+
0.7V

+
Vi

20

Vo

Si
Vi

5V

Vo

- 20

5V
-

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Chapter 2 Diode

Norsabrina Sihab

During negative half cycle.

Diode is OFF for all value of Vi.
VO=Vi.

+
Si

Vi

Vo
5V

36

Final output
Vi
20

- 20

During positive half cycle

VT- Vdc- VD = 0.
VT=5.7V
If Vi VT diode OFF. Vo=Vi.
If Vi > VT diode ON.
KVL : Vo-0.7-5 =0.
Vo=5.7V

Updated Nov 2013

2b) Positive Parallel Clipper (contd)

Vi

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Chapter 2 Diode

35

2b) Positive Parallel Clipper

20

Final output

R
Vi

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34

VT

Vi
20

- 20

Vo

0.7

20

Vo

Vi
5V
-

- 20
- 20

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Chapter 2 Diode

R
+

10

Si

Final Output

Ge

Vi

Vo
5V

Vi

7.7V

10

VT=5.7V

- 10

During positive half cycle

DGe OFF for all value of Vi
DSi ON conditionally
VT=VDSi+5=5.7V
If Vi VT DSi OFF.
Vo=Vi.
If Vi > VT DSi ON.
Vo=5.7V

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VT= - 8V

During negative half cycle

- 10

DSi OFF for all value of Vi

DGe ON conditionally
VT = -VDGe-7.7 = -8V

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Vo
10

If |Vi| |VT| DGe OFF.

Vo=Vi.
If |Vi| > |VT| DGe ON.
Vo+0.3+7.7=0
Vo=-8V

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5.7V

-8V
- 10

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Chapter 2 Diode

39

Summary of Clipper Circuit

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38

Combination of Negative and Positive Parallel

Clipper (contd)

Combination of Negative and Positive Parallel Clipper

Vi

Chapter 2 Diode

37

Updated Nov 2013

40

Exercise

Updated Nov 2013

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Chapter 2 Diode

Chapter 2 Diode

41

Diode Application : Clamper

42

1) Negative Clamper (contd)

Function -> To clamp or shift a signal to a different DC level

Circuit consist of C,D and R

Final Output

During negative half cycle

Vi

1) Negative Clamper

20

Step 1: Determine Vo using KVL at i/p

Vi+Vo+Vc=0
Vo=ViVc= 20 24.3= 44.3V

During positive half cycle

Step 1: Find polarity of VC
Step 2: Determine VO using KVL at o/p
Vo VD+VDC= 0
Vo=0.7-5= - 4.3V
Step 3: Determine value of VC
Vi-Vc-Vo=0
Vc=24.3V

Updated Nov 2013

Chapter 2 Diode

Vo

5V
-

Final Output

During positive half cycle

Step 1: Find polarity of Vo
Vi+Vc-Vo=0
Vo=20+14.3= 44.3V

Si
R

44

2) Positive Clamper (contd)

+

Vi

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Chapter 2 Diode

43

Vi

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2) Positive Clamper
20

Vo
- 4.3V

- 44.3

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- 20

Vi
20

- 20

During negative half cycle (because Diode ON at this cycle)

Step 1: Find polarity of VC
Step 2: Determine VO using KVL at o/p
Vo+ VD- VDC= 0
Vo= 5 - 0.7= 4.3V
Step 3: Determine VC using KVL at i/p
Vi+VDCVDVC=0
VC=Vi+VDCVD=24.3V

- 20
Vo
44.3

4.3

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Chapter 2 Diode

Chapter 2 Diode

45

Example Design a Clamper

Summary of Clamper Circuit

KVL: +Vo-0.7-5=0
Vo=+5.7V
KVL:
Vi Vc Vo=0
Vc=Vi-Vo=15 - 5.7=9.3V

Designed a clamper circuit to

produce output voltage, Vo. Use
silicon diode in your design.

46

During negative cycle

Solution
During positive cycle
Propose design clamper circuit
which D ON during positive
cycle. Vo=5.7V
KVL:
+Vi+Vo+Vc=0
Vo= - 15 - 9.3= - 24.3V
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Chapter 2 Diode

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Chapter 2 Diode

47

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48

Exercise

Exercise

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Chapter 2 Diode

Chapter 2 Diode

49

Diode Application : Voltage Multiplier

50

Half Wave Voltage Doubler

Half-wave voltage doubler

VP

Function use clamping action to increase peak rectified

voltage without the necessity of increasing the transformers
voltage rating. A voltage doubler is similar to the peak-to-peak
detector but uses rectifier diodes instead of small-signal diodes.
Types Voltage Doubler (multiply the input peak by factors of
2), Voltage Tripler (multiply the input peak by factors of 3) and
Voltage Quardrupler (multiply the input peak by factors of 4)
Application in high voltage, low current, high frequencies. Eg
Chathode-ray tubes (CRTs), particle accelerators etc.

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Chapter 2 Diode

C1

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2VP

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Chapter 2 Diode

51

Updated Nov 2013

52

Full-wave Voltage Doubler

1st positive half cycle:
D1 ON while D2 OFF
C1 charging up quickly to the peak
value of input
KVL : -Vp +VD+ VC1 =0
VC1 = VP VD or approximately Vp

1st positive half cycle:

D2 ON while D1 OFF
C2 charging up quickly to the peak value of input
So KVL : -Vp -VC1 +VD+ VC2 =0
Vo = VC2 = VP+VC1 VD or approximately 2Vp

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D2 C2

1st negative half cycle

D1 ON while D2 OFF
C1 charging up quickly to
the peak value of input
KVL : -Vi+VD+Vc1=0
So VC1 = Vp VD or
approximately Vp

Half Wave Voltage Doubler (contd)

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D1

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Chapter 2 Diode

Chapter 2 Diode

53

Full-wave Voltage Doubler (contd)

Voltage Tripler

1st negative half cycle

D2 ON while D1 OFF
C2 charging up quickly to the peak
value of input
KVL : +Vi+VC2+VD=0
VC2 = Vp VD or approximately Vp
Thus the output Vo=VC1+VC22Vp

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Chapter 2 Diode

54

By connecting another diode-capacitor section to the voltage doubler

creates a voltage tripler.
First two sections act a doubler.
Positive cycle : C1 charge to Vp thru D1.
Negative cycle : C2 charge 2Vp thru D2.
Next positive cycle : C3 charges to 2Vp thru D3.
Tripler output is taken across C1 and C3.

Updated Nov 2013

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Chapter 2 Diode

55

Updated Nov 2013

56

Exercise

Voltage Quadrupler
By connecting another diode-capacitor section.
First two sections act a doubler.
Positive cycle : C1 charge to Vp thru D1.
Negative cycle : C2 charge 2Vp thru D2.
Next positive cycle : C3 charges to 2Vp thru D3.
Next negative cycle : C4 charges to 2Vp thru D4
Quardrupler output is taken across C2 and C4.

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Chapter 2 Diode

Zener Diode

58

Zener Diode Application : Voltage Regulator

IDZ is opposite from ID which is

designed to work in reverse
bias.
Application : Voltage Regulator

Simplest regulator as shown in figure below.

3 conditions of Vi and load resistance, RL to maintain designed
zener voltage:
1. Vi and RL fixed
2. Vi fixed and RL variable
3. Vi variable and RL fixed

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Chapter 2 Diode

57

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Chapter 2 Diode

60

2. Fixed Vi and Variable RL

Step 2: Substitute appropriate

equivalent circuit

Specific range of RL to turn

ON DZ

since RL is minimum, therefore IL is maximum

I L max

VL
V
Z
RL RL min

andILmin
VDR :
V VL

VL Vz
KCL : I R I Z I L
IZ IR IL
where I L

VDR :
RV
V VL L i
R RL

(1)

VL
V
V VL
and I R R i
RL
R
R

power dissipated by zener diode :

if V VZ ( DZ ON )

Pz I zVz

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RLVi
R RL

Updated Nov 2013

VZ
RL max

Once DZ ON, VR remains fixed

Vi VZ VR

VZ ( RL R) RLVi

since VR is fixed,IR also fixed

VZ
( RL R) Vi
RL

IR

VZ (1

R
) Vi
RL

V VZ
R
i
RL
VZ
so RL min

if V VZ ( DZ OFF )
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Chapter 2 Diode

59

1. Fixed Vi and Fixed RL

Step 1: Determine the state of the
zener diode by removing it from the
network. Calculate voltage across the
resulting open circuit.

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RVZ
Vi VZ

Norsabrina Sihab

VR
R
KCL : I R I Z I L
so I Z I R I L
resulting IZmin when ILmax
and IZmax when ILmin because IR is constant
ILmin IR - IZM
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&

RLmax

VZ
ILmin
Updated Nov 2013

Chapter 2 Diode

Chapter 2 Diode

61

Exercise

3. Fixed RL and Variable Vi

Answer: 10V, 10V,6.3mA, 63mW

I R max I ZM I L

3) Determine range of Vi that

will maintain zener diode in
ON state. Answer: 23.67V ~ 36.8V

Vi max VR max VZ

VDR :
VL VZ

1) Determine VL,VR, IZ and PZ.

The max of Vimax is limited by

the max zener current, IZM

Vi must be sufficiently large

to turn DZ
Min voltage to turn ON is
Vi=Vimin

62

RLVi
R RL

2)

VZ ( RL R) RLVi
Vi min

RL R
VZ
RL

a) Determine the range of RL and

IL that will result in VRL being
maintained at 10V Answer: 250 ~

1.2k, 8mA ~ 40mA

b) Determine the max wattage

rating of DZ.

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63

Exercise

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Answer: 32mW
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