ABSTRACT:

This special issue addresses the subject of individual learner differences in

second language learning, a topic whose complexity has meant little conclusive
knowledge and thus need for continuing investigation. This paper offers a brief
but broad overview of the field of individual differences in language learning,
especially as they are reflected in learning styles, learning strategies, and
affective variables.

INTRODUCTION:

The famous proverb “Don’t give your students fish, but teach them how to fish” is
perhaps true in language teaching. But how does a teacher go about teaching
them the language skills so that they become more interested in the language?
Also how does a teacher maintain their interest in second language learning
when it is not seen as important for their immediate needs other than to pass
examination?

All forms of language teaching could be greatly improved if teacher had a better
understanding of the language learner and of the language learning process
itself. It is essential to recognize that there are individual differences between
learners. As a result different learning and studying approaches are exhibited by
different cultures and individuals from those cultures.

INDIVIDUAL LEARNER DIFFERENCES AND SECOND LANGUAGE

ACQUISITION:

The variables within students themselves, effecting second language acquisition

basically consist of personal and general factors that relate to all human beings.

1. Personal Factors:

Initially personal factors include interaction with a group, in terms of me assuring

ones own progression and fostering an environment of competitiveness for
oneself. High interaction within a group for an individual may see that learner
develop the target language faster as a result of continued use and practice of
the language. Alternatively a student not saying anything may fall behind due to
inadequate practice and use of the language. The use and perceived ability of
other class members for an individual student may provide them with a
framework in which to locate their own language ability in relation to the rest of
the class. Another personal variable that may arise is that of conflict between a
student and teacher, resulting from the preference of the student for another
teaching method or teaching materials other than those presented by the
teacher. In this case within reasonable expectations the teacher may look at

1
modifying their lesson style, along with the methods they use to approach the
teaching of a second language. A final variable within personal factors involves
the techniques employed by an individual in their language learning, in this case
the implication for the practice of TESOL may be to initiate a successful program
of self study along with a mode of achieving motivation for students to approach
this. Self-study may be guided through lessons and the course of study the
student is participating in.

Personal factors such as those identified by Schumann and Schumann are

difficult to observe by a third person. This methodological problem has been
solved in two ways. First, through the use of diaries studies, Second, through the
use of questionnaires and interviews with individual learners. Personal factors
are by definition heterogeneous:

a) Group Dynamics:

Group Dynamics (henceforth GD) seem to be important in the classroom of SLA.

Bailey (1983) records in some details the anxiety and competitiveness
experienced by a number of diarists. Some classroom learners make overt
comparisons of themselves with other learners. In other kind of comparisons,
learners match how they think they are progressing against their expectations.
McDonough (1978) also pinpoints GD as an important set of personal variables.
He notes, however, that although rivalries can promote confusion , they can also
Serve a stimulus for learning.

b) Attitudes to the Teacher and Course Material:

Students will inevitably have very different views about the kind of teacher they
think is best for them. Some prefer a teacher who creates for them to pursue
their own learning path. Others prefer a teacher who structures the learning tasks
much more tightly. Pickett (1978) study of successful language learning reveals
greater diversity in attitudes towards the role of the teacher. Some learners
wanted the teacher to act as ‘informant’, but others praised teachers who were
logical, clear, and systematic. The main generalization to emerge from Pickett’s
study is that learner needs to feel sympathy for their teacher, and also want him
or her to be predictable.
Learners also vary in their attitudes to teaching materials, In general. Adult
learners dislike having a course book imposed upon them in a rigid way. They
prefer a variety of materials and the opportunity to use them in ways they choose
for themselves.

c)Individual Learning Techniques:

There is tremendous variety in the techniques employed by different learners.

They will be dealt with in two groups: those involved in studying the L2, and

2
those involved in obtaining L2 input. Naiman (1978) and Pickett (1978) identify
numerous study techniques:

Preparing and memorizing vocabulary lists:

Individual learners appear to have highly idiosyncratic ways of copying with this.
For instance, one of Picket’s subjects kept a notebook in which he recorded first
the English word, then the foreign word in phonetic transcription, and finally the
orthographic version of the foreign word. He reported having three vocabulary
lists, which he kept going at the same time: one was arranged chronologically,
the second alphabetically, and the third either grammatically or situationally.

Learning words in context:

Some learners made no attempt to keep lists. They relied on picking out key
vocabulary items from the contexts in which they were used.

Practicing vocabulary:

Various techniques fall under this heading: deliberately putting words into
different structures in order to drill one, reading to reinforce vocabulary, playing
games such as trying to think of words wit the same ending, and repeating words
to oneself.

2. General Factors:

Second Language (L2) learners vary on a number of dimensions to do with

personality, motivation, learning style, aptitude and age.
Aspects of SLA influenced by individual learner factors
Two basics possibilities regarding which aspect of SLA are affected by individual
learners, they are:
• The differences in age, learning style, aptitude, motivation, and personality
result.
• The factors influence only rate and ultimate success in SLA.

Age:

Age is the variable that has been most frequently considered in discussions of
individual differences in SLA. The main aim in this section is to highlight the key
elements in this complex issue by first examining the effects of age and then
looking at various explanations of these effects.

The effects of age:

It is necessary to separate the effects of age and the route of SLA from the
effects of age on the rate or success of SLA. Most of studies that have

3
investigated the role of age have been concerned with the latter. That is, they
have examined the extent of the correlation between measures of age and length
of learning period and measure of proficiency achieved. The available evidence
suggests that age does not alter the route of acquisition. Rate and success of
SLA appear to be strongly influenced by the age of the learner. Where rate is
concerned, there is evidence to suggests that older learners are better.

Cognitive explanations:

One obvious difference between young child and the adolescent or adult is the
ability of the latter to comprehend language as a formal system. Older learner
can learn about language by consciously studying linguistics rules. They also can
apply these rules when they use the language. In contrast, younger children,
while not totally lacking in meta-awareness, are not so prone to respond to
language as form. As Halliday (1973) pointed out that the young child responds
not so much what language is a to what it does. It is possible that age differences
in SLA can be explained in terms of the different orientation to language of
children and older learners.

Affective explanation:

Brown (1980b) proposes that SLA is related to stages of acculturation (i.e. the
ability of the learner to relate and respond easily to the foreign language culture).
Brown identifies 4 stages of acculturation: (1) initial excitement and euphoria; (2)
culture shock, leading to the feelings of estrangement and hostility towards the
target culture; (3) culture stress, involving a gradual and vacillating recovery; and
(4) assimilation or adaptation. Young children are seen as socio-culturally
resilient, because they are less culture-bound than adults.

Neufeld (1978) offers a more convincing account of how effective factors are
related to age differences in SLA. He distinguishes ‘primary’ and ‘secondary’
levels of language. Primarily levels include a reasonably large functional
vocabulary, and basic mastery of pronunciation and grammatical rules.
Secondary levels include the ability to acquire primarily level. However, children
are more likely to achieve secondary levels than adults because they are much
more strongly motivated by the need to be accepted by their peer groups.
Whereas, the adult is happy to maintain a foreign accent.

Intelligence and aptitude:

Learning a L2 in a classroom involves two sets of intellectual abilities. It involves

what might be called ‘a general academic or reasoning ability’, it often referred to
as intelligence. The other kind of ability consists of specific cognitive qualities
needed for SLA, often referred to as aptitude.

4
Intelligence:

It underlies our ability to master and use a whole range of academic skills.
McDonough (1981) emphasizes it refers to capacity rather than contents of the
mind. That is supposedly measured by intelligences tests. Cummins (1979)
distinguishes two kinds of language ability:

a) Cognitive / academic language ability (CALP); this is a dimension of language

proficiency which is strongly related to overall cognitive and academic skills and
can be equated with Oller and Perkin’s ‘g’ factor and general intelligence.
b) Basic interpersonal communication skills BICS; these are the skill required for
oral fluency and also include sociolinguistics aspects of competence. Cummins
argues that CALP and BICS are independent and that both sets of abilities are to
be found in first and second language acquisition.

Aptitude:

It has been suggested that people differ in the extent to which they possess a
natural ability for learning an L2. Caroll and Sapon (1985) identify three major
components of aptitude:

a) Phonetic coding ability, which consist of the ability to perceive and memorize
new sounds. Or the ability to identify the sounds of a foreign language so that
they can be remembered later. Example: To identify the sound which ‘th’ stands
for;

b) Grammatical sensitivity, which is the individual’s ability to demonstrate

awareness of the syntactical patterning of sentence of language. Example: the
subject and object of a sentence;

c) Inductive ability, which consists of the ability to notice and identify similarities
and differences in both grammatical form and meaning. For example: to
recognize that English ‘to’ can denote direction and ‘at’ location;

d) Route learning ability, the ability to form and remember associations between
stimuli. This is believed to be important in vocabulary learning;

Krashen (1972) distinguishes two aspects of SLA; acquisition and learning.

Acquisition is the subconscious internalization of L2 knowledge that occurs
through using the L2 naturally and spontaneously. Learning is the conscious
study of a L2 that results in knowledge about the rules of the knowledge.

Krashen argues that aptitude relates only in learning. The effects of aptitude on
language learning have been measured in terms of the proficiency level achieved
by different classroom learners.

5
Cognitive Style:

Cognitive style is a term used to refer to the manner in which people perceive,
conceptualize, organize, and recall information. Each person is considered to
have a more or less consistent mode of cogitative functioning.

Attitudes and Motivation:

Schumann (1978) lists Attitude as a social factor on a par with variables such as
‘size or learning group’, and Motivation as an affective factor alongside ‘culture
shock’.

Gardner & Lambert, 1972: defines Motivation in terms of the L2 learner’s overall
goal or orientation, and attitude as the persistence shown by the learner in
striving for a goal. They argue that there is no reason to expect a relationship
between the two; the type of motivation is distinct from the attitudes displayed to
different learner tasks. However, Gardner: 1979 suggest that attitudes are related
to motivation by serving as supports of the learner’s overall orientation.

Brown, 1981 distinguishes motivation and attitude. He identifies 3 types of

motivation:

a) Global motivation, which consist of general orientation to the goal of learning a

L2;

b) Situational motivation, which varies according to the situation in which learning

takes place;

c)Task motivation, which is the motivation for performing particular learning

tasks.

There are also some various kinds of motivation have been identified:

i) Instrumental motivation, learners may make efforts to learn an L2 for some

functional reason—to pass examination, to get better job, to get a place at
university etc.

ii) Integrative motivation, some learners may choose to learn a particular L2

because they are interested in the people and culture represented by the target
language group.

iii) Resultative motivation, an assumption of the research referred to above is that

motivation is the cause of L2 achievement. However, it is also possible that
motivation is a result of learning. That is, learners who experience success in
learning may become more, or in some context, less motivation to learn. This
helps to explain the conflicting research result.

6
iv) Intrinsic motivation, motivation involves the arousal and maintenance of
curiosity and can ebb and flow as a result of such factors as learners’ particular
interests and the extent to which they feel personality involved to learning
activities.

Motivation is clearly a highly complex phenomenon. These four types of

motivation should be seen as complementary rather than as distinct and
oppositional. Learners can be both integrative and instrumentally motivated at
one and the same time. Motivation can result from learning as well as cause it.
Furthermore, motivation is dynamic in nature, it is not something that a learner
has or does not have but rather something that varies from one moment to the
next depending on the learning context or task.

Brown uses the term ‘attitudes’ to refer to the set of believes that the learner
holds towards members of the target language group (e.g. whether they are seen
as interesting or boring, honest or dishonest, etc) and also toward his own
culture.

Stern (1983: 376-7) classifies these attitudes into three types:

a) Attitudes towards the community and people who speak the L2 (i.e. ‘group
specific attitudes’);

b) Attitudes towards learning the language concerned;

c) Attitudes towards languages and language learning in general.

These attitudes are influenced by the kind of personality of the learner, for
instance whether he is ethnocentric or authoritarian. They may be also influenced
by the social milieu in which learning takes place.

Different attitudes, for instance, may be found in monolingual and bilingual

contexts.

The results of the empirical research based on Gardner and Lambert’s

theoretical framework are mixed and difficult to interpret. The following is a
summary of the major findings:

i) Motivation and attitudes are important factor, which help to determine the level
proficiency achieved by different learners;

ii) The effects of motivation/attitudes appear to be separate from the effects of

attitude. The most successful learner will be those who have both a talent and a
high level of motivation for learning;

7
iii) In certain situations an integrative motivation may be more powerful in
facilitating successful L2 learning, but in other situations instrumental motivations
may count for more.

iv) The level and type of motivation is strongly influenced by the social context in
which learning takes place, as has ready been noted.

General Variables that Affect All Human Individuals:

Alternatively general variables that affect all human individuals when learning a
language consist of such things as age, intelligence, aptitude and cognitive
ability, in addition an individuals personality also plays a role.

There is a general belief that aptitude for developing a second language

dissipates as a learner gets older, contrary to the results of some studies. This
notion would have psychological affects upon learners, retarding learning ability.
What may be affected by age however is the rate and success of second
language acquisition, with older learners able to concentrate on actively learning
structures of language in a context. Linked to this notion is the intelligence and
aptitude of the learner, as active learning of a second language in a classroom
context requires the use of cognition and intelligence. These cognitive factors
relate to problem solving strategies employed by the learner in language
development; stemming from this and the ability to acquire the second language,
comes motivation and the attitude of the learner to the importance of acquiring
the target language. Obviously when high importance or desirability is attached
to the acquisition of something then the yearner will desire to acquire the article
as fast and as soon as possible. A variable in language acquisition concerned
with the attainment of a second language is an individuals personality. Elements
of the personality include the learners social and interactive skills, where the
more interactive and outgoing a learner may be leads to higher use, exposure
and hence quicker acquisition of the target language.

RESPECTING INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES:

Every learner is unique. They have different personalities, learning styles,

motivation learning styles and so on. Understanding and respecting these
differences help to improve teaching methods and create an optimal atmosphere
for learning.

8
Personality:

According to Doughlas Brown, introverted students are quieter and more

reserved but they show high empathy--an intuitive understanding and
apprehensions of others. They are found to be better than extroverts in their
pronunciations, reading, grammar, translation and writing. They also have
profound thinking and keen observation. They prefer academic teaching that
emphasizes individual learning and language knowlwdge. They dont like talking
so their oral production is weak.

Extroverts like communicative teaching that emphasizes communicative

participation so they benefit from oral work in small groups because their
assertiveness enables them to dominate and their willingness to take risks
facilitates practice, so their oral production improves quickly. But they are usually
weak in grammar, reading and writing. Their basic skills may need to be
consolidated.

The implications for the teachers is to balance these personality differences by

giving an equal share and opportunity to students. In asking questions a teacher
need to encourage those reserved ones more. In instructing students' writing, the
teachers need to devote more attention to the extroverts. In grouping the
students for discussion, a teacher can arrange the introverts and the extroverts
together to compensate each other.

Learning styles:

According to Joy Reid's classification of learning styles, students may prefer a

visual (seeing), auditory (hearing), kinesthetic (moving) or tactile (touching) way
of learning. The 'visual' learners like wall displays, books, etc. they often
recognize words by sights. They use to recall information by remembering how
that was set on the page. 'Auditory' learners like the teacher to give verbal
instructions. They like dialogues, discussion and plays. They use rhythm and
sound as memory aid. Kinesthetic learner learns best when they are involved or
active. They use movements as memory aid. They learn well in hands on
activities like projects and demonstration.

Being aware of this teachers need to use teaching methods and activities to suit
different learning styles. For visual learners there can be visual aids like wall
displays, flash cards, pictures photos and power point slides. For auditory
learners teacher can use tapes, videos, story telling, songs memorization and
drills. They can allow students to work in pairs and in small groups regularly. For
kinesthetic learners teachers can use filed trips, role plays, etc. there can be
activities which requires students to move around and be active. For tactile
learners teachers can use card game, demonstrations, projects, role plays, etc.
they can use listening and reading activities or to label a diagram while reading.

9
Motivation:

Studies show that "motivation is of crucial importance in the classroom".

Students are influenced by variety of motivations which affect their attitude
towards language learning. It is important for a teacher to learn about students'
motivation so that (s)he can create successful experiences to revive motivation to
make students study harder and persist longer. His/ her own personality and
outlook may provide students with fresh motivation. If (s)he has genuine interest
in students and their welfares, if (s)he often smiles and gives praise when
deserved, if (s)he responds to the students' difficulties, if (s)he shows faith in
students' abilities they will try harder to succeed in learning L2. if the teacher can
provide some ways for them to use the language outside the classroom whether
through contact with native speaker or writing to a pen pal in L2, (s)he will
provide them with best source of motivation of all.

Learning Strategies:

Learning strategies are general approaches, specific actions or techniques used

to learn an L2. learner's choice of learning strategies is seen as influenced by
both ILD (as above) and social factors.

Research has shown that learners can be taught to use effective strategies used
by successful learners. The teacher aiming at training his/ her students in using
language learning strategies should learn about the students, their interest,
motivation, aptitude and learning styles. The teacher can learn what learning
strategies students already appear to be using, observing their behavior in the
class. Besides a teacher can prepare short questionnaire so that students can fill
in at the beginning of a course to describe themselves. Thus the teacher can
learn the purpose of their learning L2, their favorite/ least favorite class activities
and the reason why they are learning L2. A teacher should provide a wide range
of learning strategies in order to meet the needs and expectations of his/ her
students possessing different learning styles , motivation, strategy preference,
etc. Therefore, the most important teacher role in teaching language is the
provision of a range of task to match varied learning styles.

No doubt ILDs exist and play a significant role in L2 learning. But the idea is not
to teach each students according to their preferences but rather to strive for a
balance of instructional methods. If the balance is achieved, students will be
taught partly in a manner they prefer, which leads to willingness learn and partly
in a less preferred manner, which provide practice and feedback in ways of
thinking and solving problems.

It is necessary for the teachers to have an overall understanding of what students

like and how they can learn best. The teacher needs to keep in mind that "Not all

10
methods suit all students" (Cook) . then (s)he can diversify teaching methods to
provide opportunities for each of them to benefit in their own way. This can be
suitable for the differences between individuals in the class.

References:

Ellis. R .1985. Understanding Second Language Acquisition . OUP

Cook. V. 1996. Second Language Learning And Language Teaching . Foreign

Language Teaching And Research Press & Edward Arnold Limited

Harmer . J . 2000. How To Teach English. Foreign Language Teaching And

Research Press

----oOo----

11