FARM MANAGEMENT IN AGRICULTURAL

EXTENSION IN PAKISTAN
By
Dr. Bashir Ahmad ∗

INTRODUCTION
Agriculture is the backbone of Pakistan’s economy. It shares about 25 percent of
the gross domestic product. Agriculture and agro-based products account for 75 percent of
the country’s total export earnings. It provides jobs to 44 percent of the labour force. Most
of the agro-based industries are totally dependent upon this sector for their raw materials.
For the development and prosperity of the country, there is strong need to enhance
agricultural production many-fold to cope with the increasing demand for food and fiber
resulting from the rising population. For the development of agriculture, many agencies are
involved including the Department of Agricultural Extension. There is a strong need to
keep farmers abreast of new technological developments in the field of agriculture. This
job can be accomplished by providing extension services to the farmers. Whatever form
these services take, farmers need to be made aware of agricultural innovations for the
exploitation of inherent yield potential. Well organized extension services can bridge the
gap between the potential productivity and the current productivity (Birkaeuser, Evenson
and Feder 1991, p.608).

Agricultural Extension in the Institutional Context:

In Pakistan, public sector extension is organized provincially. The Director General
of Agricultural Extension (DGA) is the overall administrator of the public sector
organization in the province who is responsible to the Secretary of Agriculture. In the
Punjab province, there are three regional Directors of Agriculture, Extension (DAE). Each
DAE is responsible for the supervision and smooth functioning of the extension service in
his respective region and is answerable to the DGA. At the district level, Deputy Director
of Agriculture (DDA) is incharge of the extension. At the tehsil level, the responsibility for
the provision of extension services lies with the Extra Assistant Director of Agriculture
(EADA). The EADA is responsible for the supervision and monitoring of all extension
activities undertaken by Agriculture Officers (AOs) and Field Assistants (FAs) both at the
markiz and village level (Appendix-I). Agriculture Officer supervises the work of the Field
Assistant. A FA is considered a front-line extension worker. He is the real contact between
extension and farmers. He is the person who selects the contact farmers and motivates
them to adopt new technology. He also feeds back the field problems to supervisors.
The institutional set up for public agriculture extension is well organized and over
staffed particularly top heavy which had made it costly in terms of administrative overhead
(Jalvi, 1990, p.65). Pre-service training of the extension staff at the professional level, or
that of Agriculture Officers is practically non-existent (Khan and Chaudhry, 1986, p.165).

∗
The author is Professor and Chairman, Department of Farm Management, University of
Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan.
However, the so called preservice training of these functionaries, as part of their degree
programme at the Colleges/Universities of Agriculture is too theoretical and the quality is
questioned. The pre-service training of extension sub-professionals (i.e. FA) is very weak.
There is little practical work, high student to staff member ratio, lack of basic equipment
for conducting practical, lack of farm mechanization equipment’s for demonstration, lack
of adequately trained staff and low motivation for the teaching staff (Rajput, 1986, p.154).
At FA level, morale is low mainly due to lack of performance incentives, poor wage and
salaries as compared to the private sector, Field workers have no say in the department.
Top down planning and decision making have adversely affected the performance at the
lower level. Severe financial stress in the Department of Agriculture has deprived the field
workers for necessary facilities required for reaching the farmers. Political interference of
the elected members of parliament has created inefficiency and ineffectiveness within the
Department of Agriculture.
The organizational sector of a private sector firm i.e. Ciba, shows that the
Managing Director is the overall controller of the firm. The Marketing Manager, the head
of the agriculture division, is assisted by the six Regional Managers (RM) in the Punjab.
Every RM has Zonal Field Managers (ZFM) and Technical Sales Officers (TSO). The
TSO is regarded as front line worker. He acts as a sales representative for the company as
well as extension worker. Its extension objectives are a means for achieving the
commercial objectives.
There are three Agricultural Universities, three Agriculture Colleges and six
Agricultural Training Institutes in the country. The number of graduates being produced in
the Universities/Colleges is far more than can be absorbed into various government
departments and private sector.
There are fifteen research organization at the federal level which are involved in
conducting research relating to Agriculture. Besides, each province has an agriculture
research institute on crops with substations. There are a number of commodity oriented
institutes which are part of the main provincial institute. Research on crops is mainly
looked after by the provincial Agriculture Department where as research on livestock,
poultry and fisheries is done by the Provincial Departments of Livestock and Dairy
Development, Poultry and Fisheries. Involvement of all the Agriculture Universities in
research programme is limited (Pakistan Agriculture Research Council, 1986, pp.20-22).
In Pakistan linkages between research, extension and education are quite loose. The
research workers at the Universities are more concerned with the writing of scientific
papers or articles without considering that their research findings are applicable in the field
or not. Mostly, work is done in isolation and therefore, their contacts with other
organizations are quite limited. They seldom take part in extending their research findings
in the farmers field. They seldom meet the extension people. This is particularly true about
the University of Agriculture, Faisalabad and Sindh Agriculture University.
There is poor liaison between the research organizations resulting in research
duplications, uncoordinated research programmes which are not aligned with the national
needs and priorities, poor communications between the researcher, extension service and
farmers (Hafiz, 1987, p.216).
Training and visit system of agricultural extension did not succeed completely to
improve production practices, level of input use and crop yields. Most of the weaknesses

2
of traditional extension system still exist under T and V system. More efforts are required
to improve efficiency of extension staff (Sharif et. al., 1987, p.395).

Agricultural Extension Programmes/Systems in Pakistan

Historically, on the recommendations of the Famine Commission, Agricultural
Extension Department was established in 1905. In 1908, Punjab Agricultural College was
set up offering three year degree programme (Malik, 1990 p.99 and Ahmad, 1998 p.32-33)
at Lyallpur (now Faisalabad). In the pre-independence period (before 1947), agricultural
services were not geared to meet the needs of farmers and field work (Malik, 1990 p.100).
Since the inception of Pakistan in 1947, a number of agricultural extension
programmes have been tried. These include the followings:

A. GOVERNMENT SYSTEMS/PROGRAMMES
1. Traditional Agriculture Research System
2. Barani Area Development Programme
3. Crop maximization Programmes
a) Cotton maximization programme
b) Rice maximization programme
c) Pakistan Agriculture Research Council Italian Maximization
Programme
4. Training and Visit system
5. Technology transfer programme of the NARC

B. PRIVATE SECTOR EXTENSION PROGRAMMES/SYSTEMS

1. Fertilizer Producing and Marketing Firms.
2. Pesticide companies, mostly involved in marketing their products.
3. Rafhan Maize Product/Sugar Mills.

C. NON GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATIONS

D. UNIVERSITIES OF AGRICULTURE

A. GOVERNMENT SYSTEMS/PROGRAMMES
1. Traditional Agricultural Extension System
Until 1978, prior to the introduction of Training and Visit (T and V) system,
traditional agricultural research system had been in practice to disseminate the findings of
research among the farming community. The following two approaches were used under
this system (Ahmad, 1999 p. 40-41).
a) The Service to Farmers Approach: This approach was based on the
philosophy of establishing model farms with progressive farmers which would have a
trickle down effect on other farmers and ultimately adoption by the fellow farmers of the
area. This approach turned extension into the hand maid of the big farmers and widened
the gap between rich and small farmers in their access to information sources (Government
of Punjab, N. D. p.5).
b) The Inputs at Farmers Door Steps Approach: Under this approach, extension
personnel were entrusted the responsibility of providing agriculture inputs, such as
improved seed, fertilizers, pesticides near door steps of the farmers. Government

3
subsidized these inputs to encourage their use. This approach helped in substantial increase
in agricultural production but it turned the extension worker into a salesman for
agricultural inputs (Government of Punjab N. D. p.6). This approach was replaced with
the T and V system in 1978.
The organizational set up of the traditional extension system was as under
(Chaudhry and Siddique, 1987 p.196).
Level Office/Staff
Province Director of Agriculture
Division Deputy Director of Agriculture
District EADA/Assistant Director of Agriculture
Tehsil/Markaz Agriculture Officer
Union Council Field Assistant

2. Barani Area Development Programme (BARD):

This programme was launched in 1978 for the rainfed areas. Later on Agency for
Barani Area Development Agency (ABAD) took over the operational control of BARD.
The programme was confined to crop production aspects of rainfed. The project is now
headed by Project Director. The field staff at various levels remains the same as prevailing
under the tradition extension system.

3. Crop Maximization Programme:

The crop maximization programmes were run in different parts of the country, both
by research and extension organizations on cotton, rice, wheat and maize crops. The
programmes aimed at maximizing commodity production through an integrated approach
(Chaudhry and Siddique, 1987 p.189).
Cotton Maximization Programme: The cotton maximization project was
implemented by the Punjab Agricultural Extension Department. The objectives of this
project were (a) Intensifying availability of extension services to the farmers (b) Imparting
necessary on farm training to the growers about the cotton production technology (c)
Arranging major inputs at the door step of the farmer and (d) Enhancing the availability
and use of supervised institutional credit. The project had a positive impact on the yield of
seed cotton (Khan, 1987, p.95).
Rice Maximization and Italian Maximization Programmes: The rice
maximization programme and the Italian crop maximization programme for wheat, maize
and rice were launched under the supervision of Pakistan Agriculture Research Council in
different parts of the country. The objectives of these programmes were (a) Demonstration
of proven package of technology (b) Participation and coordination of all concerned nation
building departments for the production of concerned commodity (c) Provision of feed
back to the researchers etc. about the problems/constraints in the adoption of improved
practices (d) Achievement of higher production within a short period (Chaudhry and
Siddique, 1987 p.190).

4. Training and Visiting System:

It was felt by the Government of Punjab that the traditional extension service had
the following shortcomings (Khan et. al. 1984, p.6-7 and Government of Punjab, 1978):
a. No effective liaison between research and extension.

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 b. Multifarious duties assigned to extension agents.
c. Lack of extensive and regular field demonstration programme.
d. Too vast operational area to give satisfactory coverage.
e. Unorganized and ineffective visits to the farmers.
f. Preferential treatment to big land owners.
g. Lack of effective organizational structure and proper programming.
h. Insufficient pre-service and in-service training facilities.
i. No specific evaluation of work.
j. Unsatisfactory terms and conditions of service concerning salaries, housing and
mobility.

To overcome the above deficiencies, Training and Visit (T & V) system of

extension was introduced in 1978 in the first phase in the five districts of Punjab province.
In the second phase, it was extended all over the country in 1986-87 (Ahmad and Haq
1994, p.1). This system, which is top-down in approach, has three components: adaptive
research, training and an extension wing. The adaptive research component is concerned
for the testing of the findings of applied research at adaptive research stations established
at the regional level. The most promising innovations selected by the adaptive research
scientists for the region are delivered to the farming community by the personnel of
extension wing Subject Matter Specialists (SMSs), along with the personnel of the training
wing, conduct regular fortnightly training meetings for the extension personnel to
strengthen their professional competencies. The main job of the extension wing is the
transfer of the messages prepared by the SMSs and the training wing to the masses through
the contact farmers. The system is based on two-step flow of information, from the contact
farmers to the whole farming community. The number of farm families that an extension
worker (locally designated as Field Assistant) can cover varies considerably from place to
place depending on population density, roads, intensity and standard of cropping, and the
types and diversity of crops grown. There is no fixed ratio of Field Assistants (FA) to
farmers (Mullah, 1993, p.49). Generally speaking, the farm families on the jurisdiction of a
FA are divided into 80 groups of about equal size. Then about 10 percent of each group are
selected as contact farmers. Usually, on an average, the number of contact farmers in a
group varies from eight to ten. FAs are supposed to visit the contact farmers according to a
prefixed schedule known to the farmers as well as their supervisors (Ahmad, 1998, p.42-
43). During a fortnight, the allocation of time of extension worker is eight days to contact
farmers, two days each for training and extra visit/office work. The system still in
operation did not yield the desired results as it strengthened the existing hierarchical
tendencies with centralized management and top down planning (Antholt 1994 p.14 and
Khan et. al. 1984, p.200) reported that the T and V programme failed to bring about the
desired changes in production practices, input use level and crop yields. Further it tends to
marginalise the benefits of agricultural development to small farm holders, tenant farmers
and women.
5. Technology Transfer Programme of NARC
The Technology Transfer Unit (TTU) was created in 1982 by the Pakistan
Agricultural Research Council at its National Agricultural Research Centre (NARC) in
Islamabad. It provides a link between the scientists and farmers. It disseminate modern
technology among the farmers and provides feedback to researchers. It also arranges

5
training courses and field demonstration for both the farmer community and extension
workers. The unit is multi-disciplinary in its nature. Village cooperative societies are
organized to conduct both agricultural and non-agriculture functions. Besides, the unit
provides assistance in the fields of fisheries, livestock, dairy development and soil
conservation. Its area of operation is confined to rural Islamabad (Mullah, 1993 p. 56). The
staff of the unit consist of one Director, three Assistant Directors and the supporting staff
at NARC (Chaudhry and Siddique, 1987, p.168).

B. PRIVATE SECTOR EXTENSION PROGRAMMES/SYSTEMS

1. Fertilizer Producing and Marketing Firm:

Currently fertilizer, pesticide and agricultural machinery are in the private sector
National Fertilizer Corporation (NFC), Fauji Fertilizer Co. (FFC), Exxon Chemical Ltd.
and Dawood Hercules Ltd. (DHL) are the producers and marketers of fertilizers. NFC and
FFC have the most extensive extension programme. However the NFC programme is
briefly discussed here. NFC programmes aims at reaching all sort of farmers by employing
simultaneously three extension approaches: Extension agronomy, Zarai (i.e. Agriculture)
Service and Mass Media (Bajwa 1987, pp.44-48).
Extension agronomy entails activities pertaining to advisory service through
farmers calls, farm visits, group discussion, farmer’s meeting, demonstration and field
days, crop/agriculture seminars, agriculture exhibitions, crop movies, soil testing and farm
adoption.
Zarai service encompasses issuance of quarterly magazine in local language, letter
service for literate farmers, posters containing crop production and protection
recommendations, publication and dispersal of crop and product folders containing full
information on crops and products, mainly fertilizers and pesticides.
Mass Media includes NFC sponsored radio agricultural programmes, news paper
and magazines, roadside boardings bearing slogans on modern agriculture management
practices and TV brand promotion programmes which in part display production
technology.
FFC has similar extension programme to the NFC. However, this organization is
also involved in training of sugar mills technical staff and in training dealers. The dealers
are imparted training about soil fertility and plant nutrient, time and methods of fertilizer
application, seeds, pesticides, agricultural implements etc. (Chaudhry, 1990, p.115-116).
Further FFC initiated Mobile Farm Extension Services in 1987 (Sadiq, 1990, pp.123-132).

2. Pesticide Companies:
Pesticide companies, about hundred in number, are mostly the marketers of
imported products and the giants are Ciba Giegy, Jaffar Brothers Ltd., ICI, Granulars Ltd.
Ciba’s agricultural division in Pakistan is at the forefront of the private firms involved in
extension work and is discussed here. It has the following objective.
1. Introducing new pesticides on to the market.
2. Providing facilities to the dealers for the betterment of the farming community.
3. Providing technical services to the progressive farmers at their door steps
concerning the safe use of pesticides.

6
 4. Conducting free pesticide trials at progressive farmers field and to arranging
field days to show the results of the pesticides.

The objective of conducting extension work and reaching farmers by the extension
personnel has the inherited objective of promoting sales through popularizing their
products among the farmers and ultimately earning more profit for the firm (Ahmad, 1998,
p.92).
The firms has its own dealers and marketing network all over the country. It also
sells its products directly to the big farmers by giving them dealership. The firm also
provides advisory and supervisory services to the dealers/farmers. It also has a dealers
training programme from time to time, visit to demonstration plots was a part of training.
For farmers, the firm has demonstration plots, film shows, large farmer gathering and other
extension services (i.e. pest scouting, time of application and supervised spraying
operation), through the trained and qualified persons (Qureshi, 1985, pp.66-78).

3. Rafhan Maize Products:

The firm concerned with maize processing helps the farmers in the production and
marketing of maize. The firm enters into forward contracts with the farmers, provides them
inputs (i.e. seed, fertilizers, insecticides/pesticides etc.) on credit, provides technical know
how for the maize crop and purchases unshelled maize directly from the registered farmers
at the guaranteed minimum price at the mill gate and bears the transportation cost. The
yield realized by the registered growers was 43 percent higher than on the common farmers
(Ahmad, 1987, pp. 3-57).
One of the sugar mills has a similar agriculture extension and procurement
programme for the sugarcane crop like the Rafhan Maize Products.

C. NON-GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATIONS:
A number of non-government organizations are involved in the rural development
activities including agriculture. Big organizations like the Agha Khan Rural Support
Programme (AKRSP), the National Rural Support Programme, Punjab Rural Support
Programme, the Sarhad Rural Support Corporation and many small NGO’s whose number
is not known are actively involved, in undertaking rural development initiatives using the
principles of participatory development and the methodology demonstrated by AKRSP.
They all place emphasis on the participatory approach designed to build on local leadership
skills (Malik, 1993, p.20 and SRSC, 1991, p.32). Their extension programmes aim at
increasing the income of the farmers by: (a) imparting training to representatives of VOs in
agriculture and livestock management (Bajwa, 1999, p.20). (b) facilitating timely
arrangement and supply of agricultural inputs (c) introducing technological innovation
such as inter cropping, Bee keeping etc. (d) introducing improved farm machinery (e)
demonstrating and experimenting high yielding varieties of crops etc. (SRSC, 1991, p.32).

D. UNIVERSITIES OF AGRICULTURE:
Agriculture Universities in the country make use of their extension departments and
wings to translate the research material in simple language. The literature is, then widely
distributed in the form of pamphlets, books and through university journals, printed and
published at their own level (Chaudhry, 1987, p.62). The Universities also provide

7
extension services to the farming community in the form of farm seminars, workshops,
agricultural fairs and other continuing education activities (Mullah, 1993, p.57). However,
there is wide variation in the extension activities of the agricultural universities. For
example, Sindh Agriculture University, Tandojam has established a Farmers Advisory
Cell, which is responsible for coordination between farmers who need technical help and
the scientists of the University. University of Agriculture, Faisalabad has established the
Institute of Applied Research and Technology Transfer. This Institute provides extension
services to the established community organizations and to the general farmers at two
project sites in Faisalabad and Khushab districts. NWFP Agriculture University
implemented the TIPAN project to strengthen and further develop the areas of teaching,
research and outreach to improve the lives of the farmers. Major cooperation between the
extension and outreach programme of the NWFP Agriculture University is in the areas of
technology development, the Integrated Village Demonstration Programme,
Communication, Training and Continuing Education (Seiders, 1987, p.257).

Dynamics of Commercialization of Agricultural production Systems and Farming

Systems
Agriculture sector in Pakistan is passing through transition from subsistence to
commercial farming. Many years ago under the subsistence farming, farmers purchased
very few inputs from other sectors, depending mainly on farm yard manure, family labour
and animal draught power. A small portion of their output was marketed. Now, a
significant proportion of the farmers are practising commercial farming. They are buying
seed, fertilizer, pesticides, electricity, gasoline and installing tubewells with the objective
of maximizing profit from farming. Use of fertilizer and pesticide per cropped hectare has
increased from 53 to 120 kg and 0.03 to 2.04 respectively over the period 1980 to 1998.
Consumption of electricity and petroleum on per thousand cropped hectare basis has
increased from 9.83 to 32.89 GWH and 8.22 to 14.90 kg. respectively over the period 1980
to 1997. Number of tubewells has increased from 9.83 to 22.31 per thousand cropped
hectare (Appendix - II). Further over time tractor power has replaced the animal power
even on small farms. Marketable surplus is a high proportion of the total produce of major
crops (Appendix - III). This clearly indicates the trend towards commercialization.
These changes are not confined to any particular area or farming system. All the
farming systems like cotton - wheat, rice - wheat, multiple cropping systems etc., in
various parts of the country having been experiencing dynamism in terms of use of various
inputs including land (Byerlee and Hussain, 1999, pp.1-12). The adoption of improved
varieties, fertilizer, pesticides, mechanical innovation has resulted in significant
improvement in the yields of various crops. It is hoped that these inputs will continue to
play an important role in increasing productivity in Pakistan. A large share of future yield
increase will have to come from improved crop management. It is a common observation
that under similar conditions progressive farmers are realizing two to three time higher
yield than the average farmers. The difference in performance can be attributed to the
difference in the management of resources. The commercialization of agriculture, among
others, necessitates factual quantification of input - output data, costing and pricing of both
inputs and outputs, scientific selection and combination of enterprises as well as of the
techniques. The foundations of commercial agriculture are always based on farm
management information and analysis. Communication of relevant farm management

8
advice through the extension worker to the farmer can contribute significantly in increasing
their profit.
Status of Farm Management in Extension:
The extension task encompasses the following major activities (Malik, 1993, p.18).
1. The dissemination of improved technology through various methods to
persuade the farmer to adopt new practices.
2. Assistance in plant protection services in certain areas.
3. Maintaining demonstration farms.
4. Conducting crop estimate survey.
5. Developing and maintaining nurseries of fruit and forest plants.
6. Carrying out low cost control measures in the event of attack.
7. Assisting farmers in gaining access to credit, input supplies, land reclamation
services, farm machinery etc.

Traditionally, extension in Pakistan has followed the generalist approach. Front-

line workers i.e. agricultural officers and field assistants are generalist in the sense that
they are supposed to have the answer to all types of questions from insect identification, to
fertilizer recommendation, to best crop varieties for the area, and so forth. Thus the farm
management and business advisory services provided by the public and private extension
institutions are almost non-existent. This is partly due to (a) inadequate training of the front
line workers in the discipline of farm management (b) non-application of the training they
received over many years at farm level and (c) high illiteracy rate among the farmers in the
rural areas. The same holds true for farm record keeping activities.
Farm Management Training and Materials:
Communication of technical information through printed material becomes
necessary when the literacy rate increases among the people. The analysis of present
extension and research subsystems shows that both are producing publications for the
farmers. The most commonly written materials are leaflets, hand outs and farm journals
(Malik, 1990, pp.225-227). Besides, the government channels, the private sector suppliers
and dealers are also involved in distributing printed information to farmers. Most of these
publications are supplied either free or at a very nominal price.
Handouts on wheat, sugarcane, cotton, rice and other major/minor/horticulture
crops and other commercial agriculture enterprises (like sericulture, apiculture, etc.) are
available from the Directorate of Publication, Pakistan Agriculture Research Council at the
Federal level, while the same is also available from the offices of Director General
Extension and Director General Research in the provinces. These leaflets provide
information about the recommended varieties, time and method of sowing, recommended
doses of fertilizer and their application, incidence of insect attack of various insects, type
of pesticide and its time of application etc. and the other recommended farm practices.
None of these publications contain any material pertaining to farm business advice.
Formally, a course of farm management is taught each to the front-line extension
workers i.e. Field Assistants and Agriculture Officers in their pre-service training
programmes.
Scheme of studies for Field Assistant course being conducted at various in-service
Agriculture Training Institutes in the Punjab shows that two courses are offered each in the
subject of agronomy, horticulture, plant protection, farm mechanization and extension

9
education. However, one course is taught each in the discipline of poultry farming,
Islamiat, dairy farming and farm management. Farm management’s share is about eight
percent in the total credit hours of two years programme of field assistant. The contents of
the farm management course are as under:
“Introduction of the subject of farm management. Definition of farm
management. Objectives and scope of farm management of Pakistan. Farm laout.
Layout of irrigated, barani and commercial farms. Different systems and types of
farming. Factors affecting the systems and types of farming. Importance of keeping
accurate farm records for planning and analysis, Inventories, To maintain the
diaries and financial records. Importance and need of estimating cost of production.
Uses of cost of production. Definition of land. Peculiarities of land. Factors
affecting the efficiency of land. Labour: Definition of labour. Peculiarities of
labour. Factors affecting the efficiencies of labour. Capital: Definition of capital.
Kinds of capital. Importance and function of capital. Factors affecting the
efficiency of capital. Organization: Meaning of organization. Importance and duties
of entrepreneur. Different forms of business organization i.e. one man or individual
enterprize partnership, corporation, cooperative society, public or state enterprize.
Duties of Farm Manager. Qualities required to be a good Farm Manager. Qualities
of a good Farm Labourer. How to control farm labour. How to get good work from
labour. Deployment of labour keeping in view capabilities. Standard of work for
different farm operations. Problems of Agricultural Marketing. Solution of the
problems of the market. What is the cooperative society. Objectives of cooperative
society. Role of Cooperative society in Agriculture. What are the post harvest
losses of the crops and their control”.

The Department of Farm Management has been teaching a course (i.e. Farm
Records and Planning) for about last thirty years to the students pursing their studies for
the degree of B. Sc.(Hons.) Agriculture four year course. The content of the course were as
under:
“Kinds and use of farm records, analysis of farm records, apportioning of
expenditure to farm enterprises to work out unit cost of production. Definition and
measurement of farm efficiency and ways to increase it. Definition, scope and goals
of farm planning. Type of data needed. Steps in planning: collection of requisite
data, taking farm inventory, analysis of existing agricultural economy and locating
its merits and demerits, planning land and water use, developing optimum cropping
patterns and intensities, crop rotations. Selection of efficient techniques of
production. Economic comparison of old and new farm plans. Need and procedure
to revise plans overtime. Types of farm risks and uncertainties and precautions
against them”.

This course has been replaced by a new course titled, “Agri. Business
Management” since last year. The contents of this course include:
“Definition and the objectives of science of Agri. Business Management.
Features of Agri. Business Management. Elements of good management. Functions
of Management. Planning, organizing, directing, coordinating and controlling.
Forms of business organization, their advantages and disadvantages. Cooperatives

10
 in Agri. business Economics, principles and allocation of agricultural resources.
Various types of costs, economic principles to maximize profit. The role and
organization of Agri. business. Inventory and types of assets. Financing the Agri.
business. Business aspects of agricultural marketing. Marketing Management and
decision making. Managing human resource in Agri. business”.

The Department of Farm Management also offer two courses i.e. “Principles of
Farm Management”, and “Land Economics and Farm Appraisal” to students who major in
Agricultural Economics in their degree of B.Sc. (Hons.) Agriculture four year course.
Like the B. Sc.(Hons.) Agriculture degree programme, the Department of Farm
Management, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, offers a course titled, “Planning for
Livestock Production” to the students pursing B.Sc.(Hons.) Animal Husbandry. The
contents of the course are as under:
“Importance of livestock in the farm economy and need for its
development. Relationship of livestock to crop culture. Taking Inventory of
Livestock venture, Sources and types of data on livestock, Economic analysis to
locate merits and demerits of existing system of livestock, Economics of feed use.
Economics of disease control, losses due to diseases. Depreciation and appreciation
of livestock. Projecting fodder needs of animals. Working out annual cost of
animals, sheds and other capital inputs, apportioning costs to various types of
livestock, and working out cost of production per unit of output.
Definition, scope and goals of livestock planning. Developing new plan:
Steps in planning, determination of most efficient feeds, optimum level of feed,
selection of type of livestock enterprises, combination of livestock and crop
cultures. Optimum size of herd/flock, Comparison of old and new plans. Economic
indicators for future planning”.
Besides the above undergraduate courses, the Department of Farm Management,
University of Agriculture, Faisalabad offers the following courses at the graduate level:
Course No. Title Credit Hours
FM-700 An Introduction to Farm Business 4(3-2)
FM-701 Methods of Farm management Investigation 3(3-0)
FM-702 Farm Costs and Farm Appraisal 3(2-2)
FM-703 Advanced Farm Planning and Budgeting 3(3-0)
FM-704 Applied Linear Programming 3(3-0)
FM-705 Econometric Methods in Farm Management 4(4-0)
FM-706 Economics of Agricultural Production 3(3-0)
FM-707 Applied Production Functions 3(3-0)
FM-708 Project Preparation and Appraisal 3(2-2)
FM-712 Dynamic Agricultural production Economics 3(3-0)
FM-713 Operation Research Approach to Farm Management 3(3-0)
FM-714 Advanced Quantitative Production Economics 3(3-0)
FM-719 Special Problem 1(1-0)
FM-720 Seminar 1(1-0)
FM-721 Advanced Econometrics 3(3-0)
FM-722 Natural Resource Economics 3(3-0)
FM-723 Advanced Production Economics 3(3-0)

11
FM-724 Application of Mathematical Techniques to Farm 3(3-0)
Management
FM-725 Farm Management’s Role in Farming Systems Research 3(3-0)

STAKEHOLDER NEEDS ASSESSMENT

Agriculture, like the other sectors of the economy, is undergoing rapid changes due
to technological and scientific developments and improved methods of organization and
management. If we see the growth of agriculture sector over time, we find that the value of
agricultural output increased from Rs.43580 million in 1965-66 to Rs.167584 million in
1999-2000 at constant factor cost. At the current factor cost, total value of agriculture
output increased from Rs.11227 million to Rs.762527 million for the same period
(Government of Pakistan, 1998 and Government of Pakistan, 1999-2000). Land prices are
showing continuous increase. These facts show that farming is big business. Narrow
margins between cost of production and selling price make it necessary for the farmers to
analyse their business in order to allocate resources to get maximum returns. At present
farmers are not doing farm business analysis.
Present extension service emphasizes approved practices as they apply to various
enterprises. At farmers gathering/meeting, due to variety of topics and the variation in
attendance, it is difficult for the extension worker to become familiar with each farm
operation to make worthwhile on-farm instructions. Further, on farm recommendations
usually deal with approved practices which have little relevance to the entire farming
operation.
Farmers in Pakistan are rational. They respond to changes in technologies, prices of
inputs and outputs. They calculate the profitability of various enterprises in their minds and
not on papers. Progressive and educated farmers realize that they can make better decision
about resource allocation by maintaining farm records and their analysis. Their interest
needs to be stimulated in developing a new profitable farm business through farm records.
Extension farm management education has not started as yet in Pakistan.
Programmes about the farm records and business analysis need to be developed and
delivered by extension workers to meet the producer’s business management needs. The
need vary depending on the size of farm, mix of enterprises, type of farming, region. The
majority of the farmers in Pakistan operate small farms. Almost 100 percent are full time
farmers. There is need to design special extension farm management programmes for small
farmers as they focus relatively more on livestock (more specifically dairy animals and
goat farming) and on crops that have the potential for higher net returns. Poultry farming
on a very limited scale is another activity of the female labour force on small farm
households. Large farmers mainly focus on general farming and on orchards. These farms
have heavy investment in farm machinery and earn high annual gross income. Extension
farm management programmes need to be tailored to the needs of these farmers. Extension
Department should provide help to the farmers into the selection of combination of
enterprises that will return the most profit to land, labour, capital and management. The
objective should be to help farmers apply farm business management principles that will
improve net farm income. Agricultural extension workers are not aware of farm
management techniques and farm business analysis starting from the lowest FA level to the
Director General Agriculture level. However, they all appreciate that maximization of

12
profit from the farm is a very important consideration of most of the farmers. Extension
worker and well to do progressive farmers need training in the farm management
techniques. This should provide adequate guidance on resource allocation, so that farmers
improve their proficiency. The above named service will enable the farmers make prudent
decisions on what to produce, how much to produce and how best to produce. Extension
workers, who are supposed to train the farmers, need training in preparation, maintenance
and analysis of farm business record, gross margin and production costs, partial and
enterprises budget and in the assessment of farm efficiency measures.

RECOMMENDATIONS
Present agricultural extension service is placing emphasis on the major crops grown
in the various farming systems. These include wheat, rice, cotton, sugarcane, maize, gram,
oilseeds and orchards. Very little emphasis is placed on vegetables and fodders. These
crops cover about 95% of the total cropped area in Pakistan. Agriculture extension services
recommend the use of various inputs and farm practices to obtain the maximum yield of
farm enterprises. Mostly emphasis is placed on a single dose of each input (may be
fertilizer, pesticides etc.). Consequently, the recommendations are not made on the basis of
optimum use of various inputs which result in getting maximum profit.
Among the various crops mentioned above, wheat is the most important in terms of
acreage followed by cotton. However, in terms of contribution of various commodities to
gross domestic product originating from the agriculture, milk is very important. Therefore
initially extension workers may be trained in the maintenance of commodity specific
records and in the formulation of enterprise budget. Wheat and milk production are
important in all the crop ecological zones. Therefore, preference to these commodities may
be given in each zone. Besides these products, each zone has other important crops, like
rice in wheat - rice farming system, cotton in wheat - cotton farming system. While
training the extension workers, this aspect may also be taken into account for the effective
introduction of farm management techniques. Therefore, the following steps may be
followed:
1. Identification of various cropping systems in the country: These cropping
systems may be identified on the basis of studies conducted in Pakistan.
2. Distinguishing relevant homogeneous groups in the given cropping system:
Homogeneous groups can be identified on the basis of farm size or on the basis
of commodities produced.
3. Determination of priorities for each of the group: Depending upon the farm
size/types of commodities, crop and livestock enterprise records and other
necessary records may be developed. These records must contain all the
necessary information to secure a complete farm business analysis.
4. Training of extension workers and literate farmers in the farm management
techniques in the context of priorities identified in the previous step.

Initially Subject Matter Specialists (SMS) (Agricultural Economics and Farm

Management) appointed at the district levels may be trained in farm management
techniques. These trained SMS (may be called Master Trainers) should impart training to
the Agriculture Officers and Field Assistants. Agriculture Officers can help educated
farmers and teachers in their regions in maintaining records and educating them in farm

13
business management. Farm Management Specialist may also be involved in providing
necessary training to farmers who have special interest in new enterprises.
FAO may develop the relevant material with the assistance of local experts.
Initially, the material may be developed for the important crops and livestock which are
grown/raised in each cropping system. The course should contain an introduction and
explanation of basic terms of farm management such as variable costs, fixed costs, gross
output, gross margin, farm enterprise. To give a detail into the principle and methodology
of gross margin calculation, wheat crop and dairy buffalo are used, as examples.
For the wheat crop, explain the various items of the (a) gross output: grain output,
wheat straw output. (b) variable costs: Ploughing cost, seed cost, fertilizer cost, insecticide
cost, irrigation cost, harvesting cost, threshing cost etc. (c) Labour requirements: Labour
requirements for ploughing, fertilizer application, harvesting, threshing etc.
For the Dairy Buffalo, explain the various items of the (a) gross outputs: Output
from milk, output from culled buffalo, output from calves, output from manure. (b)
variable costs: Replacement costs, feeding costs, medicine costs. (c) Nutrient requirements:
Requirements for maintenance, milk production etc. (d) Labour requirements: Labour
requirements for milking, watering, fodder cutting, chaffing and feeding, dung removal etc.
Subsequently, such relevant material may be prepared for the other enterprises.
Further, material may be developed for physical records, financial record, net worth
statement and income statement, analysis of farm business records, farm efficiency
measures, identification of weaknesses and strengths in the farm business, determination of
most profitable cropping system and livestock programme. All the material should be
simple and of practical nature.
Adequate training of the extension personnel of all categories is essential in farm
management techniques and business analysis for the sustainable and profitable
development of agriculture in Pakistan. Pre-service training of field assistants is imparted
at the agriculture training institutes. One of the main constraints in improving the standard
of teaching of Agricultural Training Institute is the lack of adequately trained and
experienced staff in general and more particularly in the discipline of farm management.
Mostly, the farm management course which need substantial revision, is taught by a
teacher who himself is trained in a subject other than farm management. Consequently, the
training imparted at Agricultural Training Institute is not adequate to fulfill the
requirements of farm management of Field Assistants. The training of Field Assistants
should be made more realistic and emphasis should be given in the farm records and farm
business analysis (especially in practical work) besides the usual training.
The trainer occupies a pivotal position in any training programme. The success of a
training programme is mainly dependent upon his skill, attitudes and performance. Thus
the training and retraining of the trainer must be made a continuous process. The staff
available at these institutions do not have adequate fund provisions for their own training
inside the country. For the training of the trainers, involvement of the Agricultural
Universities is strongly recommended.
Professional agriculture staff in the Agricultural Training Institutes find the job less
attractive as compared to other branches of the Department. Usually, the staff which is in
the bad books of the extension wing are transferred as teaching staff members in the
Institutes as a punishment and in view of this they continue in trying to get back to the
Department. Because of ad-holism they take very little interest in teaching and improving

14
the standard of education (Rana, 1986, p.174). It is suggested that the competent staff may
be selected/appointed permanently like that of Universities.
Pre-service training to Agriculture Officer is imparted by the Agriculture
Universities and Colleges. The courses offered for graduate programme tend to be more
theoretical than practical. The applied side of the subject matter is very weak, with the
result that the graduates of agriculture when appointed as extension workers fail to
discharge their duties effectively. The farmers who have long practical experience of
different farm operations and farming conditions can only be convinced if anything of
practical value is introduced which may contribute to an increasing the yield significantly.
To overcome this deficiency, it is advisable that the graduates who plan their career as
extension workers should take special course on farm management techniques and farm
business analysis. It is also essential that the teachers responsible for conducting practical
classes should be fully trained and experienced.
FAO may provide funds for the development of training material by using the
services of local and foreign farm management specialists. This material should be simple,
practical and problem oriented. It should contain a detailed description of the lectures and
of practical problems.
FAO may organize National level workshops to train the trainers in farm
management techniques and farm business analysis. The workshop should include farm
management specialists/participants from all the institutions imparting agricultural
education at various level. FAO may also organize short courses in farm management of
about three weeks to impart practical training to the Agriculture Officers and other
professionals.

REFERENCES
Ahmad, Irshad, 1987. An Appraisal of the Marketing System of Maize in Punjab with Special
Reference to District Toba Tek Singh. Un-published M.Sc. thesis, Department of
Agricultural Economics, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan.
Ahmad, Munir, 1998. A Comparative Analysis of the Effectiveness of Agricultural Extension
Work by Public and Private Sectors in Punjab, Pakistan. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis,
University of New England, NSW, Australia.
Ahmad, N. & M. U. Haq, 1994. Evaluation Study of punjab Agricultural Extension and Adaptive
Research Project-II, Punjab Economic Research Institute, lahore, Pakistan.
Antholt, C. H., 1994. Getting Ready for the Twenty-first Century: Technical Change and
Institutional Modernization in Agriculture, World Bank technical paper number 217,
Washington, D. C.
Bajwa, M. I., 1987. Agriculture Extension in the Private Sector in Research Extension Linkages for
Effective Technology Transfer. Ed. K. M. Chaudhry, T. M. Khan and M. S. Z. Toor.
Technology Transfer Unit, National Agriculture Research Centre, Pakistan Agriculture
Research Council, Islamabad.
Bajwa, R. R., 1999. Reducing Poverty Through Rural Credit, Micro Enterprise Development and
Development of Service Sector in Rural Areas, National Rural Support Programme,
Islamabad.

15
Birkhaeuser, D., Evenson, R. E., & Feder, G., 1991. The Economic Impact of Agricultural
Extension: A review, Economic Development and Cultural Change, vol.39, No.3, pp.607-
650.
Byerlee D. and T. Hussain, 1992. Introduction to Major Farming Systems, in Farming Systems of
Pakistan, Ed. Byerlee D. and T. Hussain, Intekhab-e-Jadeed Press, 8-Abbot Road, Lahore.
Chaudhry, Z. A., 1987. Transformation of Agriculture Research into Extension Message and its
Diffusion Mechanism in the Country, in Research Extension Linkages for Effective
Technology Transfer. Ed. K. M. Chaudhry, T. M. Khan and M. S. Z. Toor. Technology
Transfer Unit, National Agriculture Research Centre, Pakistan Agriculture Research
Council, Islamabad.
Chaudhry, M. S., 1990. Role of FFC Technical Services in Transfer of Technology and Farmer
Education in International Seminar on Productivity. Thru Agriculture Extension ed. Fauji
Fertilizer Company, Limited, Islamabad.
Chaudhry, K. M. and J. A. Siddique, 1987. Major Agricultural Extension Programmes and
Approaches Followed in Pakistan under Public Sector, in Research Extension Linkages for
Effective Technology Transfer. Ed. K. M. Chaudhry, T. M. Khan and M. S. Z. Toor.
Technology Transfer Unit, National Agriculture Research Centre, Pakistan Agriculture
Research Council, Islamabad.
Government of Pakistan, Statistics Division, Federal Bureau of Statistics 1998, 50 years of
Pakistan, Islamabad.
Government of Pakistan, Economic Advisor’s Wing, Finance Division 2000, Economic Survey
1999-2000, Islamabad.
Government of Pakistan, Food, Agriculture and Livestock Division, Ministry of Food, Agriculture
and Livestock 1998, Agricultural Statistics of Pakistan, Islamabad.
Government of Punjab, Department of Agriculture, 1978. PC-I document, Punjab Extension and
Agriculture Development Project, Lahore.
Government of Punjab n.d. Future Agricultural Extension Strategy, Lahore, Pakistan.
Hafiz, A., 1987. Effective Linkages between Agriculture Education, Research, Extension and the
Farming Community for Enhancing Agriculture Productivity in Research Extension
Linkages for Effective Technology Transfer. Ed. K. M. Chaudhry, T. M. Khan and M. S.
Z. Toor. Technology Transfer Unit, National Agriculture Research Centre, Pakistan
Agriculture Research Council, Islamabad.
Islam, N., 1992. Estimation of Marketable Surplus and the Factors Influencing it for Major Crops
in Toba Tek Singh District. Unpublished M.Sc. thesis, Department of Agricultural
Economics, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan.
Jalvi, G. M., 1990. Critique on Training and Visit System of Agriculture Extension, in International
Seminar on Productivity Thru Agriculture Extension Ed. Fauji Fertilizer Company
Limited, Islamabad.
Khan, M. J.; M. Sharif and M. Sarwar, 1984. Monitoring and Evaluation of Training and Visit
System of Agriculture Extension in Punjab, Pakistan. Punjab Economic Research Institute,
Lahore.
Khan, M. J., 1987. An Evaluation of Cotton Production Maximization Project Punjab: 1986-87.
Punjab Economic Research Institute, Publication No.230, Lahore.

16
Khan, G. S. and G. H. Chaudhry, 1987. Critical Review of Pre-service Training Arrangements of
Agricultural Extension Staff in Pakistan, in Research Extension Linkages for Effective
Technology Transfer. Ed. K. M. Chaudhry, T. M. Khan and M. S. Z. Toor. Technology
Transfer Unit, National Agriculture Research Centre, Pakistan Agriculture Research
Council, Islamabad.
Malik, Waqar, 1990. A Systems Paradigm: A Study of Agricultural Knowledge System in
Pakistan. Leo Books, Islamabad.
Malik, Waqar, 1993. Reforming Agricultural Extension in Pakistan. Proceedings of National
Workshop, Pakistan Agriculture Research Council, Islamabad.
Mullah, M. U., 1993. Extension Programmes in Pakistan, in Extension Methods Managing Author
R. A. Memon and Ed. E. Bashir, National Book Foundation, Islamabad.
Pakistan Agriculture Research Council, 1986. National Agriculture Research Plan, Islamabad.
Qureshi, A. H., 1985. Marketing of Pesticide in Punjab: A Case Study of Multan and Gujranwala
Districts. Un-published M. Sc. thesis, Department of Agricultural Economics, University
of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan.

Rana, M.S.K., 1986. A Critical Review of Problems of Training Middle Level Managers at various
Agriculture Training Institutes in Pakistan and Their Solution in Research Extension
Linkages for Effective Technology Transfer. Ed. K. M. Chaudhry, T. M. Khan and M. S.
Z. Toor. Technology Transfer Unit, National Agriculture Research Centre, Pakistan
Agriculture Research Council, Islamabad.
Rajput F. K., 1987. Critical Review of Pre-Service Training Arrangements of Agriculture
Extension Staff in Pakistan, in Research Extension Linkages for Effective Technology
Transfer. Ed. K. M. Chaudhry, T. M. Khan and M. S. Z. Toor. Technology Transfer Unit,
National Agriculture Research Centre, Pakistan Agriculture Research Council, Islamabad.
Sadiq, M., 1990. Mobile Farm Extension Services Project. A New Concept in Agriculture
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Fertilizer Company, Limited, Islamabad.
Seiders, W. 1987. Agriculture University Out-reach Extension Linkage in the NWFP in Research
Extension Linkages for Effective Technology Transfer. Ed. K. M. Chaudhry, T. M. Khan
and M. S. Z. Toor. Technology Transfer Unit, National Agriculture Research Centre,
Pakistan Agriculture Research Council, Islamabad.
Sharif, M.; M. J. Khan, Z. Ahmad and M. Shafique, 1987. Institutional Development and New
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25(4), pp.395-403).
SRSC, 1991. Annual Review. The Sarhad Rural support Corporation (Guarantee Limited),
Peshawar.

17
 APPENDIX - I
Organisational Chart 1 of the Department of Agriculture (Extension Wing)

Director General
(Ext. & A. Res)

Director Director Director Director

Agriculture Agriculture Agriculture Agriculture
⇓

Training Wing Extension Wing

At division Deputy Director Deputy Director At district Level
level Agriculture(Trg) Agriculture(Ext)

⇓ ⇓
At district Extra Assistant Extra Assistant At Tehsil Level
Level Director
Director

⇓ ⇓
At Tehsil Agricultural Agricultural At markiz Level
Level Officer Officer
⇓
Field At Union Council
Assistant Level
Abbreviation:
Ext. = Extension DDA = Deputy Director of Agriculture
Trg = Training EADA = Extra Assistant Director of Agriculture
A.Res = Adaptive Research AO = Agricultural Officer FA =Field Assistant
Ext. Staff Strength in Punjab
a) Extension Wing b) Training Wing
DDAs(Trg + Ext) = 31 DDAs = 8
EADAs (-d0-) = 85 EADAs = 30
AOs (-do-) = 533 AOs = 85
FAs = 4263
Total Ext. staff = 4812 Total Trg. staff =123 Total Staff strength = 4935

Source: Organisational Chart of Agriculture Department, prepared by Agriculture House, Lahore.

1
The organisational set-up of the adaptive research wing is not shown in this chart, because it is not directly
concerned with the job of extension.

18
 APPENDIX - II

USE OF VARIOUS INPUT OVER TIME ON OPER CROPPED HECTARE BASIS

Year Fertilizer Consumption Tubewells Consumption Consumption

use of pesticide per 000 ha. of electricity of petroleum
(Kg./ha) (Kg./ha) per 000 ha. products per
(GWH) 000 ha (Kg.)
1980-81 53.18 0.03 9.83 10.51 8.22
1981-82 52.89 0.18 10.14 11.60 6.08
1982-83 61.08 0.25 10.47 12.56 7.92
1983-84 59.15 0.32 11.34 13.15 8.52
1984-85 60.81 0.45 12.08 13.57 10.62
1985-86 73.10 0.60 12.44 14.02 11.73
1986-87 85.27 0.69 12.83 16.59 11.49
1987-88 83.26 0.72 13.96 21.37 15.99
1988-89 82.77 0.62 14.52 20.83 14.16
1989-90 90.26 0.70 15.53 24.01 13.70
1990-91 90.31 0.70 16.21 27.77 12.65
1991-92 89.45 0.96 16.90 27.76 13.37
1992-93 100.36 1.10 17.48 26.33 13.42
1993-94 99.80 0.94 18.11 26.83 14.30
1994-95 101.30 1.15 21.50 29.07 12.63
1995-96 115.66 2.00 22.31 30.89 13.15
1996-97 111.58 2.00 N.A. 32.89 14.90
1997-98 120.49 2.04 N.A. N.A. N.A.
Source: Calculated from Government of Pakistan, 1999-2000.

APPENDIX - III

CHANGES IN MARKETABLE SURPLUS OF MAJOR COMMODITIES IN

PAKISTAN

(Percent of total Production)

Farm Size Wheat Cotton Sugarcane Rice Maize
0 - 12.50 acres 33.89 73.97 86.71 62.24 88.70
12.00 - 25.00 acres 82.11 85.88 88.81 88.38 81.57
Above 25.00 acres 82.11 85.88 88.81 88.38 81.57
Source: Islam N. 1992.

19