_/HMeat EXCHANGERS Learning Objectives A careful study of this chapter will enable the readers to know the important factors in the design of heat exchangers. know the types of heat exchangers in common use. define the overall heat transfer coefficient for a heat exchanger. calculate the Log Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD). derive a relation for estimating LMTD for parallel-flow heat exchangers. know about the correction factor to LMTD for various types of heat exchangers. define the heat exchanger effectiveness. learn about the relation between effectiveness and Number of Transfer Units (NTU). know about fouling factors. . 7 /11.1 Introduction (A deviee which transfers heat from one fluid to another fluid is called a heat exchanger. The simplest type of heat exchanger is an open feed water heater used in thermal power plants. In an open feed water heater, a stream of steam is directly mixed with cold water and the mixture leaves the unit at a uniform temperature. However, in most of the situations one is not interested in mixing both the fluids but would like to transfer heat from a hot fluid to another cold fluid. There are several types of devices or heat exchangers in which one fluid is separated from the other by a wall or partition through which heat flows. The simplest type of heat exchanger is a double- pipe heat exchanger in which one fluid flows through the inner pipe while the oth lows through the annular space between the inner and outer pipes. In the design o cfs heat exchanger one should take into account the following important factors: © The thermal analysis, In this phase of design one is primarily concerned with the estimation of heat transfer area for the transfer of heat at a specified rate for the given flow rates and temperatures of the fluids.Heat ExcHancers 395 © The mechanical design. In this phase of design one takes into account the operating temperatures, pressures, corrosive nature of the fluids, pressure drop, thermal stresses, etc. : © The design for manufacture. In this phase of design one concentrates on the selec- tion of material, seals, enclosures, cost of manufacturing and the manufacturing procedures. A discussion of all the above aspects is beyond the scope of this book and we limit our discussion to the thermal analysis only. Moreover, we limit our discussion to heat exchangers in which heat is transferred by conduction and convection only. In order to achieve maximum economy, the heat exchangers are usually selected from the available standard items in the market. The selection of the heat exchanger has to be based on the thermal analysis, cost, physical size and corrosive nature of the fiuids. 11.2 és of Heat Exchangers The simplest type of heat exchanger is a double-pipe heat exchanger shown in F Jt consists of a tube located concentrically inside another tube which act a shell. In this arrangement both traverse the heat exchanger only once. If both the fluids flow in the same direction, the heat exchanger is called a parallel-flow iype or co-current type. If the fluids flow in opposite directions, the heat exchanger is called a counter-current type. Fluid B Fluid A- Fluid A pe Hl Fluid B Fig. 11.1 Schematic of a double-pipe heat exchanger. The shell-and-tube heat exchangers shown in Fig. 11.2 are widely used in chemical process industries. One fiuid flows through the inside tubes while the other fluid flows through the shell. This type of heat exchanger has fixed tube plates at each end and the tubes are welded into the plates. The shell-and-tube heat exchangers can be used for small temperature differences between the hot and cold fluids because they cannot withstand high thermal stresses. To ensure that the shell-side fluid flows across the tubes to enhance the heat transfer rates, baffles are placed in the shell. Depending396 HEAT TRANSFER on the arrangement at the ends of the heat exchanger, one or more tube passes can be utilized, A shell-and-tube heat exchanger with two tube passes and one shell pass is shown in Fig. 11.2. ‘Tube-side fluid Shell-side fluid Shell-side fluid Fig. 11.2 Schematic of a shell-and-tube heat exchanger with two tube passes and one shell pass. If the two fluids flowing along the heat transfer surface move at right angles to each other, then the heat exchanger is of the cross-flow type. The cross-flow heat exchangers are usually used in air or gas heating and cooling applications. A schematic of the cross-flow heat exchanger is shown in Fig. 11.3 in which a gas flows across a Lo | _ Gas flow Fig. 11.3 Schematic of a cross-flow heat exchanger in which one stream is mixed while the other is unmixed.Heat ExcHancers 397 tube-bank, while another fluid flows through the tubes. In this case, the gas stream is mixed and its temperature will be uniform across any section and varies only in the direction of flow. This stream is said to be a mixed stream. The fiuid in the tubes is said to be an unmixed stream because the fluid is contained in separate tubular channels and the fluid cannot mix with itself while it is in the heat exchanger. ‘A different type of cross-flow heat exchanger which is also in common use is one in which both the streams are unmixed. A schematic of a cross-flow heat exchanger with both streams unmixed is shown in Fig. 11.4, In this.type of cross-flow heat exchanger, a gas flows across a finned tube bank and remains unmixed. Such a heat exchanger is used in air-conditioning equipment.) ia 1 ans WB QYos Gas flow cobling fluid Fig. 11.4 Schematic of a cross-flow heat exchanger with both streams unmixed. i \ 113 Qverall Heat Transfer Coefficient oo Suppose a fluid at temperature Ty, flowing through a tube of inner radius ri and outer radius rp exchanges heat with a fluid at temperature T; which is flowing outside the tube. Then the thermal resistances for heat transfer are: i . 1 Thermal resistance for convection at the inner surface = na =—=— Ai In(ro/Ti) Thermal resistance f duction (tube wall) = hermal resistance for conduction (tube wall) SEE Thermal resistance for convection at the outer surface398 HEAT TRANSFER Therefore, the total thermal resistance is te ina) 1 Du = Galt aamt + ods (ay) ‘The rate of heat transfer is given by 1-7 ale A (11.2) I= SR 1, Inrolri) yA; O2nke hoo The overall heat transfer by combined conduction and convection is frequently ex- pressed in terms of the overall heat transfer coefficient U defined as q=UAAT (11.3) From Eqs. (11.2) and (11.3) we get 1 UA= Ay (11.4) RA; Inkl oAg The overall heat transfer coefficient may be based on either the inside area A; or the outside area A, of the tube. oa aint Tar (11.5) Inkl Ay he . Zenon), 1 oy Inkl ho ExampLe 11.1 In a double-pipe heat exchanger, oil flows through a 1.5 m long copper tube of 18 mm ID and 24 mm OD while water flows through the annulus. The convective heat transfer coefficient between the oil and the tube is 500 W/m? K and the convective heat transfer coefficient between the tube and water is 800 W/m? K. Calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient based on the outside area of the pipe. SOLUTION Given ry = 9x 1078 m; ro = 12x 10-3 m; £ = 1.5 m; hy = 500 Wim? K and ho = 800 W/m? K For copper, k = 386 W/m KHeat ExcHancers 399 The overall heat transfer coefficient is given by 1 Soe Acintrajri) . 2 + game «Sh hg 1 Qn x 12 x 10-3 x isin ( Qn x 12 x 10-3 [ Qn x 9x 10-3 x 500 Qn x 386 x 1.5 800 = 254.7 Wim? K 11.4, Ye Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD) v {in a heat exchanger, the temperatures of the heating and cooling fiuids do not in general, remain constant, but vary from point to point along the length of the heat exchanger. Since the temperature difference between the two fluids keeps changing, the rate of heat transfer also changes along the length of the heat exchanger. The temperature profiles in single pass heat exchangers are shown in Fig. 11.5. An inspection of Fig. 11.5(a) shows that the temperature difference in a parallel-flow heat exchanger is large at the inlet point and small at the exit. Fig. 11.5 (b) shows that the temperature difference between the two fluids, in a counter-current heat exchanger, can be fairly constant. Hop Puig Ta Fig. 115 Temperature profile in (a) a paralle-flow heat exchanger (b) countercurrent heat exchanger400 Hear TRANSFER The rate of heat transfer can be calculated from the relation . q=UAAT (11.3) Since AT changes from point to point in a heat exchanger, we propose to use ATi, a suitable mean temperature difference between the twovends of a heat exchanger, and rewrite Eq. (11.3) as = UAAT in (1.7) q The rate of heat transfer through an element of area dA is given by dq = —thacndTh, = rheccdTe (11.8) where the subscripts h and c denote the hot and cold fluids, respectively. The rate of heat transfer can also be expressed as dq = U(T, —Te)dA (11.9) From Eq. (11.8) we obtain F € . eo a4) =a ape* nA aT, at J 4 : (11.10) ™noh av dq ie dT, = = (11.11) McCe m/f 1 i dT, — dT, = d(Th — T.) = -dqg( ——+- (11.12) Tach Mele Substituting Eq. (11.9) in Eq. (11.12), we get dD, ~ 7.) = -UD, ~ Toda ( ue ) MrCh Mele or a, ~ 72) ( 1 a = 111 Ter. oe \iacs wee) oe Integrating Eq. (11.13) between conditions 1 and 2 corresponding to the two ends of the heat exchanger, we get Tra-Ta\ __y 1 1 = j = r) oa lee na) aeHeat ExcHancers 401 The energy balance gives q = Tinea (Tht — The) = TReCe (Ter — Ter) or (11.15) ete = et (11.16) Teg — Ter Substituting Eqs. (11.15) and (11.16) in Eq. (11.14), we get Tia Te _ -UA Tha = Teo _ Ta - 7, : n (=) 7 (Tha — Tha + Teo - Ter) : a — Thy +thi- ( Tho — Te2) -— -T, qa valle ta) (Mm =Ta) _ y yar, (uy ge) = Thi - Ter where the ATi, the Log Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD), is given by 7 = Tea) ~ (Tus = Te ) ar, = G22) = (Tm =Ta) _iypp (11s) in (= a) Tha — Ter We have obtained the above relation for LMTD for a double-pipe heat exchanger. This derivation for LMTD involves two important assumptions: (i) The fluids have constant specific heats, and (ii) The convection heat transfer coefficients are constant throughout the heat exchanger. Equation (11.18) for LMTD is applicable for both parallel-flow and counter-current heat exchangers. If the temperature difference (Ti — Tei) is not more than 50 percent greater than (Th — Tez), the arithmetic mean temperature difference will be approximately equal to the LMTD, and it can be used to simplify the calculations. Exampte 11.2 It is desired to cool oil from 120°C to 50°C using a double-pipe heat exchanger. The cooling water enters the heat exchanger at 20°C and leaves it at 40°C. Calculate the LMTD for (a) a parallel-flow heat exchanger, and (b) for a counter-current heat exchanger. SOLUTION The temperature profile, for the oil and water are shown in Fig. 11.6.402 HEAT TRANSFER Th Te 120°C} Oy (120°C)| on Typ (60°C) Tia (50°C) Ta cay (40°) (40'°)| Water oy 0 T,g(20 C) TQ0 =| a) oO t o t @ () Fig. 11.6 Temperature profiles for the oil and water in (a) parallel-flow. (b) counter-current double-pipe heat exchanger. (Tho — Tez) — (Thi = Ter) iy (Fe Tha — Ter LMTD = (a) parallel-flow heat exchanger (b) counter-current heat exchanger (50 — 20) — (120 — 40) = ee 120 — 40 = 50.98°C LMTD = For more complex heat exchangers like shell-and-tube heat exchangers with several shell passes and several tube passes, and for cross-flow heat exchangers, the math- ematical derivation of an expression for the mean temperature difference is quite complex. The usual practice is to modify the LMTD by including a correction factor. Then the rate of heat transfer can be written as q=UAFAT in (11.19) where ATi, =LMTD for a counter-current heat exchanger. The values of the correction factor F are presented in Figs. 11.7 to 11.10 for different types of heat exchangers. In Figs.11.7 to 11.10, the values of F are plotted as a function of the parameters P and R. The parameters P and R are defined as tot pi 11.20 Toh (11.20)Heat ExcHanGcers 417 11.7 Summary A heat exchanger is a device used for transferring energy from one fluid to another. The simplest type of heat exchanger is a double-pipe heat exchanger which consists of a tube located concentrically inside another tube. If both the fluids flow in the same direction, the heat exchanger is called a parallel-flow type or co-current type. If the fluids flow in opposite directions, the heat exchanger is called a counter-current type. In chemical process industries, shell-and-tube heat exchangers are in wide use. In these heat exchangers, one fluid flows through the inside tubes while the other fluid flows through the shell. If the two fluids flowing along the heat transfer surface move at right angles to each other, then the heat exchanger is of the cross-flow type. The cross- flow heat exchangers are usually used in gas heating and cooling applications. The heat transfer rate in a heat exchanger is usually expressed by the relation q=UAAT where U is the overall heat transfer coefficient. The overall heat transfer coefficient may be defined based on either the inside area or the outside area of a tube. In a heat exchanger, the temperatures of the heating and cooling fluids do not remain constant, but vary from point to point along the length of the heat exchanger. Therefore, the temperature difference between the two fluids changes from point to point in a heat exchanger. Hence, a suitable mean temperature difference, called the Log Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD) is used for evaluating the heat exchanger performance. The LMTD for a double-pipe heat exchanger is defined as yop = {242 = Tee) = (Tn = Ter) _ AT, in ( = 7) \Tai — Ter where the subscripts h and c refer to the hot and cold fluids, respectively, and the subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the two ends of the heat exchanger. If the temperature difference at the two ends do not differ by more than a factor of two, the arithmetic mean temperature difference will be approximately equal to the LMTD. For complex heat exchangers like shell-and-tube heat exchangers with several shell passes and several tube passes and for cross-flow heat exchangers, the usual practice is to modify the LMTD by including a correction factor F. Then the rate of heat transfer can be expressed as q=UAFAT,, The LMTD can be conveniently used only if all the terminal temperatures are known. However, one comes across situations in which the heat exchanger performance is known for particular flow rates of fluids but the temperatures of the exit fluids are not known. Therefore, it is necessary to circumvent the use of LMTD to evaluate the heat418 Heat TRANSFER exchanger performance. This is done by introducing the heat exchanger effectiveness € which is defined as actual rate of heat transfer 26 ee maximum possible rate of heat transfer The maximum possible rate of heat transfer will be obtained in a counter-current heat exchanger of infinite heat transfer area. For the counter-current heat exchanger, the effectiveness is given by fe ae (| Caag Cas Ca The effectiveness for a parallel-flow heat exchanger is given by -uA = l-eq lear en Crain ( Srnax | 14 Onin where C = the. The dimensionless parameter (A/Cimin) is called the number of heat transfer units or NTU. After a period of operation, the heat transfer surface in a heat exchanger gets coated with deposits or scale and this scale formation results in a decrease in the performance of the heat exchanger. This effect is called fouling. The fouling resistance or fouling factor Ry can be determined from the relation = 1 Ry ei 2 Ug where U_ = overall heat transfer coefficient for a clean heat exchanger Ug = overall heat transfer coefficient of the heat exchanger after fouling. Review Questions 1. What is meant by thermal analysis of a heat exchanger? 2, What is a double-pipe heat exchanger? 3, What is meant by a parallel-flow or co-current heat exchanger?Heat ExcHancens 419 4, What is meant by a counter-current heat exchanger? 5. Distinguish between a shell-and-tube heat exchanger and a cross-flow heat ex- changer. 6. Define the overall heat transfer coefficient. 7. Define the Log Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD). 8. When is the LMTD approximately equal to the arithmetic mean temperature difference? 9. Define the effectiveness of a heat exchanger. 10. If ranch < thece, Which fluid would undergo the maximum temperature difference in a heat exchanger? 11. How does one determine the rate of heat transfer in a heat exchanger if its effectiveness is known? 12, What is meant by the minimum fluid? 13. Define the number of heat transfer units(NTU)? 14. When is the LMTD method most applicable to heat exchanger calculations? 15. What advantage does the NTU methoid have over the LMTD method? 16. How can one determine the fouling factor of a heat exchanger? Problems 11.1 In a parallel-flow double-pipe heat exchanger, the hot fluid enters the heat exchanger at 90°C and leaves it at 50°C, while the cold fluid enters the heat exchanger at 20°C and leaves it at 40°C. Calculate the LMTD. 11.2 In a counter-current double-pipe heat exchanger, the hot fluid enters at 200°C and leaves at 100°C, while the cold fluid enters the heat exchanger at 20°C and leaves it at 80°C. Calculate the LMTD. 11.3. A counter-current double-pipe heat exchanger with an overall heat transfer coefficient of 800 W/m? K is used to cool 10 kg/s of oil from 150°C to 50°C. The cooling water enters the heat exchanger at 25°C and leaves at 40°C, The specific heats of oil and water are 3.4 kJ/kg K and 4.2 kl/kg K, respectively. Calculate the rate of heat transfer and the heat transfer area of the heat exchanger. 11.4 A double-pipe heat exchanger with an overall heat transfer coefficient of 11.5 400 W/m? K is to be used to cool 10 kg/s of oil from 110°C to 50°C. Cooling water is available at 20°C and the water should leave the heat exchanger at 40°C. The specific heats of oil and water are 3.1 kJ/kg K and 4.2 kJ/kg K, respectively. Determine the heat transfer area for (a) a counter-current flow heat exchanger and for (b) a parallel-flow heat exchanger. : In a heat exchanger, cold water enters at 30°C and leaves at 60°C. Dry saturated steam at 100°C enters the heat exchanger and the condensate leaves at 100°C. Calculate the LMTD for (a) a counter-flow double-pipe heat exchanger and (b)420 11.6 11.7 11.9 11.10 1.11 HEAT TRANSFER a parallel-flow double-pipe heat exchanger. (c) Calculate the modified LMTD for a shell-and tube heat exchanger with one shell pass and two tube passes. Calculate the correction factor for LMTD for Problem 11.5 if a shell-and-tube heat exchanger with two shell passes and four tube passes is used. It is desired to cool 0.5 kg/s of oil from 105°C to 45°C by using an equal flow rate of cooling water: The cooling water is available at 20°C. The specific heats of oil and water are 2.8 kI/kg K and 4.2 kJ/kg K. Two double-pipe heat exchangers are available: Heat exchanger 1: U = 500 W/m? K; A = 4.5 m? Heat exchanger 2: U = 800 W/m? K; A = 2 m? Which heat exchanger should be used? It is desired to cool 0.5 kg/s of oil (Cp = 2.8 kJ/kg K) from 100°C to 60°C by using cold water at 20°C. The cooling water is to leave the heat exchanger at 40°C. If a cross-flow heat exchanger with both fluids unmixed and having an overall heat transfer coefficient of 600 W/m? K is to be employed, determine the heat transfer surface area required. It is required to cool 0.5 kg/s of oil from 110°C to 50°C using a counter-current double-pipe heat exchanger. The cooling water is available at 25°C and can leave at 35°C. The oil flows through the inner copper tube of 12 mm diameter, 1.5 m length and water flows through the annulus. The internal diameter of the outer tube is 30 mm. The inner tube of 3 mm thickness is made of copper. Use the Dittus—Boelter equation to estimate the convection heat transfer coefficients and determine the overall heat transfer coefficient of the heat exchanger. For oil, p = 864 kg/m; C, = 2.4 kI/kg K; v =0.85 x 1074 m/s; k = 0.16 W/m K A shell-and-tube heat exchanger with one shell pass and two tube passes having a overall heat transfer coefficient of 1000 W/mK and a heat transfer area of 10 m? is to be used to cool 2 kg/s of a liquid (Cp = 3 kI/kg K) from 200°C using 5 kg/s of cooling water at 25°C. Determine the outlet temperatures of the liquid and cooling water. Ina counter-current double-pipe heat exchanger, 0.4 kg/s of oil (Cp = 2.2 kI/kg K) is cooled from 120°C using 1 kg/s of water which enters at 25°C. The heat exchanger has an overall heat transfer coefficient of 600 W/m? K and a heat transfer area of 3 m?, Calculate the exit temperatures of the oil and cooling water. Also determine the total heat transfer rate.