Hardware & Networking Notes

Computer Hardware
&
Networking Notes
M.K.Prasad
SRGPTC, Thriprayar
Emkay, SRGPTC, Thriprayar Page 1

Operating Systems Overview
An operating system is a software component of a computer system that is responsible for
the management of various activities of the computer and the sharing of computer
resources. It hosts the several applications that run on a computer and handles the
operations of computer hardware. Users and application programs access the services
offered by the operating systems, by means of system calls and application programming
interfaces. Users interact with operating systems through Command Line Interfaces (CLIs)
or Graphical User Interfaces known as GUIs. In short, operating system enables user
interaction with computer systems by acting as an interface between users or application
programs and the computer hardware. Here is an overview of the different types of
operating systems.
Real-time Operating System:
It is a multitasking operating system that aims at executing real-time applications. Real-time

operating systems often use specialized scheduling algorithms so that they can achieve a
deterministic nature of behavior. The main object of real-time operating systems is their
quick and predictable response to events. They either have an event-driven or a time-
sharing design. An event-driven system switches between tasks based of their priorities
while time-sharing operating systems switch tasks based on clock interrupts.
Multi-user and Single-user Operating Systems:
The operating systems of this type allow a multiple users to access a computer system
concurrently. Time-sharing system can be classified as multi-user systems as they enable a
multiple user access to a computer through the sharing of time. Single-user operating
systems, as opposed to a multi-user operating system, are usable by a single user at a
time. Being able to have multiple accounts on a Windows operating system does not make
it a multi-user system. Rather, only the network administrator is the real user. But for a Unix-
like operating system, it is possible for two users to login at a time and this capability of the
OS makes it a multi-user operating system.
Multi-tasking and Single-tasking Operating Systems:
When a single program is allowed to run at a time, the system is grouped under a single-
tasking system, while in case the operating system allows the execution of multiple tasks at
one time, it is classified as a multi-tasking operating system. Multi-tasking can be of two
types namely, pre-emptive or co-operative. In pre-emptive multitasking, the operating
system slices the CPU time and dedicates one slot to each of the programs. Unix-like
operating systems such as Solaris and Linux support pre-emptive multitasking. Cooperative
multitasking is achieved by relying on each process to give time to the other processes in a
defined manner. MS Windows prior to Windows 95 used to support cooperative
multitasking.

Examples of Operating Systems
1. Disk Operating System (DOS)
DOS (Disk Operating System) was the first widely-installed operating system for personal
computers. It is a master control program that is automatically run when you start your PC.
DOS stays in the computer all the time letting you run a program and manage files. It is a
single-user operating system from Microsoft for the PC. It was the first OS for the PC and is
the underlying control program for Windows 3.1, 95, 98 and ME. Windows NT, 2000 and XP
emulate DOS in order to support existing DOS applications. To use DOS, you must know
where your programs and data are stored and how to talk to DOS.
2.UNIX
UNIX is Multi-user Operating System. The UNIX environment and the client/server program
model were important elements in the development of the Internet and the reshaping of
computing as centered in networks rather than in individual computers. UNIX is written in C.
Both UNIX and C were developed by AT&T and freely distributed to government and
academic institutions.
3. Linux
Linux is an operating system that was initially created as a hobby by a young student, Linus
Torvalds, at the University of Helsinki in Finland. He began his work in 1991 when he
released version 0.02 and worked steadily until 1994 when version 1.0 of the Linux Kernel
was released. The kernel, at the heart of all Linux systems, is developed and released
under the GNU General Public License and its source code is freely available to everyone.
The development of Linux is one of the most prominent examples of free and open source
software collaboration; typically all the underlying source code can be used, freely modified,
and redistributed, both commercially and non-commercially, by anyone under licenses such
as the GNU General Public License.
4. WINDOWS
Windows is first introduced as a personal computer operating system from Microsoft that,
together with some commonly used business applications such as Microsoft Word and
Excel, has become a de facto "standard" for individual users in most corporations as well as
in most homes. However, Windows 95, 98, ME, NT, 2000 and XP are complicated
operating environments. Certain combinations of hardware and software running together
can cause problems, and troubleshooting can be daunting. Each new version of Windows
has interface changes that constantly confuse users and keep support people busy, and
Installing Windows applications is problematic too. Microsoft has worked hard to make
Windows 2000 and Windows XP more resilient to installation problems and crashes in
general.

5. MACINTOSH
The Macintosh (often called "the Mac"), introduced in 1984 by Apple Computer, was the first
widely-sold personal computer with a graphical user interface (GUI). The Macintosh has its
own operating system, Mac OS which, in its latest version is called Mac OS X.
Classification of Computers
Computers can be classified many different ways -- by size, by function, and/or by
processing capacity. We will study the classification of computers by size. The size of a
computer often determines its function and processing capacity. The size of computers
varies widely from tiny to huge and is usually dictated by computing requirements.
Super Computers
The largest computers are supercomputers. They are the most powerful, the most
expensive, and the fastest. They are capable of processing trillions of instructions per
second. Examples of users of these computers are governmental agencies, such as the
National Weather Service, and the National Defense Agency. Also, they are used in the
making of movies, space exploration, and the design of many other machines. The Cray
supercomputer is nicknamed "Bubbles", because of its bubbling coolant liquids. Cray
supercomputers, the first of which was invented by Seymour Cray, now maintain 75 percent
of the supercomputer market. Supercomputers are used for tasks that require mammoth
data manipulation.
Mainframe Computers
Large computers are called mainframes. Mainframe computers process data at very high
rates of speed, measured in the millions of instructions per second. They are very
expensive, costing millions of dollars in some cases. Mainframes are designed for multiple
users and process vast amounts of data quickly. Banks, insurance companies,
manufacturers, mail-order companies, and airlines are typical users. Mainframes are often
‘servers’-- computers that control the networks of computers for large companies.
Microcomputers
Microcomputers can be divided into two groups -- personal computers and workstations.
Workstations are specialized computers that approach the speed of mainframes. Often
microcomputers are connected to networks of other computers. Microcomputers make up
the vast majority of computers.
Notebook
Another classification of computer is the notebook computer. A notebook computer can fit
into a briefcase and weigh fewer than two pounds, yet it can compete with the
microcomputer.
Laptop

A larger, heavier version is called a laptop computer. Notebooks generally cost more than
microcomputers but can run most of the microcomputer software and are more versatile.
Like other computers, notebook computers are getting faster, lighter, and more functional.
Personal Digital Assistant
The smallest computer is the handheld computer called a personal digital assistant or a
PDA. PDAs are used to track appointments and shipments as well as names and
addresses. PDAs are called pen-based computers because they utilize a pen-like stylus
that accepts hand-written input directly on a touch-sensitive screen. You have probably
noticed delivery employees using these.
PROCESSORS (CPUs)
The CPU or Central Processing Unit, is the core of any computer. The processor (really a
short form for microprocessor and also often called th CPU or central processing unit) is the
central component of the PC. This vital component is in some way responsible for every
single thing the PC does. It determines, at least in part, which operating systems can be
used, which software packages the PC can run, how much energy the PC uses, and how
stable the system will be, among other things. The processor is also a major determinant of
overall system cost: the newer and more powerful the processor, the more expensive the
machine will be.
Types of Processors
The vast majority of microprocessors are embedded microcontrollers. The second most common
type of processors are common desktop processors, such as Intel's Pentium or AMD's Athlon. Less
common are the extremely powerful processors used in high-end servers, such as Sun's SPARC,
IBM's Power, or Intel's Itanium.
Historically, microprocessors and microcontrollers have come in "standard sizes" of 8 bits, 16 bits,
32 bits, and 64 bits. These sizes are common, but that does not mean that other sizes are not
available. Some microcontrollers (usually specially designed embedded chips) can come in other
"non-standard" sizes such as 4 bits, 12 bits, 18 bits, or 24 bits. The number of bits represent how
much physical memory can be directly addressed by the CPU. It also represents the amount of bits
that can be read by one read/write operation. In some circumstances, these are different; for
instance, many 8 bit microprocessors have an 8 bit data bus and a 16 bit address bus.
• 8 bit processors can read/write 1 byte at a time and can directly address 256 bytes
• 16 bit processors can read/write 2 bytes at a time, and can address 65,536 bytes (64
Kilobytes)
• 32 bit processors can read/write 4 bytes at a time, and can address 4,294,967,295
bytes (4 Gigabytes)
• 64 bit processors can read/write 8 bytes at a time, and can address
18,446,744,073,709,551,616 bytes (16 Exabytes)

Various Manufactures of Processors
1 INTEL Corporation
Intel Corporation (NASDAQ: INTC; SEHK: 4335; Euronext: INCO) is an American technology
company, and the world's largest semiconductor chip maker, based on revenue. It is the inventor of
the x86 series of microprocessors, the processors found in most personal computers. Intel was
founded on July 18, 1968, as Integrated Electronics Corporation (though a common misconception
is that "Intel" is from the word intelligence) and is based in Santa Clara, California, USA. Intel also
makes motherboard chipsets, network interface controllers and integrated circuits, flash memory,
graphic chips, embedded processors, and other devices related to communications and computing.
Intel 4004, Intel 8080, Intel 8088, Intel 80286, Intel 80386, Intel 80486, Pentium I, Pentium Pro,
Pentium M M X, Pentium II, Pentium III, Pentium I V, Intel Atom, Intel Xeon, Celeron,Intel Dual Core, Intel
Core 2 Duo, Intel Core i3, 5, Intel Core i7 etc. are the some of the premium processors of Intel.
2 AMD Technology
Advanced Micro Devices ( AMD) is a leading global provider of innovative processing solutions in
the computing, graphics and consumer electronics markets. AMD is dedicated to driving open
innovation, choice and industry growth by delivering. The company started as a producer of logic
chips in 1969, then entered the RAM chip business in 1975.
A M D K5, A M D K6, AMD Athlon, AMD Athelon XP, AMD Sempron, AMD Duron, AMD Athlon 64,
A M D Phenom, Opteron etc are the some of the processors of AMD.
3 Cyrix
4 Cyrix Corporation was a microprocessor developer that was founded in 1988

in Richardson, Texas as a specialist supplier of high-performance math
coprocessors for 286 and 386 microprocessors. The company was founded by
former Texas Instruments (TI) staff members and had a long but troubled relationship
with TI throughout its history. Cyrix founder Jerry Rogers aggressively recruited
engineers and pushed them, eventually assembling a small but efficient design team
of 30 people. Cyrix merged with National Semiconductor on 11 November 1997. The
first Cyrix product for the personal computer market was a x87 compatible FPU
coprocessor. The Cyrix FasMath 83D87 and 83S87 were introduced in 1989. The
FasMath was the fastest 386-compatible coprocessor and provided up to 50% more
performance than the Intel 80387. Cyrix FasMath 82S87, a 80287-compatible chip was
developed from the Cyrix 83D87 and has been available since 1991
5
MOTHERBOARD
6 A motherboard is the hardware component that connects almost all of the
other parts together in a computer. The motherboard is, in many ways, the most
important component in your Computer. It's a large silicon wafer to which all other
computer components connect.

• Organization: In one way or another, everything is eventually connected to the
motherboard. The way that the motherboard is designed and laid out dictates how the
entire computer is going to be organized.
• Control:The motherboard contains the chipset and BIOS program, which between
them control most of the data flow within the computer.
• Communication:Almost all communication between the PC and its peripherals, other
PCs, and you, the user, goes through the motherboard.
• Processor Support:The motherboard dictates directly your choice of processor for
use in the system.
• Peripheral Support:The motherboard determines, in large part, what types of
peripherals you can use in your PC. For example, the type of video card your system will
use (ISA, VLB, PCI) is dependent on what system buses your motherboard uses.
• Performance:The motherboard is a major determining factor in your system's
performance, for two main reasons. First and foremost, the motherboard determines what
types of processors, memory, system buses, and harddisk interface speed your system can
have, and these components dictate directly your system's performance. Second, the
quality of the motherboard circuitry and chipset themselves have an impact on
performance.
Motherboard Form Factors
The form factor of the motherboard describes its general shape, what sorts of cases and power
supplies it can use, and its physical organization. For example, a company can make two
motherboards that have basically the same functionality but that use a different form factor, and
the only real differences will be the physical layout of the board, the position of the components,
etc. In fact, many companies do exactly this, they have for example a baby AT version and an
ATX version

Illustration
1 : Motherboard Layout
Chipset
A chipset, PC chipset or chip set refers to a group of integrated circuit or chips, that are
designed to work together. They are usually marketed as a single product. The chipset
also controls data flow to and from hard disks, and other devices connected to the IDE
channels. The chipset consists of two main components, the North- and South- Bridge
chips, which are connected over the PCI bus. The CPU, Memory and AGP talk to the

Northbridge and the Southbridge handles all the I/O, including the ISA bus. Processors
themselves also have different chipsets. Therefore, whenever you upgrade your
computer's hardware, make sure you buy components that are compatible with the
chipsets in your machine.
M ajor M otherboard M a nufactures
ASRock
ASUS
BioStar
Gigabyte Technology
Intel Corporation
MSI
Transcend
FoxConn
Microstar International
Diagram of a motherboard chipset

Random Access Memory
Random access memory or RAM most commonly refers to computer chips that temporarily store
dynamic data to enhance computer performance. By storing frequently used or active files in
random access memory, the computer can access the data faster than if it to retrieve it from the far-
larger hard drive. Random access memory is also used in printers and other devices.
Random access memory is volatile memory, meaning it loses its contents once power is cut. This is
different from non-volatile memory such as hard disks and flash memory which do not require a
power source to retain data. When a computer shuts down properly, all data located in random
access memory is committed to permanent storage on the hard drive or flash drive. At the next
boot-up, RAM begins to fill with programs automatically loaded at startup, and with files opened by
the user
Different RAM Types and its uses
The type of RAM doesn't matter nearly as much as how much of it you've got, but using
plain old SDRAM memory today will slow you down. There are three main types of RAM:
SDRAM, DDR and Rambus DRAM.

SDRAM (Synchronous DRAM)
Almost all systems used to ship with 3.3 volt, 168-pin SDRAM DIMMs. SDRAM is not an
extension of older EDO DRAM but a new type of DRAM altogether. SDRAM started out
running at 66 MHz, while older fast page mode DRAM and EDO max out at 50 MHz.
SDRAM is able to scale to 133 MHz (PC133) officially, and unofficially up to 180MHz or
higher. As processors get faster, new generations of memory such as DDR and RDRAM
are required to get proper performance.
DDR (Double Data Rate SDRAM)

DDR basically doubles the rate of data transfer of standard SDRAM by transferring data on
the up and down tick of a clock cycle. DDR memory operating at 333MHz actually operates
at 166MHz * 2 (aka PC333 / PC2700) or 133MHz*2 (PC266 / PC2100). DDR is a 2.5 volt
technology that uses 184 pins in its DIMMs. It is incompatible with SDRAM physically, but
uses a similar parallel bus, making it easier to implement than RDRAM, which is a different
technology.
Rambus DRAM (RDRAM)

Despite it's higher price, Intel has given RDRAM it's blessing for the consumer market, and
it will be the sole choice of memory for Intel's Pentium 4. RDRAM is a serial memory
technology that arrived in three flavors, PC600, PC700, and PC800. PC800 RDRAM has
double the maximum throughput of old PC100 SDRAM, but a higher latency. RDRAM
designs with multiple channels, such as those in Pentium 4 motherboards, are currently at
the top of the heap in memory throughput, especially when paired with PC1066 RDRAM
memory.
DIMMs vs. RIMMs

DRAM comes in two major form factors: DIMMs and RIMMS.
DIMMs are 64-bit components, but if used in a motherboard with a dual-channel

configuration (like with an Nvidia nForce chipset) you must pair them to get maximum
performance. So far there aren't many DDR chipset that use dual-channels. Typically, if you
want to add 512 MB of DIMM memory to your machine, you just pop in a 512 MB DIMM if
you've got an available slot. DIMMs for SDRAM and DDR are different, and not physically
compatible. SDRAM DIMMs have 168-pins and run at 3.3 volts, while DDR DIMMs have
184-pins and run at 2.5 volts.
RIMMs use only a 16-bit interface but run at higher speeds than DDR. To get maximum
performance, Intel RDRAM chipsets require the use of RIMMs in pairs over a dual-channel
32-bit interface. You have to plan more when upgrading and purchasing RDRAM.
Cache Memory
Cache Memory is fast memory that serves as a buffer between the processor and main
memory. The cache holds data that was recently used by the processor and saves a trip all
the way back to slower main memory. The memory structure of PCs is often thought of as
just main memory, but it's really a five or six level structure:
The first two levels of memory are contained in the processor itself, consisting of the
processor's small internal memory, or registers, and L1 cache, which is the first level of
cache, usually contained in the processor.

The third level of memory is the L2 cache, usually contained on the motherboard. However,
the Celeron chip from Intel actually contains 128K of L2 cache within the form factor of the
chip. More and more chip makers are planning to put this cache on board the processor
itself. The benefit is that it will then run at the same speed as the processor, and cost less to
put on the chip than to set up a bus and logic externally from the processor.
The fourth level, is being referred to as L3 cache. This cache used to be the L2 cache on
the motherboard, but now that some processors include L1 and L2 cache on the chip, it
becomes L3 cache. Usually, it runs slower than the processor, but faster than main memory.
The fifth level (or fourth if you have no "L3 cache") of memory is the main memory itself.
The sixth level is a piece of the hard disk used by the Operating System, usually called
virtual memory. Most operating systems use this when they run out of main memory, but
some use it in other ways as well.
Older Memory Types

Fast Page Mode DRAM
Fast Page Mode DRAM is plain old DRAM as we once knew it. The problem with standard
DRAM was that it maxes out at about 50 MHz.
EDO DRAM
EDO DRAM gave people up to 5% system performance increase over DRAM. EDO DRAM
is like FPM DRAM with some cache built into the chip. Like FPM DRAM, EDO DRAM
maxes out at about 50 MHz. Early on, some system makers claimed that if you used EDO
DRAM you didn't need L2 cache in your computer to get decent performance. They were
wrong. It turns out that EDO DRAM works along with L2 cache to make things even faster,
but if you lose the L2 cache, you lose a lot of speed.
168-Pin SDRAM 184-Pin DDR 240-Pin DDR2 240-Pin DDR3
PC100 SDRAM DDR-266 DDR2-533 DDR3-1066
PC133 SDRAM DDR-333 DDR2-667 DDR3-1333
Super Talent Memory DDR-400 DDR2-800 DDR3-1600
DDR & DDR2 Memory DDR2-1066 DDR3-1800
DDR3-2000
DDR3-2133

Illustration 2: Different types of Memory Modules
Power On Self Test (POST)
The computer power-on self-test (POST) tests the computer to make sure it meets the
necessary system requirements and that all hardware is working properly before starting

the remainder of the boot process. If the computer passes the POST the computer will have
a single beep (with some computer BIOS manufacturers it may beep twice) as the
computer starts and the computer will continue to start normally. However, if the computer
fails the POST, the computer will either not beep at all or will generate a beep code, which
tells the user the source of the problem.
The steps of a POST
Each time the computer boots up the computer must past the POST. Below is the common
steps a POST performs each time your computer starts.
1. Test the power supply to ensure that it is turned on and that it releases its reset
signal.
2. CPU must exit the reset status mode and thereafter be able to execute instructions.
3. BIOS checksum must be valid, meaning that it must be readable.
4. CMOS checksum must be valid, meaning that it must be readable.
5. CPU must be able to read all forms of memory such as the memory controller,
memory bus, and memory module.
6. The first 64KB of memory must be operational and have the capability to be read
and written to and from, and capable of containing the POST code.
7. I/O bus/ controller must be accessible.
8. I/O bus must be able to write / read from the video subsystem and be able to read all
video RAM.
If the computer does not pass any of the above tests, your computer will receive an
irregular POST. An irregular POST is a beep code that is different from the standard one or
two beeps. This could be either no beeps at all or a combination of different beeps
indicating what is causing the computer not to past the POST.
IBM BIOS beep codes

Below are IBM BIOS Beep codes that can occur. However, because of the wide variety of
models shipping with this BIOS, the beep codes may vary.
Beep Code Description
No Beeps No Power, Loose Card, or Short.
1 Short Beep Normal POST, computer is ok.
2 Short Beep POST error, error code shown on screen
Continuous Beep No Power, Loose Card, or Short.
Repeating Short Beep No Power, Loose Card, or Short.
One Long and one Short Beep Motherboard issue.

One Long and Two Short Beeps Video (Mono/CGA Display Circuitry) issue.
One Long and Three Short Beeps. Video (EGA) Display Circuitry.
Three Long Beeps Keyboard / Keyboard card error.
One Beep, Blank or Incorrect Display Video Display Circuitry.
AMI BIOS beep codes
Below are the AMI BIOS Beep codes that can occur.
Beep Code Descriptions Document
1 short DRAM refresh failure CH000996
2 short Parity circuit failure CH000607
3 short Base 64K RAM failure CH000996
4 short System timer failure CH000607
5 short Process failure CH000607
6 short Keyboard controller Gate A20 error CH000383
7 short Virtual mode exception error CH000607
8 short Display memory Read/Write test failure CH000607
9 short ROM BIOS checksum failure CH000607
10 short CMOS shutdown Read/Write error CH000239
11 short Cache Memory error CH000607
1 long, 3 short Conventional/Extended memory failure CH000996
1 long, 8 short Display/Retrace test failed CH000607
AWARD BIOS beep codes

Below are Award BIOS Beep codes that can occur.

Beep Code Description Document
Indicates a video error has occurred and the BIOS

1 long, 2
cannot initialize the video screen to display any CH000607
short
additional information
Any other
RAM problem. CH000996
beep(s)
If any other correctable hardware issues, the BIOS will display a message.
Identifying external ports and interfacing
Objective:
To learn about different ports and how to connect devices to them. This diagram shows
different ports available on the back panel of the PC
Illustration 3: Rearpanel
Ports and onnectors

Parallel port (LPT parallel port):
As shown in the diagram parallel port with 25-pins can be used to connect a parallel port
printer. Previously dot matrix, ink jet, bubble jet printers etc were connected to parallel port.
Nowadays-parallel port is used to connect Dot-Matrix printers.
Serial port:
As shown in the diagram serial ports with 9-pins protruding outwards can be used to
connect modem but it can also be used for connecting mouse, provided serial port mouse is
available.
VGA Port:
VGA port which has 15-pins is used to connect a monitor.
PS/2 Port:
Two 6-pin PS/2 ports are there, one is violet to which keyboard is connected and other is
Light green to which mouse is connected

USB Port:
Connecting a USB device to a computer is simple — you find the USB connector on the
back of your machine and plug the USB connector into it. USB ports are used to connect to
Injket Printers, Web Cams, Scanners etc.
Ethernet Port:
Ethernet port is used to connect a computer on network through RJ-45 connector
Game Port:
Game Port is used to connect joystick, which is usually used in video games Three more
ports are available for multimedia connections. Green port is used connect speakers, blue
port is used to connect headphones and light Orange is used to connect microphone.
Illustration 4: Rear Panel (Back of a PC)

Identifying PC cards and interfacing.
Objective : To identify different PC cards and to learn how to install them.
Sound card
A sound card or audio board, which allows computers to output audio signals
through speakers and or headphones.
Video card
The video card is responsible for creating all that you see on your computer monitor
VGA Card
Network card
This piece of hardware allows your computer to be connected to a network of other
computers (known as a LAN or Local Area Network)
Procedure to install a sound card
In this example we are going to install a sound card.
NOTE: It is best not to install all your PCI hardware if you are building from scratch.
Only install your video card and sound card right now.
Once you have your operating system installed, turn off the computer and install the
other components. This saves you from possible problems when loading up for the
first time.
1. Remove any unnecessary temporary metal plates. Only remove the metal plates
from the slots you are going to use. If you do not remove these, you cannot install
any PCI components. Most either unscrew or pop out.
2. Locate PCI Slots on Motherboard. Your PCI Slots should look similar to the ones
in the image below
3. Line up component with PCI slot and install. Simply line up the component with
the slot and gently press down on both sides until it slides in place
4. Insert screw. There is only one screw needed to secure each PCI component in
place.
5. Give it CD Sound. Remember that audio cable from the CD-ROM drive?
Now we will connect the other end of it. If you want to hear audio when play a cd in
your CD-ROM, you need to connect the CD-ROM to the Sound Card (or
motherboard if your sound card is integrated in) using the audio cable as seen
below. Refer to your sound card owners manual
for correct placement. If you did not purchase a sound card and you have one
integrated into your motherboard, refer to your motherboard owner’s manual for
correct placement
6. Repeat for any other components. Every component is different but as long as its
PCI compatible, it is installed the same way (except for the audio cable. It is installed
only on sound cards and motherboards.)
Identifying ports on the cards and interfacing
Objective: To identify ports on the PC cards
MIDI / Game port is a port which is most commonly used for the game port which will
allow you to connect a game paddle and or Joystick to the computer. This port will
also allow you to connect a device such as a MIDI keyboard to the computer,
additional information on this can be found in the Midi section. Line In connector
allows you to connect a Cassette Tape, CD or record player to the computer.
Line Out connector is the location which the speakers or headphones will be
connected to get sound out of the sound card. Volume control is generally no longer
found on sound cards. However for cards that do include this as a feature this allows
for the volume to be turned up and
down on a non-amplified output such as a set of headphones. Microphone allows
you to connect a microphone to the computer and record your own sound files.
Preventive maintenance of a PC
To learn how to maintain a PC so that it gives longer service without any problems.
1) System backups.
Take the backup of data at regular intervals. Use floppy disks for small data and if
data is very large perform backup using CD- RW or tape drives.
2) System cleaning.
Floppy disk drives are vulnerable to dust as they contain a large opening in the
system case through which air continuously flows. Therefore, they accumulate a
large amount dust and chemical buildup within a short time.
Where as cleaning a hard disk requires simply blowing the dust and dirt off from the
outside the drive.
3) Cleaning motherboards:
First, clean the dust and debris off the board and then clean any connectors on the
board. To clean the boards, it is usually best to use a vacuum cleaner. Also blow any
dust out of the power supply, especially around the fan intake and exhaust areas.
Use a duster can and blast the compressed air into the supply through the fan
exhaust port. This will blow the dust out of the supply and clean off the fan blades
and grill, which will help with system airflow.
To clean the connectors on the board use the cleaning solutions.
4) Hard Disk Maintenance:
De-fragmenting files: As you delete and save files to your hard disk they become
fragmented ( they are stored on non contiguous areas on the disk).
Before you defragment your disk use Scandisk to scan your hard disk.
To scandisk your hard disk follow the below steps.
Go to programs Accessories System tools Scandisk
To scandisk your hard disk follow the below steps.
Go to programs Accessories System tools Disk Defragmenter
5) Understanding CMOS
To know and understand the features available in the CMOS. To enter into CMOS
setup continue pressing Delete(Del) or F2 button while system is booting.
Steps to Assemble a Desktop Computer

Things to get in place before starting:
• Anti-static wrist strap
• Set of screwdrivers and pliers
• Piece of cloth
• CPU Thermal compound (recommended)
• PC components
Tip: CPU Thermal compound is not a necessity but it is recommended to keep your
CPU cool under load conditions by helping heat dissipate faster. It is a must if you
intend to overclock your PC.
Note: You can find the meaning of an abbreviation at the end of this article under the
heading Jargon Buster.
Step 1: Installing the motherboard

Make sure you have all the components in place and a nice, clean and big enough
place to work with.
Put your antic-static wrist strap on to prevent your components from getting affected.
Make sure your hands are clean before starting. First we will be installing the
motherboard which is a piece of cake to install.
• Open the side doors of the cabinet
• Lay the cabinet on its side
• Put the motherboard in place
• Drive in all the required screws
Tip: Most motherboards come with an antistatic bag. It is advisable to put the
motherboard on it for some time and then remove it from the antistatic bag before
placing it in the cabinet.
Step 2: Installing the CPU
CPU is the heart of a computer so make sure you handle it properly and do not drop
it or mishandle it. Also try not to touch the pins frequently so that they do not get
dirty. Get hold of your motherboard and CPU manual. You need to place the CPU on
the dotted white patch of the motherboard in a particular fashion for it to fit properly.
There is a golden mark on the CPU to help you assist. Consult both your
motherboard and CPU manual to see which position it fits exactly or you could also
use try all the 4 positions.
• Lift the CPU lever on the motherboard

• Place the CPU properly on the motherboard
• Pull down the lever to secure the CPU in place
Warning: Do not try to push the CPU into the motherboard!
Got the thermal compound? Now is the time to use it. Take small amount of it and
carefully apply it on the top surface of the processor. Be careful not to put it on the
neighboring parts of the motherboard. If you do so clean it immediately using the
cloth.
Tip: Thermal compounds should be changed once every six months for optimal
performance.
Step 3: Installing the heat sink
After installing the processor we proceed to installing the heat sink. There are
different kinds of heat sinks that are bundled with the processor and each has a
different way of installation. Look into your CPU manual for instructions on how to
install it properly.
• Place the heat sink on the processor
• Put the jacks in place
• Secure the heat sink with the lever
After this you will need to connect the cable of the heat sink on the motherboard.
Again look into the motherboard manual on where to connect it and then connect it
to the right port to get your heat sink in operational mode.
Step 4: Installing the RAM

Installing the RAM is also an easy job. The newer RAMs ie. DDR RAMs are easy to
install as you don’t have to worry about placing which side where into the slot. The
older ones, SDRAMs are plagued by this problem.
If you want to use dual channel configuration then consult your manual on which
slots to use to achieve that result.
• Push down the RAM into the slot
• Make sure the both the clips hold the RAM properly
Step 5: Installing the power supply

We will now install the power supply as the components we install after this will
require power cables to be connected to them. There is not much to be done to
install a PSU.
• Place the PSU into the cabinet
• Put the screws in place tightly
Tip: Some PSU have extra accessories that come bundled with it. Consult your PSU
manual to see how to install them.
Step 6: Installing the video card
First you will need to find out whether your video card is AGP or PCI-E. AGP
graphics cards have become redundant and are being phased out of the market
quickly. So if you bought a spanking new card it will certainly be a PCI-E.
• Remove the back plate on the cabinet corresponding to the graphics card
• Push the card into the slot
• Secure the card with a screw
• Plug in the power connection from PSU (if required)
High-end graphics cards need dedicated power supply and if your graphics card
needs one then connect the appropriate wire from PSU into the graphics card.
Step 7: Installing the hard disk

Hard disk is another fragile component of the computer and needs to handled
carefully.
• Place the hard drive into the bay
• Secure the drive with screws
• Connect the power cable from PSU
• Connect the data cable from motherboard into the drive
If your hard drive is a SATA one then connect one end of SATA cable into the
motherboard and other into the SATA port on the hard disk. If your hard disk is PATA
type then use the IDE cable instead of the SATA cable.
Tip: If your PSU does not support SATA power supply then you will need to get an
converter which will convert your standard IDE power connector to a SATA power
connector.
Step 8: Installing optical drive
The installation an optical drive is exactly similar to an hard drive.

• Place the optical drive into the bay
• Drive in the screws
• Connect the power cable and data cable
Tip: When installing multiple optical drives take care of jumper settings. Make sure
you make one as primary and other slave by using the jumper. This is not applicable
if the drives are SATA drives.
Step 9: Connecting various cables
First we will finish setting up internal components and then get on to the external
ones. You will need to consult your motherboard manual for finding the appropriate
port for connecting various cables at the right places on the motherboard.
• Connect the large ATX power connector to the power supply port on your
motherboard
• Next get hold of the smaller square power connector which supplies power to
the processor and connect it to the appropriate port by taking help from your
motherboard manual
• Connect the cabinet cables for power,reset button in the appropriate port of
the motherboard
• Connect the front USB/audio panel cable in the motherboard
• Plug the cable of cabinet fans
You are done with installing the internal components of the PC. Close the side doors
of the cabinet and get it upright and place it on your computer table. Get the rest of
the PC components like monitor, keyboard, mouse, speakers etc. which we will
connect now.
• Connect the VGA cable of the monitor into the VGA port
• If mouse/keyboard are PS/2 then connect them to PS/2 ports or else use the
USB port
• Connect the speaker cable in the audio port
• Plug in the power cable from PSU into the UPS
• Also plug in the power cable of the monitor
You are now done with setting up your PC. Power on and see your rig boot to glory.
Step 10: Installing the OS and drivers
We are done with the hardware part. Now get your favorite OS disks ready and the
CD that came with your motherboard.
• Set the first boot device to CD/DVD drive in BIOS
• Pop in the OS disk
• Reboot the PC
• Install the OS
• Install drivers from motherboard CD (applicable only to Windows OS)
Installation of Windows XP
Step 1 - Start your PC and place your Windows XP CD in your CD/DVD-ROM drive. Your
PC should automatically detect the CD and you will get a message saying "Press any key to
boot from CD". Soon as computer starts booting from the CD your will get the following
screen:
Step 2 - At this stage it will ask you to press F6 if you want to install a third party Raid or
SCSI driver. If you are using a an IDE Hard Drive then you do not need to press F6. If you
are using a SCSI or SATA Hard drive then you must press F6 otherwise Windows will not
detect your Hard Drive during the installation. Please make sure you have the Raid drivers
on a floppy disk. Normally the drivers are supplied on a CD which you can copy to a floppy
disk ready to be installed. If you are not sure how to do this then please read your
motherboard manuals for more information.
Step 3 - Press S to Specify that you want to install additional device.
Step 4 - You will be asked to insert the floppy disk with the Raid or SCSI drivers. Press enter
after you have inserted the disk.
Step 5 - You will see a list of Raid drivers for your HDD. Select the correct driver for your
device and press enter.
Step 6 - You will then get a Windows XP Professional Setup screen. You have the option to
do a new Windows install, Repair previous install or quit. Since we are doing a new install
we just press Enter to continue.
Step 7 - You will be presented with the End User Licensing Agreement. Press F8 to accept
and continue
Step 8 - This step is very important. Here we will create the partition where Windows will be
installed. If you have a brand new unformatted drive you will get a screen similar to below. In
our case the drive size is 8190MB. We can choose to install Windows in this drive without
creating a partition, hence use the entire size of the drive. If you wish to do this you can just
press enter and Windows will automatically partition and format the drive as one large drive.
However for this demonstration I will create two partition. The first partition will be 6000MB
(C: drive) and second partition would be 2180MB (E: drive). By creating two partition we can
have one which stores Windows and Applications and the other which stores our data. So in
the future if anything goes wrong with our Windows install such as virus or spyware we can
re-install Windows on C: drive and our data on E: drive will not be touched. Please note you
can choose whatever size partition your like. For example if you have 500GB hard drive you
can have two partition of 250GB each.
Press C to create a partition.
Step 8 - Windows will show the total size of the hard drive and ask you how much you want
to allocate for the partition you are about to create. I will choose 6000MB. You will then get
the screen below. Notice it shows C: Partition 1 followed by the size 6000 MB. This indicates
the partition has been created. We still have an unpartitioned space of 2189MB. Next
highlight the unpartitioned space by pressing down the arrow key. Then press C to create
another partition. You will see the total space available for the new partition. Just choose all
the space left over, in our case 2180MB.
Step 9 - Now you will see both partition listed. Partition 1 (C: Drive) 6000MB and Partition 2
(E: Drive) 2180MB. You will also have 8MB of unpartitioned space. Don't worry about that.
Just leave it how its is. Windows normally has some unpartitioned space. You might wonder
what happened to D: drive. Windows has automatically allocated D: drive to CD/DVD-ROM.
Select Partition 1 (C: Drive) and press Enter.
Step 10 - Choose format the partition using NTFS file system.This is the recommended file
system. If the hard drive has been formatted before then you can choose quick NTFS
format. We chose NTFS because it offers many security features, supports larger drive size,
and bigger size files.
Windows will now start formatting drive C: and start copying setup files as shown on the two
images below :
Step 11 - After the setup has completed copying the files the computer will restart. Leave the
XP CD in the drive but this time DO NOT press any key when the message "Press any key
to boot from CD" is displayed. In few seconds setup will continue. Windows XP Setup wizard
will guide you through the setup process of gathering information about your computer.
Step 12 - Choose your region and language.
Step 13 - Type in your name and organization.
Step 14. Enter your product key.
Step 15 - Name the computer, and enter an Administrator password. Don't forget to write
down your Administrator password.
Step 16 - Enter the correct date, time and choose your time zone.
Step 17 - For the network setting choose typical and press next.
Step 18 - Choose workgroup or domain name. If you are not a member of a domain then
leave the default settings and press next. Windows will restart again and adjust the display.
Step 19 - Finally Windows will start and present you with a Welcome screen. Click next to
continue.
Step 20 - Choose 'help protect my PC by turning on automatic updates now' and press next.
Step 21 - Will this computer connect to the internet directly, or through a network? If you are
connected to a router or LAN then choose: 'Yes, this computer will connect through a local
area network or home network'. If you have dial up modem choose: 'No, this computer will
connect directly to the internet'. Then click Next.
Step 22 - Ready to activate Windows? Choose yes if you wish to active Windows over the
internet now. Choose no if you want to activate Windows at a later stage.
Step 23 - Add users that will sign on to this computer and click next.
Step 24 - You will get a Thank you screen to confirm setup is complete. Click finish.
Step 25. Log in, to your PC for the first time.
Step 26 - You now need to check the device manager to confirm that all the drivers has
been loaded or if there are any conflicts. From the start menu select Start -> Settings ->
Control Panel. Click on the System icon and then from the System Properties window
select the Hardware tab, then click on Device Manager.
If there are any yellow exclamation mark "!" next to any of the listed device, it means that no
drivers or incorrect drivers has been loaded for that device. In our case we have a Video
Controller (VGA card) which has no drivers installed.
Your hardware should come with manufacturer supplied drivers. You need to install these
drivers using the automatic setup program provided by the manufacturer or you need to
manually install these drivers. If you do not have the drivers, check the manufacturers
website to download them.
To install a driver manually use the following procedure:
(a) From the device manager double click on the device containing the exclamation mark.
(b) This would open a device properties window.
(c) Click on the Driver tab.
(d) Click Update Driver button. The Wizard for updating device driver pops up as shown
below:
You now get two options. The first option provides an automatic search for the required
driver. The second option allows you to specify the location of the driver. If you don't know
the location of the driver choose the automatic search which would find the required driver
from the manufacturer supplied CD or Floppy disk. Windows would install the required driver
and may ask you to restart the system for the changes to take affect. Use this procedure to
install drivers for all the devices that contain an exclamation mark. Windows is completely
setup when there are no more exclamation marks in the device manager.
Installing and Configuring Ubuntu LINUX

Requirements:
We need the Ubuntu 10.04 LTS Desktop ISO image that corresponds to your
hardware architecture (i386 or amd64), and that can be downloaded from here.
When the download is over, burn the ISO image with your favorite CD/DVD burning
application (Nero, CDBurnerXP, Roxio) on a blank CD at 8x speed. Reinsert or leave
the CD in your CD/DVD-ROM device and reboot the computer in order to boot from
the CD. Hit the F8, F11 or F12 key (depending on your BIOS) to select the CD/DVD-
ROM as the boot device
Wait for the CD to load...
We will see the wallpaper and the installation wizard. Select your language and click
the "Install Ubuntu 10.04 LTS" button to continue...
The second screen will feature a map of the Earth. Upon the selection of our current
location, the time for the final system will adjust accordingly. We can also select our
current location from the drop-down list situated at the bottom of the window. Click
the "Forward" button after selected your desired location...
Test the keyboard

On the third screen, we will be able to choose a desired keyboard layout. But the
default automatic selection should work for most of us. Click the "Forward" button
when you have finished with the keyboard configuration...
Hard disk partitioning

We have four options here:
1. If we have another operating system (e.g. Windows XP) and we want a dual boot
system, select the first option: "Install them side by side, choosing between them at
each startup."
Note: This option will ONLY appear if we have another operating system installed,
such as Microsoft Windows. Remember that, after the installation, the Windows boot
loader will be overwritten by the Ubuntu boot loader!
2. If we want to delete our existing operating system, or the hard drive is already
empty and we want to let the installer automatically partition the hard drive, select
the second option, "Use the entire disk."
Note: This option is recommended for most users who do not have another operating
system installed or who want to erase an existing one, for example Windows OS.
3. The third choice is "Use the largest continuous free space" and it will install
Ubuntu 9.10 in the unpartitioned space on the selected hard drive.
4. The fourth choice is "Specify partitions manually" and it is recommended ONLY for
advanced users, to create special partitions or format the hard drive with other
filesystems than the default one. But it can also be used to create a /home partition,
which is very useful in case you reinstall the whole system.
Here's how to manual partitioning with /home:

- Select the "Specify partitions manually (advanced) and click the "Forward" button;
- Make sure that the selected hard drive is the right one. /dev/sda is the first physical
hard drive. /dev/sdb is the second hard drive in our machine. So, make sure that we
know which is the one we want to format! Otherwise, will lose ALL DATA on that hard
drive;
- Let's say that the selected drive is empty (no other operating system or important
data on it), but it has some partitions on it. Select each one of those partitions and
click the "Delete" button. After a few seconds, it will say "free space." Do this with the
other partitions from the selected hard drive, until they're all deleted and you have a
single "free space" line;
- With the "free space" line selected, click on the "Add" button. In the new window,
type 2000 in the "New partition size in megabytes" field and select the "swap area"
option from the "Use as:" drop down list. Click the OK button and, in a few seconds,
we can see a "swap" line with the specified size;
select the "Primary" option, type a value between 10,000 and 50,000 in the "New
partition size in megabytes" field and select / as the "Mount point." Click the OK
button and, in a few seconds, we can see an "ext4 /" line with the specified size;
select the "Primary" option, type a value between 30,000 and 50,000 (or whatever
space you have left on the drive) in the "New partition size in megabytes" field and
select /home as the "Mount point." Click the OK button and, in a few seconds, we
can see an "ext4 /home" line with the specified size.
This is how our partition table should look like. If so, click the "Forward" button to
continue with the installation...
WARNING: Be aware that all the data on the selected hard drive or partition will be
ERASED and IRRECOVERABLE.
Click the "Forward" button to continue with the installation...
Submission of User details On this screen, we must do exactly what the title says.
Fill in the fields with your real name, the name you want to use to log in on your
Ubuntu OS (also known as the "username," which will be required to log in to the
system), the password and the name of the computer (automatically generated, but
can be overwritten). Also at this step, there's an option called "Log in automatically."
If we check the box on this option, automatically be logged in to the Ubuntu desktop.
Click the "Forward" button to continue...
In the final step of the installation, we can select to install the boot loader on another
partition or hard drive than the default one, but it is only recommended for advanced
users. If someone is installing to a USB memory stick, as if it was a USB hard drive,
then they should know that the installer will mess with their computer's hard disk
drive MBR.
Therefore, click the "Advanced" button and select the correct drive (the USB stick in
this case)...
Click the "Install" button to start the installation process...

..
The Ubuntu 10.04 LTS (Lucid Lynx) operating system will be installed...
After approximately 10 to 18 minutes (depending on your computer's specs), a pop-

up window will appear, notifying that the installation is complete, and will need to
restart the computer in order to use the newly installed Ubuntu operating system.
Click the "Restart Now" button...
The CD will be ejected; remove it and press the "Enter" key to reboot. The computer
will be restarted and, in a few seconds, will see the Ubuntu boot splash...
At the login screen, click on the username and input password. Click the "Log In"
button or hit Enter...
Install Driver Software
1. On the desktop, right-click My Computer, and then click Manage.

2. Under System Tools, click Device Manager.
The devices that are installed on the computer are listed in the right pane.
3. Expand the category of the device that you want to configure
NOTE: The device may be listed under Other devices.
4. Right-click the device for which you want to install the driver, and then click
Properties.
NOTE: The device may be displayed as Unknown device, or as a generic device.
5. Click the Driver tab, and then click Update Driver.
The Upgrade Device Driver wizard starts.

6. Click Next.
7. Do one of the following:
o Click Search for a suitable driver for my device (recommended), and
then click Next.
-or-
o Click Display a list of the known devices for this device so that I can
choose a specific driver, and then click Next. Click Have Disk, click Browse, locate
the .inf files that you downloaded in Step 2: Obtain the Driver, click an .inf file, and
then click Open.
8. Follow the wizard instructions to install the driver.
9. Restart the computer.
Install a printer driver locally
Installing a printer driver is a Windows function, not a PowerPoint one. Before
installing a printer driver, quit PowerPoint and your other programs.
Read over the installation instructions that came with your printer. When in doubt,
follow the instructions there rather than the ones below.
• Click Start, Settings, Control Panel.
• Double-click "Printers & Faxes"
• Double-click "Add Printer" to start the Add Printer Wizard
The Add Printer Wizard Welcome screen

• Click Next
Local or Network Printer

• Click "Local Printer"
• Make sure there's NO checkmark next to "Automatically detect and install ..."
• Click Next
Select a Printer Port

• If your printer is actually attached to the computer, click "Use the following
port" and select the port your printer's attached to.
• If you're installing a driver only to keep PowerPoint happy, choose LPT1: or
FILE: (it doesn't really matter, since you'll never actually print to the port)
• If you're installing a local driver but need to print to a network printer, look for
the printer's port on the network and choose it, if available. If not, choose LPT1: for
now. You can change the setting later.
• Click Next
Install Printer Software
• If installing a real printer, select your printer manufacturer and printer model
here.
• If you have an installation disk or CD that came with the printer, click "Have
Disk" and locate the INF file for the printer (check the printer's documentation for
specific instructions).
• If installing a printer only to keep PowerPoint happy, choose the HP LaserJet
4V/4MV as we've done here
• Click Next
Name Your Printer

• Give the printer a name (this is the name you'll use to select it later)
• If installing a printer just to make PowerPoint happy, you might want to give it
a name that indicates it isn't a real physical printer (PPT Pacifier, or the like)
• Click "Yes" under "Do you want to use this printer as the default printer" (this
option may not appear in all Windows versions; see Notes below)
• Click Next
Printer Sharing
• Click "Do not share this printer"
• Click Next
Print Test Page

• Click No
• Click Next
Completing the Add Printer Wizard

• Review your choices. Click Back if you need to change anything
• Click Finish
Motherboard Layout Diagram
1 Some Excercises
2 Exercise 1:
3 Define each of the following terms.

1. Computer______________________________________________________
________________
______________________________________________________________
________________
______________________________________________________________
________________
2. Hardware______________________________________________________
________________
______________________________________________________________
________________
______________________________________________________________
________________
3. Software_______________________________________________________
________________
______________________________________________________________
________________
______________________________________________________________
________________
4. Supercomputer__________________________________________________
_______________
______________________________________________________________
________________
______________________________________________________________
________________
5. Mainframe_____________________________________________________
________________
______________________________________________________________
________________
______________________________________________________________
________________
6. Microcomputer__________________________________________________
_______________
______________________________________________________________
________________
______________________________________________________________
________________
7. Notebook
Computer______________________________________________________
8. Laptop
Computer______________________________________________________
_________
______________________________________________________________
________________
______________________________________________________________
________________
9. Personal Digital
Assistant_______________________________________________________
__
______________________________________________________________
________________
______________________________________________________________
________________
4 Short Answer Give at least 5 examples of how you have recently used a
computer in your everyday life:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
2 Exercises Key
1 1. Computer
An electronic device that operates under the control of a set of instructions that is
stored in its memory unit. It accepts data from an input device and processes it into
useful information, which it makes available on its output device.
2 2. Hardware
The physical components of the computer and any equipment connected to it.
3 3. Software
The set of instructions that the computer follows in performing a task.
4 4. Supercomputer
Classified by size, the largest classification of computers.
5 5. Mainframe
Classified by size, the second largest classification of computers.
6 6. Microcomputer
Personal computers or desktop computers.
7 7. Notebook Computer
A personal computer that can fit into a briefcase.
8 8. Laptop Computer
A larger, heavier version of a notebook computer.
9 9. Personal Digital Assistant

Classified by size, the smallest classification of computers. It is a handheld
computer.
3 Short Answer Give at least 5 examples of how you have recently used a
computer in your everyday life: These answers will vary.
Important Points to Remember
Applications software: Software that allows you to perform a task or solve a

specific problem.
A backup system A way of storing data in more than one location.
Byte : A byte A unit of storage usually made up of eight bits. It represents one
character - a letter, digit, or symbol.
Central Processing Unit : Central Processing Unit (CPU) is an Electronic circuits

that interpret and execute instructions and communicates with the input, output, and
storage devices.
Data Raw: Data Raw unprocessed facts to be processed by the computer.
Documentation: Documentation Instructions provided with software that includes

steps required for installation and use of the product.
Freeware Software: Freeware Software considered to be in the public domain and

may be used or altered without fee or restriction.
Gigahertz :Gigahertz (GHZ) A billion machine cycles per second.
Hardcopy :Hardcopy Output produced by a printer.
Hardware: The equipment associated with a computer system; it is responsible for

performing four basic functions: input, processing, output, and storage.
Input devices: Hardware devices that accept data in a form that the computer can
utilize; they send the data or instructions to the processing unit to be processed into
useful information.
A hard disk : An internal disk, a metal platter coated with magnetic oxide that can be
magnetized to represent data.
Machine Cycle : A machine cycle Four steps performed by the central processing
unit in carrying out the instructions of a program.
Megaflop: A megaflop One million floating-point operations per second.
Megahertz: (MHz) One million machine cycles per second.
Memory : Primary storage that works with the CPU to hold instructions and data in
order to be processed.
Office suite: A package of software that contains pieces of software. It is sold as a

single package and is designed to work together.
Operating Systems: software The set of programs that lie between applications
software and the hardware devices; it controls the overall activity of a computer.
Output device: A hardware device that displays the processed information to the
user.
Random access memory (RAM): Memory that the computer user can access.
Read only memory (ROM): Memory that contains programs and data that are
permanently recorded when the computer is manufactured.
Secondary or auxiliary storage: A more permanent form of storage that does not
depend on a constant flow of electricity.
Shareware: A form of free software; however, the author of shareware hopes you
will make a voluntary contribution for using the product.
Softcopy: Monitor output.
Software: A program that consists of instructions used to control hardware and

accomplish tasks.
Exercise 2:
1. ____ Hardware devices that accept data in a form that the computer can use.
2. ____ Raw unprocessed facts to be processed by the computer.
3. ____ Electronic circuits that interpret and execute instructions and
communicate with the input, output, and storage devices.
4. ____ Four steps performed by the central processing unit in carrying out the
instructions of a program.
5. ____ Programs and data that are permanently recorded when the computer is
manufactured.
6. ____ A billion machine cycles per second.
7. ____ Hardware devices that display the processed information to the user.
8. ____ A million machine cycles per second.
9. ____ A more permanent form of storage that does not depend on a constant
flow of electricity.
10.____ A package of software that contains several pieces of software. It is sold
as a single package and is designed to work together.
11.____ A program that consists of instructions used to control hardware.
12.____ An internal storage disk; it is a metal platter coated with magnetic oxide
that can be magnetized to represent data.
13.____ A form of free software; however, the author hopes you will make a
voluntary contribution for using the product.
14.____ Instructions provided with software that includes steps required for
installation and use of the product.
15.____ Memory that the computer user can use.
16.____ Output displayed on a monitor.
17.____ Output produced by a printer.
18.____ Primary storage that works with the CPU to hold instructions and data to
be processed.
19.____ Software considered to be in the public domain; it may be used or
altered without fee or restriction.
20.____ Software that allows you to perform a particular task or solve a specific
problem.
21.____ Equipment associated with a computer system; it is responsible for
performing four basic functions: input, processing, output, and storage.
22.____ A set of programs that lie between applications software and the
hardware devices; it controls the overall activity of a computer.
23.____ A storage unit that is usually made up eight bits and represents one
character, letter, digit, or symbol.
24.____ A way of storing data in more than one location.
25.____ One million floating-point operations per second.
4 Exercise Key
1. Input devices
2. Data
3. CPU
4. Machine cycle
5. ROM
6. Gigahertz
7. Output devices
8. Megahertz
9. Secondary or auxiliary storage
10. Office suite
11. Software
12. Hard disk
13. Shareware
14. Documentation
15. RAM
16. Softcopy
17. Hardcopy
18. Memory
19. Freeware
20. Applications software
21. Hardware
22. Operating systems software
23. Byte
24. Backup system
25. Megaflop
Networking Basics
A network is an interconnection of two or more devices in order to enable transfer of

data or information from one place to another.
Advantages
1. Sharing of hardware resources
2. Sharing of software resources
3. Central storage and data security
4. Easier and faster sharing of information
Disadvantages
1. Costly hardware and software
2. Need for an administrator to take care of the network
Types of Computer Networks

1. Local Area Network (LAN)
A network consisting of two or more computers that are interconnected by means of
cable in a single location is called as Local Area Network. In a LAN, the computers
can take any one of the three functions as detailed below.
Peer-to-peer : This is an example of a simple network where two or more computers
are directly connected to each other and share resources. There is no central control
over the network. Peer networks are organized into workgroups. Access to individual
resources has to be controlled through a password. There is no restriction on the
number of computers on a peer network.
Server Based Network : In this type of networks, there is a main computer called as
the SERVER that controls the networks and provides central storage space for
information.
The other computers that are connected to the server are called as CLIENTS, or
WORKSTATIONS, or DUMB TERMINALS.
Hybrid Network : These types of network are a combination of both peer-to-peer
network and server network.
2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
A network of computers that are interconnected within a specific geographical area
like a university campus or a city is called as Metropolitan Area Network or Campus
Area Network (CAN)
3. Wide Area Network (WAN)
A network of computers that are interconnected over a large area is called as a Wide
Area Network. The computers are connected by means of cables, telephone lines,
satellites or radio transceivers.
Components of a Computer Network

1. Server
2. Workstations
3. Network Interface Card (NIC)
4. Network media
5. Connector
6. Connecting devices
Types of cables
Coaxial cable
Coaxial cable has a single strand or multi-strand of copper. The wire is enclosed in
plastic foam for insulation. The foam is surrounded by a second conductor, a wire
mesh or metallic foil. The wire mesh protects the central conductor from electro
magnetic interference. It also provides proper grounding for the central conductor.
Coaxial cable transmit data typically at 10 Mbps. Data is transmitted in the form of
electric current and are comparatively slower than fiber-optic cables.
Twisted-pair cable
These cables have one or more pairs of copper wires that are twisted. The twisting
reduces external interference. There are two types of twisted pair cables. 1. Shielded
Twisted Pair (STP) and 2. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP). STP cables are shielded
with aluminium or polyester present in between the outer jacket and the wires. UTP
cables do not have this shielding.
Fiber-optic cable
These cables are mainly used as backbone in a WAN. Data is transmitted in the form
of light signals. The inner core is enclosed in a layer of glass called as a cladding,
that reflects light back into the core. A plastic sheath surrounds each fiber. Fiber-optic
cables are capable of transmitting data at a very high speed offering data transfer
speeds ranging from 100 Mbps to 2 Gbps and are more expensive.
Plenum cable
In coaxial cables, PVC is used as the outer jacket for insulation. When the cables
have to be run in the space between the false ceiling and the floor above, a special
type of cable called as plenum-grade cable has to be used. When burned, PVC
gives off poisonous gases, so a fire resistant cable such as the plenum-grade cable
is used. It is more expensive and less flexible than PVC insulated coaxial cables.
Network Connectivity Devices
Any network grows over a period. This growth creates the need for attaching more
computers in the network. Expansion of a network is of two types, they are
a) Expansion within a network
b) Joining two networks
More computers can be attached in a network by using additional cables and
connectors. But once the network architecture is stretched beyond a point, it reduces
the data transmission speeds. In such a situation, there arises a need for special
devices, which can amplify the signals and send them over longer distances. The
following devices can be used to expand a single network without connecting it to
other networks.
a) Hubs (Active, Passive and Intelligent)
b) Repeaters
c) Switches
d) Bridges
e) Multiplexers
a) Hubs
These are the connecting points in a network where UTP and STP cables are used.
Hubs amplify signals and split them so that the signals reach their destination. Hubs
can be of three types based on their function. Hubs are available in configuration of
4/8/16/32 ports for connecting 4/8/16/32 computers respectively. To add more
computers to the network cascading of hubs can be done. Cascading is nothing but
taking the signal from
one hub to another hub. This is allowed only for Active hubs.
Active hubs : These hubs provide connection points for cables to be attached from
each computer in the network. The hub in turn is connected to the main computer
called as the Server. Active hubs are mainly used in Star Topology.
Passive hubs : These hubs merely act as junction boxes for extending the network.
They cannot amplify or split signals.
Intelligent hubs : These hubs have special instructions stored in the ROM that help in
signal regeneration and path selection. An intelligent hub has the ability to choose
the path where the signal has to reach instead of sending the signals along all paths.
They can also choose the quickest path for sending the signal.
b) Repeaters
The signals that pass in the network media (cables) are prone to weakening called
as attenuation. This results in loss of signals. In order to prevent this, a repeater is
used to boost the signal allowing it to travel over longer cable distances.
c) Switches
Switches operate at the data link layer and are responsible for receiving and
transmitting frames. Switches use MAC (Message Authentication Code) address
from the host’s NIC cards to filter the network. Switches work in full-duplex mode
(100 Mbps) where the signals can be transmitted and received between the switch
and the computer simultaneously. Switches are available in configuration of
8/16/24/32 ports for connecting computers.
d) Bridges
Bridges are used to cross from one circuit, channel or element over to another. It is a
device that connects two LAN segments together, which may be of similar or
dissimilar types, such as Ethernet and Token Ring. A bridge is inserted into a
network to segment it and keep traffic contained within the segments to improve
performance. Bridges learn from experience and build and maintain address tables
of the nodes on the network. By monitoring which station acknowledged receipt of
the address, they learn which nodes belong to the segment.
Bridges are protocol independent; routers are protocol dependent. Bridges are faster
than routers because they do not have to read the protocol to glean routing
information. Bridges with more than two ports (multiport bridges) perform a switching
function. Today's LAN switches are really multiport bridges that can switch at full wire
speed.
e) Multiplexers
These devices use a technique called as multiplexing where many different
signals are combined and transmitted and at the receiving end, they are
demultiplexed to reach the appropriate destination. The transmission signals of cable
TV is an example of multiplexing where multiple channels are send in a single
coaxial cable and the demultiplexer present in the TV recognizes the appropriate
signal.
Inter-network Connectivity
Any network consisting of two or more networks is called as an inter-network. The
Internet is an example of this. An inter-network may have different types of networks
like Ethernet, Token ring, and ATM. The following devices can be used to expand an
inter-network by connecting it to other network.
a) Routers
A device that forwards data packets from one local area network (LAN) or wide area
network (WAN) to another. Based on routing tables and routing protocols, routers
read the network address in each transmitted frame and make a decision on how to
send it based on the most expedient route (traffic load, line costs, speed, bad lines,
etc.). Routers work at layer 3 in the protocol stack, whereas bridges and switches
work at the layer 2.
Routers are used to segment LANs in order to balance traffic within workgroups and
to filter traffic for security purposes and policy management. Routers are also used
at the edge of the network to connect remote offices.
b) Brouters
Brouters are a combination of a router and a bridge.
c) Gateways
These are sophisticated devices combining both hardware and software. Gateway
helps in connecting disparate networks. They take care of protocol conversion so
that data received from any network can be interpreted in your network and used.
d) CSU/DSU
Channel Service Unit/Digital Service Unit help in using the existing telephone line for
transmitting signals. Apart from sending signals CSU/DSU also shield your network
from voltage currents that come through the telephone network.
Network Topology
The term topology, or more specifically, network topology, refers to the
arrangements or physical layout of computers, cables, and other components on the
network. The three popular topologies are bus, star and ring. Each topology has its
strengths and weakness.
These are the three major topologies used in networks. Ethernet uses bus, hub and
switch topologies. Token Ring uses ring and switch.
Patch Chord
Patch Chord is just an UTP cable with RJ-45 connectors connected at both the ends.
The patch chord may be straight cable or cross over cable depending upon the
application where it is used.
RJ 45 Jack
RJ45 Colors and Wiring Standards
5 T-568B Straight-Through Ethernet Cable
Both the T-568A and the T-568B standard Straight-Through cables are used most often as
patch cords for your Ethernet connections. If you require a cable to connect two Ethernet
devices directly together without a hub or when you connect two hubs together, you will need
to use a Crossover cable instead.
6 RJ-45 Crossover Ethernet Cable
How to Build an Ethernet Cable Instructions:
1. Pull the cable off the reel to the desired length and cut using wire cutters or
scissors. If you are pulling cables through holes, it's easier to attach the RJ-45 plugs
after the cable is pulled. The total length of wire segments between a PC and a
switch or between two PC's cannot exceed 100 Meters (328 feet) for 100BASE-TX
and 300 Meters for 10BASE-T.
2. Start on one end and strip the cable jacket off (about 1") using a wire stripper
or a knife. Be extra careful not to nick the wires, otherwise you will need to start over.
3. Spread, untwist the pairs, and arrange the wires in the order of the desired
cable end. Flatten the end between your thumb and forefinger. Trim the ends of the
wires so they are even with one another, leaving only 1/2" in wire length. If it is longer
than 1/2" it will be out-of-spec and susceptible to crosstalk. Flatten and insure there
are no spaces between wires.
4. Hold the RJ-45 plug with the clip facing down or away from you. Push the
wires firmly into the plug. Inspect each wire is flat even at the front of the plug. Check
the order of the wires. Double check again. Check that the jacket is fitted right
against the stop of the plug. Carefully hold the wire and firmly crimp the RJ-45 with
the crimp tool.
5. Check the color orientation, check that the crimped connection is not about to
come apart, and check to see if the wires are flat against the front of the plug. If even
one of these are incorrect, you will have to start over. Test the Ethernet cable.
Ethernet Cable Tips:
• A straight-thru cable has identical ends.

• A crossover cable has different ends.
• A straight-thru is used as a patch cord in Ethernet connections.
• A crossover is used to connect two Ethernet devices without a hub or for
connecting two hubs.
• A crossover has one end with the Orange set of wires switched with the
Green set.
• Odd numbered pins are always striped, even numbered pins are always solid
colored.
• Looking at the RJ-45 with the clip facing away from you, Brown is always on
the right, and pin 1 is on the left.
• No more than 1/2" of the Ethernet cable should be untwisted otherwise it will
be susceptible to crosstalk.
• Do not deform, do not bend, do not stretch, do not staple, do not run parallel
with power cables, and do not run Ethernet cables near noise inducing components.
TCP/IP
TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. It was
developed for the US Department of Defense to allow communication between
different types of computer and networks. Now it is a widely used networking
protocol. TCP and IP are the two best known protocols in the suite. The
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) provides reliable sequence delivery of packets
between clients. The Internet Protocol (IP) provides packet delivery between hosts.
IP Addressing
In a TCP/IP environment communication between hosts and servers on the
internetwork is transparent. This is because each node using the TCP/IP protocol
suite has at least one unique 32 bit Internet Protocol (IP) address.
A router “reads” the destination address in an IP packet and makes a routing
decision based on this address. All hosts on an inter-network require unique
addresses. IP address can be represented as a group of four decimal number (in the
range 0 to 255), separated by decimal points. This is known as dotted decimal
notation.
They can also be represented in binary or hex. Each IP address identifies a hosts
within the inter-network. Part of an IP address identifies a particular network, part
identifies a subnet and part identifies a specific host within that sub-network.
An IP address can be represented in dotted decimal notation or binary or
hexadecimal notation. For example :
Dotted decimal 130.57.30.56
Binary 10000010.00111001.00011110.00111000
Hexadecimal 82.39.IE.38
Logically an IP address contains two parts. They are

1. Network ID
2. Host ID
In order to provide a method for assigning addresses in simple and easy manner, the
IP address is classified for different types of networks like large, medium and small
networks.
IP Address Classes
Depending on your networking requirements, you are assigned (by your service
provider) specific classes of IP address. They are five classes of IP addresses: A, B,
C, D and E.
Class A: Address range from 1 to 126. These addresses use the first byte to specify
the network and the last three bytes to specify the host. Class A addresses are
assigned to system in a small number of networks and a large number of hosts.
Class B: Address range from 128 to 191. These addresses use the first two bytes to
specify the network and next two bytes to specify the host. Class B addresses are
assigned to systems in universities and commercial organizations.
Class C: Address range from 192 to 223. These addresses use the first three bytes
to specify the network and the last byte to specify the host. Class C addresses are
assigned to systems in a network with small number of hosts.
Class D: Address range from 224 to 239. These addresses are used for
broadcasting messages over an inter-network. These addresses are also used for
multicasting.
Class E: Address range from 240 to 255. These addresses are reserved for research
purposes and future use.
Subnet Mask
Subnet is a physical segment in a TCP/IP environment that uses IP addresses
derived from a single network ID.
Subnetting: One part is used to identify the segment as a unique network other part
used to identify the hosts. This is known as subnetting.
Example Class room Students in the class

Here Class room - Subnet
Students - Network ID
Students name - Host ID
Subnet mask is a 32b bit address and is used to (1) block out a portion of the IP
address to distinguish the network ID from the host ID (2) specify whether the
destination host IP address is located on a local network or remote network.
Each host on a TCP/IP network requires a subnet mask number

Default subnet masks – used when a network is not divided into subnets
Custom subnet masks – used when a network is divided into subnets
Default gateway
IP routing is the process of sending data from a host on one network to a remote
host on another network through a router or routers. In IP terminology routers are
referred to as gateways. The router uses a path to deliver packets, which is defined
in its routing table. Routing table contains the IP address of router interfaces that
connect one router with other.
Important Points to Remember:
A combination of hardware and software that recognizes

Bridge the messages on a network and passes on those
addressed to nodes in other networks.
Software on the user’s computer that allows the user to
Browser access the Internet via the service provider, using a
graphical interface.
Data communicationsComputer systems that transmit data over
systems communications lines such as telephone lines or cables.
Download files Retrieve from another computer and store them.
The ability to send messages directly from one computer

E-mail
to another.
File Transfer Protocol
A standard way to transfer copies of files on the Internet.
(FTP)
Host computer The mainframe computer in a WAN.
A device that repeats signals and connects a group of

Hub
computers to a network.
A rapidly growing web of networks from around the world
Internet
-- simply, a network of networks.
Internet Service ProviderProvides the server computer and the software required
(ISP) for you to connect to the Internet.
Listserv Widely used automatic mailing manager.
Local Area Network (LAN) A network of computers that share hardware, software,
and data in small geographic area.
Modem A device that converts a digital signal to an analog signal
and vice versa.
Newsgroups An informal network of computers that allows the posting
and reading of messages in newsgroups that focuses on
specific topics.
Plug-ins Software that enhances the value of a browser by
increasing its features.
Router A special computer that directs communications traffic
when several networks are connected together.
Uniform ResourceA unique address on the WWW.
Locator (URL)
Web pages Documents that contain text, graphics, sound, and/or
video and have built-in connections called hyperlinks.
Web site A related collection of Web pages.
Wide Area NetworkA network of geographically distant computers and

(WAN) terminals.
World Wide Web (WWW) The largest and most popular part of the Internet; it is the
graphical part of the Internet.
Exercise 3:
Complete each of the statements below by filling in the blanks with terms found in
the Computer Network Concepts module.
1. Computer systems that transmit data over communications lines such as

telephone lines or cables are called _____________________________.
2. A ___________________________ is a device that converts a digital signal

to an analog signal and vice versa. It is short for modulate/demodulate.
3. ____________________is a technology that is capable of moving data at

128,000 bps over any modem.
4. A network of geographically distant computers and terminals is a

__________________________________.
5. To ___________________ files means to retrieve files from another
computer and store them.
6. To ___________________ files means to send files to another computer.
7. A network of computers that covers a small geographical area is a

___________________________________.
8. A special computer that directs communications traffic when several networks

are connected together is a _____________________________.
9. Sending messages directly from one computer to another is

__________________.
10. A __________________________ is an automatic mailing manager.
11. 11. The ______________________ is a rapidly growing web of networks from

around the world - a network of networks.
12. 12. The largest and most popular part of the Internet is the
_____________________.
13. 13. It is the graphical part of the Internet.___________________ are

documents that contain text, graphics, sound, and/or video and have built-in
connections called ________________________.
14. 14. A related collection of Web pages is a

_________________________________.
15. 15. A unique address on the WWW is called a

_______________________________.
16. 16. A __________________________ is the software on the user’s computer

that allows the user to access the Internet via the service provider using a
graphical interface.
17. 17. The __________________________ provides the server computer and

the software required for you to connect to the Internet. AOL is an example.
18. 18. Computers on the Internet have a standard way to transfer copies of files.
This program is called _________________________________.
Exercise Key
1. Data Communications Systems

2. Modem
3. Integrated Services Digital network, ISDN
4. Wide Area Network (WAN)
5. Download
6. Upload
7. Local Area Network (LAN)
8. Router
9. E-mail
10.Listserv
11.Internet
12.World Wide Web (WWW)
13.Web pages
14.Web site
15.Uniform Resource Locator (URL)
16.Browser
17.Internet Service Provider (ISP)
18.File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
Some Troubleshootung Tips and Techniques

Common Troubleshooting Strategies
Here are five common-sense techniques and strategies to solve common computer
hardware problems.
(1) Trial-and-error
Personal computers are highly modular by design. The most powerful trouble-
shooting technique is to isolate the problem to a specific component by trial-and-
error. Swap compatible components and see if the system still works. Try different
peripherals on different machines and see if the same problem occurs. Make one
change at a time.
(2) "It's the cable, s-----."
More than 70% of all computer problems are related to cabling and connections.
Ensure all cables are connected firmly. IDE and SATA cables and power cables can
often go loose. Ensure microprocessor, memory modules, and adapters such as
video card and sound card are inserted correctly and didn't "pop-up" during
transportation.
(3) Don't be frustrated!
Don't be afraid of computer problems. It is often the best opportunity to learn.

Trouble-shooting is part of the fun of owning a computer. Imagine the satisfaction
you could get by solving a problem yourself.
Of course the fun could ran out quickly once you are frustrated and have spent too
much time on the same problem. If you feel frustrated, it's time to leave it for a while
and go back with some new ideas or call someone who can help. Rule of thumb: You
shouldn't spend more than three hours on the same problem at one time.
(4) Take notes!
Take notes of what you have done and all the error messages. You may need to use
them later. For instance, when you see an unusual blue screen with an error
message, copy the entire message onto a piece of paper. In many situations, that
message may point to the right direction in getting the problem solved quickly.
(5) Take a look?
It's OK to open a computer case and take a look inside. There is only 5V and 12V
DC voltage supplied to the components outside the power supply. Of course, still
always power down and unplug the power cord first.
1 Troubleshooting Tips for Cases and Power Supplies

The most important part of a computer case is its power supply. Unfortunately, it's
also the part that has most of the problems for a case. There are two situations when
a new power supply may appear dead on arrival (DOA) when they are actually
working as described below:
Most cases and power supplies these days are made and tested in China and other
Asian countries where 220V electricity is used. Desktop computer power supplies do
not switch the power voltage automatically. If the factory forgets to turn the manual
switch back to 110V for the North American market after testing, the power supply
would appear DEAD if you use on a 110V-outlet. Therefore, always check the
voltage setting on the back of a new power supply FIRST if it appears dead.
Do not expect an ATX power supply to work by simply plugging the power and
turning on the switch. ATX power supplies are soft-switched on and off by the
motherboard and BIOS. Therefore, you must plug it to a working motherboard with a
working microprocessor, memory and video card to work. If your computer does not
turn on after you turn on the power switch, it may not necessarily mean a dead
power supply. The problem might be with the motherboard, microprocessor,
memory or video card instead. You must examine all these components to isolate
the problem.
 The most effective technique to tell if a power supply is causing any problem is to
use a different one to see if it solves the problem. Alternatively, you can plug the old
power supply to an existing, working computer to see if it works there.
 More than 70% of all computer problems are related to cabling and connections.
Ensure that you all the power plugs are connected firmly, including power
connections to your motherboard and all the drives.
 Make sure the cooling fan inside the power supply is working all the time. Reach
out to feel the fan behind your case often. Clean the fan if necessary. If your case
feels warmer than room temperature, check the power supply fan first.
2 Troubleshooting Tips for a New Motherboard

More than 70% of all computer problems are related to cabling and connections.
Ensure all cables are connected and connected firmly. IDE and floppy ribbon cables
and power cables can often go loose. Ensure microprocessor, memory modules, and
adapters such as video card are inserted correctly and didn't "pop-up" due to
vibration.
System has no power at all. Power light does not illuminate, fan inside the
power supply does not turn on, and indicator light on keyboard does not turn
on.
PROBABLE CAUSE DIAGNOSIS SOLUTION
Visually inspect power Make sure power cable is

Power cable is unplugged.
cable. securely plugged in.
Visual inspection, try

Defective power cable. Replace cable.
another cable.
Power cable and wall

Power supply failure. socket are OK, but system Contact technical support
is still dead.
Use different socket, repair

Faulty wall outlet;circuit Plug device into socket
outlet, reset circuit breaker or
breaker or fuse blown. know to work and test.
replace fuse.
System inoperative. Keyboard lights are on, power indicator lights are lit, and
hard drive is spinning.
Turn off computer. Take

Using even pressure on both
Expansion card is partially cover off system unit.
ends of the expansion card,
dislodged from expansion Check all expansion cards
press down firmly on
slot on the motherboard. to ensure they are securely
expansion card.
seated in slots.
Turn computer off.

Make sure expansion card is
Defective expansion card. Remove an expansion
secure in expansion socket.
card.
System does not boot from hard disk drive, can be booted from floppy disk
drive.
Check cable running form

When attempting to run the
disk to disk controller on the
FDISK utility described in
Connector between hard board. Make sure both ends
the HARD DISK section of
drive and system board are securely plugged in;
the manual you get a
unplugged. check the drive type in the
message, INVALID DRIVE
Standard CMOS Setup (in
SPECIFICATION.
your motherboard manual).
Format hard disk; if unable

Damaged Hard Disk or Disk
to do so, the hard disk may Contact Technical Support.
Controller.
be defective.
Fformat the hard drive(See Backing up the hard drive is

Hard Disk directory or FAT HARD DRIVE section of extremely important. All Hard
is scrambled. manual). Copy your backup Disks are capable of
data back onto hard drive. breaking down at any time.
Error message reading "SECTOR NOT FOUND" or other error messages
indication certain data is not allowed to be retrieved.
Back up any salvageable

data. Then do a low level
format, partition, and high
Use a file by file backup
A number of causes could level format of the hard drive(
instead of an image backup
be behind this. see Hard Disk section of your
to backup the Hard Disk.
manual for instructions). Re-
install all saved data when
completed.
After install an expansion card (network card, tape drive card, etc.) the system
no longer works properly.
Change the interrupt or RAM

address on the new
All or part of the system expansion card. See the
may be inoperable. The documentation that came
No power to monitor. new card may work but a with the new card in order to
mouse or COM port may change pin settings. many
not work. expansion devices come with
proprietary software that will
assist you in doing this.
Screen message says "Invalid Configuration" or "CMOS Failure."
Incorrect information
Check the configuration Review system's equipment.
entered into the
program. Replace any Make sure correct
configuration (setup)
incorrect information. information is in setup.
program.
Screen is blank.
Check the power connectors

to monitor and to system.
Power connectors may be Make sure monitor is
No power to monitor.
loose or not plugged in. connected to display card,
change I/O address on
network card if applicable.
Monitor not connected to

See instructions above.
computer.
Network card I/O address

See instructions above.
conflict.
Reboot computer. Re-install

memory, make sure that all
memory modules are
Memory problem, display
installed in correct sockets.
card jumpers not set
Check jumper and switch
correctly.
settings on display card. See
display card section for
information of settings.
Use anti-virus programs

(McAfee/PC-cillin, E-port,
Computer virus.
etc) to detect and clean
viruses.
Screen goes blank periodically.
Screen saver is enabled. Disable screen saver.
Keyboard failure.
Reconnect keyboard. Check

keys again, if no
Keyboard is disconnected.
improvement, replace
keyboard.
No color on screen.
If possible, connect monitor

Faulty Monitor. to another system. If no color,
replace monitor.
CMOS incorrectly set up. Call technical support.
C: drive failure.
Boot from drive A: using DOS

SETUP program does not system disk. Input correct
have correct information. information to SETUP
program.
Hard Drive cable not

Check Hard drive cable.
connected properly.
Cannot boot system after installing second hard drive.
Master/Slave jumpers not Set master /Slave jumpers

set correctly. correctly.
Run SETUP program and

Hard Drives not select correct drive types.
compatible / different Call drive manufactures for
manufacturers. compatibility with other
drives.
Missing operating system on hard drive.
CMOS setup has been Run setup and select correct

changed. drive type.
Certain keys do not function.
Keys jammed or defective. Replace keyboard.
Keyboard is locked, no keys function.
Keyboard is locked. Unlock keyboard
7 The purpose of the Boot.ini file in Windows XP

8 Windows (specifically Ntldr) uses the Boot.ini file to determine which operating
system options to display when the Startup program is running. By default, Boot.ini is
not flagged as a read-only system file and generally does not require any manual
modification.
If you must change the contents of this file, use the System tool in Control Panel:
1.Click Start button, click Control Panel, and then double-click

System.
. Click the Advanced tab, and then click Settings under Startup and
Recovery.
9 Typically, the Boot.ini file contains the following data:
10 [boot loader]
timeout=30
default=scsi(0)disk(0)rdisk(0)partition(1)\winnt
[operating systems]
scsi(0)disk(0)rdisk(0)partition(1)\winnt = "Windows NT" /NODEBUG C:\ = "Previous
Operating System on C:\"
11 The following list describes the meaning of the data in the Boot.ini file:
• The "timeout" variable specifies how long Windows waits before choosing the
default operating system.
• The "default" variable specifies the default operating system.
• The term "scsi(0)" means that the primary controller (that is frequently the only
controller) is responsible for the device. If there are two SCSI controllers, and the
disk is associated with the second controller, the controller is named "scsi(1)".
If the system uses IDE, enhanced IDE (EIDE), or Enhanced Small Device
Interface (ESDI) drives, or if the system uses a SCSI adapter that does not have a
built-in BIOS, replace "scsi" with "multi".
• The term "disk(0)" refers to the SCSI logical unit (LUN) to use. This may be a
separate disk, but most SCSI setups have only one LUN for each SCSI ID.
• The term "rdisk(0)" refers to physical disk 1.
• The term "partition(1)" is the partition on the first drive in the computer. If there are
two partitions, partition C is partition(1) and partition D is partition(2).
• A multi-boot parameter calls for checking the Winnt folder to start from a specified
SCSI controller's disk and partition.
• "/NODEBUG" specifies that no debugging information is being monitored.
Debugging information is useful only for developers.
• You can add the /SOS option to display driver names while the drivers are being
loaded. By default, the OS Loader screen only shows progress dots.
• "Previous Operating System on C:\" implies that the "previous operating system" is
MS-DOS, because "C:\" is an MS-DOS path.
Edited By
Graison Varghese

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Computer Hardware

Emkay, SRGPTC, Thriprayar Page 1

Real-time Operating System:

It is a multitasking operating system that aims at executing real-time applications. Real-time

Multi-user and Single-user Operating Systems:

Multi-tasking and Single-tasking Operating Systems:

Emkay, SRGPTC, Thriprayar Page 2

1. Disk Operating System (DOS)

Emkay, SRGPTC, Thriprayar Page 3

Emkay, SRGPTC, Thriprayar Page 4

Emkay, SRGPTC, Thriprayar Page 5

4 Cyrix Corporation was a microprocessor developer that was founded in 1988

Emkay, SRGPTC, Thriprayar Page 6

Motherboard Form Factors

Emkay, SRGPTC, Thriprayar Page 7

Emkay, SRGPTC, Thriprayar Page 8

M ajor M otherboard M a nufactures

Diagram of a motherboard chipset

Emkay, SRGPTC, Thriprayar Page 9

Different RAM Types and its uses

Emkay, SRGPTC, Thriprayar Page 10

DDR (Double Data Rate SDRAM)

Rambus DRAM (RDRAM)

DIMMs vs. RIMMs

DIMMs are 64-bit components, but if used in a motherboard with a dual-channel

Emkay, SRGPTC, Thriprayar Page 11

Older Memory Types

168-Pin SDRAM 184-Pin DDR 240-Pin DDR2 240-Pin DDR3

PC100 SDRAM DDR-266 DDR2-533 DDR3-1066

PC133 SDRAM DDR-333 DDR2-667 DDR3-1333

Super Talent Memory DDR-400 DDR2-800 DDR3-1600

DDR & DDR2 Memory DDR2-1066 DDR3-1800

Emkay, SRGPTC, Thriprayar Page 12

Power On Self Test (POST)

Emkay, SRGPTC, Thriprayar Page 13

The steps of a POST

IBM BIOS beep codes

Beep Code Description

No Beeps No Power, Loose Card, or Short.

1 Short Beep Normal POST, computer is ok.

2 Short Beep POST error, error code shown on screen

Continuous Beep No Power, Loose Card, or Short.

Repeating Short Beep No Power, Loose Card, or Short.

One Long and one Short Beep Motherboard issue.

Emkay, SRGPTC, Thriprayar Page 14

Three Long Beeps Keyboard / Keyboard card error.

One Beep, Blank or Incorrect Display Video Display Circuitry.

AMI BIOS beep codes

Beep Code Descriptions Document

1 short DRAM refresh failure CH000996

2 short Parity circuit failure CH000607

3 short Base 64K RAM failure CH000996

4 short System timer failure CH000607

5 short Process failure CH000607

6 short Keyboard controller Gate A20 error CH000383

7 short Virtual mode exception error CH000607

8 short Display memory Read/Write test failure CH000607

9 short ROM BIOS checksum failure CH000607

10 short CMOS shutdown Read/Write error CH000239

11 short Cache Memory error CH000607