ME 1402 – MECHATRONICS (UNIT – III)

SYSTEM MODELS
This chapter determines how the systems behave with time when
subjected to some disturbance. E.g. A microprocessor switches on a
motor. The speed will not attain immediately but it will take some
time to attain full speed.
In order to understand the behavior of the systems,
mathematical models are needed. These models are equations
which describe the relationship between the input and output of a
system. The basis for any mathematical model is provided by the
fundamental physical laws that govern the behavior of the system. In
this chapter a range of systems will be considered including
mechanical, electrical, thermal & fluid examples.
Systems can be made up from a range of building blocks from a
number of basic building blocks.
MECHANICAL SYSTEM BUILDING BLOCKS
The basic building blocks of the models used to represent
mechanical systems are
1) Springs 2) dashpots 3) masses
Springs
Springs represents the stiffness of the system. The fig. shows a
spring subjected to force F.

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 In case of spring the extension (or) compression is proportional to
the applied forces.
F = K .x

F – Applied force x – extension k – a constant

The spring when stretched stores energy, the energy being
released when the spring back to its original length. The energy
stored,
1 F2
E= K .x 2 =
2 2K

Dash Pots
Dashpots building blocks represent the types of forces
experienced when we push the object through a fluid or move an
object against frictional forces.

In ideal case damping or resisting force F is proportional to the

velocity of the piston. Thus
F=Cv
V – Velocity of piston C – a constant
dx
F =C (Since velocity is the rate of change of displacement x.)
dt

Masses
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 Masses represent the inertia or resistance to acceleration.

According to Newton’s II law F = ma

dv d 2x
=m = m
dt dt 2

There is also energy stored in mass, when it is moving with

velocity V1. The energy being referred to as kinetic energy, and
released when it stops moving.
1
E= × mv 2
2

However there is no energy stored in the dashpot. It does not

return to the original position, when there is no force input. The
dashpot dissipates energy rather than spring. The power dissipated
depending on the velocity V and being given by.
P = C V2
ROTATIONAL SYSTEMS
The spring, dashpot and mass are the basic building blocks for
mechanical systems when forces and straight line displacements
are involved without any rotation.
If there is rotation then the equivalent three building blocks are a
torsional spring, a rotary damper and the moment of inertia, i.e,

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the inertia of a rotating mass. With such building blocks the inputs
are torque and the outputs angle rotated.
With a torsional spring the angle θ rotated is proportional to the
toque T. Hence

With the rotary damper a disc is rotated in a fluid and the resistive
toque T is proportional to the angular velocity ω, and since angular
dθ
velocity is the rate at which angle changes. i.e. dt
.

The moment of inertia building block exhibits the property that

the greater the moment of inertia I the greater the torque needed
to produce an angular acceleration α.
Thus, since angular acceleration is the rate of change of angular
dω
velocity, i.e. dt
, and angular velocity is the rate of change of

angular displacement, then

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The torsional spring and the rotating mass store energy; the rotary
damper just dissipates energy. The energy stored by a torsional
spring when twisted through an angle θ is ½ kθ2 and since T = k θ
this can be written as

The energy stored by a mass rotating with an angular velocity ω

is the kinetic energy E, where

The power P dissipated by the rotary damper when rotating with an

angular velocity ω is

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BUILDING UP A MECHANICAL SYSTEM
TRANSLATIONAL MECHANICAL SYSTEM
Spring mass damper system:

A spring mass damper system is shown in fig. The system is fixed

at one end and the mass is supported by a spring and damper. The
mass is excited by force and free to oscillate. The equation of motion
related to horizontal motion x of mass to applied force can be
developed with of a free body diagram

Net force applied to mass

m = F − k .x − B.v

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 dx
= F − kx − B
dt ------- (1)

d 2x
Also net force applied to mass = mass x acceleration = m -----
dt 2

(2)
Equation (1) = (2) Apply Newton’s II law of motion
d 2x dx
m = F − kx − B
dt 2 dt

d 2x dx
F =m 2
+ kx + B
dt dt

This equation is called as the differential equation that describes

the relation between input and output.
ILLUSTRATIONS
MATHEMATICAL MODEL FOR A MACHINE MOUNTED ON THE
GROUND

MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF A WHEEL OF A CAR MOVING

ALONG A ROAD

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PROBLEMS

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ELECTRICAL SYSTEM BUILDING BLOCKS
The basic building blocks of electrical building blocks are
inductors, capacitors, and resisters.
Resistors:
Resistance is an opposition to movement of flow of material or
energy. An electric resistor opposes the flow of current, the voltage
V across the resistor is given by V= I R,
Where R= resistance.

Capacitors
Capacitors are used to stored charge to increase the voltage by
iV. A capacitor consists of two parallel plates separated by insulating
material and capacitor act as a strong device of energy. The voltage
equation for a capacitor is
1
V = ∫ idt Where c = capacitor.
C

Inductors:
It consists of a coil wire. When current flows through the
wire, a magnetic field surrounding the wire is produced. Any attempt
to change the density of this magnetic field leads to the induction of
voltage. The inductor equation is
di
V =L
dt

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Kirchhoff’s law:
Electrical networks can be analyzed using Kirchhoff’s current and
voltage laws.
1. The current law states that the sum of the current flowing into a
junction equals to the sum of the current flowing out of a
junction.
2. The voltage law state that the sum of the voltage input equal
the sum of the voltage drop in any closed loop.

BUILDING UP A MODEL FOR ELECTRICAL SYSTEM

NODE ANALYSIS

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MESH ANALYSIS

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RESISTOR CAPACITOR SYSTEM (RC SYSTEM)

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RESISTOR INDUCTOR SYSTEM (RL SYSTEM)

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RESISTOR INDUCTOR CAPACITOR SYSTEM (RLC SYSTEM)

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ANOTHER ILLUSTRATION FOR RLC SYSTEM

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 FLUID SYSTEM BUILDING BLOCKS
The three basic building blocks of a fluid flow system can be
considered to be equivalent of electrical resistance, inductance and
capacitance. Fluid systems can be considered to fall in to two
categories.
1. Hydraulic. 2. Pneumatic
In hydraulic the fluid is a liquid and considered to be
incompressible. In pneumatic gas is used and which can be
compressed.

HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS
1. Hydraulic resistance(R)
It is the resistance to flow which occurs as a result of a liquid
flowing through valves or changes in pipe diameter. The relationship
between the volume flow rate and resistance element and the
resulting pressure difference
P1 − P2 = R.q Where R = hydraulic resistance.

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2. Hydraulic capacitance
This term is used to describe energy storage with a liquid when it
is stored in the form of potential energy.
h = height of liquid.
q1,q2 = rate of liquid flow.
P = pressure difference
.

dv dv
Then q1 − q 2 = where = rate of change of volume V in
dt dt

container.
d ( AH ) dH
q1 − q2 = =A
dt dt
P = ρgH
P
H =
ρg
 P 
d ρg 

∴q1 − q2 = A  
dt
A dP
=
ρg dt
dP
=C
dt
A
whereC = , hydraulicc apaci tan ce .
ρg

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3. Hydraulic inertance
It is equivalent of inductance in electrical systems or a spring in
mechanical systems. To accelerate a fluid and so increase its
velocity a force is required. Consider a block of liquid of mass m.
The net force acting on the liquid,
F1 − F2 = P1 A − P2

= ( P1 − P2 ) A

This net force cause the mass to accelerate with an acceleration a,

therefore

( P1 − P2 ) A = m.a
dv
=m
dt
dv
= ρAL
dt

Volume flow rate q= A.v

dQ1
∴( P1 − P2 ) A = Lρ
dt
Lρ dQ1
P1 − P2 =
A dt
dQ1
=I
dt

Where I= hydraulic inertance.

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PNEUMATIC SYSTEM

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Building up a model for fluid system

23
Derive the relationship between the height of liquids in the two
containers with time.

Capacitor for the container 1

dp
q1 − q 2 = c1
dt
A1
c1 = & p1 = h1 ρg
ρg

A1 d ( h1 ρg )
∴ q1 − q 2 = ×
ρg dt

A1 dh
= × ρg . 1
ρg dt

dh1
= A1 . ----------- (1)
dt

The q2= rate at which the liquid leaves the container that
equals the rate at which it leaves the valveR1
∴ p1 − p 2 = R1 .q 2

h1 .ρg − h2 .ρg = R1 .q 2

( h1 − h2 ) ρg = R1 .q2

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 ( h1 − h2 ) ρg = q
2
R1 (2)
-------------------

( h1 − h2 ) dh1
Sub (2) in (1) q1 − ρg = A1 . -----------(3)
R1 dt

The above equations describe how the height of liquid in

container 1 depends on the input rate of flow.
Capacitor for container 2
dp
q 2 − q3 = c 2 .
dt

dh 2
= A2 . ---------------- (4)
dt

The rate at which liquid leaves the container q3 equals to the rate
at which it leaves the valve R2
For resistor p 2 − p 3 = R2 .q 3 p3 = 0
∴p 2 = R2 .q 3

h2 ρg
= ---------- (5)
R2

h2 ρg dh
Sub (5) in (4) q2 − = A2 2 ------------------ (6)
R2 dt

Sub (2) in (6)

( h1 − h2 ) ρg h2 .ρg dh
− = A2 2
R1 R2 dt

The above equations describe how the height of liquid in container 2

change with time.

Fig.

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THERMAL SYSTEM BUILDING BLOCKS
For thermal system, there are only two building blocks.
1. Thermal Resistance.2. Thermal Capacitance.
Thermal resistance
If Q is the rate of heat flow and (T2-T1) is the temperature
difference, then
(T2 − T1 )
Qth = Rth

The value of Rth depends on mode of heat transfer. In case of

conduction through solid

Q = KA
( T2 − T1 ) Rth =
L
For this KA
L
When mode of heat transfer is convection.
Q = Ah( T2 − T1 ) For this mode Rth = 1
Ah

Thermal capacitance
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 It is a measure of the store of energy in a system.
dT
Q1 − Q2 = m × c
dt
dT
Q1 − Q2 = C h ×
dt

Q1= rate of flow of heat into the system.

Q2= rate of flow of heat out from the system
M= mass C= specific heat. Ch= thermal capacitance
dT
= Rate of change of temperature.
dt

BUILDING UP A MODEL FOR THERMAL SYSTEM

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`

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ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS

33
34
ROTATIONAL – TRANSLATIONAL SYSTEMS

35
ELECTRO- MECHANICAL SYSTEMS

POTENTIOMETER

36
HYDRAULIC – MECHANICAL SYSTEMS

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 CONTROLLERS
Open-loop control is essentially just a switch on-switch off form
of control, e.g. an electric fire is either switched on or off in order to
heat a room. With closed-loop control systems, a controller is used
to compare the output of a system with the required condition and
convert the error into a control action designed to reduce the error.
In this chapter we are concerned with the ways in which controllers
can react to error signals, i.e. the control modes as they are termed,
which occur with continuous processes.
Control modes:

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TWO – STEP MODE

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Oscillations with two step mode Two step control with two
controller switch points

45
PROPORTIONAL MODE (P)

46
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DERIVATIVE CONTROL (D)

48
PROPORTIONAL PLUS DERIVATIVE CONTROL (PD)

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INTEGRAL CONTROL (I)

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51
PROPORTIONAL PLUS INTEGRAL CONTROL (PD)

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PID CONTROLLERS

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DIGITAL CONTROLLERS
The digital controller requiring inputs which are digital, process
the information in digital form and give an output in digital form. The
controller performs the following functions:
1) Receives input from sensors.
2) Executes control programs
3) Provides the output to the correction elements.
As several control systems have analog measurements an analog
– to digital converters (ADC) is used for the inputs. The fig shows the
digital closed – loop control system which can be used with a
continuous process.

The clock supplies a pulse at regular time intervals, and dictates

when samples of controlled variables are taken by ADC.
These samples are then converted into digital signals which are
compared by the microprocessor with the set point value to give the
error signal. The error signal is processed by a control mode and
digital output is produced.

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 The digital output, generally offer processing by an DAC since
correction elements generally require analog signals, can be used to
initiate the corrective action.
Sequence of operation
1) Samples the measured value.
2) Compares this measured value with the set value and stored
values of previous inputs and outputs to obtain the output
signal.
3) Send the output signal to DAC
4) Waits until the next samples time before repeating the cycle.
VELOCITY CONTROL
A second order system with proportional control system will take
more time to reach the required output when step input is given.
Consider the problem of controlling the movement of a load by
means of a motor. This is an example to control velocity, because
the motor system is likely to be second order, proportional control
will lead to the system output taking time to reach the required
displacement when step input is given. Such a system is shown in
the fig.

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 A higher speed response, with fewer oscillations, can be
obtained by using the PD control. An alternative of achieving the
same effect and this is by the use of a second feedback loop that
gives a measurement related to the rate at which the displacement is
changing. This is termed as velocity feed back.
The velocity feed back might involve the use of a tacho-generator
giving a signal proportional to the rotational speed of the motor shaft
and hence the rate at which the displacement is changing and the
displacement might be monitoring using a rotary potentiometer.
ADAPTIVE CONTROL
The adaptive controllers change the controller parameter to adapt
to the changes and fit the prevailing circumstances. Often the control
parameters of the process changes with time (or) load. This will alter
the transfer functions of the system. Therefore returning of the
system is desirable, for the controllers. OR
For a control system it has been assumed that the system once
tuned retains its value of proportional, derivative, and integral
constant until the operator decides to retune. The alternative to this
is an adaptive control system which adapts to changes and changes
its parameters to fit the circumstances prevailing.
The adaptive control system can be considered to have three
stages of operation,
1) Starts to operate with controller conditions set on the basis of an
assumed condition.
2) The designed performance in continuously compared with the
actual system performance.
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3) The control system mode and parameters are automatically and
continuously adjusted in order to minimize the difference between
the desired and actual system performance.
Adaptive control system can take a number of forms. The three
commonly used forms are:
1. Gain scheduling control
2. Self – tuning control
3. Model – reference adaptive control.
Gain scheduling control

With gain scheduling control, present changes in the parameter of

the controller are made on the basis of some auxiliary measurement
of some process variable. The term gain – scheduled control was
used because the only parameter originally adjusted was to gain is
kp
Self tuning

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 With self tuning control system continuously tunes its own
parameter based on monitoring the variable that the system is
controlling.
Self- tuning is found in PID controllers. It is generally refers to
auto- tuning. When the operator presses a button, the controller
injects a small disturbance into the system and measures the
response. This response is compared to the desired response and
the control parameters are adjusted.
Model – reference control

Model reference system is an accurate model of the system

is developed. The set value is then used as input to both model
systems and actual systems and the difference between the actual
output and output from the model compared. The difference in these
signals is then used to adjust the parameters of the controller to
minimize the difference.

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MICROPROCESSOR’S CONTROL
A microprocessor is a programmable digital electronic component
that incorporates the functions of a central processing unit (CPU) on
a single semi conducting integrated circuit (IC). The microprocessor
was born by reducing the word size of the CPU from 32 bits to 4 bits,
so that the transistors of its logic circuits would fit onto a single part.
One or more microprocessor typically serves as the CPU in a
computer system, embedded system, or hand held device.
Microprocessors made possible the advent of the
microcomputer in the mid- 1970s.Before this period, electronic CPUs
were typically made from bulky discrete switching devices (and later
small-scale integrated circuits) containing the equivalent of only a
few transistors. By integrating the processor onto one or a very few
large-scale integrated circuit packages (containing the equivalent of
thousands or millions of discrete transistors), the cost of processor
power was greatly reduced. Since the advent of the IC in the mid-
1970s, the microprocessor has become the most prevalent
implementation of the CPU, nearly completely replacing all other
forms.
Definition
The microprocessor is a program controlled semiconductor
device (IC), which fetches (from memory), decodes and executes
instructions. It is used as CPU (Central Processing Unit) in
computers.
Microprocessors are now rapidly replacing the mechanical
cam operated controllers and being used in general to carry out
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control functions. They have the great advantage that a greater
variety of programs became feasible.

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REGISTERS

61
1. General purpose registers

registers but access is not required, it is an internal operation.

Thus it provides an efficient way to store intermediate results and
use them when required. The efficient programmer prefers to use
these registers to store intermediate results than the memory
locations which require but access and hence more time to
perform the operation.
2. Temporary Registers
a) Temporary Data Register

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 The ALU has two inputs. One input is supplied by the
accumulator and other from temporary data register. The
programmer cannot access this temporary data register.
However, it is internally used for execution of most of the
arithmetic and logical instructions. For example, ADD B is the
instruction in the arithmetic group of instructions which adds the
contents of register A and register B and stores result in register
A. The addition operation is performed by ALU. The ALU takes
inputs from register A and temporary data register. The contents
of register B are transferred to temporary data register for
applying second input to the ALU.
b) 'W and Z Registers
W and Z registers are temporary registers. These registers
are used to hold 8-bit data during execution pf some instructions.
These registers are not available for programmer, since 8085
uses them internally.
Use of W and Z Registers
The CALL instruction is used to transfer program control to
a subprogram or subroutine. This instruction pushes the current
PC contents onto the stack and loads the given address into the
PC. The given address is temporarily stored in the W and Z
registers and placed on the bus for the fetch cycle. Thus the
program control is transferred to the address given in the
instruction. XCHG instruction exchanges the contents of H with D
and L with E. At the time of exchange W and Z registers are used
for temporary storage of data.
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3. Special Purpose Registers
a) Register A (Accumulator)
It is a tri-state eight bit register. It is extensively used in
arithmetic, logic, load, and store operations, as well as in,
input/output (1/0) operations. Most of the times the result of
arithmetic and logical operations is stored in the register A. Hence
it is also identified as accumulator.
b) Flag Register
It is an 8-bit register, in which five of the bits carry significant
information in the form of flags: S (sign flag), Z (zero flag), AC
(auxiliary carry flag), P (parity flag) and CY (carry flag), as shown
in figure.

S-sign flag
After the execution of arithmetic or logical operations, if bit
D, of the result is 1, the Sign flag is set. In a given byte if D, is 1,
the number will be viewed as negative number. If D is 0, the
number will be considered as positive number.
The zero flag sets if the result of operation in ALU is zero and flag
resets if result is non zero. The zero flag is also set if a certain
register content becomes zero following an increment or
decrement operation of that register.

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AC-Auxiliary Carry Jag
This flag is set if there is an overflow out of bit 3, i.e., carry
from lower nibble to higher nibble (D, bit to D, bit). This flag is
used for BCD operations and it is not available for the
programmer.
P-Parity Flag
Parity is defined by the number of ones present in the
accumulator. After an arithmetic or logical operation if the result
has an even number of ones, i.e. even parity, the flag is set. If the
parity is odd, flag is reset.
CY-carry flag
This flag is set if there is an overflow out of bit 7. The carry
flag also serves as a borrow flag for subtraction. In both the
examples show below, the carry flag is set.

c) Instruction Register
In a typical processor operation, the processor first fetches
the opcode of instruction from memory (i.e. it places an address
on the address bus and memory responds by placing the data
stored at the specified address on the data bus).

65
 The CPU stores this opcode in a register called the
instruction register. This opcode is further sent to the instruction
decoder to select one of-the 256 alternatives.
4. Sixteen Bit Registers
a) Program Counter (PC)
Program is a sequence of instructions. As mentioned
earlier, microprocessor fetches these instructions from the
memory and executes them sequentially. The program counter is
a special purpose register which, at a given time, stores the
address of the next instruction to be fetched. Program counter
acts as a pointer to the next instruction.
How processor increments program counter depends on the
nature of the instruction; for one byte instruction it increments
program counter by one, for two byte instruction it increments
program counter by two and for three byte instruction it
increments program counter by three such that program counter
always points to the address of the next instruction.
In case of JUMP and CALL instructions, address followed by
JUMP and CALL instructions is placed in the program counter.
The processor then fetches the next instruction from the new
address specified by JUMP or CALL instruction. In conditional
JUMP and conditional CALL instructions, if the condition is not
satisfied, the processor increments program counter by three so
that it points the instruction followed by conditional JUMP or CALL
instruction; otherwise processor fetches the next instruction from
the new address specified by JUMP or CALL instruction.
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b) Stack Pointer (SP)
The stack is a reserved area of the memory in the RAM
where temporary information may be stored. A 16-bit stack
pointer is used to hold the address of the most recent stack entry.

ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT (ALU)

The 8085'sALU performs arithmetic and logical functions on
eight bit variables. The arithmetic unit bitwise fundamental
arithmetic operations such as addition
and subtraction. The logic unit performs logical operations such
as complement, AND, OR and EX-OR, as well as rotate and
clear. The ALU also looks after the branching decisions.
Instruction Decoder
As mentioned earlier, the processor first fetches the opcode
of instruction from memory and stores this opcode in the
instruction register. It is then sent to the instruction decoder. The
instruction decoder decodes it and accordingly gives the timing
and control signals which control the register, the data buffers,
ALU and external peripheral signals (explained in later sections)
depending on the nature of the instruction.
The 8085 executes seven different types of machine cycles.
It gives the information about which machine cycle is currently

67
executing in the encoded form on the So, S, and 10 IM lines. This
task is done by machine cycle encoder.

Address Buffer
This is a 8-bit unidirectional buffer. It is used to drive
external high order address bus (A15, -A8,). It is also used to tri-
state the high order address bus under certain conditions such as
reset, hold, and halt and when address lines are not in use.
Address/Data Buffer
This is an 8-bit bi-directional buffer. It is used to drive
multiplexed address/data bus, i.e., low order address bus (A7,
-A0,) and data bus (D7, - Do). It is also used to tristate the
multiplexed address/data bus under certain conditions such as
reset, hold, and halt and when the bus is not in use.
The address and data buffers are used to drive external address
and data buses respectively. Due to these buffers the address
and data buses can be tri-stated when they are not in use.
Incrementer/Decrementer Address Latch
This 16-bit register is used to increment or decrement
the contents of program counter or stack pointer as a part of
execution of instructions related to them.
Interrupt Control
The processor fetches, decodes and executes instructions
in a sequence. Sometimes it is necessary to have processor the
automatically execute one of a collection of special routines
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whenever special condition exists within a program or the
microcomputer system. The most important thing is that, after
execution of the special routine, the program control must be
transferred to the program which processor was executing before
the occurrence of the special condition. The occurrence of this
special condition is referred as interrupt. The interrupt control
block has five interrupt inputs RST 5.5, RST 6.5, RST 7.5, TRAP
and INTR and one acknowledge signal INTA.
Serial I/0 Control
In situations like, data transmission over long distance and
communication with cassette tapes or a CRT terminal, it is
necessary to transmit data bit by bit to reduce the cost of cabling.
In serial communication one bit is transferred at a time over a
signal line. The 8085's serial I/0 controls provide two lines, SOD
and SID for serial communication. The serial output data (SOD)
line is used.
Timing and Control Circuitry
The control circuitry in processor 8085 is responsible for all
the operations. The control circuitry and hence the operations in
8085 are synchronized with the help of clock signal. Along with
the control of fetching and decoding operations and generating
appropriate signals for instruction execution, control circuitry also
generates signals required to interface external devices to the
processor, 8085.
Pin Configuration of 8085

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 Figure shows 8085 pin configuration and functional pin
diagram of 8085 respectively. The signals of 8085 can be
classified into seven groups according to their functions.
a) Power supply and frequency signals.
b) Data bus and address bus
c) Control bus.
d) Interrupt signals.
e) Serial L/O signals
f) DMA signals.
g) Reset signals.

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