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Principles of Accounting
A complete comprehensive guide for o-level accounting.

NAVEED AKRAM
Ex Institutes: Aitchison College & NGS Recent Institutes: LACAS & LGS

Title: Principles of Accounting O Levels Notes

Author: Sir Naveed Akram

Published by: www.o-alevel.com Distributed by: www.o-alevel.com

All Rights Reserved No part of this book can be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior permission of the publisher www.o-alevel.com
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Basic Definitions
Capital: Initial and subsequent investment with which the business is started and expanded respectively Example: Mr. A started a business with $50,000 and after two years a further amount of $80,000 was injected into the business for expansion. So $50,000 is the initial investment and $80,000 subsequent investment, both are capital so capital for Mr. A would be $130,000. Separate Entity Concept: Its states that the affairs of the business are to be treated as being quite separate from the non business activities of the owner. In short owner starts the business, works for the business but still cannot use business money/goods for his/her personal purposes, if he/she does it, these are said to be drawings. The benefit of the owner is the profit that he/she earns from the business and the amount of salary that he/she takes for working for the business. Drawings: Amounts or goods taken by the owner/proprietor for his/her personal use Assets: Things owned by a business are known as assets There are two types of assets 1. Non Current Assets / Fixed Assets 2. Current Assets Non Current Assets / Fixed Assets: Non Current Assets have a life of more than one year. Examples Premises Land & Building Motor Vehicles Fixtures & Fittings Office Equipment Plant & Machinery etc etc, Current Assets Current Assets have a life of less than a year Examples: Stock / Inventories (Unsold Goods are known as Inventories) Trade Receivables (Who owe money to the business) Other Receivables / Prepaid Expenses Cash at Bank Cash in hand Liabilities Amounts payable by the business There are two types of liabilities 1. Current Liabilities 2. Long term Liabilities / Non Current Liabilities (www.o-alevel.co.cc) Page 4

Now if we write the bank figure in a trial balance it would appear on the debit side of the trial balance because balance b/d is on the debit side

Trial Balance As at 31 December 20X8 DR ($) 9,000 CR ($)

Bank

After a trial balance has been extracted next step is to make an Income Statement for the year ended 31 December, 20X8. An Income Statement is made to calculate profit on trading i.e., Gross Profit and then the overall profit of the business i.e., Net Profit. Gross Profit = Revenue Cost of Sales Cost of Sales = Opening Inventory + Raw Materials (Purchases) Closing Inventory Net Profit = Gross Profit Operating Expenses Now if we plot these formulas in a format, it would be Income Statement For the year ended 31 December, 20X8 (this date / year is assumed, in questions it will be the date / year given) $ $ $ Revenue XXXX Less Return Inwards (XXX) XXXX Less Cost of Sales Opening Inventory Add Raw Materials / Purchases Less Closing Inventory Gross Profit Less Operating Expenses: Rent Insurance Utility Bills Wages & Salaries Motor Expenses Repair & Maintenance etc etc. Net Profit / Net Loss

XXXX XXXX

XXXX (XXX)

(XXX) XXXX

XXXX XXXX XXXX XXXX XXXX XXXX

(XXX) XXXX =====

Note: Net Loss Would be a Negative Figure i.e, if we subtract Operating Expenses from Gross Profit, and the answer is a negative figure, it would be Net Loss

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Books of Original / Prime Entries

There are six books of prime / original entries which have to be maintained by the businesses if they wish to keep their accounting records up to date and informative. These books are: 1. Sales Day Book / Sales Journal 2. Purchases Day Book / Purchases day book 3. Return Inwards Day Book / Sales Returns day book / Return Inwards Journal 4. Return Outwards Day Book / Purchases Returns Day book / Return Outwards Journal 5. Cash Book 6. General Journal / The Journal What Transactions are recorded in these books individually Sales Day Book : Only Credit Sales transactions are included in Sales Day Book Purchases Day Book : Only Credit Purchases transactions are included in Purchases Day Book Sales Returns Day Book : Only Credit Sales returns transactions are included in Sales Return Day Book Purchases Returns Day Book : Only Credit Purchases returns transactions are included in Purchases Returns Day Book Cash Book (Three Column) Cash Sales, Cash Purchases, Expenses Paid in Cash or by Cheque, Incomes received in Cash or by cheque in short All Receipts and all Payments both in Cash or by Cheque General Journal / The Journal Non Current Assets bought on credit, Non Current Assets Sold on Credit, Entries for recording Bad Debts, Provision for Bad Debts, Depreciation, Provision for Depreciation, All Rectifying Entries and All Opening & Closing Entries are recorded in General Journal

Formats

Sales Day Book / Sales Journal ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Date Details / Description Amount ($) ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Debtor (Accounts Receivables) A Debtor (Accounts Receivables) B Debtor (Accounts Receivables) C

-------------------Total ============ Note: Only names of the debtors are written in Sales Day Book

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Types of Expenses (From payment point of View)

1. Def. Services have been taken but the amount has not yet been paid. Accrued Expenses (Closing Balance) Treatment (Method 1) Profit & Loss Account Added in the relevant expense Balance Sheet Shown as a Current Liability Accrued Expenses (Opening Balance) Treatment (Method 1) Profit & Loss Account Subtracted from the relevant expense Balance Sheet Shown as a Current Liability 2. Def. Services have not yet been taken but the amount has been paid in advance. Prepaid Expenses (Closing Balance) Treatment (Method 1) Profit & Loss Account Subtracted from the relevant expense Balance Sheet Shown as a Current Asset Prepaid Expenses (Opening Balance) Treatment (Method 1) Profit & Loss Account Added in the relevant expense Balance Sheet Shown as a Current Asset Method 2 (by making a T Account) Accrued Expenses are a Current Liability and Current liability opening balance is always placed on the Credit side of the T Account and Closing balance is placed on the Debit side of the T Account Prepaid Expenses are Current Assets and Current Assets opening balance is always placed on the Debit side of the T Account and Closing balance is placed on the Credit side of the T Account DR Side Expenses Account CR Side -------------------------------------------------------------------------------$ $ Prepaid b/d Accrued b/d Cash / Bank (exp. paid) Accrued c/d --------===== (www.o-alevel.co.cc) Profit & Loss (bal. fig.) Prepaid c/d --------===== Page 27 Prepaid / Paid in Advance Expenses Accrued / Outstanding / Owing / due / unpaid / payable / provided for Expenses

Bank Reconciliation Statement (a subsidiary book)

It is a statement made by the business to match the bank balance according to the bank statement with the balance of Bank as per cash book (Bank Column). It is only made when the bank balances according to bank statement and cash book dont agree. Bank statement: It is a statement made by the bank which shows the amounts deposited and amount withdrawn by the business. A bank statement has a DR column, a CR column and a Balance Column. The amount that the business deposits in the bank is an asset for the business and is written on the DR side of the cash book (bank column) but at the same time that amount deposited in the bank by the business is a liability for bank and bank would be this deposited amount of the CR side of the bank statement as bank`s liability would increase. Any amounts withdrawn by the business out of the bank account would be written on the CR side of the cash book as business asset would decrease, and the same amounts would be written on the DR side of the bank statement as bank`s liability would decrease. Format of a Bank statement Date Details DR ($) Withdrawals by The business CR ($) Deposits by the business Balance ($)

Reasons why Bank Statement balance differs from that of balance of bank in Cash book (bank Column) 1. Un presented Cheques Cheques issued to creditors, entered on the CR side of the cash book (bank column) but dont appear on the DR side of the bank statement because the creditors, to whom cheques have been issued didnt present the cheques at the counter of the bank. So Cash balance would decrease and bank statement balance would not decrease resulting in a difference. These cheques are always DEBITED 2. Un Credited Cheques Cheques received from debtors, entered on the DR side of the cash book (bank column) but dont appear on the CR side of the bank statement because funds havent been collected by our bank from the debtors bank. So Cash balance would increase and bank statement balance would not increase resulting in a difference. These cheques are always CREDITED 3. Direct Debit Bank deducts directly amounts from the business account e.g., Bank charges and business is not informed so bank statement balance is decreased by the amount of charges and cash book (bank column) bank balance remains unchanged resulting in a difference 4. Standing Order In writing instructions have been given to the bank to pay on business behalf by taking amount directly. So when bank pays on business behalf, bank statement shows a decreased balance and because this amount has not been subtracted from the cash book, cash book (bank column) remains the same, resulting in a difference (www.o-alevel.co.cc) Page 30

5. Direct Credit / Credit transfer A customer deposits directly in business`s bank account or a refund is received directly by a creditor due to overpayment, so bank statement shows an increased balance and cash book balance remains the same resulting in a difference Note: Un presented Cheques and Un Credited Cheques are treated in Bank Reconciliation Statement Direct Debit, Standing Order and Direct Credit are treated in Adjusted / Updated Cash Book. While solving a question on Bank Reconciliation Statement, first and adjusted cash book is made and then a bank reconciliation statement is made. Format of an adjusted Cash book DR Side Adjusted Cash Book CR Side -------------------------------------------------------------------------------$ $ Balance b/d (balance as per old cash book) Standing Order Direct Credit Direct Debit Balance c/d --------===== Format of a Bank Reconciliation Statement As on Balance as per adjusted cash book (DR) if c/d is on the CR side of adj. c / b Un Presented Cheques Un Credited Cheques (DR) / + (CR) / --------===== $ ---------------=========

Balance as per Bank statement (Opposite to the balance according to cash book)

Note: If the resultant balance (answer) of BRS is DR, it would be written as a CR in front of balance as per bank statement and vice versa. Format of a Bank Reconciliation Statement As on Balance as per adjusted cash book (CR) if c/d is on the DR side of adj. c / b Un Presented Cheques Un Credited Cheques (DR) / (CR) / +

$ -------------

Balance as per Bank statement (Opposite to the balance according to cash book)

---========= Note: If the resultant balance (answer) of BRS is CR, it would be written as a DR in front of balance as per bank statement and vice versa. (www.o-alevel.co.cc) Page 31

Accounting Conventions / Accounting Concepts / Accounting Principles

Principle of Prudence: Anticipated gains shouldnt be recorded and anticipated losses should be recorded OR Incomes and assets shouldnt be overstated e.g., Provision for Bad debts, Depreciation etc If provision for bad debts and depreciation are not recorded, expenses are understated and profit / income is overstated. In the same way, both provision for bad debts and depreciation are subtracted from the assets, if not recorded, these wouldnt be subtracted from the assets so assets are overstated Historical Cost Concept Assets are normally shown at their (cost of purchase + all capital expenditures) in the financial statements. And not at their revalued amounts. Accumulated depreciation is deducted to arrive at the NBV Principle of Going Concern Financial statements are drafted on an assumption that the business is going concern i.e., business would continue for a force able future period. That is the business would continue for the next 4 to 5 years. If the business is not going concern i.e., it is expected that the business would be wound up / shut down or a larger portion of the business is expected to shut down in the near future, historical cost concept doesnt hold. Now the assets are no longer shown in the financial statements at their cost of purchase rather assets are shown at their fair value / market value in the financial statements Money Measurement Concept Only those items / transactions should be recorded in the financial statements which have a monetary value. The items / transactions which dont have a monetary value are not recorded in the financial statements. E.g., Expert and trained employees are considered to be an asset for the business but as no monetary value can be placed on them so expert and trained employees are not recorded in the financial statements Moreover, accounting can never tell everything about a business e.g., Whether the business has good or bad managers Whether there are serious problems with the work force Whether a rival product is about to take away many of the best customers Whether the Government is about to pass a law which will cost the business a lot of extra expense in future. Business Entity Concept Affairs of the business are to be treated as being quite separate from the non business activities of its owners. OR Owners and business are treated as two different things, though everything is managed by the owner, owner does everything for the progress of the business but still owner cannot use the business money for his / her personal purposes. If the owners do so such amount would be treated as Drawings Drawings reduce the Capital.

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Principles of Accounting

A complete comprehensive guide for o-level accounting.

This book covers all the O-Level Accounting syllabus for May-June 2011.

About the Author: Sir. Naveed Akram has been teaching accounting in Lahore for the last many years and known for his excellent teaching style. He has thaught in Aitchison College and National Grammar School (NGS). Now a days the author is teaching O & A Levels in Lahore Grammar School (LGS) and LACAS.

No part of this book can be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior permission of the publisher (www.o-alevel.co.cc). (www.o-alevel.co.cc) Page 63