Constructing a Free-Body Diagram A ropes lifting a heavy bucket. The speed of the bucket is increasing. How can the forces on the bucket be related to the change in speed? " vy * Choose a coordinate system 1 defining the positive direction ind * of the velocity + Locate every point at which the | 3 contact with 4 environment touches the system. Eanel . ~ environment le * Draw a motion diagram including | i ] the velocity and acceleration. The | \ bucket is moving upward, so the || segin + direction of v is upward. The i iF speed is increasing so the direc aes tion of a is upward. Indicate aol “begin” and ‘end. * Draw the free-body diagram. Replace the bucket by a dot and draw arrows to represent Fr (rope on bucket) 494 Fe (rants mass on bucket), ** Velocity is increasing in the upward direction, so acceleration is upward ‘+ According to Newton's second law, F,., and a are in the same direction, ‘© Therefore, vector addition of the positive Fy and the negative F, results in a positive Fye, ‘© Draw an arrow showing F, For each problem, draw a motion diagram and a free-body diagram labeling all forces with their agents and indicating the direction of the acceleration and the net force. Draw arrows the appropriate lengths, 7. A sky diver falls downward through the air at constant velocity (air drag is important) 8. A cable pulls a crate at constant speed across a horizontal surface (there is friction), 9. A rope lifts a bucket upward at constant speed (ignore air drag). 10. A rope lowers a bucket at constant speed (ignore air drag) 11. A rocket blasts off and its vertical velocity increases with time (ignore air drag) 124 ForcesSertia Newton's first law is often called the law of inertia. Inertia is Se tendency of an object to resist change. If an object is at rest, it tends in at rest. If itis moving at a constant velocity, it tends to con: Seoe moving at that velocity Equilibrium If the net force on an object is zero, then the object is in Seelibrium, An object is in equilibrium if itis at rest or if it is moving stant velocity. Note that being at rest is just a special case of con- velocity. Newton's first law identifies a net force as something that Seeurbs a state of equilibrium. That means that a net force changes the ity of an object. Thus, change in velocity, or acceleration, is the of a net force acting on an object, The physical model: Free-body diagrams Because the net force on = object causes the acceleration of the object, it is important to know 10 find the net force. The net force is the sum of all the forces on an ject. Table 6-2 will help you identify some common types of forces. = Ina tug-of-war, predict how the force you exert on your end of the rope compares to the force your opponent exerts if you pull ‘and your opponent just holds the tend of the rope. Preict how the forces compare ifthe rope ‘moves in your direction. Try Analyze and Conclude What did you notice about the forces? What happened when you started to move your ‘opponent in your direction? ‘Some Types of Forces Definition The contact force that acts to oppose sliding motion between surfaces : = The contact force exerted by @ surface ‘on an object Direction Parallel to the surface and opposite the direction of siding Perpendicular to and away from the surface Spring A restoring force, that is, the push or pull spring exerts on an object Opposite the displacement of the object at the end of the spring The pull exerted by a string, rope, oF cable when attached to a body and pulled taut ‘Away from the object and parallel to the string, rope, or cable at the point of attachment Thrust Weight Ki A general term for the forces that move objects such as rockets, planes, cars, and people In the same direction as the ‘acceleration of the object barring any resistive forces ‘A long-range force due to gravitational attraction between two objects, ‘generally Earth and an object Straight down toward the center of Earth 6.1 Force and Motion 123 malPairs Description FON) Force of gravity fon coin (nickel) 0.05 Force of gravity fon 1b sugar 45 Force of gravity fon 150-Ib | person oe | Force accelera- ting @ car 3000 Force of a rocket motor 5.000.000 HELP WANTED PHYSICS TEACHER To qualify, you must enjoy science and math and be skilled in explain- ing technical concepts clearly. You must be able to tailor your explana- tions and demonstrations to individual student's needs. The position requires a bachelor’s degree in physics, chem- istry, biology, math, or a related area. You may be required to teach any of these courses in addition to physics. Knowledge of computers is vital. A mas- ter's degree in education or administration is a plus. For more informa- tion, contact American Association of Physics Teachers ‘One Physics Ellipse College Park, MD 20740-3845 Of 122 Forces Before trying the strategy, you need to know how to measure the force. One unit of force causes a 1-kg mass to accelerate at 1 m/s? Because force is equal to mass times acceleration, F = ma, one force unit has the dimensions 1 kg-m/s?. The unit of force, in the SI system, is the newton, N. Table 6-1 shows some typical forces. Perle eed 2. Two horizontal forces, 225 N and 165 N, are exerted in the same direction on a crate. Find the net horizontal force on the crate. 3. If the same two forces are exerted in opposite directions, what is the net horizontal force on the crate? Be sure to indicate the direction of the net force 4, The 225-N force is exerted on the crate toward the north and the 165-N force is e ast. Find the magnitude and direction of the net force. 5. Your hand exerts a 6.5-N upward force on a pound of sugar. considering the force of gravity on the sugar, what is the net force on the sugar? Give the magnitude and direction. 6. Calculate the force you exert as you stand on the floor (Ib = 0.454 kg). Is the force the same if you lie on the floor? ted toward the What is the motion of an object with no net force on it? Think of ball rolling on a surface. How long will the ball continue to roll? That depends on the quality of the surface. If you roll it on thick carpet or sof sand, it will quickly come to rest. If you roll it on a surface that is haré and smooth, stch as a bowling alley, the ball will roll for a long time with little change in velocity. You could imagine that if all friction were eliminated, the ball might roll at the same velocity forever. Galileo di¢ ‘many experiments on the motion of balls on very smooth surfaces. He concluded that in the ideal case, horizontal motion was eternal: it would never stop. Galileo was the first to recognize that the general principles of motion could be found only by extrapolating experimen. tal results to the ideal case, in which there is no friction or other dra force. Newton generalized Galileo's results to motion in any direction. He stated, “An object that is at rest will remain at rest or an object that is moving will continue to move in a straight line with constant speed, i and only if the net force acting on that object is zero.” This statement is called Newton's first law of motionForce on 0 TZ 6 Acceleration ems?) Combining forces What if two or more rubber bands exert forces on art? They could actin the same direction, in opposite directions, or ections at an angle to one another. In Figure 6-4, the carts are rep- sented by dots, and the forces operating on each dot (cart) are drawn ne direction of the force with their tails on the dot. This is called a See-body diagram. Because forces are vectors, the total force on an object is the vector n of al forces exerted on the object. You have learned how to add ve cs and find the resultant as shown in Figure 6=4. The vector sum of or mote forces on an object is called the net force. Experi we that the acceleration of an object is proportional to the net force ents sted on the object and inversely proportional to the mass of the ject being accelerated. This is a statement of Newton's second law, ich can be written as an equation. F, m Newton's Second Law a iere is a strategy for finding how the motion of an object depends the forces exerted on the object. First, identify all the forces on the bject. Draw a free-body diagram showing the direction and relative magnitude of each force acting on the system. Then, add the force vec s to find the net force. Next, use Newton's second law to calculate the Jeration. Finally, use kinematics to find the velocity and position of 2 object. You learned about kinematics in Chapters 3, 4, and 5 when studied the motion of objects without regard for the causes of motion. You now know that an unbalanced force is the cause of a ange in velocity. ; f 5 4 h 7 = e FIGURE 6-3 The graph in a shows that asthe force increases, 0 does the acceleration. In b you can see that the s pe of the force-acceleration graph depends ‘upon the number of carts. FIGURE 6-4 The net force the vector sum of F, and F, 6.1 Force and Motion 121Cart Pulled by Stretched Rubber Band (1 em) 050 100 1,50 200 Time () FIGURE 6-2 The constant slope of the line indicates that he acceleration of the cart is constant. The cart used inthis experiment is shown in . Its designed to minimize friction ‘Small insects have very it | mass, but the ratio ofthe surface areas oftheir bod- _les to their mass (surface- to-mass ratio) is large, When they are in free fal "their bodies act like para- chutes quickly reaching a “terminal velocity of only a few cm/s. An ant falling from a 50-story building will walk away unharmed alter iting the sidewalk. tote y 250 3.00 3.50 400 ‘The graph in Figure 6~2a shows some typical data taken when a rub- ber band, stretched a constant 1 cm, was used to pull the low-friction cart shown in Figure 6-2b. Notice that the velocity-time graph is linear so the cart’s acceleration is constant. You can determine the acceleration by calculating the slope of the line. What is it? How does acceleration depend upon the force? You could repeat the experiment, this time with the rubber band stretched to a constant 2 cm, and then repeat it again with the rubber band stretched longer and longer. For each experiment, you could determine the accel eration from a velocity-time graph like the one in Figure 6-2, and then plot the accelerations for all the trials, as shown in Figure 6-3a. Note that this is a force-acceleration graph, and that the acceleration, a, and force, F, are proportional. The larger the force, the greater the accelera: tion. A linear relationship that goes through the origin, is represented by the equation F = ka, where iis the slope of the line. How does acceleration depend upon the object? This exper. ment shows that the acceleration of an object is proportional to the net force exerted on it. What happens if the object changes? Suppose that second cart is placed on top of the first, and then a third cart is added. The rubber band would be pulling two carts, then three. A plot of the force versus the acceleration for one, two, and three carts, is shown in Figure 6-3b, The graph shows that for an equal force, the acceleration of two carts is 1/2 the acceleration of one, and the acceleration of three carts is 1/3 the acceleration of one. This means that as the number of carts is increased, a greater force is needed to produce the same accelera- tion. The slopes of the lines in Figure 6-3b depend upon the number of ‘arts, or upon mass. If the mass is defined as the slope of the F-a graph, then, m = F/a, or F = maBal hanging from rope F onion book F cats mason bok F rosean a F eats mono Next, replace the object by a dot, that is, use the particle model. Each e is represented as a blue arrow that points in the correct direction. The length of the arrow is proportional to the size of the force. The tail he force vector is always on the particle, even when the force is a sesh. Finally, label the force. For now, use the symbol F with a subscript to identify both the agent and the object on which the force is exted. Figure 6-1 shows pictorial models of the three situations. Practice Problems 1. Draw pictorial models for the following situations. Circle each system. Draw the forces exerted on the system. Name the agent for each force acting on each system. a. a book held in your hand b. a book pushed across the desk by your hand ¢. a book pulled across the desk by a string 4. a book on a desk when your hand is pushing down on it €. a ball just afier the string that was holding it broke ow does an object move when one or more forces are exerted on se only way to find out is by doing experiments. Experiments are eas- se when the influences of gravity and friction can be avoided or mini- <10° km | = 3:78 x 109 day? (27.3 days? 6.15 X 10°? days = 88.6 min = (3.90 x 10° ky’ 7.96 x 1019 km? 4.30 % 108 km 10g) = 271x106 m [CSI Neg Ua 27x 0 m Vom, mg r= ; 597 x 18 s= a zou = «| OM, where here m is the mass of th Ve i = 1.0 x 104 kg total galaxy mass mass per star 10x 1g 59 5 101 2.0 x10 ig 1. number of sass = (6.67 10-1 N= mfg?) (1.0 X10" hg y 22x10 m 1.7 108 mjs = 6.1 % 108 kan Appendix C Solutions for Practice Problems 789in — gos 8 Mano, O=gsind - gicos eos = gin? sind | sine cos” cone aan, Ifa = 0, velocity would be the same as before. Beane ane ise = 405 0 mjs}(4.0 8) = 2.0% 10! m 1, = 5.0 m/s. This isthe same asthe initial hori zontal speed because the acceleration of gravity influences only the vertical motion, For the vert cal component, use = #9 + stith y=, and the initial vertical component of velocity zero At t=40s Y= gt= (9.80 mjs2)(4.0 5) = 39 m/s (@)_ no change: 4.05 (6) twice the previous distance: 40% 10m (0) doubles: 1.0 « 107 mys 1b change in uy 39 m/s (a) increases by 2, since = =? and y doubles: 57 s va (b) increases by 2, since t increases by 28m no change in uy: 5.0 m/s 4, Increase by 2, since t increases by Appendix Solutions for Practi ¥y€08 = (27.0 mjs) cos 30.0" = 23.4 m/s 1y = ty sin 8 = (27.0 m/s) sin 30.0 When itlands, y= yt - +g When ilands y= 5 3-g¢ ‘Therefore, a 2 _ 2003.5 mis w= 2765 9.80 m/s? Distance! Wl = (284 mjs)(276s) = 64.6 m Maximum height occurs at half the “hang time,” o 1.38 6. Thus, 1 (13.5 m/s)(1.38 s) = 4 (49.80 mys2)(1.38 5)? = 18.6 m- 9.33 m=9.27m 3. Following the method of Practice Problem 5, = #96088 = (27.0 mys) cos 60.0" = 13.5 m =p sin #= (27.0 mis) sin 60.0" = 23.4 mis 2% _ 2003.4 m/s = 980 mis? Distance ' 478s = (135 m/sy(4.78 5) = 645 m Maximum height: eben au=dares = (23.4.mys)(2.39 9) ~ 4 (29.80 m/#)(2.39 5} 9m Since rand remain the same v= 2% and a T : remain the same. The new value of the mas i nm, = 2m,. The new force is F,= ma 2ma~ 2F,, double the original fo The new radius ier; = 2r, so the new velocity 2er, 9 wy twice the original velocity, The new acceleration au ee neice the original. The new force is F, = ma, = m(2a,) twice the originaltein the method of ddl by coiponerna Ti fat nesta aes Caleomponents, co y= (62 N) cos 30" = 54 aes sin 6, = (62 N) sin 30° = 31.N rene Fp Fy cos 8 = (628) cos oF = 31 A cos 0, = (36 8) cos a5" = -25 Far= Fy sin = (62N) sin 60" =54N A this point the two original vectors have been replaced by four components, vectors that are much easier o add. The horizontal and vertical “25N4+34N=9N components ofthe resultant vector are found by simple addition + yy = 54N + 31.N-= 85 N MN +S4N=85N 60x 10'N tn 0.153 @ 279 0X 101 Nat z Fe= 60x 10!N 9g = 279° — 180° = 99° F _smgsing Ze sin 6 ="(49.80 m/s"\(sin 30.0°) Papen = 4.90 m/s? ‘Te magnitude and direction ofthe resultant vec tot a= (4.90 ms2)(4.005) = 19.6 mys tor are found bythe sual method. Fao (Fan)? + (Fay)? VlesNjE+ (@5N}?= 120N 62 kg)(9.80 mys*)(0.60) = 3.6 x 102 N = mgcos@ asN = (62 kg)(9.80 mjs?)(0.80) = 4.9 x 10 . 7, Since a = g(sin @ ~ 1 cos 8) Fy = 120 Natas' 4 = 9,80 m/s*(0.50 ~ (0.15)(0.866)) = 4.0 mys? Appendix C Solutions for Practice Problems 787Frau sho eet VF vt t Fea meso 12, a. Scale teads 585 N. Since ther is no acceleration your force equals the downward force of gravity Mass 5. a. Mass = 75 hg B. Slows while mo 18 UP OF speeds up while le mig +a) = 075 ')9.800 =59%102N Slows while moving up or speeds up while moving down, Faale™ (3+ 8) g)(9.80 mys? ~ 2.0 mt) =59%102N 4. Fe = 74 x 10°N © Depends on the magnitude ofthe acceleration Fy mg = 52.N Since the speed is constant, the friction foree equals force exerted by the boy, 36 N, But RK GN) At constant speed, applied force equal fiction Fe why = (0.12)(52 N + 650 N) = 84N . The inital velocity is 1.0 m/s, the final velocity 2.0 mjs, and the acceleration 2.0 m/s Lom) ~ oms 786 Appendix C Solutions for Practice Problems Fora pendulum = (0.80 mys?) J 248 @e18) This i over 75 feet long! The force of your hand on the ball the gravitation force of Earth’s mass on the bal. The force of the ball on your hand, the gravitational force of the ball’ mass on Farth. ‘The fore of your feet on Earth the force of Earth on your fet. The backwatd (friction) and upward (nonnal) force ‘of the road on the tres and the gravitational fore of Earth's mass on the car. The forward (friction) and the downward force ofthe tres on the road and tl fravitational force of the car's mass on Earth. Chapter 7 168. Fx sin 42° ~ 126N ON (GON? + GON} 60) y= 270" +0, = 3 Fy 1.0 x 101 N at 310 Fy, = 10x 101 N at 10° — 180° = 130°Fang onseok Fes massenok 4 Fao ook Fd on book | Fears masson bok 225 N+ 165 N =3.90 x 10?N in the direction of the two forces. 225 N- 165 N = 6.0 10! in the direction of the larger force. |. Magnitude and direction 0 = 537° NofE . The downward force is one pound, or 4.5 N, The force is, 65N~45N=20N upward 6. F= mg = (0.454 kglb)(9.80 m/s lie on the floor Same force ify Fasten ie Freon Fra Feces cme I in Feats neon bch Appendix C Solutions for Practice Problems 45 Nib 7854.5 m/s ~ (23.0 mis a 255 0.0 m/s ~ 25.0 m/s ot 308 =3.0m/st 20.4. = 83 mst bi. Half.as great (-4.2 m/s?) 2L a. 510 15 sand 21 1028s b. 0106s 6.1510 205; 2810 405 22a, 2s? b.-1ms? © Ooms? 23, a. v= ty + a= 20 m/s + (-0.50 m/s?)(2.0s) =Lom/s p + at = 2.0 ms + (-0.50 mjs?)(6.0 5) = 10 ms «The ball’ velocity simply decreased in the fest case. Inthe second case the ball slowed to a stop and then began rolling back down the hil Teas eee we 2nd case: "+ eo) 24, a= (3.5 m/s2)(1 km/1000 m)(3600 s/h) = 12.6 (km/s = Yo + at = 30.0 km/h + (12.6(kzn/h}/8)(6.8 5) = 30.0 km/h + 86 km/h = 116 km/h = 222) 75 m= 0.04 m/s 784 Appendix C Solutions for Practice Problems 30.08) + 5 (3.00 m/s4)(30.0 5)? 0m +1350 m= 1.35 X 10° m 0 m/s + (3.00 mjs?)(30.0 5) O mys + (-9.80 m/s2)(4.0 ) m/s (downward) =0+1(-940mny(4059 (-9.80 m/s?)(16 s?) aan and, atthe maximum height, = 0, 80 So, itis inthe al for 4.6 s. To show thatthe to rie equals the time to fall, when d = dy gives»? = i or y Now, using y= Where, forthe fall, y= O and v = -¥y we aet 33. Given vy = 65.0 mys, v= 162.0 m/s and t= 10.0 and needing d we use a= 4.+1 (+0 ord = 4 (65.0 m/s + 162.0 m/s)(10.0 s) 1 14% 10% m Chapter 6 i Fsnton bot Fears mas onto‘a. Which components of force(s) increase when the angle increases? b. Which components of force(s) decreas Section 72 7. Consider the trajectory of the ball shown in Figure 7-15. a. Whereis the magnitude of the vertical-velocity component greatest? b. Where is the magnitude of the horizontal velocity component largest? . Where is the vertical velocity smallest? 4. Where is the acceleration smallest? ic FIGURE 7-15 8. A student is playing with a radio-controlled race car on the balcony of a sixth-floor apart ment. An accidental turn sends the car through the railing and over the edge of the balcony. Does the time it takes the car to fall depend upon the speed it had when it left the balcony? An airplane pilot flying at constant velocity and altitude drops a heavy crate. Ignoring air resis- tance, where will the plane be relative to the crate when the crate hits the ground? Draw the path of the crate as seen from an observer on the ground. Section 73 10, Can you go around a curve a. with zero acceleration? Explain . with constant acceleration? Explain. 11. To obtain uniform circular motion, how must the net force depend on the speed of the moving object? If you whirl a yo-yo about your head in a hori zontal circle, in what direction must a force act on the yo-yo? What exerts the force? In general, a long-handled wrench removes a stuck bolt more easily than a short-handled wrench does. Explain. 9, 2. 13. 14, If you are pushing a lawnmower across the grass, ‘can you increase the horizontal component of the force you exert on the mower without increasing the magnitude of the force? Explain. 170 Forces and Motion in Two Dimensions 15. 16. 17. 18. 20. ai 22. The transmitting tower of a TV station is held upright by guy wires that extend from the top of the tower to the ground. The force along the ‘guy wires can be resolved into two perpendicu: lar components. Which one is larger? ‘When stretching a tennis net between two Post, itis relatively easy to pull one end of the net hard enough to remove most of the slack, but you need a winch to take the last slack out of the net to make the top almost completely horizontal. Why is this true? The weight of a book on an inclined plane can be resolved into two vector components, one along the plane, the other perpendicular to it a. At what angle are the components equal? b. At what angle is the parallel component equal to zero? ¢. At what angle is the parallel component equal to the weight? Review projectile motion. Analyze how the hor izontal motion can be uniform, while the vert cal motion is accelerated. Critique projectile ‘motion equations presented in this book when drag due to air is taken into consideration. ). A batter hits a pop-up straight up over home plate at an initial velocity of 20 m/s. The ball is ‘aught by the catcher at the same height that it ‘was hit. At what velocity does the ball land in the catcher’s mitt? Neglect air resistance. In baseball, a fastball takes about 1/2 s to reach the plate. Assuming that such a pitch is thrown horizontally, compare the distance the ball falls in the first 1/4 s with the distance it falls in the second 1/4. You throw a rock horizontally. In a second throw, you gave it even more speed a. How would the time it took to hit the aground be affected? Neglect air resistance. b. How would the increased speed affect the istance from the edge of the cliff to where the stone hit the ground? A zoologist standing on a cliff aims a tranquil- izer gun at a monkey hanging from a distant ttee branch. The barrel of the gun is horizont Just as the zoologist pulls the trigger, the mon key lets go and begins to fall. Will the dart hit the monkey? Neglect air resistance.ject little tating \inges This cep \e per ch the rque. sp the direc yu use led tc there large ragni lever arthe lance triple CHAPTER J REVIEW 7.1 Forces in Two Dimensions ‘+ The force that must be exerted on an. object in order to put it in equilibrium 2 is called the equilibrant. * ‘The equilibrant is found by finding the a ‘sum of all forces on an object, then 2 applying a force with the same magni: ojectle tude but opposite direction a: + An object on an indined plane has a = a direction parallel to the plane; the Component can accelerate the objec ” down the plane. ght time 7.2 Projectile Motion * ‘The vertical and horizontal motions ofa projectile are independent. * Projectile problems are solved by first ntripetal using the vertical motion to relate beleration height, time in the air, and initial ripetal vertical velocity. Then the range, the gid rotating emt distance tra eled horizon tally, is found. * The range of a projectile depends upon the accelera- tion due to gravity and upon both components of the initial velocity 73 Circular Motion * An object moving in a circle a speed is accelerating toward the center of the circle (centripetal acceleration) * Centripetal acceleration depends directly con the square of the object's speed and inversely on the radius of the circle * A force must be exerted in the centripetal direction to cause that acceleration. * The torque that changes the velocity of circular motion is proportional to the force applied and the lever arm. Section 7.1 1. Explain how you would set up a coor- dinate system for motion on a bill 2. Ifyour textbook is in equilibrium, what can you say about the forces acting on it? 3. Can an object in equilibrium be ‘moving? Explain. 4, What is the sum of three vectors that, when placed tip (0 tail, form a trian- gle? If these vectors represent forces (on an object, what does this imply about the object? 5, You are asked to analyze the motion of a book placed on a sloping table. a. Describe the best coordinate sys- tem for analyzing the motion. b, How are the components of the weight of the book related to the angle of the table? 6. For the book on the sloping table, describe what happens to the cc nent of the weight force along the table and the friction force on the book as you increase the angle the able makes with the horizontal. po: Chapter 7 Review 169door ae rotating objects. An ordinary door i also a rigid rotating object slthough it usually rotates only through a portion of a circle. How do you make a door rotate about its axis of rotation, which is hinges? You exert a force. But where? Pushing on the hinges has Uitte effect, but pushing as far from them as possible starts the door rotati easly. In what direction should you push? Perpendicular to the door effective; pushing toward the hinges is not To open the doot most easily, you push at a distance from the hingss (axis of rotation) and in a direction perpendicular to the door This information about distance and direction is combined in one cones talled the lever arm. The lever arm in Figure 7-14 is defined as the pes pendicular distance from the axis of rotation to a line along which the force acts. The product of the force and the lever arm is called torques The greater the torque, the greater the change in rotational motion Thus, torque plays the role of force for rotational motion. ‘Torque can stop, start, or change the direction of rotation. To stop 1 door from opening, orto close it, you exer a force in the opposite dires tign, To start the lug nuts moving when you are changing a tire, you 088 a lug wrench to apply torque. Sometimes additional length is added these wrenches to increase the torque FIGURE 7-14 Torque is the product of the lever arm anc the applied force. A seesaw is another example of torque. Ifa seesaw is balanced, thea js no net torque. How, then, do two children, one small, the other Largs thanage to balance? Each child must exert a torque of the same magn tude but opposite in direction. Because torque is the product of the leas sem, d, and the weight of a child, mg, the smaller child must sit farthay from the axis of rotation, or the pivot point. The seesaw will balanes wwhen mgd, = mggdq. This concept is the basis forthe design of wD ppeam balances which you may have used in your science courses Section Review 4, What is the direction of the force that acts on the clothes in the spin cycle of a washing machine? What exerts the force? You are sitting on the back seat of a car that is going around a curve to the right. Sketch motion and free-body diagrams to answer the following questions. a. What is the direction of your acceleration? Forces and Motions in Two Dimensions b. What is the direction of the net force acting on you? ‘c. What exerts that force? itical Thinking Thanks to Earth's daily rotation, you always move with ‘uniform circular motion, What sup: plies the force that accelerates yout How does this motion affect your apparent weight?tion tion, anti tires Looping Roller Coasters How do roller coaster cars stay on the racks when they are upside down? The answer involves the speed of the cars, the hape of the loop, and the laws of physics that govern circular motion. Roller coaster cars try to move in a straight ne, but they are prevented from doing so by tracks which force them along a curving path. Wheels and tracks will remain in con- fact as long as the forward motion of the ars is great enough, and the curvature of the tracks is tight enough. ‘The curving tracks and the forward motion the cars combine to create centripetal accel- ‘ation directed toward the center of the curv- path. The magnitude of the acceleration is sely proportional to the radius of the cop. The smaller the radius, the greater the seleration. Forces associated with centripetal acceleration are measured in units of g. The greater the g force experienced by a roller Physics & Technology coaster rider, the heavier the rider feels. The smaller the g force, the lighter the rider feels. Most of the thrills of roller coaster riding result from constantly changing ¢ forces. Most roller coaster loops are shaped like a teardrop. The upper arc of th smaller radius of curvature and so the acceleration ai than at the bottom. The highe at the top helps maintain con: the wheels and the track. If the hi tion were maintained everywhere the riders would experience hig) than most people would find cor loop has a 1e lower arc op is greater Thinking Critically Describe how physics influences the careers of roller coaster designers. Which of Newton's laws of mo explains why the roller coaster car wi and the tracks stay in contact at the top of the loop? Explain. © sum, a passenger on the right side may be thrown against the right Shox Is there an outward force on the passenger? Figure 7-13 shows a car turning to the left as viewed from above. A passenger would nuie to move straight ahead if it were not for the force of the door act i the direction of the acceleration, thats, toward the center of the ci- So there is no outward force on the passenger. The so-called centrfu: #8 or outward force, is a fictitious, nonexistent force. Newton's laws, sich axe used in nonaccelerating frames of reference, can explain Secon in both straight lines and circles tion to uniform circular motion, you have considered objects, fechas a person on a merry-go-round and a sock spinning in a washing Sechine. These can be considered point masses. Now, consider rigid ing objects. A rigid rotating object is a mass that rotates around its sem axis. For example, the merry-go-round itself is a rotating object turn- Seon a central axis. A spinning washing machine tub and a revolving FIGURE 7-13 The passongor ‘would move forward in a svaight line ifthe car didnt exert an inward force, 7.3 Circular Motion 167Calculate Your Answer Known: m=138 r= 093m T=118s Check Your Answer Unknown: B=? 4 Calculations: arf 4(3.14)2(0.93 m)/(1-18 8)? By = ma = (0.013 kg)(26 m/s") = 0.34 N «Are the units correct? Performing algebra on the units verifies that a is in m/s? and Fis in S ‘* Do the signs make sen: «Are the magnitudes tea ‘weight of the stopper, that of gravity, so the an Pocket Lab Falling Sideways & Wit a ball dropped straight down hit te floor before or after a ball that is tossed aireatly side= ‘ways atthe same instant? Ty i. You may need to repeat the experiment several times before You are sure of your results Toss the ball sideways end not ‘up or down. ‘Analyze and Conclude Compare the downward force ‘on each ball. Compare the distance that each ball fas in the vertical direction. 166 se? The signs should all be positive. listic? The force is almost three times the ‘but the acceleration is almost three times sswer is reasonable. Practice Problems 14, Consider the following changes to the Example Problem a. The mass is doubled, but all other quantities reat, the aang What would be the effect om the velocity, acceleration and force? bs The radius is doubled, but all other quantities rea!) the rine What would be the effect on the velocity, aceleratis and force? ‘The petiod of revolution is half as large, but all other quam ‘hes remain the same, What would be the effect on the vel ty, acceleration, and force? 15, Arunner moving at a speed of &.8 m/s rounds 2 bend with a radius of 25 m. i What is the centripetal acceleration of the runner! b. What agent exerts the force on the runner? 16, Racing om a flat track, a car going 32 m/s rounds a curve 56 m in radius, aa, What is the car's centripetal acceleration! t, What minimum coefficient of static friction between the ti nd road would be needed for the car to sound the curve without slipping? A Nonexistent Force Ifa car in which you are riding stops: suddenly, you will be thr forward into your seat pelt. Is there a forward force on you? No, becat according to Newton's first law, you will continue moving with the sa velocity unless there is a net force acting on you- The seat belt app’ re cpp that accelerates you to a stop. Similan ifa car makes 2% Forces and Motions in Two Dimensionshat causes an object to have a centripetal acceleration? There must. Se = net force on the object in the direction of the acceleration, toward ter of the circle, For Earth circling the sun, the force is the sun’s Seetational force on Earth. When a hammer thrower swings the ham Ses as in Figure 7-12, the force is the tension in the chain attached to massive ball. When a car tums around a bend, the inward force is ictional force of the road on the tires, Sometimes, the necessary net at causes centripetal acceleration is called a centripetal force. s, however, can be misleading. To understand centripetal accelera- jou must identify the agent of the contact or long-range force that ee ses the acceleration. Then you can write Newton’s second law for the he circle nent in the direction of the acceleration in the following way. leration. Newton's Second Law F,.. = ma, Fog pare the ears n the tri : [azn a fram ("| * two tri- heen solving circular motion problems, choose a coordinate system riangles, be usual way, with one axis in the direction of the acceleration. But al. Thus, ember that for circular motion, the direction of the acceleration is ed by Ar ws toward the center of the circle. Rather than labeling this axis x or ail it c for centripetal. The other axis, which, as always, must be per- dicular to the first, is in the direction of the velocity, tangent to the sie Itis labeled tang for tangential. The next Example Problem shows the fol- abeled coordinate axes. = the case of the hammer thrower, the purpose of circular motion is sve the hammer great speed. In what direction does the ball fly when ower releases the chain? Once the contact force of the chain is eee there is no force accelerating the ball toward the center of a circle, se she hammer flies off in the direction of its velocity, which is tangent circle. After release. only gravitational force acts on the ball, and Seoves like any other projectile drcular ears cle? One Uniform Circular Motion to make i 9 ari A 13-g rubber stopper is attached to a 0.93-m string, The stopper aed s swung in a horizontal circle, making one revolution in 1.18 s. Find he tension force exerted by the string on the stopper. ntripetal Sketch the Problem * In your sketch, include the radius and the direction of motion. * Establish a coordinate system labeled tang and c. Show that the directions of a and FT are parallel to c. HELP WANTED CIVIL ENGINEER Federal agencies need civil engineers to fill post- tions as inspectors of roads, bridges, airports, and water/waste systems. ‘An analytical mind, a bachelor's degree in civil engineering, and excellent communication skills (oral and written) are required. Apply your generalized training or any special- ized experience you may have to a position that can be an important step in your professional career. For information contact: American Society of Civil Engineers 1801 Alexander Bell Drive Reston, VA 20191-4400 nl Fy tana ate Continued on next page 7.3 Circular Motion 165 |FIGURE 7-11 The cirecton of the change in velocity is toward the center of the circle and so the acceleration vector also points to the center ofthe circle. Pocket ath ane Tie a 1.0-m length of string conto a one-hole rubber stopper Note: Everyone inthe classroom should be wearing goggles. ‘Swing the stopper around your head in a horizontal circle. Release the string from your hand when the string is lined ‘up with a spot on the wall Repeat the experiment until the stopper fies toward the spot on the wal, ‘Analyze and Conclude Dic the stopper travel toward the spot on the wall? What does this indieate about the direction (of the velocity compared to the orientation ofthe string? FIGURE 7-12 When the thrower lets go, the hammer moves in 8 straight line tangent to the point of release object moves around the circle, the direction of the acceleration vectot changes, but its length remains the same. The acceleration of an object ia uniform circular motion always points in toward the center of the circle and for that reason itis called center-secking or centripetal acceleration: What is the magnitude of the centripetal acceleration? Compare the triangle made from the position vectors in Figure 7-10b with the tts angle made by the velocity vectors in Figure 7-11b. The angle betwees fF, and ris the same as that between v and v,, Therefore the two angles formed by subtracting the two sets of vectors are similar triangles ‘and the ratios of the lengths of two corresponding sides are equal. Thus ‘Arjr = Av[v. The equation is not changed if both sides are divided by As ar ae rt apa But » = Ar/At and a = Av/At. Substituting these expressions, the fol) towing equation is obtained Solve this equation for the acceleration and give it the special symbal 4, for centripetal acceleration. a) Centripetal Acceleration (using velocity) a, =~ Centripetal acceleration always points toward the center of the circulag motion. How can you measure the speed of an object moving in a circle? Ong sway is to measure its period, T; the time needed for the object to mal 4g complete revolution. During this time, it travels a distance equal to the Greumference of the circle, 277. The objects speed, then, is represented by v= 2m/T. If this expression is substituted for v in the equation for centripetay acceleration, the following equation is obtained. (mt) 164 Forces and Motions in Two Dimensionsya nade Circular Motion Cx an object be accelerated if its speed remains constant? Yes, because velocity is a vector quantity; just as a change in speed means that there is a change in velocity, so too does a e in direction indicate a change in velocity. Consider an object wing in a circle at constant speed. Figure 7-9 shows a person riding merry-go-round moving at a steady speed. That person is in entform circular motion. So is a sock among the clothes spinning in a Seshing machine. Uniform circular motion is the movement of an object s soit mass at constant speed around a circle with a fixed radius. sbject’s position relative to the center of the circle is given by the scion vector r, shown in Figure 7—10a, As the object moves around be circle, the length of the position vector doesn’t change, but its direc: ses. To find the object's velocity, you need to find its displacement a time interval. The change in position, or the object's dis- igure 7~10b shows two position vec: r, at the beginning of a time interval, and r, at the end of the time Seewal. In the vector diagram, r, and r, are subtracted to give the resul Se Ar, the displacement during the time interval. Recall that a moving < average velocity is Ad/At, so for an object in circular motion §- Ar/At. The velocity vector has the same direction as the displacement different length. You can see in Figure 7—10a that the velocity is hit angles to the position vector and tangent to its circular path. As Se velocity vector moves around the circle, its direction changes but its secement, is represented by Ar. ech remains the sam at is the direction of the object's acceleration? Figure 7-1a Sows the velocity vectors v, and v, at the beginning and end of a time seerval. The difference in the two vectors, Ay, is found by subtracting sors, as shown in Figure 7-11b. The acceleration, a = Av/A¥, is in direction as Ay, that is, toward the center of the circle. As the es a OBJECTIVES Explai acceleration of joving in a circle ate speed. Describe how centripetal accele nds upon the obje and the Recognize t the force that tripetal aco Explain ho circular by exerting FIGURE 7-8 The rider isin tmiform circular motion, FIGURE 7-10 The csplacement, {47 ofan object in circular motion, divided by the time interval in Which the displacement occurs, is the object's average velocity 7.3 Circular Motion 1630.849 m range (0.833 3) tial Swain mum tat 60.0" 2 and Trajectories Depend upon the Frame of Reference Suppose you toss a ball up and catch it while riding in a bus. To you. all would seem to go straight up and down. But what would an server on the sidewalk see? The observer would see the ball leave your rise up, and return to your hand, but because the bus would be ving, your hand also would be moving. The bus, your hand, and the would all have the same horizontal velocity. Thus, the trajectory of all would be similar to that of the ball in the previous Example roblem. Although you and the observer would dis zontal motion of the ball, you would agree on the vertical motion. You sould both find the vertical velocity, displacement, and time in the air be the same. Effects of Air Resistance The force of air, or air resistance, has been ignored in the analysis of motion of a projectile, but that doesn’t mean that air resistance is important. Its true that for some projectiles, the effect is very small ut for others, the effects are large and very complex. For example, the ape and patter of dimples on a golf ball have been carefully designed | Tryit maximize its range. In baseball, the spin of the ball creates forces that can deflect the ball up, down, or to either side. If the spin is very slow, as does knnuckleball, the interaction of the laces with the air results in a very predictable trajectory. Rings, disks, and boomerangs gen ward force, or lift, from the air that they seem to float through the ait. 12 Section Review 1. Two baseballs are pitched horizontally from the same height but at different speeds. The faster ball crosses home plate within the strike zone, but the slower ball is below the batter's knees. Why does the faster ball not fall as far as the slower one? 2. An ice cube slides without friction across a table at constant velocity It slides off and lands on the floor. Draw free-body diagrams of the cube at two points while itis on the table and at two points when it i in the air, Pocket Lab Where the Ball Bounces gree on the hori ballin your hand m sideways shoulder when the balls and stop it the nex ball strikes the where the ball wil walk ata steady sp¢ drop the ball. Would take the same time Analyze and Conclude ball hit? Does it take more time? enough - For the same ice cube, draw motion diagrams showing the velocity and acceleration of the ice cube both when it is on the table and in the air. 4. Critical Thinking Suppose an object is thrown with the same initial velocity and direction on Earth and on the moon, where g is 1/6 as large as itis on Earth, Will the following quanti- ties change? If so, will they become larger or smaller? any ¢. maximum height b. time of flight d. range ail a 2 Projectile Motion 161Calculations: direction: . When 1 = 0, t= %o/8 1 = (4.08 m/s)/(9.80 m/s?) psin Oy 1 = 0.4165 4.47 m/s)sin 66° 08 my Ymnax = Yyat imax = yo = (4.08 m/s)(0.416 s) ~ 1/2(9.80 m/s?)(0.416 s)? = 0.849 m My = Myo — st Yoax Yo + Mot ~ 1/252 eae * c, At this time, x = R, the range b. At landing, y = 0 x-direction: i 0 =0 + tot — 1/2gt? R= vyol t = 29/8 = (4.47 mjs)(c0s 66°)(0.833 $ = 2(4.08 m/s)/(9.80 m/s?) = 0.8338 = 151m « Are the units correct? Performing algebra on the units verifies that time is ins, velocity is in m/s, and distance is in m, © Do the signs make sense? All should be positive. «© Are the magnitudes realistic? Compare them with those in the photo. The calculated flight time is 0.833 s. At 30 flashes/s, this would be 25 flashes, and 25 are visible. The scale of the photo is ‘unknown, as it is, but the ratio of the maximum height to range is (0.849 m)/(1.51 m), or 0.562/1, in the photo. Practice Problems 12. A player kicks a football from ground level with an initial ‘velocity of 27.0 m/s, 30.0° above the horizontal, as shown in Figure 7-8. Find the ball’s hang time, range, and maximum height. Assume air resistance is negligible. 13. The player then kicks the ball with the same speed, but at 60.0 from the horizontal. What is the ball's hang time, range, and maximum height? Trajectory @ .- aT ! FIGURE 7-8 & 160 Forces and Motions in Two Dimensionssm the the dif? © ground? ty has a object is top ofits ps to the Za shows miectory pvertical velocity hen it is bite jy: One when the ivelocity is the it time, al, light FIGURE 7-7 The vector sum of | | ie f é ws a R Seen ud The Flight of a Ball The ball in the strobe photo was launched with an initial velocity of, 4.47 m/s at an angle of 66° above the horizontal. a. What was the maximum height the ball attained? b. How long did it take the ball to return to the launching height? cc. What was its range? Sketch the Problem ‘ Establish a coordinate system. One choice for the initial position of the ball is at the origin ” Show the positions of the ball at maximum height and at the end of the flight. * Draw a motion diagram showing the 1, 4, and Fy. Yo ° Calculate Your Answer PS Known: Unknown: 00 End y when t x, when y = 0 Strategy: 4a. Write the equations for the initial velocity components, the velocity components at time t, and the position in both directions. The ver- tical velocity is zero when the ball reaches maximum height. Solve the velocity equation for the time of maximum height. Substitute this time into the vertical-position equation to find the height. 1b Solve the vertical-position equation for the time of the end of the flight, when y = 0. . Substitute that time into the equation for horizontal distance to get the range. ‘ontinued on next page .2 Projectile Motion 159«© Are the units correct? Performing algebra on the units verifies that xis in mand vis in m/s. # Do the signs make sense? Both x and v should be positive. ‘* Are the magnitudes realistic? The projectile is in the air 3.0. the horizontal distance is about the same magnitude as the vertical dis- tance. The final velocity is larger than the initial horizontal velocity but of the same order of magnitude 7 ted BIOLOGY CONNECTION 9, A stone is thrown horizontally at a speed of 5.0 m/s from the top of a cliff 78.4 m high. nila a. How long does it take the stone to reach the bottom of the d " . How far from the base of the cliff does the stone hit the ground frog jump? The launch 3 " . What are the horizontal and vertical components of the angle of a frog's jump a sephaantsi - se acornate Nias aioe pelle eres NUR ore Jumping at this angle . How would the three answers fo problem 9 change Te Iiriete RonaNor Tae a. the stone were thrown with twice the horizontal speed helps the frog cover b, the stone were thrown with the sme sped, but the iff maximum distance on yecrericeea bat flat ground ‘A steel ball rolls with constant velocity across a tabletop 0.950 m high. It rolis off and hits the ground 0.352 m from the edge of the table. How fast was the ball rolling? ' r ‘When a projectile is launched at an angle, the initial velocity has vertical component as well as a horizontal component. If the object launched upward, then it rises with slowing speed, reaches the top 0} path, and descends with increasing speed. This is what happens to € sand in the photo at the beginning of this chapter. Figure 7~7a sho the separate vertical and horizontal motion diagrams for the trajecto The coordinate system is chosen with +x horizontal and +y vertical Note the symmetry. At each point in the vertical direction, the veloc of the object as it is moving up has the same magnitude as when it moving down, but the directions of the two velocities are opposite Figure 7-7b defines two quantities associated with the trajectory. O is the maximum height, which is the height of the projectile when & vertical velocity is zero and the projectile has only its horizontal veloc component. ‘The other quantity depicted is the range, R, which is horizontal distance the projectile travels. Not shown is the flight ti which is the time the projectile is in the air. In the game of football, flig time is usually called hang time Forces and Motions in Twwo Dimensionsprojectile launched horizontally has no initial vertical velocity re, its vertical motion is identical to that of a dropped object ownward velocity increases regularly because of the acceleration A Projectile Launched Horizontally A stone is thrown horizontally at 15 m/s from the top of a cliff 44 m high. 2. How far from the base of the cliff does the stone hit the ground? . How fast is it moving the instant before it hits the ground? + Establish a coordinate system with the launch point labeled “begin’at the origin. * The point to be labeled “end is at y = ~44 m; x is unknown, * Draw a motion diagram for the trajectory showing the downward acceleration and net force. Unknown: x when y = —44m vat that time a. Use the equation for the y-position to get _B. Velocity is a vector quantity; find the two and solve an equation for the time the components, then the magnitude, or speed. stone is in the air. Use the Pythagorean relationship to find v Calculations: x-direction: y-direction: ay 9 — 1/20 Xo * Myo! (15 m/s)(3.0 s) = 45 m from the base i = ~(9.80 m/s?)(3.0 s) = -29 m/s. 2(-44 m) 980m (-29 m/s}? = 33 m/s Continued on next page 7.2 Projectile Motion 157a end FIGURE 7-6 When the norizon- tal and vertical components of the balls velocity are combined in b the reautert vectors ere shown in Figure 7-6a, The vertical motion diagram represents th tangent to a parabola, motion of the dropped ball. The horizontal motion diagram shows th constant velocity in the x-direction of the launched ball. In Figure 7-6b, the horizontal and vertical components are added te form the velocity vector for the projectile. You can see how the combi nation of constant horizontal velocity and uniform vertical acceleration produces a trajectory that has the shape of the mathematical cu called the parabola. Separate motion diagrams for the horizontal and vertical motions are PTE Te koe ne 03) i 1. Motion in two dimensions can be solved by breaking the problem into two interconnected ‘one-dimensional problems. For instance, projectile motion can be divided into a vertical Pocket Lab ¥ || motion problem and a horizontal motion problem. . The vertical motion of a projectile is exactly that of an object dropped or thrown straight up or down. A gravitational force — ‘acts on the object accelerating it by an amount g. Review a Section 5.4 on Free Fall to refresh your problem solving skills Obtain two balls, one twice the for vetice et Tae Wetiahigd Precict whlch ‘Analyzing the horizontal motion of a projectile is the same as Ball wl it the lor fist when solving @ constant velocity problem. A projectile has no thrust you rol them over the surface force and air drag is neglected, consequently there are no of @ table with the same speed forces acting in the horizontal direction and thus, no acceler- and let them roll off. Predict ation, a = 0. To solve, use the same methods you learned in eee gi aicioeion Section 5.1, Uniform Motion. yore : Vertical motion and horizontal motion are connected through xaesesa ospaeee the variable time. The time from the launch of the projectile Scan aeor n to the time it hits the target is the same for vertical motion creck ban mae ‘and for horizontal motion. Therefore, solving for time in one factor in any of the equations of the dimensions, vertical or horizontal, automatically gives for projectia motion? you the time for the other dimension. scene 156 Forces and Motions in Two DimensionsOs, the et force on? How Projectile Motion projectile can be a football, a bullet, or a drop of water. No matter what the object is, after @ projectile has been given an initial thrust, ignor- ing air resistance, it moves through the air only jorce of gravity. Its path through space is called its trajectory. If ww the force of the initial thrust on a projectile, you can figure out tory. Ger a golf ball leaves the golf club, what forces are exerted on the ou ignore air resistance, there are no other contact forces on the There is only the long-range force of gravity in the downward Sion. How does this affect the ball's motion? Figure 7-5 shows the trajectories of two golf balls. One was dropped, See she other was given an initial horizontal velocity of 2.0 m/s. What Sessler about the two paths? & at the vertical positions of the balls. At each flash, the heights of Heme balls are the same. Because the change in vertical position is the See for both balls, their average vertical velocities during each interval Se Se same. The increasingly large distances traveled vertically by the Balls, from one time interval to the next, show that the balls are ed downward by the force of gravity. Notice that the horizontal f the launched ball doesn’t affect its vertical motion. A projec hed horizontally has no initial vertical velocity. Therefore, its tion is like that of a dropped object. OBJECTIVES Recognize that the vertical and horizontal motions of a projectile are independent. Relate the height, time in the air, and initial ver velocity of a p its vertical mot determine the r Explain how the the trajectory of a moving ‘object depends upon the frame of reference from which it is observed, FIGURE 7-5 The ball on the right ‘was given a horizontal velocity the ballon the left was dropped The balls were photographed Using a strobe light that lashed 30 times each second. Note that the vertical postions of the 1wo balls are the same at each flash ofthe strobe light. 2 Projectile Motion 155(Check Your Answer Are the units correct? Performing algebra on the units verifies that vis in m/s and ais in m/s* « Do the signs make sense? Yes, because v and + x direction. aare both in the « Are the magnitudes reasonable? The velocity is fast, over 50 mph, but 37° isa steep incline, and the friction with snow is not large. Peete er '5. Consider the trunk on the incline in the Example Problem. . Calculate the magnitude of the acceleration. b. After 4.00 s, how fast would the trunk be moving? For the Example Problem Skiing Downhill, find the x- and -components of the weight of the skier going downhill Ifthe skier were on a 30° downhill slope, what would be the magnitude of the acceleration? After the skier on the 37° hill had been moving for 5.0 s, the friction of the snow suddenly increased making the net force con the skier zero. What is the new coefficient of friction? How FIGURE 7-4 | ll Section Review 1, You are to hang a painting using two lengths of wire, The wites will break | if the force on them is too great | Should the painting look like | Figure 74a or b? Explain. | 2. One way to geta car unstuck is to te | one end of a strong rope to the car | and the other end to a tree. Then push the rope at its midpoint at right | angles to the rope. Draw a free-body | diagram and explain why even a small force on the rope can exert | a large force on the car. Forces and Motion in Two Dimensions fast would the skier now be going after skiing for 5.0 s? The skier in the Example Problem. finishes the downhill run, turns, and continues to slide uphill for atime. Draw the free-body diagram for the uphill slide. In which direction is the net force? Critical Thinking Can the coefficient of friction ever have a value such that a skier could slide uphill at a constant velocity? Explain.Strategy: Calculations: °, the Fay and Fy are negative because they point F,sin@ directions opposite to the positive axes. —(562 N) sin 30.0° = —281N t would Vector components are scalars, but they i, = -Femd have signs indicating their direction = (Seo NT ae 225° relative to the axes. Fry (seat o 482.N nd ‘Check Your Answer ‘ Are the units correct? Only newtons appears in the calculations. ‘* Do the signs make sense? Yes, the components point in directions opposite to the positive axes. «Are the magnitudes realistic? The values are less than F, h, in the re 7-3 is and the rare par- occ Skiing Downhill e made is A 62-kg person on skis is going down a hill sloped at 37°. The stion will coefficient of kinetic friction between the skis and the snow is 0.15. ye in that iow fast is the skier going 5.0 s after starting from rest? rane Sketch the Problem * Circle the system and identify points of contact. Contac with sare both B hsabi a courier Ysystemy!_- eironment nost prob: Bisenecresionra ear : ‘* Draw a motion diagram showing increasing v, a and both a and F,, in the +x direction. Calculate Your Answer Known: Sed Strategy: | - There is no acceleration in the y-direction: x-direction: j y-direction, so the net force is zero. Fyeyy = Eneyy = Mi = ma Solve for Fy Bed eee Fay ake a Apply Newton's second law of Py = Fey =mgcos® ma = mg sin 6 ~ p4Fy motion to relate acceleration to the downhill force. Solve for a by substituting j,Fy for Fe ma = mg sin 8 ~ yymg cos 6 a (sin 8 — 1, cos 8) 4 = 9.80 m/s*(sin 37° — 0.15 cos 37°) = Use velocity-acceleration 0 relation to find speed. v =0 + (4.7 m/s?) (5.08) = 24 m/s Continued on next page Forces in Two Dimensions 1533. Two ropes pull on a ring. One exerts a 62-N force at 30.0°, the other a 62-N force at 60.0° a, What is the net force on the ring? b. What are the magnitude and direction of the force that woul cause the ring to be in equilibrium? 4, Two forces are exerted on an object. A 36-N force acts at 225° and a 48-N force acts at 315°. What are the magnitude and direction of the equilibrant? m ‘The gravitational force is directed toward the center of Earth, in = downward direction, But if a vehicle such as the one in Figure 7-3 FIGURE 7-8 If the «axis is on a hill, there is a normal force perpendicular to the hill, and chosen to be parallel tothe road, forces of friction that will either speed up or slow down the car are p Franc Fy a pura othe ale to he hil. What strategy should you use 0 find the net force Pinson trecmoctoratthe causes the car to accelerate? The most important decision to be made Lard what coordinate system to use. Because the direction of the vehicle's velocity and acceleration w be parallel to the hill, one axis, usually the x-axis, should be in d direction. The y-axis is, as usual, perpendicular to the x-axis and pendicular, or normal, to the surface of the hill. For such a coordinate system, the normal and friction forces are be in the direction of a coordinate axis, but the weight is not. In most pra lems, you'll have to find the x- and y-components of this force. GL) Te | Components of Weight for an Object on an Incline ‘A trunk weighing 562 N is resting on a plane inclined 30.0° above the horizontal. Find the components of the weight force parallel and perpendicular to the plane. , the Prc * Include a coordinate system with the positive x-axis pointing uphill ‘© Draw the free-body diagram showing Fy, the components Fa, and Fay, and the angle 8. Known: Unknow F, = 562N 6 = 30.0° 152 Forces and Motion in Two Dimensionsjoe per surface tions in Vhen in velocity because clors to resul at is the nember ngle) 0 and G. et force ot zero. er two, ried on t would ner. The ant, but for two eat Creating Equilibrium A 168-N sign is supported in a motionless position by two pes that each make 22.5° angles with the horizontal. What he tension in the ropes? ‘Sketch the Problem * Draw the ropes at equal angles and establish a coordinate system. * Draw the free-body diagram with the dot at the origin, Calculate Your Answer Known: Strategy: Caleulations: @=22 The sum of the two 168.N rope forces and the downward weight force —F,cos 8 + Fycos 0 Unknown: is zero. Write equa- $0. Fy = Fy tions for equilibrium Fey = 0, thus Fay + F in the x-direction and i in the y-direction, by Fasin @ + Fy sin @ —F, = 2P, sin @ A* Fein 225° Fa = 2.20 x 102 N Check Your Answer * Is the unit correct? N is the only unit in the calculation * Do the signs make sense? Yes, the tension forces are in the posi tive y-direction * Is the magnitude realistic? It is greater than the weight of the sign which is reasonable, because only the small vertical components of F, and Fy are available to balance the sign’s weight. een Ma E The sign from the preceding example problem is now hung by Math Handbook ppes that each make an angle of 42° with the horizontal. What ale, yall force does each rope exert? 2 An 8.0-N weight has one horizontal rope exerting a force of To oviow trigonometric BP caee ratios, see the Math pNoni Handbook, Appendix A. @. What are the magnitude and direction of the resultant force on} page 745, the weight? Bb. What force (magnitude and direction) is needed to put the weight into equilibrium? Continued on next page 7.1 Forces in Two Dimensions 151| Forces in Two ‘* Dimensions ve already know one example of forces in two dimensions. When friction acts between ‘two surfaces, you must take into account both OBJECTIVES ‘ the friction force that is parallel to the surface, and the normal force per= Leer Ha force. tls pendicular to it. So far, you have considered only motion along the surface poses nls wes Ky yu wise our sllin ang verso ana oss 4 een Mich te foros onan object are at anges omer than 90" ‘Analyze the motion of an ’ ’ object on an inclined plane 1 , 1 with and without friction. ‘An objects in equil equilibrium, an object is m librium when the net force on it is zero. When it jotionless or moves with constant velocity According to Newton's laws, the object will not be accelerated because there is no net force on it. You have already added two force vectors ta find that the net force is zero. Equilibrium also occurs when the resul tant of three or more forces equals a net force of zero. Figure 7-1a shows three forces exerted on a point object. What i th sum of A, B, and C, or what is the net force on the object? Remem! that vectors may be moved if you don’t change their direction (angle) 4 length. Figure 7-1b shows the addition of the three forces, A, By and Note that the three vectors form a closed triangle. There is no net fora so the sum is zero and the object is in equilibrium, Suppose two forces are exerted on an object and the sum is not zen How could you find a third force that, when added to the other tws would add up to zero? Such a force, one that produces equilibrium, called the equilibrant. = ‘To find the equilibrant, first find the sum of the two force b the object. This sum is the resultant force, R, the single force that wo FIGURE 7-1 An objects in produce the same effect asthe two individual forces added together. equilibrium when al the forces equilibrant is thus a force with a magnitude equal to the resultant, bs ae in the opposite direction. Figure 7-2 illustrates this procedure for but any number of vectors could be used. s exerted & vector FIGURE 7-2 The equilibrant is the same magnitude as the resul- tant but opposite in direction. Forces and Motion in Twwo Dimensions 1504. Under what conditions would the book remain in motion at constant speed? 2 Why do you have to push harder on the pedals single-speed bicycle to start it moving than keep it moving at a constant velocity? pose the acceleration of an object is zero. s this mean that there are no forces acting it? Give an example supporting your answer. & When a basketball player dribbles a ball, it falls the floor and bounces up. Is a force required make it bounce? Why? Ifa force is needed hat is the agent involved? Section 6.2 fore a sky diver opens his parachute, he may be falling ata velocity higher than the terminal ity he will have after the parachute opens. 2. Describe what happens to his velocity as he pens the parachute. bb. Describe his velocity from after his parachute s been open for a time until he is about > land. & What isthe difference between the period and be amplitude of a pendulum? hen an object is vibrating on a spring and passes through the equilibrium position, there no net force on it. Why is the velocity not at this point? What quantity is zero? Section 6.3 * dropped from a bridge into a valley sth pulls on the rock and accelerates it down- net force ever the sce on the um. If the ectly pro: results is he period to repeat mplitude wes. from harmonic a spring, wo forces are exerted on the block. ‘The weight force is a constant wnward force, F,. The upward force of the spring is directly propor- al to the amount the spring is stretched. A spring that acts this way said to obey Hooke's law. ow does the net force depend upon position? When a block hangs = 2 spring, the spring stretches until its force balances the object's eight as shown in Figure 6—10a, The block is then in its equilibrium ition. If you pull the block down, as in Figure 6-10b, the spring sce increases, producing a net force upward. When you let go of the Stock, it accelerates upward, as in Figure 6-10c. But as the spring s=eich is reduced, the upward force decreases. In Figure 6-10d, the spward force of the spring and the object's weight are equal; there is no sceleration. But with no net force, the block’s inertia causes it to con- Seve its upward motion above the equilibrium position. In Figure 6—10e, the net force is in the direction opposite the displacement # the block and is directly proportional to the displacement, so the ‘on is simple harmonic. The block returns to the equilibrium posi- sen. as in Figure 6-10f. Again, at this position, the net force is zero and so is the acceleration. Dees the block stop? No, it would take a net upward force to slow the eck, and that doesn’t exist until the block falls below the equilibrium Sesition. When it comes to the position at which it was released, the net sce and acceleration are at their maximum in the upward direction % block moves up and continues to move in this vibratory manner. Be period of oscillation, T, depends upon the mass of the block and se strength of the spring, but not on the amplitude of the motion, Re pendulum The swing of a pendulum also demonstrates simple smonic motion. A simple pendulum consists of a massive object, Siied the bob, suspended by a string or rod of length I. After the bob pulled to one side and released, it swings back and forth, as shown © Figure 6-11, The string or rod exerts a tension force, Fy, and gravi ® axerts the weight force, F,, on the bob. The vector sum of the two Secss produces the net force, shown at three positions in Figure 6-11. He can see that the net force is restoring, that is, it is opposite the Seection of the displacement of the bob. For small angles (under Seat 15°) the force is linear to the displacement, so the motion is seeple harmonic. © period of a pendulum of length 1 is given by the following Period of a Pendulum T= 2r | ve Notice that the period depends only upon the length of the pendu- d the acceleration due to gravity, not on the mass of the bob or smplitude of oscillation. One application of the pendulum is to Sessure g, which can vary slightly at different locations on Earth. 6.2 Using Newton's Laws FIGURE 6-10 Simple harmonic ‘motion is demonstrated by the vibration ofa block hanging on 8 spring. i 135FIGURE 6-9 A plucked guitar string continues to move rapidly bback and forth in simple harmonic motion. 134 Forces drag and terminal velocity When an object moves through ait or any other fluid, the fluid exerts a frictionlike force on the moving object. Unlike the friction between surfaces, however, this force depends upon the speed of the motion, becoming larger as the speed increases Italso depends upon the size and shape of the object and the density and kind of fluid, Ifyou drop a table tennis ball from a tower, it has very little velocity at the start, and thus only a small drag force. The downward force of gravity is much stronger than the upward drag force, so there is a down: ward acceleration. As the ball’s velocity increases, s0 does the drag force Soon, the drag force equals the force of gravity. With no net force, there is no acceleration. The velocity of the ball becomes constant. The com: stant velocity that is reached when the drag force equals the force of gravity is called the terminal velocity. The terminal velocity of table tennis ball in air is 9 m/s. A basketball has a terminal velocity of 20 m/s; the terminal velocity of a baseball is 42 m/s. Skiers increase their terminal velocities by decreasing the dra force. They hold their bodies in an egg shape and wear smooth clothing and streamlined helmets. How do sky divers control their velocities? By changing body orientation and shape, sky divers can both increase and decrease their terminal velocity so that they can perform maneuvers is the air. A horizontal spread-eagle shape gives the slowest terminal veloc ity, about 60 m/s. When the parachute opens, the sky diver becomes part of a very large object with a correspondingly large drag force and terminal velocity of about 5 m/s. A playground swing, moving back and forth over the same path, i one example of vibrational motion. Other examples are a pendulum, @ metal block bobbing up and down on a spring, and a vibrating guitat string, as shown in Figure 6-9. In each example, the object has one position in which the net force ‘on itis zero. At that position, the object is in equilibrium. Whenever the object is pulled away from its equilibrium position, the net force on th system becomes nonzero and pulls it back toward equilibrium. If the force that restores the object to its equilibrium position is directly pr portional to the displacement of the object, the motion that results i alled simple harmonic motion. Two quantities describe simple harmonic motion. One is the period represented by the symbol T. The period is the time needed to repe one complete cycle of motion. The other quantity, called the amplitu of the motion, is the maximum distance the object moves fro equilibrium. The mass on a spring How do you describe the simple harmon motion of objects? Figure 60a shows a block hanging on a spring)Strategy: A There is a net horizontal force; the crate oe accelerates. E . Apply Newton's laws separately in two ~ om directions onal *= 35 kg * Are the units correct? Performing algebra on units verifies that * Does the sign make sense? For the chosen coordinate system the sign should be positive. * Is the magnitude realistic? In the calculation of a, ifthe force riction force is the same; it is independent f speed. were cut in two, a would be zero as in the preceding problem. Practice Problem: 14. A boy exerts a 36-N horizontal force as he pulls a 52-N sled 16. Calculations: y-direction: Fy x-direction: F, actoss a cement sidewalk at constant speed. What is the coef runners? Ignore air resistanc ent of kinetic friction between the sidewalk and the metal sled Suppose the sled runs on packed snow. The coefficient of frie: tion is now only 0.12. Ifa person weighing 650 N sits on the sled, what force is needed to pull the sled across the snow at constant speed? Consider the doubled force pushing the crate in the example problem Unbalanced Friction Forces, How long would it take for the velocity of the crate to double to 2.0 m/s? Gauses of friction All surfaces, even those that appear to be smooth, gh at a microscopic level as shown in Figure 6-8. When two sur- uch, the high points on each are in contact and temporarily bond. you try to move one of the pieces, you must break the bonds. This n of static friction. As the surfaces move past each other, the static forces that caused the bonds continue to create an attraction the high points on the moving surfaces and this results i kinetic fri Se the subject of research in both physics and engineering, the jon, The details of this process are still unknown and — mg. 9.80 m/s?) Pocket Lab (oe) How long does it take for 2 falling object to reach a termi ral velocity? How fast is the terminal velocity? Does the ter minal velocty depend on the ‘mass? Find out Use coffee fiers, a meterstick, 8 stopwatch, and your creativity to answer each question, Analyze and Conclude | Describe your procedures, results, and conclusions to \ the class. f FIGURE 6-8 This photograph of ‘@ graphite crystal, magnified by a scanning tunneling microscope, reveals the surface irregularities of the crystal atthe atomic level 6.2 Using Newton's Laws 133Sketch the Problem «Identify the forces and establish a coordinate system. «Draw a motion diagram indicating constant v and " a= zero. «© Draw the free-body diagram with the tails of the four Bi forces (Fy Fy, Fy and Fy your pushing force) on the dot Calculate Your Answer Known: Unknown: Strategy: Calculations: rection: Because there is no acceleration, Fy = mung Fy =F, = mg. x-direction: Because v is constant, there is nO F,, = (0.20)(25 kg)(9.80 m/s?) acceleration. Therefore, the pushing force, 9 .N : (Check Your Answer « Are the units correct? Performing algebra on the units verifies that force = kg-m/s? or N «# Does the sign make sense? The positive sign agrees with the sketch. ‘Ts the magnitude realistic? Itis a reasonable force for moving a 25-kg box eee Unbalanced Friction Forces If the force you exert on the box is doubled, what is the resulting acceleration of the box? ‘Sketch the Problem « The sketch is the same as in the preceding example problem. ‘ Draw a motion diagram showing increasing v and the direction of a. © Draw the free-body diagram with doubled pushing force, F,, Calculate Your Answer + Urikiri Fg grata 132 Forcescale mea- s when g ately con- y upward ood with ied down would be r weight. ? As long, constant celerates ike to be ron your you feel is called ale with, lution (0 apparent fowever, e are no nat your friction orce and ou need i on ice, a mark 1a heavy & move. Berizon- Beual in fon one the two 7, but Be larg- & when fy. the Bese if Kinetic friction force. The kinetic friction force is the force exerted on ne surface by the other when the surfaces are in relative motion. A model for friction forces Although friction forces are complicated, 2 simplified model can be used to find solutions close to those found =periments, The model assumes that friction depends on the surfaces in ontact, but not on the area of the surfaces nor the speed of their relative stion. In the model, the magnitude of the friction force is proportional the magnitude of the force pushing one surface against the other. That ce, perpendicular to the surface, is the normal force, Fy, Kinetic Friction Force Fy, jinesic = MEN this equation, 1. is a proportionality constant called the kinetic coef: cient of friction, The static friction force is related to the normal force by this ression. Static Friction Force 05 Fr sie S dsFy where 11, is the static coefficient of friction. The equation tells you that the atic friction force can vary from zero to y,Fy where Fy is the maximum atic friction force that must be balanced before motion can begin. In Figure 6-7c, the static friction force has just been balanced the instant Before the box begins to move. Note that the preceding equations involve the magnitudes of the forces nly. The forces themselves, F; and Fy, are at right angles to each other. Table 6-3 shows coefficients of friction for various surfaces. You will need use these in solving problems. Although all the listed coefficients are ss than 1, this doesn’t mean that the coefficient of friction must be less shan 1. Coefficients as large as 5.0 are experienced in drag racing ‘Typical Coefficients of Friction 1 Surface eras Rubber on concrete 080 Rubber on wet concrete | 0.60 | Wood on wood 050 Steel on steel (with oil) Ie Teflon on stee! Balanced Friction Forces You push a 25-kg wooden box actoss a wooden floor at a constant speed of 1.0 m/s. How much force do you exert on the box? Steel on steel (dry) | o7a FIGURE 6-7 Thore isa limit to the ability ofthe static fiction force to match the applied fore, Continued on next page 6.2 Using Newton's Laws 131EARTH SCIENCE Earthquake Forces The San Andreas Fault in California is a series of fractures in Earth's crust. Forces in Earth's interior cause the rocks to slide past each other in a horizontal direction. At first, the forces of friction between the two surfaces are greater than the forces that cause the slide, so the rocks stretch and twist. Eventually, forces within the rocks become greater than the forces of friction, and, much like the release of a stretched rubber band, the rocks snap back in place. This movement, with the resulting release of tremendous ‘amounts of energy, is an earthquake. 130 Forces Apparent weight What is weight? What does a bathroom scale mea sure? The weight force is defined as F, = mg, so F, changes when g varies. On or near the surface of Earth, however, g is approximately con- stant. Ifa bathroom scale supports you—it provides the only upward force on you—then it reads your weight. But, suppose you stood with ‘one foot on the scale and one foot off? Or what ifa friend pushed down: ‘on your shoulders or pushed up on your elbows? Then there would be other contact forces on you, and the scale would not read your weight, ‘What happens if you are standing on a scale in an elevator? As long. as the elevator is in equilibrium, that is, at rest or moving at constant speed, the scale reads your weight. But if the elevator accelerates upward, then the scale reads a larger force. What does it feel like to be in an elevator like this? You feel heavier; the floor presses harder on your feet. On the other hand, if the acceleration is downward, then you fee! lighter, and the scale reads less. The force exerted by the scale is called the apparent weight. Imagine that the cable holding the elevator breaks. The scale with you on it would accelerate with a = —g. According to the solution the first example problem, the scale would read zero! Your apparent weight would be zero. That is, you would be weightless. However weightlessness doesn’t mean your weight is zero, but that there ate no contact forces pushing up on you. Weightlessness means that your apparent weight is zero. Push your hand across your desktop and feel the force called frictiox opposing the motion. Friction is often minimized in solving force and motion problems, but in the real world, friction is everywhere. You need it to both start and stop a bike and a car. If you've ever walked on ice you know how important friction is. Friction lets a pencil make a mark on paper and an eraser fix mistakes. Static and kinetic friction Think about friction as you push a h crate across the floor. You give the crate a push, but it doesn’t move Newton's laws tell tal force on the crate, opposite in direction to your force, and equal i ou it should move unless there is a second horizon size, That force is called the static friction force. It is exerted on one surface by the other when there is no relative motion between the tw surfaces, You can push harder and harder, as shown in Figure 6-7, but if the crate still doesn’t move, the friction force also must be getting larg ex. The static friction force acts in response to other forces. Finally, when your push gets hard enough, the crate begins to move. Evidently, the static friction force can grow only so large ‘The crate may be moving, but friction is still acting because i you stop pushing, the crate slows. The force that is acting is called the* Establish a coordinate system with a positive axis up. * Draw a motion diagram including » and a. + Draw the free-body diagram. Position the force vectors with their tals on the dot Calculate Your Answer ! t ) = 3.0 m/s Feed contact with Calculations: m(a + g) = m(v2/2d + g) 3.0m Begin ¢ Strategy: a The net force is the vector sum of Fy (positive) LE and F, (negative). Figg, = Fy — Rearrange the equation: Fy = Fy, ma + mg Because vg is zero, a = v2/2d 90 = (50 kg) econ 80 m/s F, = 570 N; the rope is in danger of breaking because the tension exceeds 500 N Check Your Answer * Are the units correct? Performing algebra on the units verifies kg:m/s? which is N Pocket Lab ‘* Does the sign make sense? The upward force should be positive. Is the magnitude realistic? Yes, the magnitude is a little larger Friction depends than 490 N, which is the weight of the bucket. on what? = od Find out Tape @ 0.5-kg mass toa 10-cm x 10-cm plece at ‘cardboard. Tie one end of a Sting oe mast ad he 12, On Earth, a scale shows that you weigh 585 N eee a. Whats your mas? Roz mx ce b, What would the scale read on the moon (g = 1.60 m/s*)? before the mass began to slide 13 Use the sult from te fst example problem to answer these seas ae reton questions about a scale in an elevator on Earth. What force would | emeat with the two masses the scale exert when ‘on a 10-em x 20-cm piece of a. the elevator moves up at a constant speed? cardboard, b. it slows at 2.0 m/s* while moving upward? Analyze and Conclude . it speeds up at 2.0 m/s? while moving downward? eee on eae Duel 44 it moves downward at constant peed! acchnma te eae ¢. it slows to a stop at a constant magnitude of acceleration? depend iow’ thats tae ree 6.2 Using Newton's Laws 1290) aS eer 7 Weighing Yourself in an Accelerating Elevator Your mass is 75 kg. You stand on a bathroom scale in an elevator. Going up! Starting from rest, the elevator accelerates at 2.0 m/s? for 2.0 s, then continues at a constant speed. What is the scale reading dur- ing the acceleration? Is it larger than, equal to, or less than the scale ig when the elevator is at rest? readi Sketch the Problem Skeich the situation as in Figure 6-6b. * Draw the motion diagram. Label v and a. * Choose a coordinate system with the positive direction up. « The net force is in the same direction as the acceleration, so the upward force is greater than the downward force. Calculate Your Answer . Known: Unknown: Preste=? ‘scale Strategy: Fg is the sum of the positive force of the scale on you, weight force, F , and the negative ae ice Fate = mla+ g) Fostes on , 2 i 5 kg)(2.0 m/s? + 9,80 m/s? Solve for Fyzje and substitute ma for es egehld bat a f 90 N Foye and mg for Fy Check Your Answer © Are the units correct? kg-m/s? is the force unit, N. * Does the sign make sense? The positive sign agrees with the diagram, © Is the magnitude realistic? F,.._ is larger than it would be at rest when Fig would be 7.4 X 10? N, so the magnitude is reasonable. bucket is being lifted by a rope. The rope is guaranteed not, to break if the tension is 500 N or less. The bucket started at rest, and after being lifted 3.0 m, it is moving at 3.0 m/s. Assuming that the acceleration is constant, is the rope in danger of breaking? ‘Sketch the Problem * Draw the situation; identify the forces on the system. 128 Forces :it held true years after not true for 2 of atoms, this physi- the faster it n't the coin 18 to be in stand the imulate an eo actually s ideas, he on balls of e But what o Aristotle, all objects, rich means pthesis has nf Galileo's mn, Consid >wa falling nce can be 's accelera h the force cc's weight if it were t, although astronauts: masses spring — FIGURE 6-6 The upward force Scales Figure 6-6a asks this question: "What is being measured, ofthe spring in the scale is equal sass or weight?” A bathroom scale contains springs. When you step on {9 OU" weight F, when you step the scale exerts an upward force on you. The pictorial and suck eieceay aga 4 sical models in Figure 6-Gb show that, because you are not accel-_ snow thatthe system isn the net force is zero. Therefore, the magnitude of the spring equilibrium, 80 Fy = Fay sce, Fy is equal to your weight, Fy A spring scale, therefore, measures seeight, hot mass. If you were on a different planet, the compression of spring would be different, and consequently, the scale’s reading would be different CATT eS Tea esos} Force and Motion When using Newton's laws to solve force and mation problems, use the following strategy. 1. Read the problem carefully. Visualize the situation and create the pictorial model with a sketch 2. Circle the system and choose a coordinate system. 3. Decide which quantities are known and which quantity you need to find. Assign symbols to the known and ‘unknown quantities. 44. Create the physical model, which includes a motion diagram showing the direction of the acceleration, and a free-body diagram, which includes the net force. 5. To caloulate your answer, use Newton’s laws to link acceleration and net force. 6. Rearrange the equation to solve for the unknown quan 2 oF F,. Newton's second law involves vectors, so the equation must be solved separately in the x and y directions. 7, Substitute the known quantities with their units in the equation and solve. 8. Check your results to see if they are reasonable, 6.2 Using Newton's Laws 127Using Newton’s Laws Jewton's second law describes the connection between the net force exerted on an object and its acceleration. The second law identifies the cause of @ change in velocity and the resulting displace- OBJECTIVES ‘ment. Newton called this a /aw of nature because he thought it held true Describe how the weig for all motions. Early in the twentieth century, more than 200 years after and the mass of an object Newton's time, physicists discovered that the second law is not true for oe velocities close to the speed of light, nor for objects the size of atoms Differentiate between the Nevertheless, all of our everyday experiences are governed by this phy gravitational force weight cal law which was formulated over 300 years ago. and what is experienced as apparent weight. fine the friction force ‘ tween Aristotle's followers believed that the heavier an object is, the faster i static and kineti friction. falls. Test this idea yourself. Drop a feather and a coin. Doesn't the coi Describe simple harmonic _ fall faster? You can see for yourself that the evidence seems to be ia motion and explain how Aristotle's favor. But Galileo knew that if he was to understand the the acceleration due to nature of the force that causes an object to fall, he had to simulate an Sos idealized world in which there is no air drag Mass and weight While there is no evidence that Galileo actually dropped two balls from the Leaning Tower of Pisa to test his ideas, he did describe the following thought experiment. Two cannon balls ¢ equal weight, dropped side by side, should fall at an equal rate. But wha happens if the cannon balls are tied together? According to Aristotle they should fall twice as fast. But Galileo hypothesized that all objects no matter what their weight, gain speed at the same rate, which means that they have the same downward acceleration. This hypothesis has been tested and found to be true. ] What is the weight force, F exerted on an object of mass m? Galileo's eration: 9 | hypothesis and Newton’s second law can answer this question. Consid | pein er the pictorial and physical models in Figure 6-5, which show a fall ball in midair, Because itis touching nothing and air resistance can be neglected, there are no contact forces on it, only Fy. The ball’s accelera - 1 tion is g. Newton's second law then becomes F, = mg. Both the force v fol and the acceleration are downward. The magnitude of an object’s weight > fy is equal to its mass times the acceleration it would have if it were falling freely. This result is tue on Earth, as well as on any other planet, although the magnitude of g will be different on other planets. Future astronauts will find that their weights vary from planet to planet, but their masses will not change. FIGURE 6-5 The net force on the ball isthe weight foree, F, 126 ForcesCommon misconceptions about forces The world is dominated Sy friction, and so Newton's ideal, friction-free world is not easy to visu. In addition, many terms used in physics have everyday meanings are different from those understood in physics. Here are some eemples of common, but mistaken ideas about forces. + When a ball has been thrown, the force of the hand that Grew it remains on it. No, the force of the hand is a contact force Serefore, once contact is broken, the force is no longer exerted. * A force is needed to keep an object moving. If there is no net sce, then the object keeps moving with unchanged velocity. If friction factor, then there is a net force and the object's velocity will change. * Inertia is a force. Inertia is the tendency of an object to resist ging its velocity. Forces are exerted on objects by the environment, ey are not properties of objects * Air does not exert a force. Air exerts a huge force, but because it alanced on all sides, it usually exerts no net force unless an object is wing, You can experience this force only if you remove the air from ne side, For example, when you stick a suction cup on a wall or table, us remove air from one side. The suction cup is difficult to remove tuse of the large unbalanced force of the air on the other side. * The quantity ma is a force. ‘The equals sign in F = ma does not ne ma as a force. Rather, the equal sign means that experiments have wn that the two sides of the equation are equal. 6.1 Section Review |. Identify each of the following as cither a, b, or e: weight, mass, inertia, the push of a hand, thrust, tension, friction, air drag, spring force, accel- eration, and mass times acceleration. aa contact force b. a long-range force € not a force . Can you feel the inertia of a pencil? OF a book? If you can, describe how. Research and describe Newton's contributions to physics Ifyou push a book in the forward direction, does that mean its velocity has to be forward? 5. Draw a free-body diagram of a water bucket being lifted by a rope at a decreasing speed. Label all forces with their agents and make the arrows the correct lengths Critical Thinking A force of 1 Nis the only force exerted on a block, and the acceleration of the block is measured. When the same force is the only force exerted on a second block, the acceleration is three times as large. What can you conclude about the masses of the two blocks? 6.1 Force and Motion 125