Distribution Restriction: Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited

PREFACE

T
his manual discusses the employment of airborne brigades, battalions, and regiments
in airborne operations within the context of the AirLand Battle. It sets forth tactical and
administrative support doctrine for the employment of Army forces in joint airborne
operations. It discusses command and staff procedures, tactics, and techniques used
in the planning and execution of parachute operations at brigade and lower echelons.

The discussions are written in general terms so they apply to brigade or smaller units
taking part in joint airborne operations. For this reason, the term “airborne force” is used
to refer to the Army component in the operation.

The principal tactics and techniques peculiar to airborne operations are of primary
concern. Details of unit organization/capabilities, and guidance for employment of units
in other than airborne operations are in other field manuals.

This publication implements the following international agreements: STANAG

3466/ASCC 44/18C, Responsibilities of Air Transport Units and User Units in the Loading
and Unloading of Transport Aircraft in Tactical Air Transport Operations and STANAG
3570/ASCC 44/13G, Drop Zones and Extraction Zones–Criteria and Markings.

The proponent of this publication is US Army Infantry School. Send comments and
recommendations on DA Form 2028 (Recommended Changes to Publications and Blank
Forms) directly to the Commandant, United States Army Infantry School, ATTN:
ATSH-ATD, Fort Benning, Georgia 31905-5410.

Unless this publication states otherwise, masculine nouns and pronouns do not refer
exclusively to men.

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
A
irborne forces of the US Army have often demonstrated their ability to
conduct decisive, short notice, forced entry operations deep into enemy
territory. They seize and maintain the initiative until follow-on forces are
committed to the fight and then move to hit the enemy where he is the most
vulnerable. The ability to rapidly deploy, land, and sustain a powerful
ground combat force is vital to US interests and worldwide commitments.

From their origins early in World War II, the US Army’s airborne forces
have dramatically demonstrated their responsiveness and flexibility many
times on DZs and battlefields all over the world. As the threat of regional
conflict has grown, the XVIII Airborne Corps, the 82d Airborne Division,
and the 75th Ranger Regiment have demonstrated that well-trained,
determined airborne soldiers armed with modern light weapons and led by
skilled officers and NCOs can dominate the close fight and impose their will
upon the enemy—wherever he is.

During Operation Just Cause in 1989, the actions of the 75th Ranger
Regiment and the 82d Airborne Division clearly demonstrated the
advantages of US airborne forces. The operation was well supported by
other US Army units, the US Air Force, and US Navy.

On 17 December 1989, the National Command Authority decided to commit

specially trained airborne units to military action in Panama. The President
established H-hour for 0100 on 20 December, just three days after the decision to
intervene. The complex operation was centrally planned due to the need for
thoroughly synchronized operations. The mission assigned to the airborne force
was to quickly isolate, neutralize, and, if needed, destroy units of the
Panamanian Defense Force by overwhelming combat power. These forces were
then to link up with elements of the 7th Infantry Division (Light), the 5th
Infantry Division (Mechanized), and the 193d Infantry Brigade.
Deploying by strategic airlift from multiple bases in the continental United
States, paratroopers jumped into action on two principal DZs. Ranger task
forces seized airfields at Rio Hato and Torrijos-Tocumen Airport. Another task
force built around the 1st Brigade of the 82d Airborne Division followed the
rangers. Their mission was to jump, assemble, and conduct immediate air
assaults to eliminate PDF garrisons at Fort Cimarron, Tinajitas, and Panama
Viejo These initial offensive operations were later followed by ground combat
and stability operations. They were sustained by air lines of communication
front the US and by CSS units already in Panama.

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Largely through airborne operations, capable and aggressive combined arms

task forces were brought to bear on short notice against u dispersed enemy.
Thirty-two separate objectives were attacked at the same time, paralyzing the
enemy. The resounding success of Operation Just Cause was due mostly to the
parachute assault and rapid follow-on missions made possible by the airborne
operation. Operation Just Cause demonstrated once again the capability,
flexibility and value of airborne forces.

1-1. PREPARATION FOR WAR

Airborne and ranger units are organized and equipped to conduct parachute
assaults to close with the enemy to kill him, to destroy his equipment, and to
shatter his will to resist. This close personal fight requires combat-ready units
composed of skilled soldiers and resourceful leaders. These units are the
result of a tough, thorough, and demanding training program conducted by
leaders who understand the effective employment of airborne forces, the
combined arms team, and joint operations.

1-2. THE SOLDIER

Paratroopers must be experts in marksmanship, close combat, individual

parachute techniques, and fieldcraft. They should be proficient with their
assigned weapons and other weapons in the unit. They should also be familiar
with foreign-made weapons that the enemy will use. In the close fight,
paratroopers must be skilled in employing all weapons to include the rifle,
the bayonet the AT4, grenades, mines, and bare hands. They must be
confident in their ability to fight with these weapons They must be highly
skilled in land navigation, camouflage, and tracking and stalking techniques.
Paratroopers must be able to move undetected close to enemy soldiers.
Stealth is required for reconnaissance, infiltration, and achieving surprise.
Paratroopers must have the skill and the will to dominate the close fight.

1-3. THE LEADER

Infantry leaders must be the most capable soldiers in their unit and be
tactically and technically proficient. The quality of the leadership determines
the unit's success or failure in battle. Leaders must be proficient in land
navigation and have an appreciation for terrain and parachute assault
techniques. For a foot soldier, the terrain is both protector and ally. When
properly exploited, it can increase the combat potential of the unit and
support the achievement of surprise. All leaders must also be resourceful,
tenacious, and decisive warriors. They are the combined arms integrators
closest to the fight. They must be highly skilled in the employment of all the
weapons and assets in the combined arms team. Leaders must be innovative
and flexible when employing their units. They must have the mental agility to
quickly grasp the situation and the initiative to take independent action,
based on the situation and the commander's intent. Above all, they must
personally lead their unit to success in close combat.

1-4. THE UNIT

The strength of airborne forces comes from the skill, courage, and discipline
of the individual paratrooper. The paratrooper's abilities are enhanced by the
teamwork and cohesion that develop in squads and platoons. This teamwork

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cohesion is essential to the survival and success of airborne forces in close

combat. Cohesion enhances the paratrooper’s will and determination to
persevere. to accept the hardships, and to refuse to accept defeat. In the close
fight, when the decision hangs in the balance, these are the factors that decide
the victor. It is at the small-unit level (squad and platoon) that cohesion and
teamwork provide the greatest benefits to the combat effectiveness of the
unit. Paratroopers must have complete trust and confidence in their leaders.
Leaders earn this trust and confidence by sharing the hardships and by
displaying the leadership attributes described in FM 22-100. They must
entrust the same confidence in their soldiers for this bonding to develop.

1-5. UNIT TRAINING PROGRAM

The unit training program must instill individual and collective skills and
confidence, and must develop combat-ready units. It must consist of difficult,
challenging training events that prepare soldiers, leaders, and units for the
close fight. It must be conducted IAW FM 25-100, FM 25-101, and the MTP.
The program must emphasize physical fitness, marksmanship skills, and
parachute techniques. Paratroopers must be challenged to achieve expert
proficiency in all of the combat critical skills. Night training, especially night
live-fire exercises and parachute assaults, should be routine. The environment
of the close fight should be simulated when possible. Training events that
require subordinate leaders to use their initiative and take independent
action are essential to prepare for decentralized operations that the unit
normally conducts. Training to standard also develops cohesive, tenacious
squads and platoons that can overcome all obstacles to ensure the safety of
their unit and the accomplishment of the mission. The training program must
continue after the unit begins conducting combat operations. The skills,
teamwork, and cohesion must be sustained as replacements arrive in the unit.
This is essential to maintain the combat effectiveness of the unit.

1-6. CAPABILITIES OF AIRBORNE FORCES

Airborne forces may be strategically, operationally, or tactically deployed on
short notice to DZs anywhere in the world. They can be employed as a
deterrent or combat force.

a. The USAF provides support to airborne operations that include:

• Airlift.
• Counterair.
• Close air support.
• Tactical air reconnaissance.
• Air interdiction.
• Special air warfare operations.
• Electronic warfare.
• Suppression of enemy air defense.
b. The strategic mobility of airborne forces permits rapid employment to
meet contingence across the operational continuum anywhere in the world.
Airborne forces provide a means by which a commander can decisively
influence operations. The primary advantages of airborne operations are as
follows:

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• Quick response on short notice.

• Ability to bypass all land or sea obstacles.
• Surprise.
• Ability to mass rapidly on critical targets.
Airborne forces, when augmented with appropriate combat, CS, and CSS,
can conduct sustained combat operations against any enemy.

1-7. MISSIONS OF AIRBORNE FORCES

Airborne forces execute parachute assaults to destroy the enemy and to seize
and hold important objectives until linkup is accomplished. The parachute
assault enhances the basic infantry combat mission: to close with the enemy
by fire and maneuver, to destroy or capture him, and to repel his assaults by
fire, close combat, and counterattack.

a. Missions for airborne forces can be strategic, operational, or tactical.

(1) Strategic missions. Simply alerting airborne forces for employment is a

show of force that is politically significant in a strategic context. Airborne
forces have strategic mobility. They can move from distant bases to strike at
important targets deep in enemy-held territory with little warning. Strategic
missions may require airborne forces to seize an airhead from which
follow-on ground or air operations can be launched. Operation Just Cause
was a strategic mission.
(2) Operational missions. Airborne forces can be employed anywhere in the
theater of war. They attack deep to achieve operational-level objectives. For
example, the seizure of objectives, such as airfields, bridges, or other key
terrain deep in the enemy’s rear area, is an operational mission. This is linked
to the operational-level commander’s concept and simplifies his
accomplishment of assigned tasks. These airborne operations are usually
short and require a linkup with other friendly forces or extraction of the
airborne force. Operation Market Garden in the fall of 1944 is a good
example of an operational mission.

(3) Tactical missions. Airborne forces assault in the rear or to the flank of the
enemy, preferably where few fixed defenses exist and where well-organized
enemy combat units are not initially present.
(a) Airborne units either assault their objectives and move to link up with
friendly forces, or seize an objective and hold for the arrival of other friendly
ground forces. They can also be used for rapid reinforcement of friendly
ground units.
(b) Airborne forces can vary in size from an airborne company team to a
division. Their size depends on the mission to be accomplished and the time,
soldiers, and aircraft available. In January 1945, Company C and elements of
Company F of the 6th Ranger Battalion executed a tactical operation to
liberate American PWs from the Japanese at Cabantuen, Philippines.
Usually only the assault echelon and its immediate follow-up are delivered
into the objective area by parachute. Tactical airhead operations often involve
the airlanding of heavy equipment, supplies, and supporting/reinforcing units
to consolidate and exploit the initial lodgment.

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b. Airborne forces can—

(1) Provide a show of force.

(2) Seize and hold important objectives until linkup or withdrawal.
(3) Seize an advance base to further deploy forces or to deny use of the base
by the enemy.
(4) Conduct raids.
(5) Reinforce units beyond the immediate reach of land forces.
(6) Reinforce threatened areas or open flanks.
(7) Deny the enemy key terrain or routes.
(8) Delay, disrupt, and reduce enemy forces.
(9) Conduct economy-of-force operations to free heavier more tactically
mobile units.
(10) Exploit the effects of chemical or nuclear weapons.
(11) Conduct operations in all four categories of low intensity conflict:
• Support for insurgency and counterinsurgency.
• Peacekeeping operations.
• Peacetime contingency operations.
• Combatting terrorism.

1-8. FUNDAMENTALS OF AIRBORNE OPERATIONS

The airborne commander and his staff must understand the fundamentals of
airborne operations to plan and execute a successful airborne assault. These
fundamentals are valid at every level:

a. Airborne forces require specially selected, trained, and highly disciplined

soldiers and leaders.

b. Airborne operations must capitalize on surprise.

c. The ground tactical plan must drive all other plans through the reverse
planning process.

d. Airborne operations require centralized, detailed planning and aggressive

decentralized execution.

1-9. CHARACTERISTICS OF AIRBORNE OPERATIONS

Airborne operations are characterized by the following:

a. Joint operations.

b. A planned linkup with follow-on forces.

c. Complexity.

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d. Robust, flexible command and control that emphasizes mission-type

orders.

e. Detailed, universally understood SOP.

f. Aggressive, rapid seizure of the assault objective.

1-10. LIMITATIONS OF AIRBORNE FORCES

The commander and planners must recognize the limitations of airborne
forces and plan accordingly. They must consider the following:

a. An airborne force depends on USAF aircraft for long-range movement,

fire support, and CSS. The availability and type of aircraft dictates the scope
and duration of airborne operations.

b. Airborne forces are vulnerable to enemy attack while en route to the DZ.
Although the USAF can conduct limited airdrops without air superiority,
large operations require neutralization or suppression of enemy air defenses.
This may require SEAD, radar jamming, and fighter aircraft in addition to
transport and CAS sorties.

c. After the initial airdrop, the sustained combat power of airborne forces
depends on resupply by air. Any interruption in the flow of resupply aircraft
can cause a potential weakening of the airborne force. Enemy air defense
fires against resupply aircraft and long-range artillery and mortar fires on the
DZ can hamper the delivery, collection, or distribution of critical supplies.

d. Once on the ground, the airborne force has limited tactical mobility. That
mobility depends on the number and type of vehicles and helicopters that can
be brought into the objective area.

e. The airborne force has limited FA and ADA support until additional
assets can be introduced into the objective area. Additional target acquisition
assets are needed to provide accurate and timely targeting information.

f. Evacuation of casualties from the airhead is difficult. Until evacuation

means are available, the brigade must be prepared to provide medical care
through the attachment of divisional medical elements.

1-11. PHASES OF AIRBORNE OPERATIONS

An airborne operation is conducted in four closely related phases:
marshaling, air movement, landing, and ground tactical.

a. Marshaling Phase. This phase begins with receipt of the warning order; it
ends when the transport aircraft departs. During this phase, leaders–
• Plan joint tactics and support.
• Rehearse and conduct briefbacks.
• Assemble and prepare paratroopers, equipment, and supplies.
• Conduct briefings and prejump training.

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• Move paratroopers, equipment, and supplies to the departure

airfields and load them into aircraft.
b. Air Movement Phase. This phase begins with aircraft takeoff and ends
with unit delivery to the DZ(s) or LZ(s).

c. Landing Phase. This phase begins when paratroopers and equipment exit
the aircraft by parachute or are airlanded. The phase ends when all elements
of the relevant echelon are delivered to the objective area.

d. Ground Tactical Phase. This phase begins with the landing of units and
extends through the seizure and consolidation of the initial objective(s). It
ends when the mission is completed or the airborne force is extracted or
relieved. Subsequent operations can include an offensive operation, defense
of key terrain, a linkup, a withdrawal, or any combination.

1-12. BATTLEFIELD OPERATING SYSTEMS AND AIRBORNE

OPERATIONS
Airborne operations, like any combat operation, can be considered in terms
of the battlefield operating systems. These systems must be considered for
each of the four plans required for an airborne assault. (Table 1-1.)

Table 1-1. Integration of battlefield operating systems.

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FM 90-26

a. Intelligence. The commander must consider the type, number, and

location of enemy air defense weapons, observation systems (visual, radar,
and satellite), and warning systems. He must also consider the locations and
capabilities of enemy reaction forces near the objective. Tactical air
reconnaissance requires close joint cooperation, and aerial and satellite
photographs and stereoscopic pictures can help offset the lack of terrain
reconnaissance before an airborne assault. Commanders insert LRS teams at
critical locations for gathering needed information.

(1) Airborne operations, more than any others, are affected by weather. The
more territory an airborne operation covers, the greater the need for a
long-range weather forecast system. Weather satellites may provide much of
the needed information. Some intelligence requirements can only be obtained
through HUMINT resources.
(2) The selection of DZs, assault objectives, and subsequent AOs depends
on a thorough analysis to capitalize on strengths of the airborne force.
(3) Target acquisition is a vital aspect of the intelligence battlefield operating
system. The search, detection, and location of targets are needed for
maneuver and CS forces to prepare plans for engaging and destroying the
enemy. These intelligence assets also assess target damage.
b. Maneuver. Forces must fit the task. The airborne brigade task force can be
part of an airborne assault by a larger unit, or it can constitute the initial
assault force, preparing the way for deployment of a follow-on force.

(1) Airborne battalions rarely conduct an airborne assault as an independent

operation just to establish an airhead. The battalion is not large enough to
adequately defend an airhead that includes the approach and departure
routes for airdrop sorties needed to sustain the airborne force. However,
airborne raids with withdrawal by air or other means are well within the
capabilities of a well-trained battalion TF.
(2) The airborne force must capitalize on surprise. The commander must
carefully select the time, place, and manner of delivery for the attack.
Everyone concerned must maintain strict security.
(a) The force can maintain deception by masking operations as rehearsal
deployments.
(b) The force must neutralize the effectiveness of enemy detection devices
through destruction, jamming, or operator distraction. The following actions
can help nullify detection devices:
• Airborne forces can fly at low altitudes, using terrain masking and
cloud cover to neutralize the effect of these devices.
• Deception flights can divert the attention of radar operators.
• Airborne forces can change course during the approach to confuse
the operators.
• Night operations increase the possibility of surprise, although they
make assembly of airborne force elements and seizure of assault
objectives more difficult.
• They can pre-position to a REMAB from which to conduct the
airborne operation.

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(3) Rapid seizure of objectives is critical to success; speed and surprise are
often more critical than numbers. Often, decisive action with a small force
can succeed early where a fully assembled force cannot succeed later.
(4) Planning for a large-scale airborne operation should include preparation
for air movement of large ground units to permit prompt reinforcement of
paratroopers after their initial landing. To capture a suitable airhead for
airland elements, the unit conducting the airborne assault must be able to
capture airfields or terrain suitable for landing air transports. They must also
be able to prevent enemy direct fire and observed indirect fire on the LZ. The
suppression of enemy air defense assets along the aircraft approach and
departure routes can be critical to success. Airlanded elements can be
committed only when these conditions are met.
c. Fire Support. The primary source of fire support for airborne assaults is
the US Air Force. US Navy/Marine Corps air assets and NGF if available will
also be used. FA and mortars will provide fire support for the airborne force
within 15 minutes after the beginning of the assault.

(1) The USAF must maintain air superiority for the airborne force to
succeed in its mission. The more temporary the air superiority, the shorter the
time-distance factors and duration of the flight should be. To establish and
maintain air superiority, the USAF can neutralize nearby enemy airfields and
C z facilities.
(2) The commander must plan to neutralize or avoid all antiaircraft
installations along the route selected for the flight. This can be a joint
responsibility, depending on the availability and capability of fire support
assets. For example, when airborne operations are conducted near the sea,
NGF may provide much of the fire support to include JSEAD.
(3) The USAF must isolate the objective by attacking the enemy’s ground
and air forces. These attacks must begin late enough that the enemy does not
identify the objective until it is too late to react effectively. Immediately
before an operation, the USAF should consider incapacitating the enemy’s
fighter airfields and immobilizing enemy radar, communications facilities, and
reserves near the projected airhead. An air attack on any enemy reserves
moving toward the airhead can give the airborne unit extra time to seize the
assault objectives, to reorganize, and to prepare for the defense.
(4) Airborne units require CAS initially until division and corps artillery can
support them.
d. Mobility, Countermobility, and Survivability. Engineers provide–
Mobility.
Countermobility.
Survivability.
General engineering.
Topographic support to airborne forces.
(1) The nature of airborne operations often requires engineers to fight as
infantry more often than in other operations. Engineers must be well trained
in this aspect of their mission.
(2) A primary mobility mission for engineers in support of airborne
operations is airfield runway clearance and repair. After the initial assault,

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airborne engineer units are prepared to improve or create landing areas for
follow-on units, equipment, and supplies.
(3) Countermobility efforts are vital to the survival and success of the
airborne force inside the airhead. Obstacles are created or reinforced to
secure the airhead and to isolate it from reinforcing enemy forces.
(4) Survivability and fighting positions prepared from local materials are
normal in airborne operations. Because airborne engineer units have limited
earthmoving equipment, priority in preparing protective positions is normally
given to key antiarmor and other weapon systems, C2- facilities, and vital
supplies.
e. Air Defense. The force must provide its own air defense. This is achieved
by establishing an air defense umbrella that is closely integrated with the
USAF. Usually, the enemy can respond fastest by air, so rapid establishment
of air defense is critical. To reduce fratricide, airborne forces must closely
coordinate and train with the USAF.

f. Combat Service Support. Airdrop of equipment and supplies is the main

resupply method for airborne forces and requires extensive planning.

g. Command and Control. Unity of command takes precedence over all

other C2 considerations. (Both air and ground units must be under one
overall commander.) The senior officer in the landing area commands the
airhead until the arrival of the ground force commander. Establishment of the
shortest possible chain of command is critical to success.

(1) Redundancy in all C2 systems should be established early in the planning

stages of an airborne operation and maintained throughout the operation.
(2) Airborne operations require CPs both on the ground and in the air. The
airborne force headquarters is divided into a mobile forward echelon and a
stationary rear echelon. They can operate from a REMAB, an intermediate
staging base, or a forward operating base. Commanders of airborne forces
should land with the first units so that clear battle directions can be given
from the outset.
(3) A highly qualified and trained force is required to successfully plan and
execute airborne operations. A mutual understanding of the peculiarities,
capabilities, and limitations of both air and ground assets by all leaders
involved is critical.
(4) Leaders must train systematically with emphasis on well-functioning joint
air-ground communications. (See Appendix G for more detailed
information.)
(5) An airborne operation is as rapid in its execution as it is time-consuming
in its preparation. Commanders must develop contingency plans for possible
follow-on operations. These CONPLANs should be modified based on the
most current intelligence Proactive advanced planning can allow more rapid
decision making and timely commitment of forces.

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2-1 2-2 2-3 2-5

CHAPTER 2

AIRBORNE PLANNING

Detailed planning and forceful, competent leadership are the keys to

victory. Thorough, flexible planning gives direction to units and leaders, and
allows them to concentrate combat power at the decisive point on the
battlefield. This chapter summarizes the procedures essential to planning a
successful airborne operation.

Section I. FUNDAMENTALS
Airborne operations are characterized by their complexity and joint nature. A
successful airborne Operation requires–

• Use of the commander’s estimate and the military decision-making

process.
• Centralized, detailed planning a n d d e c e n t r a l i z e d e x e c u t i o n o f
mission-type orders.
• Adherence to the principle of simplicity.
• Use of the reverse-planning process.

2-1. PLANNING RESPONSIBILITIES

The commander of a JTF initiates airborne operations with a planning
directive to participating units. The directive is assimilated through normal
command channels at corps and division-level, and pertinent information is
issued to brigades. The directive must–

• Specify missions.
• Outline the command structure.
• Identify participating ground and air forces.
• List forces in support.
• Provide a schedule of events.
• State conditions under which the operation will begin, be delayed, be
altered, or be terminated.

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2-2. KEY PERSONNEL RESPONSIBILITIES

The responsibilities of key personnel include the following:

a. Airborne Commander. The airborne commander establishes

mission-oriented command and control by ensuring that his concept is
understood and by defining the responsibilities of key personnel. The
airborne commander is responsible for–
(1) Accomplishing the ground mission.
(2) Loading aircraft with equipment and personnel.
(3) Assigning personnel to aircraft and preparing flight forms.
b. Airlift Commander. The airlift commander is responsible for–
(1) Allocating sufficient aircraft to support the ground tactical plan.
(2) Delivering assault elements to the correct DZ.
(3) Conducting resupply and evacuation missions.
c. Joint Responsibilities. The airborne and airlift commanders have joint
responsibility for–
(1) Establishing control parties at departure air bases.
(2) Supervising the loading of equipment and soldiers.
(3) Conducting rehearsals.
(4) Coordinating and standardizing SOI and prearranged signals.
(5) Selecting DZs, LZs, and EZs.
(6) Establishing control parties at DZs, LZs, and EZs.
(7) Unloading of aircraft at the LZ.
(8) Preparing the aerial resupply and evacuation plan.
(9) Securing departure airfields.
(10) Preparing the air movement table.
(11) Supervising JAAP procedures.
(12) Coordinating the movement of soldiers and aircraft.

Section II. PREPARATION OF PLANS AND

ORDERS
Commanders begin planning for airborne operations with a visualization of
the ground tactical plan and work backwards through the landing plan, the air
movement plan, and the marshaling plan. Planning is conducted in this order
regardless of the type and duration of the mission or the size of the force. It
continues until the operation is executed or cancelled.

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2-3. COMMANDER’S ESTIMATE OF THE SITUATION

This process helps the commander determine how best to accomplish a
mission. Airborne commanders and staffs follow five steps to solve problems
and plan tactical operations:

STEP 1. Analyze the mission.

STEP 2. Analyze the situation and develop courses of action.

STEP 3. Analyze courses of action.
STEP 4. Compare courses of action.
STEP 5. Make a decision.

a. Decision-Making Process. The airborne commander, his staff, and his

chain of command use the related processes of troop-leading procedure and
command and staff actions to develop and execute decisions. (FM 101-5
discusses the military decision-making process in detail.) (Figure 2-1,
page 2-4.)
b. Intelligence Preparation of the Battlefield. The IPB process is that portion
of the intelligence cycle that integrates enemy doctrine with the weather and
terrain, and relates these factors to the mission and the specific battlefield
situation. The formal IPB process is performed at division, corps, and higher
levels. (See Appendix F.) (FM 34-130 contains a complete discussion of IPB.)

2-4. REVERSE PLANNING PROCESS

The airborne commander and his staff develop, in this order, the ground
tactical plan, the landing plan, the air movement plan, and the marshaling
plan. The ground tactical plan drives the development of all other plans. (See
Appendix F.) (Figure 2-2, page 2-5.)

a. Ground Tactical Plan. The ground tactical plan is the basis for the
development of all other plans. The airborne commander and his staff give
special consideration to the reassembly and reorganization of the assault
forces and to the decentralized nature of initial operations in the objective
area. The subordinate commander requires the ground tactical plan of his
higher headquarters before he can begin planning. He needs to know the
type, location, and size of objectives; the mission and intent of higher
headquarters two levels up; and his task and purpose. The ground tactical
plan is generated down the chain of command as a mutual effort and includes
the following:
• Assault objectives and airhead line.
• Reconnaissance and security forces to include OPs.
• Boundaries.
• Task organization.
• Designation of reserve.
• Supply (accompanying, follow-up, routine).

(Chapter 3 provides details on the ground tactical plan.)

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Figure 2-1. Decision-making process.

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 FM 90-26

Figure 2-2. Reverse planning process.

b. Landing Plan. The landing plan is the airborne commander’s plan that
links the air movement plan to the ground tactical plan. It is published at
brigade level and below. Before the airborne commander can prepare an
overall landing plan, he must know where the subordinate commander wants
to put his paratroopers. The landing plan is generated up the chain of
command as a mutual effort. The landing plan includes the following:
• DZ/LZ/EZ locations and descriptions.
• Sequence of delivery.
• Method of delivery.
• Place of delivery.
• Time of delivery.
• Assembly plan.
• Type landing plan worksheet.

(Chapter 4 provides details on the landing plan.)

c. Air Movement Plan. The air movement plan provides the information
required to move the airborne force from the departure airfields to the
objective area. This plan is the third step in the reverse planning process and
covers the period from when units load to when they exit the aircraft. The
airborne commander designates the subordinate units sequence of air flow

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FM 90-26

and allocates aircraft. This allows the subordinate commanders to conduct air
movement planning. The air movement plan is generated up the chain of
command as a mutual effort and includes the following:

• Departure airfields.
• Aircraft by serial.
• Parking diagram.
• Aircraft mission (air movement tables and flight routes).
• Unit providing the aircraft.

(Chapter 5 provides details on the air movement plan.)

d. Marshaling Plan. This plan is developed last in the reverse planning

process and is based on the requirements of the other plans. It provides the
needed information and procedures for units of the airborne force to prepare
for combat, to move to departure airfields, and to load aircraft. The
marshaling plan also provides detailed instructions for facilities and services
needed during marshaling. It is generated down the chain of command and
includes the following:
• Movement to the marshaling area.
• Passive defensive measures.
• Dispersal procedures.
• Departure airfields.
• Marshaling camp operations.
• Briefback schedule.
• Preparation for combat (inspection, supervision, rehearsal, and rest).
• Communications.

(Chapter 6 provides details on the marshaling plan.)

e. Planning Assets. The complexity of air-borne operations demands great

attention to detail in the planning process. (Figure 2-3.) Planning is enhanced
when subordinate commanders use–
(1) Small-scale air photos of the landing area.

(2) Large-scale photos of the landing area for selecting avenues of approach
and planning ground operations.
(3) Air photo and interpretation reports covering enemy activities and
ground and air installations within and adjacent to the projected airhead.
(4) Aerial reconnaissance reports.
(5) Overlays prepared with descriptions of obstacles and defensive works,
navigational hindrances, and landing areas.

(6) M a p s .
( 7 ) Information concerning enemy capabilities, methods, and tactics.
( 8 ) Special studies that apply to the airhead.
( 9 ) Accurate, large-scale terrain models of the landing area.

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 FM 90-26

Figure 2-3. Planning assets.

2-5. PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS

I
The airborne commander considers the following additional factors in the
development of his plans:

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FM 90-26

a. Echelonment. The airborne commander organizes Army combat

elements within an airborne force into three echelons:
(1) Assault echelon. The assault echelon consists of those forces required to
seize the assault objectives and the initial airhead, reserves, and supporting
units.
(2) Follow-on echelon The follow-on echelon consists of forces required for
subsequent operations. It enters the objective area by air or surface
movement when required.

(3) Rear Echelon. The rear echelon consists of administrative and service
elements that remain in the departure area. These elements may be brought
forward to support in the airhead, as required.
b. Concurrent Planning. Commanders plan for all phases of an airborne
operation at the same time since all phases are interrelated. This reduces the
total planning time. A subordinate unit must maintain plans in draft until the
next higher headquarters has finalized its plans.

c. Coordination. Commanders normally provide plans and orders down the

chain of command. For airborne operations, however, higher headquarters
often cannot complete their plans until subordinate units have conducted a
briefback of their plans.
d. Liaison. Parallel echelons of the airlift and airborne units coordinate
continuously from the time of the joint planning conference until the
operation is executed or cancelled. Before the operation, complete
coordination is essential down to the smallest detail.
(1) Commanders of US Army. and USAF units exchange LOs to act as
advisors and coordinators immediately upon receipt of orders to participate
in an airborne operation. Army LOs must be familiar with all aspects of the
airborne operation. They must attend briefings and conferences, and must be
provided with adequate transportation and communications assets.
(2) Liaison officers are normally exchanged detween the airborne force and-

(a) Army units supporting the operation from outside the objective area.
(b) Airlift elements.
(c) Linkup forces.
(d) Special operations forces, especially AC-130 assets.
(3) The specific duties of liaison officers include the following:

(a) Represent their unit headquarters at the headquarters to which they are
detailed.
(b) Act as advisors to the headquarters on matters pertaining to their own
commands.
(c) Coordinate matters involving dual responsibility.

(d) Discuss the time, place, personnel required and material to be covered at
joint staff meetings.
(c) Hold joint staff briefings.

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 FM 90-26

(f) Examine parallel orders to ensure complete agreement of plans and

arrangements.
(g) Assess and plan for the availability and procurement of equipment and
facilities required from the higher headquarters
(h) Attend all joint conferences to become acquainted with the agreements
reached by the commanders and with the operational plan.
(i) Prepare joint reports.
(j) Obtain copies of the marshaling plan and the parking diagram for their
units.
(k) Know the location and capacity of all installations at the airfields and
airlanding facilities that concern their units.
(1) Review the plans and arrangements for reserve aircraft if last-minute
failures occur; prepare to assist the movement of paratroopers from aborting
aircraft to reserve aircraft.
(m) Brief guides, who were furnished by the airborne unit, on airfield traffic
procedures and locations of aircraft to be loaded. At dispersed locations, an
airborne unit representative is located at the coordination facility to perform
this function and to act as individual liaison.
(4) Commanders exchange Los on a continuous duty status at corps and
division level. At brigade and lower echelons, the S3 LOs, the S3 air, or unit
air movement officer can perform these duties. For operations of less than
brigade size, commanders exchange LOs as needed at the discretion of the
commanders concerned.
e. Briefbacks. Subordinate commanders must conduct brief backs on all
aspects of their plan to the next higher commander. (Figure 2-4, page 2-10.)
This ensures that unit plans are fully coordinated and in concert with the
commander’s intent. Commanders conduct briefbacks on a terrain model, a
sand table, or a map. Planning for an airborne operation is a dynamic
fast-changing process. A change in one plan has an impact on the other three.
Plans remain in draft until every commander in the chain has conducted a
briefback. All commanders must inform their subordinates of changes.
f. Rehearsals. Rehearsals are essential to the success of an airborne
operation. They are conducted at every level and involve both air and ground
components. They are performed on terrain similar to the objective and
under the same conditions. Rehearsals may be conducted on a sand table,
terrain model, mock-up, or map if time permits a full-scale rehearsal.
Rehearsals are listed in order of priority as follows:

• Ground tactical plan.

• Landing plan with emphasis to assemble on the DZ.
• Air movement plan with emphasis on aircraft loading.

g. Mission-Oriented Command and Control. The purpose of command and

control is to allow the airborne commander to generate and apply combat
power at the decisive point on the battlefield hfo(’z is a method of directing
military operations in which subordinates are encouraged to act alone,
consistent with the intent of senior commanders in executing assigned

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FM 90-26

missions. (See FM 7-10, FM 7-20, and FM 7-30 for a detailed discussion of

MOC2.)

Figure 2-4. Conduct of a briefback.

h. Dissemination. Leaders must be able to make decisions to support the

commander’s intent. Plans and intelligence must be brissminated to the
lowest level consistent with security requirements.
(1) Security. The staff follows security requirements in disseminating the
intelligence required for subordinate units to develop their plans. Intelligence
is provided on a need-to-know basis. As H-hour approaches, units are
provided with more detailed intelligence.
(2) Precombat briefing. The commitment of an airborne unit is sudden and
complete; there is no time for the commander to orient units immediately
after landing. Plans and intelligence must be thoroughly briefed before the
operation begins.
i. Linkup With Special Operations Forces. When the airborne force follows
an SOF during a deployment, it requests a liaison before arrival in the
operational area.
(1) During the planning phase, an SOF LO is assigned to the brigade along
with all communications assets needed for immediate use with SOF assets at
JSOF headquarters and at the objective area. The SOI and signal plan must
standardize not only frequencies and call signs, but also address visual signals,
and daylight and night operations.

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 FM 90-26

(a) The SOCCE links up with the airborne commander through the SOF LO.
(b) The SOCCE coordinates with the S2/S3 sections and both elements
provide the current situation, commander’s intent, and future operations of
their respective forces (within OPSEC limits).
(c) The SOCCE provides SOF locations through personal coordination,
overlays, and other friendly order-of-battle data to the FSE and brigade
operation section.
(d) The SOCCE requests appropriate restrictive fire support coordination
measures and provides time windows when these measures are to be effective.
The SOCCE must also ensure that FSE dissemination of these measures does
not result in OPSEC violations.
(2) Rangers can be OPCON with terminating conditions. They normally
conduct a relief in place with conventional forces.

(3) Communications capabilities are augmented to effect long-range

communications and proper liaisons. Equipment compatibility, crypto use,
information sharing, and security measures are considered when working with
Army SOF, joint forces, and combined security forces.

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Section I 3-1 3-2 3-3 3-4 3-5 3-6 Section II 3-7 3-8 3-9

CHAPTER 3

GROUND TACTICAL PLAN

he ground tactical plan is the base from which commanders develop all
other plans. They must complete the ground tactical plan before finalizing
the landing plan, the air movement plan, and the marshaling plan. It
provides the commander’s intent, his concept of the operation, fire support
plan, and task organization of the units making the initial assault. Ground
combat in airborne operations is conducted along conventional lines but
under unusual conditions. Once these conditions are appreciated, the tactics
and techniques of ground combat can be applied to airborne operations.
(See FMs 7-20 and 7-30 for a detailed discussion of combat operations.)

Section I. PLANNING
Once the airborne force commander receives the initiating directive/WO, he
begins planning. This dircctivc/WO includes the following:
• Missions for subordinate units.
• The higher commander’s concept of the operation.
• Command structure for the operation.
• Time and duration of the operation.
• Intelligence and security requirements
• Allocation and distribution of airlift assets.
• Unit deployment list and sequence.
• Departure airfields, REMABs, and ISBs.
• Signal requirements and instructions.
• Linkup and withdrawal concept.

3-1. ESTIMATE OF THE SITUATION

The military decision-making process incorporating the estimate of the
situation results in a course of action as in any other operation. Unit
commanders and staff officers cannot afford to deviate from this accepted
procedure for the development process. As a technique, the ground tactical
plan will normally be developed as the basic operations order/plan as
discussed in FM 7-20 and FM 7-30. This is the most critical phase of the
airborne operation because all other plans are based on it. When conducting
the estimate, the commander and staff consider the various aspects of
airborne combat conditions with regard to METT-T.

a. Mission. The mission of an airborne infantry battalion or brigade is to

close with the enemy by means of fire and maneuver to destroy or capture

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him, or to repel his assault by fire, close combat, and countcrattack. These
missions usually require the seizure and defense of objectives and
surrounding terrain. Forces rely strongly on the element of surprise. (See
Appendix F for detailed information on the application of the IPB process as
it relates to airborne operations.)

(1) In early linkup operations, the unit defends only the airhead and the
required maneuver space.
(2) In linkup and independent operations, the tactical operation begins with
an initial assault; it then passes to the defense of the established airhead until
enough forces can be delivered to the objective area.
(3) On reinforcement or on linkup with other ground forces, the airborne
units resume the offensive within the commander’s concept of the operation
or withdraw to prepare for subsequent operations.
b. Enemy Forces. Commanders analyze all available information to
determine the enemy’s situation. The following factors are considered:

(1) Enemy morale, leadership, and probable intentions.

(2) Enemy capabilities.

(3) Enemy tactics.
(4) Probable enemy reactions to an airborne assault.
(a) The enemy that can react the fastest poses the most immediate threat.
(b) The enemy that can cause the most damage or prevent the airborne force
from accomplishing its mission poses the most significant threat.
(5) Enemy reserves and paramilitary organizations (gendarmeries, police,
border guards, and militia) and their ability to mobilize and react. This is
especially critical before deep attacks.
(6) Enemy capability to conduct guerrilla, partisan, or sabotage activities and
the enemy’s relationship to the local population.
c. Terrain and Weather. Within this category, the staff must consider and act
on the following factors

(1) The availability of DZs, LZs. and EZs (division or corps staff provides a
landing area study to subordinate elements before the preparation of the
landing plan). However, the availability and selection of DZs should not
influence the selection of assault objectives, the airhead line, or unit
boundaries.

(2) Obstacles within the airhead line and out to the maximum effective range
of direct- and indirect-fire weapons, with emphasis on those that can be
prepared or reinforced with minimal engineer effort.

(3) Enemy avenues of approach, since the enemy will try. to reach and
destroy the airborne force before it can assemble and reorganize. This
consideration weighs heavily in determining the location of assault objectives.

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 FM 90-26

(4) Key terrain that can determine how the airborne force can best defend
the area in depth.
(5) Friendly and enemy observation and fields of fire (particularly for
indirect fires and antiarmor weapons).
(6) Cover and concealment (especially for assembly and reorganization).
(7) The staff must also consider the effects of climate and weather on the
following:
• Flight formations.
• Trafficability.
• Visibility.
• Close air support.
• Logistics.
• Personnel and equipment.

d. Troops Available. Commanders consider all forces available to

accomplish the mission. These include all assigned, attached, and supporting
forces.

(1) US ground forces. Commanders evaluate the plans, missions, capabilities,

and limitations of US ground forces. They consider whether artillery can
support the airborne forces and whether the forces will perform a linkup or
passage of lines.

(2) Air Force. Close air support can often make up for the lack of armor and
heavy artillery. The airborne commander must consider the USAF ability to
sustain the force and must bring knowledgeable airlift and tactical air
planners together early.
(3) Navy. The airborne commander examines the availability and feasibility
of NGF support and naval or USMC air support. Early arrangements for
liaison and coordination must be made to support the operation.

e. Time. Time is critical in all operations. There are several time

considerations that are unique to an airborne operation. Significant time may
be required to mass the lift force (Air Force aircraft). The time between the
initial assault and the deployment of the follow-on echelon must be
considered. Supply and CSS planning is driven by the amount of time before
linkup or withdrawal.

f. Indigenous Population. The airborne force commander must consider

national and regional characteristics such as —
• Religion and customs.
• Politics and tribal affiliations,
• Support (or lack of it) for central and local governments or
occupying powers.
• Loyalty to political or military leaders.
• Available labor.
• Support (or lack of it) for US forces.

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FM 90-26

3-2. DEVELOPMENT OF THE GROUND TACTICAL PLAN

The ground tactical plan incorporates considerations for those actions to be
taken in the objective area; for example, during the assault and subsequent
operations phases. This will be the first plan to be finalized. It must be keyed
on accomplishment of the commander’s concept of the operation.

a. The ground tactical plan is developed as any other tactical plan using the
procedure as delineated in FM 7-20, Chapter 2. However, the initial goal of
airborne operations is the establishment of an airhead and its subsequent
defense.

b. The ground tactical plan’s essential elements are developed in the

following sequence: the airhead line and the assault objectives (selected
concurrently); the security zone and R&S forces; boundaries and assault task
organizations (selected concurrently); and reserves.

3-3. SELECTION OF ASSAULT OBJECTIVES AND AIRHEAD LINE

Based on an analysis of the situation, commanders select specific assault

objectives. (Figure 3-1.) Although the airhead line is developed and the
assault objectives determined concurrently, the assault objectives dictate the
size and shape of the airhead.

a. This selection does not necessarily include those objectives that the force
must seize to secure the airhead line. An appropriate assault objective is one
which the force must control early in the assault to accomplish the mission, or
they must control to enhance the security of the airborne unit during the
establishment of the airhead.

(1) Objectives should allow for the accomplishment of mission-essential tasks

while meeting the commander’s intent. They can include key terrain within
the airhead or terrain required for linkup. For example, the commander has
directed the airborne force to secure a bridge for later use by linkup forces.
The force must secure this bridge before the enemy can destroy or damage it;
therefore, the commander designates the bridge as an assault objective.

(2) The airborne unit is vulnerable from the time it lands until follow-on
forces can be delivered to the airhead. A mobile enemy unit attacking the
airhead during these early moments can completely disrupt the operation.
Therefore, the commander selects as assault objectives terrain that dominates
places where high-speed enemy avenues of approach enter the airhead.
(3) Enemy positions that both threaten the mission and are located within
the airhead can also be selected as assault objectives. However, commanders
would not classify mobile forces as assault objectives.
(4) Assault objectives must be seized immediately to established the airhead
and to provide security for follow-on forces coming into the airhead.

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 FM 90-26

Figure 3-1. Assault objectives.

b. Other considerations impact on the development and final selection of

assault objectives. Subordinate commanders decide the size, type, or
disposition of the force to gain/maintain control.
• Division selects brigade assault objectives.
• Brigade selects battalion assault objectives.
• Battalion selects company assault objectives.

(1) Senior commanders choose as few assault objectives as possible since

subordinate commanders must select additional objectives to establish a
cohesive defense of their assigned sectors of the airhead.

(2) Assault objectives are ranked in order. A unit SOP may predesignate a
numbering system for subordinate objectives. For example, all first brigade
objectives begin with a "Q", or for OPSEC purposes, they may be randomly
numbered or lettered. Priorities are chosen based on the most likely threat or
on the needs of the friendly force.
(3) Assault objectives are secured before the defense is setup in the airhead
line. The airhead is then cleared of organized enemy resistance and forces are
positioned to secure the airhead line.
c. At the same time commanders select assault objectives, they consider the
extent of the airhead. The airborne force seizes hostile or threatened
territory. The airhead includes the entire area under control of the airborne
force. It acts as a base for further operations and as a respite that allows the

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FM 90-26

airborne force to build up its combat power. Once the force secures the
airhead, they must clear any enemy force within it; then, they must defend it.
The airhead line, which delineates the specific area to be seized, designates
the airhead. Several principle factors determine the location, extent, and form
of the airhead/airhead line.

(1) The actual trace of the airhead line reflects the control of key/critical
terrain essential to the mission. (Figure 3-2.)
(2) The airhead line anchors on obstacles, and the airhead itself takes
advantage of existing natural and man-made obstacles.
(3) The airhead contains enough DZs, LZs, and EZs to ensure interior
rather than exterior lines of communication and to permit mass rather than
piecemeal assault.
(4) The airhead must allow enough space for dispersion to reduce
vulnerability to NBC weapons.

(5) The airhead must be large enough to provide for defense in depth, vet
small enough for the unit to defend. Although this is largely METT-T
dependent, a battalion can defend an airhead 3 to 5 kilometers in diameter.
A brigade can occupy an airhead 5 to 8 kilometers in diameter.

Figure 3-2. Airhead line.

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 FM 90-26

3-4. RECONNAISSANCE AND SECURITY FORCES

Security in all directions is an overriding consideration early in any airborne
operation, since an airhead is essentially a perimeter defense. In ground
operations, there are several security echelons forward of the FEBA.

a. Security forces are landed early in the assault echelon. The reconnaissance
and security line is established immediately 4 to 6 kilometers from the airhead
line to afford security to the airborne force during its landing and
reorganization, In the early stages of an airborne operation, the security. force
acts as a screening force. In later stages (when assault missions have been
accomplished, when the airhead is relatively secure, and when more forces
are available), it acts as a guard or covering force. Security forces come under
brigade control except during short battalion missions such as raids, when
they come under battalion control. The mission of the security force is as
follows:

(1) To give the airhead early warning.

(2) TO develop intelligence, including the location, direction, and speed of an
enemy attack.
(3) To initially deny the enemy observation of and direct and observed
indirect fire on the airhead.

(4) To deceive the enemy as to the actual location of the airhead.

(5) To delay and disrupt the enemy.
b. The need for and positioning of additional security forces is determined by
the next subordinate commander. The security force includes scouts, AT
weapons, engineers, Army aviation, and (sometimes) light armor. When
possible, mobile forces are selected to facilitate rapid initial movement to
positions and to facilitate withdrawal and adjustment. An aggressive R&S
effort at lower echelons augments the security force. The following
considerations apply to the selection of positions for the screening force:

(1) Locate them within radio communications and fire support range.
However, this range can be extended, if necessary, with retransmission
stations; split section indirect-fire operations; and attachment of vehicles
mortars, or other assets to the security force.

(2) Locate them as roadblocks/obstacles, ambushes, patrols, or sensors

(depending on the enemy) on dominant terrain. This allows long range
observation and fields of fire out to the maximum range of supporting fires.
(3) Locate them to observe, control, and dominate enemy high speed
avenues of approach.

(4) Locate them to deny enemy Iong-range observation and observed indirect
fire into the airhead.

(5) Locate them far enough out to provide early warning.

(6) Locate them to provide routes of withdrawal to the airhead. Observation

posts generally rely on their ability to hide as their main protection; they can
allow the enemy to pass their position and not withdraw.

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FM 90-26

c. Designated forces under control of the airborne commander perform R&S

missions beyond the security zone established by ground forces; emphasis is
placed on likely enemy avenues of approach. The mission of these forces is to
gain and maintain contact with enemy units reacting to the airborne assault.
This force is mobile and is not used to defend a particular part of the airhead.
It can include Army aviation, air cavalry, or light armor; it can be supported
with fire from Air Force assets, NGF, or Army missile systems. The following
considerations govern the employment of this force:

(1) These forces orient on enemy high-speed avenues of approach to develop

intelligence, including the location, direction, and speed of the enemy’s
advance.
(2) Commanders of these forces consider known enemy locations, the
number of high-speed approaches, and communications-relay abilities while
orienting on enemy units.
(3) Usually employed beyond the airhead at a distance based on the tactical
situation, these forces protect the main force from surprise attack. The
airborne commander can extend their range if communications permit.
Aviation assets can extend to 50 kilometers or more, although the commander
must consider loiter time so the forces can provide continuous coverage.
(FARPs can increase this distance.) Long-range surveillance teams may
surveil enemy garrisons and major routes into the airhead.
(4) Reconnaissance forces must be mobile and task-organized for the
mission from cavalry, armor, scout, LRS, and antiarmor units.

3-5. BOUNDARIES AND TASK ORGANIZATION

Commanders visualize the employment of subordinate units to organize them
for combat commensurate with the brigade missions.

a. Boundaries. Commanders use boundaries to assign sectors of

responsibility to major subordinate combat elements, who then clear the area
of enemy forces. (Figure 3-3.) In selecting and designating assault boundaries
for airborne operations, several points are considered:

(1) Each unit should be able to clear its assigned sector; therefore,
commanders must consider boundaries concurrently with task organization.
To assign boundaries, commanders subdivide the area into sectors with fairly
equal tasks (not necessarily into equal sectors). This requires a careful
analysis of the enemy, the tasks to be accomplished, and the terrain within the
objective area.
(2) Commanders should avoid splitting (between two units) the responsibility
for the defense of an avenue of approach or key terrain.
(3) Commanders should ensure there is adequate maneuver space in the
sector, including key terrain features that control it.
(4) Commanders should avoid designating boundaries in such a way. that a
major terrain obstacle divides a unit sector; this presents problems for
maneuvering forces.

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 FM 90-26

(5) The boundaries should provide adequate room to permit the commander
to maneuver forces on both sides of the assault objectives.
(6) The commanders must choose boundaries that are recognizable both on
the map and on the ground. Roads should not be used as a boundary because
they represent a high-speed avenue of approach and need to be covered with
a clear understanding of responsibility. Instead, commanders can use rivers,
streams, railroad tracks, the edge of a town, woods, the edge of a swamp, and
so on.
(7) Ideally, each battalion sector should include at least one DZ and LZ to
enable the battalion and its attachments to land within the assigned sector
during the assault. This also facilitates resupply and evacuation of EPWs and
casualties. Having an LZ and DZ reduces the problem of coordination with
adjacent units. This does not mean that commanders must locate all battalion
DZs in the battalion sector. Regardless of boundaries, units should drop on
the DZs closest to their assault objectives.
(8) Commanders should establish boundaries that will serve during the
assault and during later operations. These should be readily recognizable
during limited visibility.
(9) Commanders should choose boundaries that do not require a unit to
defend in more than one direction at once. Also, they should not expect a unit
to secure objectives within the airhead at the same time they establish its
defense.

Figure 3-3. Boundaries.

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FM 90-26

(10) Boundaries should extend beyond the trace of the security force as far
as necessary to coordinate fires. This also allows subordinate units to operate
for-ward of the airhead with minimal coordination.
(11) Commanders should plan coordinating points at the intersection of the
airhead line and security force ground trace boundaries.
b. Task Organization. Once commanders have determined the principal
features of the ground assault plan (scheme of maneuver and fire support),
they organize units to execute their assigned missions and they determine
boundaries at the same time. To ensure unity of effort or to increase
readiness for combat, part or all of the subordinate units of any command can
be formed into one or more temporary tactical groupings (teams or task
forces), each under a designated commander. No standard team organization
can be prescribed in advance to meet all conditions. Infantry units usually
form the nucleus tactical groupings of the team; infantry unit commanders
lead the teams. These teams are tailored for initial assault by the attachment
of required combat, CS, and CSS units. They are attached as soon as possible
in the marshaling area. Many of the units detach as soon as centralized
control can be regained and the parent unit headquarters can be established
on the ground. Other units such as higher echelon assault CPs can be
attached for the movement only.

(1) Brigade. Attachments for airborne infantry brigades usually include the
following:
(a) An FA battalion.
(b) A combat engineer company.
(c) An MP platoon.
(d) A light armor company/platoon.
(c) An IEW support element, usually from the MI battalion.

(f) A forward area support team.

(g) An ADA battery.
(h) Other assets as determined necessary by the division commander based
upon his estimate of the situation.
(2) Battalion. For control, the airborne infantry battalions are usually
reinforced for the airborne assault and organized into task forces. This is
especially true if battalions are to land in widely separated DZs or LZs. A
battalion TF usually consists of an infantry battalion that is reinforced based
on the brigade commander’s estimate of the situation. Reinforcements can
include more infantry, armor, antitank, engineer, dedicated artillery, and any
other units or detachments needed in the initial attack. As in the brigade.
attachments to infantry battalions are made early in the planning phase. They
can be withdrawn as soon as the ground situation stabilizes.
(3) Rifle units. Rifle companies and platoons can be reinforced for the
airborne assault according to the usual considerations governing a ground
attack. Attachments are made before the move to, or on arrival in, the
marshaling camp.

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 FM 90-26

c. Organization for Assault Landing. After the task organization of soldiers

for the assault landing is announced, units organize into assault, follow-on,
and rear echelons.

(1) Assault echelon. The assault echelon is composed of those forces

required to seize the assault objectives and the initial airhead, plus their
reserves and supporting soldiers.
(2) Follow-on echelon The airborne force does not need the follow-on
echelon in the objective area during the initial assault, but does need it for
subsequent operations. When needed, the follow-on echelon enters the
objective area as soon as practical by air, surface movement, or a combination
of the two. It includes additional vehicles and equipment from assault echelon
units, plus more combat, CS, and CSS units. The existence of any one of the
following conditions requires an airborne unit to have a follow-on echelon:
• Shortage of aircraft.
• Aircraft that cannot land heavy items of equipment.
• Any enemy situation, terrain, or weather that makes it impossible to
land certain soldiers or equipment in the assault echelon.
Airborne infantry units can be committed to an airborne assault without
leaving a follow-on echelon that must be brought forward by means other
than air; however. it is often desirable or necessary to leave certain personnel
and equipment behind.
(3) Rear echelon. The rear echelon includes the part of an airborne unit that
is not considered essential for initial combat operations. It also includes
people left at its rear base to perform administrative and service support
functions that cannot be done efficiently in the combat area. The rear echelon
is normally small for a brigade or battalion. Higher headquarters usually
controls the rear echelon for all units. The rear echelon can remain at the
REMAB when the unit is to be relieved at an early date; or it can rejoin the
unit when the brigade remains committed to sustained combat for a
prolonged or indefinite period. Also, if the airborne force continues in the
ground combat role after linkup, the rear echelon may be brought forward.

3-6. DESIGNATION OF RESERVE

The employment of the reserve element follows the normal employment of a
reserve unit in a ground operation.

a. The Battalion as the Division Reserve. The division reserve can be held in
the departure area ready to be committed by air when and where the situation
dictates A battalion can be the division reserve. This usually happens in
large-scale airborne operations when suitable airfields in the airhead are not
available; however, it can cause delays in commitment–
• If signal communications fail.
• If the air move is very long.
• If flying weather is unfavorable.
• If time is added for coordination of air cover.
With the reserve element at the departure airfield, the reserve commander
must continue planning for possible future commitment of his forces as far as
maps, photos, and information of the situation permit.

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FM 90-26

b. Brigade and Battalion Reserves. These reserves enter the airhead as part
of the assault echelon. They provide depth to the airhead by blocking
penetrations, reinforcing committed units, and counterattacking. They consist
of not more than a company at brigade level or a platoon at battalion level;
however, their small size is dictated by tactical considerations and assigned
missions. Commanders should organize, task, and position the reserve,
ensuring that–

(1) The size of the reserve is compatible with likely missions.

(2) The reserve comes from the unit with the fewest priority tasks.

(3) The reserve is not assigned assault objectives or a sector of the airhead to
defend.
(4) The reserve is near areas of likely employment such as near the main
enemy avenues of approach to speed commitment.
(5) The reserve is mobile. (This can be achieved using organic
vehicles – antiarmor company, support platoon, light armor, and so on.)

(6) The reserve is located in an AA (both initial and subsequent) or battle

position, so that it does not interfere with units assigned assault objectives.
(7) The reserve is near an LOC in a covered and concealed location to
provide ease of movement, to reinforce, or to block.
(8) The reserve is located within the sector of one unit, if possible.
(9) The reserve’s location allows for dispersion of the force.

(10) The reserve commander prepares and rehearses commitment

contingencies IAW guidance received from the commander designating the
reserve.

Section Il. EXECUTION

Execution of the GTP involves the initial seizure of DZs and LZs in and
around the airfield or the actual seizure of an airfield. (See Chapter 7.)

3-7. CONDUCT OF THE ASSAULT

The initial assault emphasizes the coordinated action of small units to seize
initial battalion objectives before the surprise advantage has worn off. As
assault objectives are seized, the airborne force directs its efforts toward
consolidating the airhead.

a. Tactical surprise and detailed planning should enable units to seize their
assault objectives and to establish the airhead before the enemy has time to
react in force. Missions of units are changed as required by the enemy
defense of initial objectives. The enemy can be expected to quickly launch
uncoordinated attacks along major avenues of approach using local forces.
The degree of coordination and strength of these attacks increase
progressively; the airborne force must develop correspondingly greater

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 FM 90-26

strength in its defensive positions. Preparation of early defense against

armored attack is a major consideration.

b. Units assigned to perform R&S missions land in early serials so they can
establish roadblocks; locate enemy forces; disrupt enemy communication
facilities; and provide the commander with early warning, security, and
information. Since ground reconnaissance by unit commanders is seldom
possible before the airborne operation, it must begin as soon as the unit lands.
The flow of information must be continuous. Information requirements do
not vary from those employed by other ground units. However, the unit’s
method of arrival in the combat area makes immediate and thorough
reconnaissance and transmission of information to higher headquarters
necessary.

c. If the initial objectives are heavily defended, the bulk of the force is
assigned the task of seizing these objectives. When initial objectives are lightly
defended, the bulk of the force can be employed in clearing assigned sectors
and preparing defensive positions in depth. Extensive patrolling is initiated
early between adjacent defensive positions within the airhead line, and
between the airhead and the R&S line. Army aircraft are well suited for
support of this patrolling effort. Contact with any friendly guerrilla forces in
the area is established as soon as possible.

d. Personnel are briefed on unit plans, adjacent and higher units’ plans, and
alternate plans. This helps units or personnel landing in unplanned areas to
direct their efforts to accomplishing the mission. Misdelivered units or
personnel establish contact with their respective headquarters as soon as
practical.

c. Sufficient communications personnel and equipment must be moved into

the airhead in advance of the CP they are to serve to ensure the timely
installation of vital communications. As soon as communications and the
tactical situation permit, commanders regain centralized C 2. T h e r e f o r e ,
immediate establishment of the following is necessary for effective C2:
(1) Command and fire control channels within the airborne forces.
(2) Communications with supporting air and naval forces.
(3) Communications with airlift forces concerned with buildup, air supply,
and air evacuation.
(4) Communications with bases in friendly territory.

(5) Communications between widely separated airborne or ground forces,

such as linkup forces, with a common or coordinated mission.
f. The commander influences the action by–
• Shifting or allocating fire support means.
• Moving forces.
• Modifying missions.
• Changing objectives and boundaries.
• Employing reserves.
• Moving to a place from which he can best exercise personal
influence, especially during the initial assault.

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FM 90-26

g. When initial objectives have been secured, subordinate units seize

additional objectives that facilitate the establishment of a coordinated brigade
defense or the conduct of future operations. Defensive positions are
organized, communications are supplemented, and reserves are
reconstituted. These and other measures are taken to prepare the force to
repel enemy counterattacks, to minimize the effects of attack by nuclear
weapons, or to resume the offensive.

h. Reserves prepare and occupy blocking positions, pending commitment.

Typical missions for reserves committed during the initial assault include
taking over the missions of misdelivered units, dealing with unexpected
opposition in seizing assault objectives, and securing the initial airhead.

3-8. DEVELOPMENT OF THE AIRHEAD

After the airborne forces make the initial assault landings and accomplish the
initial ground missions, commanders must organize the airhead line.

a. Size. The airhead line extends far enough beyond the landing area to
ensure uninterrupted landings of personnel, equipment, and supplies. It
secures the requisite terrain features and maneuver space for such future
offensive or defensive operations as the mission calls for.

b. Occupation and Organization. Units occupy and organize the airhead line
to the extent demanded by the situation. Commanders adjust the disposition
of units and installations to fit the terrain and the situation. Units take
reconnaissance and security measures; this usually includes the reinforcement
of the R&S line. The degree to which the airhead line is actually occupied
and organized for defense is largely determined by the mission, enemy
capabilities, and the defensive characteristics of the terrain.

c. Buildup. This proceeds concurrently with the seizure and organization of

the airhead line. As more combat personnel arrive and commanders organize
them by unit, frontline positions are reinforced, reserves are constituted, and
preparations are mare for such offensive operations as the mission requires.

3-9. BUILDUP OF COMBAT POWER

The buildup of combat power is the introduction of the follow-on echelon

into the airhead. This increase of friendly combat power yields a
corresponding ability to conduct a defense of the airhead and to conduct a
short term sustainment of those forces. The intent of the buildup is to provide
a secure operating and logistic base for forces working to move the airhead
away from the original point of attack. Usually, this distance is equal to the
enemy's direct fire capability to harass and destroy incoming aircraft or
landing craft (5 to 10 kilometers).

a. The composition of the follow-on echelon depends on the factors of

METT-T. It can consist of heavy, light, long-range FA, and combat engineers
as well as significant CS and CSS elements. Other forces required can include
the following:
Infantry Forces.
Light/heavy task forces.

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 FM 90-26

• Armored units task-organized with light forces already in the

objective area.
• Field artillery.
• Engineers in addition to those in the assault echelon.
• Air defense artillery.
• CSS assets.
b. The time involved in defensive operations, if any, varies. It depends on the
mission assigned, the composition and size of the force, the enemy reaction,
and the type of operation contemplated. A well-prepared defense in
short-duration missions in isolated objective areas may not be required.
Security can be accomplished by completely or almost completely destroying
or dispersing the enemy forces in the immediate objective area during the
assault; then, airlifting the striking force before the execution of a coordinated
enemy counterattack.

(1) Defense of an airhead. The airborne force usually defends an airhead by

securing key terrain within the airhead and dominating likely avenues of
approach. Units deny the enemy the areas between the occupied positions
with a combination of patrols, mines, fire, and natural and man-made
obstacles. Units aggressively reconnoiter between positions within the
airhead, between the airhead and the RSL, and forward of the RSL. They
increase emphasis on reconnaissance forward of the RSL during limited
visibility. The airhead configuration allows the commander to shift forces,
reserves, and supporting fires quickly to reinforce another sector of the
airhead. Regardless of the form of defense chosen, the force prepares
positions in depth within its capabilities.
(2) Defense during withdrawal. Should withdrawal from the initial positions
be required, the final area to which the airborne force withdraws must
contain adequate space for maneuver, for protection of critical installations,
and for planned airlanding or air evacuation operations.
(3) Defense against armor. During the initial phases of an airborne operation,
one of the main defenses against enemy armor is tactical air support. Aircraft
attack enemy armor targets as they appear, as far as possible from the
objective area, and continue to attack and observe them as long as they
threaten the airborne force. Strongpoints defending the airhead use natural
obstacles, plus mine fields, tank traps, demolitions, and man-made obstacles.
Units emplace AT weapons in depth along avenues of approach favorable for
armor. They cover all dangerous avenues of approach with planned fires. The
Dragons and LAWs of the rifle companies, the TOWs of the battalion
antiarmor company, and the AT weapons of division aviation units give the
airborne force a substantial amount of antitank firepower. Some of the
antitank weapons, organic to battalions that are holding sectors not under
armored attack, can be moved to reinforce threatened sectors.
(4) Defense against air assault. All personnel must recognize that the enemy
can conduct air assault operations and must defend against these attacks.
Helicopters afford the enemy one of their best means of rapidly moving
significant tactical forces to the airhead area.

(5) Defense against airborne attack, guerrilla action, and infiltration. The
defense must include plans for countering enemy airborne attacks, guerrilla
attacks, or infiltrated forces attacking the airhead area. The basic defense

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FM 90-26

against these attacks is an extensive patrol and warning system, an all-round

defense, and designated reserve units ready to move out quickly to destroy
the enemy force. Units must be especially alert during limited visibility to
prevent the enemy from infiltrating. If the enemy can build up forces in the
airhead interior, they can influence operations. During daylight, units must
locate and destroy any enemy that have infiltrated the airhead.

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Section I 4-1 4-2 4-3 4-4 4-5 4-6 Section II 4-7 4-8 4-9 4-10 4-11

4-12 4-13 4-14 4-15 4-16 4-17 4-18 4-19

CHAPTER 4

LANDING PLAN

T
he commander finalizes the landing plan after completing the ground
tactical plan. The landing plan phases forces into the objective area at the
correct time and place to execute the ground tactical plan. The execution of
the landing plan is vital to the swift massing of combat power, protection of
the force, and subsequent mission accomplishment. This was demonstrated
by the 503d Parachute Regimental Combat Team in the airborne assault in
support of the invasion of Corrigedor, Philippines on 16 February 1945.

February 16, 1945 was the beginning of one of the most unusual airborne
operations in the Southwest Pacific area during World War II. Because of
Corrigedor's fortifications, the joint commander was determined that more than
just an amphibious assault was necessary. The plan called for an intense air and
naval bombardment of the island, followed by an airborne assault to neutralize
the fortifications and facilitate the amphibious landing.
The planning for the operation was extensive. The regimental and battalion
commanders along with selected staff officers observed the island while riding as
passengers in planes making preparatory air strikes. After the aerial
reconnaissance, the Regimental Combat Team commander and his battalion
commanders studied aerial photographs of the island. Because the island was 1
square mile in area, only two areas were suitable for a drop zone. The largest was
only 150 by 275 yards and sloped down to an abrupt 500-foot drop to the sea.
Because the RCT commander had confidence in the capabilities of his soldiers
and a thorough knowledge of airborne techniques, he felt that the mission could
be accomplished successfully.
Because sufficient aircraft were not available to lift the RCT at one time, the
commander task-organized the regiment into battalion landing teams. There was
a total of 51 aircraft available for the drop and about 3,000 men to be
transported. This meant that the RCT had to be transported in three lifts. One
battalion landing team would be dropped on the morning of D plus 1, one in the
afternoon, and the third on the morning of D plus 2.
Because of the small DZs, the planes had to fly in trail formation (one behind
the other), divided into two columns, one over each DZ. The planes in the left
column would fly over DZA, drop eight paratroopers and an equipment bundle,
circle to the left, join the tail of the column and, in a round-robin fashion,
continue until all personnel and equipment had been dropped. The planes on
the right would do the same thing over DZB, except they would turn to the right.
An airborne command ship was used to control the drop and make corrections.

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FM 90-26

It took a little over an hour for the first battalion to be dropped. The operation
was a success — the Japanese were totally surprised. The airborne force
suppressed the defending Japanese and destroyed many gun and mortar
emplacements, allowing the 3d Battalion, 34th Infantry to make the amphibious
landings with few casualties. Later events revealed that the Japanese commander
had been informed that he should devise a defensive plan to repulse an airborne
assault of the island. After he made a reconnaissance he decided that such an
attack was virtually impossible and did nothing.
The ability to rapidly assemle and conduct small-unit operations enabled the
503d RCT to accomplish its assigned mission. Extensive training, detailed
planning, and thorough rehearsals contributed to the success of this combat
operation. The regimental commander task-organized his force to accomplish
the ground tactical plan while devising the simplest landing plan possible under
the circumstances. He anticipated the development many years later of the
ABCCC by using an aerial command ship to observe and control the drop.

Section I. PLANNING
The landing plan is the airborne commander's plan that links air movement
into the ground tactical plan. The landing plan is published at the brigade
level and below, but is informal and not published at the joint level. T h e
landing plan is a tabulation of the sequence, method, and destination of
paratroopers and materiel into the objective area. The landing plan has five
elements:

• Sequence of delivery.
• Method of delivery.
• Place of delivery.
• Time of delivery.
• The assembly plan.

4-1. REQUIREMENTS
To develop the landing plan, commanders at each level need to know their
commander’s priorities the airlift tactics, the landing area study, the parent
and subunit task organization and ground tactical plans, and the subunit
landing plan. During the briefback of the ground tactical plan, the
commander establishes airlift/delivery priorities and airlift tactics. He
provides as much of this information as possible to subunits at the end of the
ground tactical plan briefback.

a. Commander's Priorities. The commander must set the priorities for each
assault objective to determine the delivery sequence for units that are to
secure these objectives. This dots not necessarily match the sequence in
which the units secure objectives. The commander must also know:

(1) The priorities for deliveries on each DZ (personnel drop, CDS, heavy
drops, and LAPES).

(2) The DZ sequence.

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 FM 90-26

(3) The priorities for delivering the remainder of the forces.

(4) The method of delivery for each unit and its equipment.
(5) The priorities for use of EZs.
(6) The location of the HEPI and the PPI.
b. Airlift Tactics. The Air Force element responsible for selecting airlift
tactics develops them with the Army element to best support the ground
tactical plan. These tactics include aircraft formations and the sequence of
personnel drops, heavy drops, and LAPES. The Army element chooses this
sequence and the time intervals between serials, which are groups of like
aircraft (C-130s, C-141s) with the same delivery method (personnel drops,
heavy drops, LAPES) going to the same DZ.

c. Landing Area Study. Division or corps staff, working with US Army

Topographic Engineers and the Air Force, develops the landing area study
and provides it to subunits. This study enables subunits to select the location,
size, and orientation of DZs to best support their scheme of maneuver.

d. Subunit Landing Plans. Subordinate commanders should develop landing

plans to support their own respective schemes of maneuver. Subunits then
briefback their landing plans so that higher headquarters can finalize their
plans. Units must also know the initial locations of CS and CSS elements. This
information should become available as subunits briefback their ground
tactical plan.

4-2. CONSIDERATIONS

Commanders should examine the following considerations when developing

the landing plan.

a. Basic Methods of Attacking an Objective. There are three basic methods

of attacking an objective.

(1) Jumping or landing on top of the objective. This method works best for
attacking a small objective that is specially fortified against ground attack.
However, an airborne landing into an area strongly defended against air
attack requires surprise to succeed.
(2) Jumping or landing near the objective. This method works best for the
capture of a lightly defended objective that must be seized intact such as a
bridge. If the enemy has strong defenses against air attack, only surprise can
enable the unit to achieve success with few casualties.
(3) Jumping or landing at a distance from the objective. This technique is the
least often used of the techniques available. Airborne forces use this method
for large complex objectives that must be seized by deliberate attack. The DZ
is selected to emphasize security and preservation of the force. The plan is
based on METT-T considerations and should capitalize on the principle of
surprise.

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FM 90-26

b. Basic Methods of Landing. There are two basic landing methods.

(1) Multiple drop zones. The use of multiple DZs creates a number of small
airheads in the objective area. This technique supports the principle of mass
by placing the maximum number of paratroopers in the objective area in the
minimum amount of time. Additionally, the commander can capitalize on the
principle of surprise because the main effort is not easily determined by the
enemy. This technique is normally used by division-size elements and larger.
(2) Single drop zone. Brigade and smaller-size airborne forces often establish
an airhead by conducting the airborne assault onto a single drop zone. This
technique allows the assaulting unit to assemble quickly and mass combat
power against the enemy.
c. Time-Space Factors. Commanders schedule the delivery sequence and the
time between serials to provide the least time and distance separation
between each aircraft and serial. The airborne force assembles maximum
combat power on the DZ as quickly as possible, using either of the following
options:

(1) Land all elements in the same area. Aircraft approach the DZ in a deep,
narrow formation and all soldiers jump into a small area.
(2) Land all elements at the same time. Aircraft in a wide formation approach
various DZs situated close to each other and all soldiers jump at the same
time or as near to it as possible.
d. Landing Priorities. Airborne units are cross loaded to land close to their
assault objectives.

e. Organization. Airborne forces try to maintain tactical unity.

(1) Battalions or battalion TFs normally land intact on a single DZ. A

brigade lands in mutually supporting DZs. Two or more battalions land
successively on the same DZ or each can land on a separate DZ within a
general brigade DZ area.
(2) The airborne force sends as many assault unit personnel and equipment
as possible into the area in parachute serials. Commanders must consider the
mobility of equipment after the landing. For example, the carriers or prime
movers that are deliverable by parachute, but difficult to manhandle on the
ground, can accompany the weapons in the assault clement. Paratroopers
accompany their units’ principal items of equipment.

4-3. SEQUENCE OF DELIVERY

The commander’s priorities within the ground tactical plan determine the
sequence of delivery. Neither aircraft allocations nor the availability of
aircraft should influence these decisions. The commander determines final
aircraft allocations after the landing plan briefbacks. JAAP serials may
precede the main airlift column to drop combat control teams and Army
LRSU. The CCT places and operates navigation aids on the drop and landing
zones; the LRSU provides surveillance on NAI and reports to the ground
force commander.

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 FM 90-26

4-4. METHOD OF DELIVERY

This part of the landing plan addresses how the force with its needed supplies
and equipment arrives in the objective area. The assault echelon comes in by
parachute. The commander can use a number of other means to introduce
additional personnel, equipment, and supplies into the objective area.

a. Personnel Airdrop. The airborne force delivers assault personnel by

parachute drop. This method allows quick, nearly simultaneous delivery of
the force. Planners choose any terrain free of obstacles that allows the assault
force to land on or close to objectives. In some cases and with special
equipment, it can deliver personnel into rough terrain. Special teams, such as
the JAAP, can use HAHO or HALO techniques. These techniques allow for
early delivery of the JAAP without compromising the objective’s location.

b. Equipment/Supply/ Airdrop. Airborne forces can airdrop supplies and

equipment directly to units behind enemy lines or in other unreachable areas.

(1) Advantages.
(a) Prerigging and storing emergency items for contingencies considerably
reduces shipping and handling time and increases responsiveness.
(b) Since the delivery aircraft does not land, there is no need for forward
airfields/LZs or materiel handling equipment for offloading.
(c) This reduces flight time and exposure to hostile fire and increases aircraft
survivability and availability.
(d) Ground forces can disperse more since they are not tied to an airfield or
strip.
(2) Disadvantages.

(a) Airdrops require specially trained rigger personnel and appropriate

aircraft.
(b) Bad weather or high winds can delay the airdrop or scatter the dropped
cargo.
(c) Ground fire threatens vulnerable aircraft making their final approach,
especially if mountains or high hills canalize the aircraft.
(d) Since the aircraft do not land, no opportunity for ground refueling exists.
Planned aerial refueling can extend aircraft range and should be considered
on long flight Iegs to increase objective area loiter time and mission flexibility.
(c) Bulky airdrop rigs for equipment prevent the aircraft from carrying as
much cargo as when configured for airland.
(f) The possibility of loss or damage to equipment during the airdrop always
exists.

(g) Ground forces must secure the DZ to prevent items from falling into
enemy hands.
(h) Recovery of airdropped equipment is slow and manpower intensive.

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FM 90-26

(3) Types of equipment delivery. Free drop, high-velocity drop, low-velocity

drop, HALO, and LAPES are different types of air deliveries. (See
FM 100-27.)
(a) Free drop (less than 600 feet AGL). Free drop requires no parachute or
retarding device. The airdrop crew can use energy-dissipating materiel
around the load to lessen the shock when it hits the ground at a rate of 130 to
150 feet a second. Fortification or barrier material, clothing in bales, and
other such items can be free dropped.
(b) High-velocity airdrop (400 to 600 feet AGL). Parachutes, which have
enough drag to hold the load upright during the descent at 70 to 90 feet a
second, stabilize loads for high-velocity airdrops. Army parachute riggers
place airdrop cargo on emergy-dissipating material and rig it in an airdrop
container. This method works well for subsistence, packaged POL products,
ammunition, and other such items. The ground commander may usc the
standard high-velocity delivery system, which is the container delivery system,
to deliver accompanying and follow-on supplies; they can be delivered within
an area 400 by 100 meters. A CDS is the most favored means of resupply; it is
also the most accurate of all airdrop methods. Each pallet holds up to 2,200
pounds. A C-130 holds up to 16 of these containers, while a C-141B holds up
to 40. Planners should calculate the CARP near AAs or resupply points. The
ALO or Army DZ support team controls receipt of CDS. (Figure 4-l.)

Figure 4-1. Container delivery system.

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 FM 90-26

(c) Low-velocity airdrop (1,100 feet or less AGL, depending on DZ size).

Low-velocity airdrop requires cargo parachutes. Crews rig items on an
airdrop platform or in an airdrop container. They put energy-dissipating
material beneath the load to lessen the shock when it hits the ground. Cargo
parachutes attached to the load reduce the rate of descent to no more than 28
feet a second. Fragile materiel, vehicles, and artillery can be low-velocity
airdropped.
• Heavy drop. Airborne forces use this method most often to deliver
vehicles, bulk cargo, and equipment. Airdrop aircraft deliver
heavy-drop equipment just ahead of the main body or, if following
personnel drops, at least 30 minutes after the last paratrooper exits.
For night drops, the heavy drop precedes personnel drops.
• Door bundles and wedges. This procedure requires the use of either
the A7A cargo sling or the A21 cargo bag. With these, aircraft
personnel can drop unit loads of up to 500 pounds just before the
first soldier’s exit. Local SOPS dictate the number and type of door
bundles that specific aircraft can drop.
(d) HALO. Airborne forces use HALO to airdrop supplies and equipment
at high altitudes when aircraft must fly above the threat air defense umbrella.
(Figure 4-2.) The rigged load is pulled from the aircraft by a stabilizing
parachute and free falls to a low altitude where a cargo parachute opens to
allow a low-velocity landing.

Figure 4-2. HALO supply delivery.

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FM 90-26

(c) Low-altitude parachute extraction system. The LAPES uses extraction

parachutes to airdrop palletized loads and equipment from airlift aircraft
flying about 5 to 10 feet above the ground. (Figure 4-3.) The extraction
parachute that pulls the rigged load from the aircraft also helps to slow the
platform and load as it slides across the EZ. Some airfields and EZs require
special preparation for a LAPES delivery. (See Appendix A for detailed
information on LAPES extraction zone requirements.)
• Airborne forces can usc the LAPES to deliver vehicles, artillery,
ammunition, supplies, equipment, and water. It is a reliable way to
rapidly introduce outsized or heavy loads (such as the M551
Sheridan) and bulk supplies (such as ammunition and fuel). It allows
accurate delivery into small perimeters.
• Adverse weather conditions, such as excessive surface or altitude
winds or low ceilings, inhibit airdrop, but they do not preclude the
use of the LAPES. Airdrops by the LAPES can be accurately
delivered on plateaus, mountains, cratered airfields, or assault LZs,
and among other obstacles.
• The LAPES reduces aircraft radar signature; it allows the aircraft to
avoid enemy air defense systems by flying low, and it negates having
to defend against ground fire. once ground forces have cleared the
EZ. aircraft can deliver LAPES airdrops in any sequence. Units
must arrange the time, personnel, and equipment to derig and
remove the delivered LAPES load from the EZ before that EZ can
be used for another load. They can facilitate this by preparing
multiple/parallel EZs.

Figure 4-3. Low-altitude parachute extraction system.

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 FM 90-26

c. Airland. Airborne forces can accomplish certain phases of airborne

operations, or even the entire operation, by using airland to deliver personnel
and equipment to the objective area. (See FMs 7-20, 7-30, and 100-27.)

(1) Advantages. In some cases, airlanding rather than airdropping personnel

and equipment may be advantageous because airlanding –
(a) Provides the most economical means of airlift.
(b) Delivers Army aviation elements, engineering equipment, artillery pieces,
and other mission-essential items in one operation.
(c) Provides a readily available means of casualty evacuation.
(d) Allows units to maintain tactical integrity and to deploy rapidly after
landing.
(c) Allows the use of units with little special training and equipment.
(f) Does not require extensive preparation and rigging of equipment.
(g) Offers a relatively reliable means of personnel and equipment delivery
regardless of weather.
(h) Precludes equipment damage and personnel injuries units may
experience in parachute operations.
(2) Disadvantages. In other cases, airlanding is not advantageous because it –
(a) Cannot be used for forced entry.
(b) Requires moderately level, unobstructed LZs with adequate soil
trafficability.
(c) Requires more time for delivery of a given size force than airdrop,
especially for small, restricted LZs.
(d) Generally requires improvement or new construction of airland facilities,
which adds to the engineer workload.
(c) Requires some form of airlift control element support at offloading
airfields. Mission intervals depend on airlift control element size, offloaded
equipment availability, and airfield support capability.
(3) Organization for movement. The tactical integrity of participating units is
a major consideration in an airland operation. Small units that are expected
to engage in combat on landing, airland organizationally intact with weapons,
ammunition, and personnel in the same aircraft, whenever possible. Joint
planning stresses placing units as close as possible to objectives, consistent
with the availability of LZs and the operational capability of the tactical
aircraft employed. Because of aircraft vulnerability on the ground, units
unload as quickly as possible.
(a) The airborne commander determines the makeup of each aircraft load
and the sequence of delivery. The mission, the tactical situation, and the
assigned forces influence this decision.
(b) Units should use existing facilities, such as roads and open areas, to
reduce the time and effort required for new construction. They should
consider layouts that facilitate future expansion and provide maximum

4-9
FM 90-26

deployment and flexibility. As the size and efficiency of an air facility

improve, its value to the enemy as a target increases. To reduce this
vulnerability, the facilities should be dispersed and simple.

4-5. PLACE OF DELIVERY

The selection of DZs/LZs/EZs is a joint responsibility. The airlift commander
is responsible for the precise delivery of personnel and cargo to the DZ/LZ
and for the selection of approaches to the DZ. Both joint and component
commanders must base their decisions on knowledge of their respective
problems and on the needs of the overall operation. The nature and location
of landing areas are important considerations when preparing the scheme of
maneuver. The general area in which they are to be established is necessarily
governed by the mission. At higher echelons, commanders can assign landing
areas in broad general terms. In lower units, leaders must describe their
locations more specifically. Drop zones are selected only after a detailed
analysis. Commanders should consider the following factors when making
their selections.

a. Ease of Identification. The DZ should be easy to spot from the air. Airlift
pilots and navigators prefer to rely on visual recognition of terrain features to
accurately deliver personnel and equipment.

b. Straight-Line Approach. To ensure an accurate airdrop, the aircraft

should make a straight-line approach to each DZ for at least 10 miles, or
about four minutes at drop airspeed, before the start of the drop.

c. Out of Range. The commander should choose a DZ that allows the units
to avoid enemy air defenses and strong ground defences and puts them
outside the range of enemy suppressive fires. To get to the DZ, aircraft
should not have to fly over or near enemy antiaircraft installations, which can
detect aircraft at drop altitudes. They should fly over hostile territory or
positions for the least possible time.

d. Close To or On Top of Assault Objectives. If the enemy situation permits,

the commander should choose a DZ directly on top of assault objectives.

e. Suitable Weather and Terrain. The commander must consider the

weather and terrain because these conditions affect the usability of a DZ.

(1) Weather. Commanders should consider seasonal weather conditions

when selecting DZs. Adverse weather effects can be devastating. Ground fog,
mist, haze, smoke, and low-hanging cloud conditions can interfere with the
aircrew’s observation of DZ visual signals and markings. However, they do
offer excellent cover for blind or area DZs. Excessive winds also hamper
operations.

(2) Terrain. Flat or rolling terrain is desirable; it should be relatively free, but
not necessarily clear, of obstacles. Obstacles on a DZ will not prevent
paratroopers from landing but will increase jump casualties. Sites in
mountainous or hilly country with large valleys or level plateaus can be used
for security reasons. Small valleys or pockets completely surrounded by hills

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 FM 90-26

are difficult to locate and should be used only in rare cases. Commanders
must avoid man-made obstacles more than 150 feet (46 meters) above the
level of the DZ within a radius of 3 nautical miles. High ground or hills need
not be considered a hazard unless the hills pose an escape problem that is
beyond the aircraft’s capability. High ground or hills more than 1,000 feet
(305 meters) above the surface of the site should not be closer than 3 nautical
miles to the DZ for night operations. The perimeter of the DZ should have
one or more open approach sectors free of any obstacles that would prevent
the aircrew’s sighting of the DZ markings.

(a) Cover and concealment. Cover and concealment near the DZs/LZs area
distinct advantage when the airborne forces assemble and when airland forces
land.

(b) Road net. Having a DZ near a good road net expedites moving
personnel, supplies, and equipment from that zone. If the landing area
contains terrain that is to be developed into an airlanding facility, a road net is
of particular value – not only for moving items from the facility but also for
evacuating personnel and equipment.

(c) Key terrain. The DZ site selected should aid in the success of the mission
by taking advantage of dominating terrain, covered routes of approach to the
objective, and terrain favorable for defense against armored attack.

f. Minimum Construction for DZs/LZs. Because of limited engineer support

in the airborne force, selected landing zones should have a minimum
requirement for construction and maintenance. Unless more engineer
support is requested and received, construction and maintenance restraints
can Iimit the number of areas that can be used or developed.

g. Mutual Support. Commanders should select mutually supporting

DZs/LZs that provide initial positions favorable to the attack.

h. Configuration. The division/brigade commander gives guidance on DZ

size in OPLANs or OPORDs. Then each unit commander determines the
exact shape, size, and capacity they need.

(1) Shape. The most desirable shapes for DZs arc rectangular or round;
these permit a wider choice of aircraft approach directions. However, [hey
also require precise navigation and timing to avoid collisions or drop
interference
(2) Size. The DZ should be large enough to accommodate the airborne force
employed; one DZ that allows the aircraft to drop all of its load in one pass is
desirable. Repeated passes are dangerous because the initial pass can alert
enemy antiaircraft and other emplacements, and they will be waiting for
subsequent drops.
(a) There are certain situations, however, when multiple passes can be used.
This occurs mainly when there is no significant air defense threat and orbits
can be made over areas where enemy antiaircraft systems are not positioned.
This applies especially to the seizure of islands where small DZs arc the rule.
If there are enough aircraft available to deliver the force with less personnel

4-11
FM 90-26

on each aircraft, there is no real problem. However, if there are only enough
aircraft to deliver the assault echelon in one lift with each aircraft carrying the
maximum number of personnel, then the aircraft will have to make multiple
passes over the DZ.

(b) A large DZ can permit several points of impact to be designated and

used. Although it is desirable to saturate the objective area in the shortest
possible time, there is a reasonable limit to the amount of personnel and
heavy drop that can be stacked on a single drop zone. Therefore, it can be
desirable to usc multiple points of impact on a single DZ — provided the drop
zone is large enough to permit this.

(3) Capacity. The DZ capacity is based on the expected number of units to be

dropped and their dispersion pattern. (See Appendix A for criteria for
determining DZ capacity.)
i. Orientation. Thoughtful orientation allows the quickest possible delivery of
the airborne force into the objective area.

(1) Ideal DZs offset and parallel each serial. (Figures 4-4 and 4-5.) This
allows aircraft to share a flight route until they approach the objective area;
then they can split at an 1P (RP) for simultaneous delivery on several DZs.

Figure 4-4. Ideal DZ situation.

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 FM 90-26

Figure 4-5. DZs parallel on-line.

(2) Another technique that can be employed is to make two drops on two
DZs in line (thus eliminating a change of flight direction between the two
drops). The DZs must be far enough apart to permit the navigators to
compute the location of the second release point.
(3) Paratroopers are more likely to overshoot the DZ than to undershoot it.
Therefore, selection of the trailing edge of the DZ should be at the objective
to place personnel responsible for the primary assault objective at the front of
the aircraft so that they exit last.
(4) If a fighter aircraft escort or rendezvous is required for the drop, they
must be kept advised of the drop pattern, the direction of all turns to be flown
around the DZ, and the areas to look for possible enemy activity.
(5) Drop zones that require intersecting air traffic patterns should be
avoided whenever possible. They delay simultaneous delivery of the force
because of the safety requirements to stagger delivery times and clear the air
by at least a 5- or 10-minute formation separation time. They also require that
JSEAD be accomplished for multiple routes instead of one. This may result
in piecemeal delivery and an unnecessarily complicated plan, violating the
principles of mass and simplicity.
j. Alternate Drop Zones or Landing Zones. Commanders must select
alternate DZs/LZs to compensate for changes that may occur.

k. Number of Drop Zones or Landing Zones. The number of DZs to be used

by the assault parachute element of an airborne infantry brigade depends on
the number, size, and relative position of suitable sites; the brigade plan of
maneuver; and the expected enemy situation. The battalions of a brigade can
land successively on the same DZ, on separate battalion DZs, or on adjacent
areas within a single large brigade DZ.

(1) Single brigade drop zone. The usc of a single brigade DZ on which
battalions land successively has these advantages:

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FM 90-26

(a) It permits greater flexibility in the plan of maneuver and the plan of
supporting fires.

(b) It facilitates coordinating and controlling assault battalions.

(c) It applies the principle of mass.
(d) It makes logistical support easier.
(c) It decreases the area of vulnerability.
The usc of a single DZ also has disadvantages.
(a) It slows the buildup of combat power.
(b) It causes later airlift sorties to be vulnerable to enemy air as a result of
the loss of surprise.
(c) It allows the enemy to focus his efforts.
(2) Separate battalion drop zones. The use of separate battalion DZs has
these advantages:
(a) It increases readiness for action by deploying the brigade as it lands.
(b) It reduces confusion on the DZs during the landing and reorganizing.
(c) It tends to deceive the enemy as to the intention and strength of the
landing force.
(d) It makes capture of the brigade objective easier when there is strong
opposition on one drop zone.
(c) It increases the freedom of maneuver of the assault battalions.
The use of separate battalion DZs also has disadvantages.
(a) It makes C2 more difficult.
(b) It reduces flexibility because units are dispersed.
(3) Adjacent drop areas. Landing battalions on adjacent areas within a single
large brigade DZ has, although to a lesser degree, the same advantages and
disadvantages of dropping on separate DZs.

4-6. TIME OF DELIVERY

No set rule can be prescribed for the timing of an airborne operation. It varies
with each situation; however, the airborne force will try to conduct airborne
assaults during limited visibility to protect the force and to surprise the
enemy. The commander sets the specific time of delivery. However, for the
landing plan, times are stated in terms of P-hour (when the first paratrooper
exits the aircraft). The following considerations affect the timing of the
operation.

a. Support of the Main Effort. The airborne assault can be a supporting

attack. If so, the time of commitment of the airborne forces in relation to the
main effort is usually directed by orders from higher headquarters. It is
determined in advance IAW the mission, the situation, and the terrain. For
example, the airborne force can be committed in advance of the main effort
to give the airborne attack an increased element of surprise. It can be

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 FM 90-26

committed during the main effort to neutralize specific areas or to block the
movement of enemy reserves. It can also be committed after the main effort
to assist a breakthrough or to block an enemy withdrawal.

b. Visibility. The decision as to whether the airborne force is committed by

night or day depends on the estimated degree of air superiority, the need for
security from enemy ground observation, the relative advantage to be gained
by surprise, and the experience of both airlift and airborne personnel.

(1) Night airborne operations offer the following advantages. They greatly
increase the chance of surprise and survivability, and reduce the chance of
attack by enemy aircraft during the air movement. They also reduce
vulnerability to antiaircraft fire, conceal preparations for takeoff from the
enemy, and reduce the effectiveness of the defender’s fires.

(2) Night airborne operations offer the following disadvantages. In zero

visibility, they require well-trained soldiers and aircrews to locate the DZ and
assemble rapidly. They provide more air and land navigation problems and
offer slower rates of assembly than daylight operations. Night operations also
reduce the effectiveness of CAS.

(3) Daylight operations provide better visibility both from the air and
ground, more accurate delivery, quicker assembly, and more effective friendly
fires than night operations.
(4) However, daylight operations increase vulnerability to enemy air defense,
ground fires, and air attack, and they result in loss of surprise.
c. Intervals. The time interval between delivery of the assault echelon
(P-hour) and the follow-on echelon depends on the availability of aircraft, the
capacity of departure airfields, the number of aircraft sorties that can be
flown on D-day, the availability of DZs/LZs within the objective area, and the
enemy situation. For example, if there are unlimited aircraft, ample departure
airfields, numerous DZs/LZs within the objective area, and little or no enemy
air defense, the commander could deliver the follow-on echelon immediately
after the assault echelon Thus, the time interval could be so brief that it
would be hard to determine which was the last aircraft of the assault echelon
and which was the first aircraft of the follow-on echelon. Regardless of the
timing selected, avoid setting a pattern.

Section Il. ASSEMBLY AND REORGANIZATION

Success or failure of the mission can depend on how fast the airborne force
can regain tactical integrity. The first goal of any airborne assault must be to
deliver and assemble all available combat power as quickly as possible. The
sooner soldiers assemble and reorganize as squads, platoons, and companies,
the sooner they can derig their equipment and start fighting as cohesive units.
How efficiently and rapidly this happens is a direct result of detailed
planning, cross loading on the assault aircraft, and assembly on the DZ.

4-7. CROSS LOADING

Cross loading of key personnel and equipment is an important factor in rapid

assembly. It must be given careful attention in training and on combat jumps.

4-15
FM 90-26

a. Personnel. Separate key personnel in case any aircraft aborts or fails to

reach the DZ. This prevents the loss of more than one key officer/NCO of any
one unit.

b. Heavy-Drop Loads. Always plan for the possibility that one or more
heavy-drop aircraft will abort before it gets to the DZ, or the equipment will
streamer in and become unserviceable.

c. Individual Equipment/Weapons. Separate radios, mortars, AT weapons,

ammunition bundles, and other critical equipment or supplies as much as
possible. No like items of combat-essential equipment from the same unit
should be on the same aircraft.

(1) The CWIE and the DMJP can and should be jumped at any position in
the stick to support cross loading and assembly plans. The commander must
make a risk assessment when he determines the location of paratroopers in
the stick carrying this equipment.

(2) Risks to both the paratrooper and mission accomplishment are present.
If the paratrooper falls inside the aircraft, the remainder of the soldiers may
not be able to exit on that pass. Also, this equipment increases the risks of the
paratrooper being towed outside the aircraft.

4-8. ASSEMBLY TECHNIQUES

Based on METT-T considerations, the ground force commander may elect to

use one of the following techniques:

a. Assembly on the Objective: This technique may be used when speed is

essential, the objective is lightly defended, or the enemy can be suppressed.

b. Assembly on the DZ: This technique maybe used when the DZ will not be
used by follow-on forces, speed is not essential, and dismounted avenues of
approach from the DZ to the objective are available.

c. Assembly Adjacent to the DZ: This technique may be employed when the
DZ is to be used by follow-on forces or if the DZ is compromised during the
airborne assault.

4-9. ASSEMBLY AIDS

To speed up assembly after landing, airborne units usc assembly aids to orient
themselves on the ground and to locate their unit’s AA. Assembly aids help

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 FM 90-26

identify personnel, equipment, and points or areas on the ground. Units can
use visual, audible, electronic, natural, or individual aids; for reliability and
ease of recognition, units combine these. Operators of assembly aids land as
close as possible to their AA so they can mark the area. An Air Force CCT or
LRSU places assembly aids if the situation permits. Partisans, special forces
personnel, or high-performance aircraft can deliver assembly aids. Whenever
possible, regardless of the method chosen to emplace the aids, commanders
should provide backup operators, backup aids, and backup delivery means.

a. Control Posts. An assembly control post is established by a small party

equipped with assembly aids, which moves after landing to a predesignated
location to help assemble soldiers. (Figures 4-6 and 4-7.) Each DZ/LZ has a
control post in or near the unit AA to coordinate and regulate assembly. No
standard organization exists for control posts; their composition varies with
the size of the parent unit, the number and type of assembly aids carried, the
terrain, and the assigned mission.

Figure 4-6. Control posts for brigade units landing on one DZ.

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FM 90-26

Figure 4-7. Movement of personnel to company assembly area.

b. Joint Airborne Advance Party. The JAAP has a variety of navigational and
assembly aids. They usually land on the DZ/LZ from 15 minutes to 1 hour
before the main elements arrive. The senior commander prescribes how the
JAAP helps units assemble after landing.

c. Line-of-Flight or Clock System. Airborne soldiers observe the airdrop

formation’s line of flight. The line of flight parallels the parachute landing
pattern; this helps each paratrooper establish his own landing position
relative to those of the other members of their plane load. Leaders use the
clock system to brief soldiers, calling the direction of flight 12 o’clock.
(Figure 4-8,) After landing, soldiers assemble to the right of the DZ at 3
o’clock or to the left of the DZ at 9 o’clock. In AWADS conditions,
commanders should avoid choosing this method of aid.

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 FM 90-26

Figure 4-8. Line-of-flight/clock system.

d. Natural Assembly Aids. These aids include landmarks or easily

recognizable terrain features that units can use as AAs or that personnel can
orient their movement on. These features include hills; stream junctions;
clumps of woods; or man-made objects like radio towers, bridges, buildings,
crossroads, or railroads. Units cannot rely on natural features as the primary
assembly aid. The assembly plan must be usable regardless of the DZ.
Execution of contingency plans en route may require assembly on an
alternate DZ; an emergency exit from the aircraft can place paratroopers on
an unfamiliar DZ.

e. Assembly Equipment. Airborne units carry visual, audible, or electronic

aids into combat to help them assemble. Planners assign different colors,
sounds, and coded signals to each unit. The unit SOP standardizes assembly
aids; however, units can adapt them to fit specific situations or environments.
Terrain restrictions and battlefield noise do not restrict the usc of the best
assembly aids, which are also simple to use. Units usually use visual assembly
aids.

(1) Visual aids. Visual aids include visible light sources, such as beacons,
flashlights, strobe lights, or signal mirrors; panels; flags; balloons; infrared
lights, such as metascopes, flashlights with filters, infrared weapons sights, or
starlight scopes; pyrotechnics; and chemical lights. These aids arc simple to
use and afford positive identification of AAs. However, the enemy can see
them as well as friendly personnel can. The Stiner aid has a cloth panel with a
colored letter; that is, HHC = White “H”. They arc the same color for night
use. (Figure 4-9, page 4-20.) It has pockets for 15-inch chemical lights; the

4-19
FM 90-26

letter and pockets are on both sides. It is mounted on a sectional aluminum

pole that fits into an M1950 weapons case.

Figure 4-9. Stiner aid.

(2) Audible aids. Audible aids especially help small units assemble at night.
They include tin crickets, sirens, cowbells, air horns, triangles, dinner bells,
ratchets, drums, gongs, whistles, bugles, and voice signals; they can be used to
identify individuals or AAs. Strong winds, gunfire, aircraft sounds, an
elevation high above sea level, and other factors can limit their effectiveness.
The normal sounds of the battlefield easily mask or confuse the sounds of
audible assembly aids.
(3) Electronic aids. Units can use organic radios to effectively direct small
units to AAs, using landmarks as references. They can also use radio homing
devices. A homing device is a lightweight attachment to a standard field
radio; it is an excellent aid for day or night assembly. With it, a RATELO can

4-20
 FM 90-26

pick up a coded signal beam from a transmitter at the AA. By following the
beam, the RATELO homes in on the transmitter and leads the unit to the
AA. The unit uses the AT-784/PRC antenna with the AN/PRC-77 to home in
on the transmissions of another AN/PRC-77 or another FM radio on the
same frequency. Signal crews can make an equipment homing assembly aid
from a standard portable field radio or transmitter. The unit attaches the
radio to the equipment and turns it to a designated frequency. They encase it
in shock-absorbing material just before its extraction from the aircraft. This
technique is especially useful for assembling crews on heavy-drop loads.

(4) Field-expedient aids. The unit uses any of numerous field-expedient

assembly aids; only the unit members’ imaginations limit the choices. For
example, they can burn gasoline-soaked sand in cans or other containers;
fashion a light gun or a one-direction light source by placing a flashlight in the
receiver of an M203 grenade launcher; or lift a deployed main or reserve
parachute so other unit members can see it.

f. Identification Markings. Positive, rapid identification of soldiers and

equipment speed up a unit’s assembly. The airborne unit standardizes
personnel and equipment markings for all subunits.

(1) Personnel markings. Soldiers use individual assembly aids to help

recognize individuals and assemble units. Individual aids include colored
armbands or helmet bands, distinctive patches or designs on uniforms, or
helmet bands of luminous tape. Sortie commanders and key leaders,
jumpmasters, safeties, other jumpmaster personnel, medics, and bump
personnel also use distinctive markings. Larger unit SOPs prescribe unit
designations to prevent duplication and to allow unit-wide understanding.

(2) Equipment markings. Aerial equipment containers are identified by

simple, distinctive markings. Distinctive unit markings are prescribed by
larger unit (brigade or division) SOPs to prevent duplication and to assist in
recognition by other units. Unit codes are placed on the bottom and all sides
of each container; they should be visible for at least 50 meters. Various color
parachute canopies, container colors, luminous tape and paints, smoke
grenades, homing devices and lights can be used with the containers to
facilitate identification on the ground and in the air. Lights, homing devices,
and grenades attached to equipment can either be activated manually aboard
the aircraft just before extraction, by improvised timer, or on the ground by
the first individual to reach the equipment.

(3) Assault aircraft markings. A simple code symbol (using various designs,
colors, and combinations of letters and numbers) can be painted on both
sides of the fuselage of assault aircraft to identify the contents. This symbol is
large enough to be readily seen, and it indicates not only the type of
equipment contained in the aircraft but also the unit to which the equipment
belongs.

4-10. ASSEMBLY PLAN

Because the assembly plan is a key to success, it must be as foolproof as
possible. Assembly is more than accounting for personnel; the commander
must also ensure the unit has regained tactical integrity, has organized

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FM 90-26

tactically, and is prepared to fight as a combined arms team. The slower the
force assembles, the more they risk failure. An airborne unit’s assembly plan
consists mainly of the following techniques:

a. Secure assault objectives.

b. Place all organic and attached weapon systems into action as quickly as
possible.

c. Reestablish C2 such as radio nets or reporting to higher headquarters.

d. Assemble the force and account for casualties and stragglers.

4-11. UNIT ASSEMBLY

Commanders base the assembly of airborne units on a simple, flexible plan
that adapts to any likely situation. They assemble the units speedily, silently,
and without confusion.

a. Drop Zone Assembly. To speed assembly on the DZ, units should –

(1) Establish an assembly control point located near the DZ centerline. The
assembly control point OIC or NCOIC accounts for all paratroopers as they
report to the control point. He then gives them an azimuth and distance and
sends them to the assembly area/assault objective. If the soldiers do not have
a compass, they wait until someone with a compass reports in and they move
out together.
(2) Locate the unit AA in a covered and concealed position off the DZ. The
first group to arrive in the unit AA should erect an assembly aid ASAP to
assist in directing the rest of the unit to the AA.
(3) Move out rapidly on the assigned mission once most of the unit has gone
through the assembly control point and arrived in the AA. Leave a small
element in the AA to handle stragglers.
b. Troop Briefings. Another key element of a good assembly is the
thoroughness of unit briefings and individual soldier briefbacks.

(1) BRIEF soldiers–and rebrief them–on the assembly plan of his unit and
on those of other units scheduled to share the same DZ.
(2) USE visual aids such as maps, aerial photos, terrain models, and sand
tables.
(3) WARN soldiers to resist guiding on what appears to be a prominent
terrain feature on a map. Once they are on the ground, the terrain feature
probably cannot be seen. This is especially true if soldiers land on the wrong
DZ or on the wrong part of a DZ.
(4) AVOID instructing soldiers to move out on a particular azimuth or to go
in a precise direction unless they each have a compass.
(5) USE the clock directional system. Instruct soldiers to orient themselves
and the general location of the AA by the direction of flight.

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 FM 90-26

NOTE: Regardless of the actual azimuth, the direction of flight is

always 12 o’clock.
c. Factors Affecting Assembly. When the assembly plan is prepared, the
speed, altitude, and flight formation of airlift aircraft and their effect (along
with wind) on dispersion of personnel and equipment in landing must be
considered. The resultant landing pattern significantly affects assembly, as
does the DZ length and width, the training level of the airborne soldiers and
pilots, the enemy, and cross loading.

d. Dispersion. The extent of dispersion is the result of the airlift formation;

type, speed, and altitude of the aircraft; number of serials; sequence of
delivery weather conditions; and aircrew proficiency.

(1) The speed at which airplanes carrying paratroopers cross the DZ affects
the length of the landing pattern. The greater the speed, the greater the
distance that is covered between the exit of each paratrooper, thus increasing
the length of the landing pattern. Planes cross the DZ as slowly as is safely
possible, and paratroopers exit rapidly to reduce dispersion.
(2) As paratroopers descend, they drift with the prevailing wind, but usually
not at a uniform rate for each soldier. They can pass through strata of varying
wind direction and velocity that causes some dispersion within the unit. The
higher the altitude, the greater the possibility of dispersion due to wind.
Therefore the aircraft cross the DZ at minimum altitudes that are consistent
with the safety of aircraft and paratroopers.
(3) In parachute landings, the width of the landing pattern of soldiers and
equipment is the approximate width of the aircraft formation at the time of
the drop. Therefore, the formation is kept as tight as possible to keep the
soldiers and equipment together. If possible, a company or battalion is placed
in the flight formation so that all plane loads of the unit land in a small
pattern as close as practicable to the AA. (See FM 100-27 for basic patterns
of aircraft formations.)
e. Drop Zone Visibility. Darkness, fog, haze, rain, brush, trees, and terrain
affect DZ visibility on the ground, and hence impact on assembly. Assembly
during darkness is complicated by poor visibility and difficulty in identifying
or recognizing AAs, control posts, personnel, and equipment. The darkness
contributes to confusion, to stragglers, and to the loss of equipment. An
assembly during darkness takes longer and requires more elaborate assembly
aids and larger control posts than a daylight assembly.

f. State of Training. One of the most important factors that affect rapid
assembly is training. The degree of proficiency of the individuals in a unit has
a much greater influence than the techniques they employ. Units must
continuously practice parachute assaults and assemble as they would in
combat. For specific missions, previous training is built on and tailored
through detailed briefings, including maps, photos, and terrain models. When
possible, rehearsals using assembly techniques planned for the assault are
used. Thorough orientation, rigorous training, aggressive leadership, and
individual initiative have the single greatest impact on assembly.

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FM 90-26

g. Enemy. Enemy action can have both a direct and indirect effect on
assembly. Enemy action indirectly affects en route airlift capability to deliver
the force to the correct DZ. It directly affects friendly assembly once on the
ground.

(1) Every available device must be used to neutralize enemy air activity and
antiaircraft fire.
(2) Enemy opposition during or immediately after landing is a critical
consideration affecting assembly due to the unusual vulnerability of the
airborne force between landing and completion of assembly. Every possible
precaution is taken to ensure that the landing is unopposed or that provisions
are made to deal with expected enemy resistance. This requires accurate
intelligence, responsive (air alert) CAS, and effective OPSEC and deception.

4-12. MULTIPLE-LATERAL IMPACT POINTS

A slightly more complicated but more efficient method to facilitate rapid
assembly of soldiers, CDS, and heavy-drop loads is the use of multiple-lateral
impact points.

a. The theory and techniques of cross loading apply as much to this method
of delivery as to any other. The Air Force drops the Army along a single track
(line of flight) down the center of the DZ and uses just one soldier and one
heavy-drop impact point. On special request, they fly multiple tracks across
the DZ and usc multiple impact points on the DZ. By efficient cross loading,
selection of AAs, and careful selection of personnel and equipment impact
points, soldiers, units, and equipment can be delivered closer to the AA than
the single-track, single-impact point method. (Figure 4-10.)

Figure 4-10. Single-track, single-impact point DZ

b. The DZ selected for multiple-lateral impact points must be wider than 700
meters. (Figure 4-11.) This is duc to the requirement for all impact points to
be at least 350 meters in from the surveyed edge of the DZ. Multiple, lateral
impact points apply to all types of loads.

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 FM 90-26

Figure 4-11. Multiple-lateral impact points.

4-13. KEYS TO RAPID ASSEMBLY

Certain simple guidelines can be followed to ensure rapid and relatively easy
assembly. Rapid assembly results from well-thought-out and rehearsed cross
loading, including heavy-drop loads, and a thorough, but simple plan that
applies for any DZ. Use the clock system (not magnetic azimuth system nor
north, south, east, west) for direction/route to the AA. Use AAs that are easy
to find without complicated assembly aids, even if dropped on the wrong part
of the DZ or on an unplanned DZ. Be prepared with both day and night
assembly aids, especially for drops scheduled at dawn or dusk. Locate AAs as
close as possible to where the soldier lands. To permit rapid assembly, never
locate AAs at either end of the DZ (soldiers should not have to walk from
one end to the other). Use special soldier/unit/equipment markings to speed
assembly. Brief/bricfback to all units what marking the same serial will use.
Sand tables arc used extensively to brief/briefback each soldier. Rehearse the
procedures as often as possible

4-14. ACTIVITIES IN ASSEMBLY AREAS

Not only do units assemble as quickly as they can, but they also get out of the
AA as quickly as possible. They remain in the AA only long enough to
establish CPs and communication, to organize into combat groupings, and to
determine the status of assembly. They modify plans as needed to meet
changes in the situation and issue orders to lower units.

4-15. DEPARTURE FROM THE ASSEMBLY AREA

Assault battalions proceed on their assigned mission when assembly is

complete or on order of the brigade commander. Reorganization of a
battalion is complete when all lower units are assembled and command and
fire control communications channels are established. As a result of
inaccurate landings, enemy action or excessive straggling, assault battalions
may have to attack before assembly is complete. The brigade commander
usually makes this decision. In the absence of other orders, the battalion
commander decides when enough of his battalion has assembled to

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accomplish the mission. The time or conditions for assault units to move out
on their assigned missions are ordinarily established in the plans of higher
units.

4-16. REPORTS
Because of the dispersion of personnel and equipment in landing, the
possibility of inaccurate landings, and the potential loss of aircraft during the
air movement, commanders at all levels must learn the status of personnel
and equipment in their units as soon as possible after landing. They need this
information to determine the combat potential of the units before executing
the ground tactical plan.

a. All units report their personnel and equipment status to the next higher
unit at predetermined times or intervals until reorganization is complete.
These status reports usually indicate the location of the unit; the number of
soldiers assembled and the number of known casualties; the number and type
of crew-served weapons, vehicles, radios, and other recovered key equipment;
and any information available on missing soldiers and equipment. Units make
abbreviated status reports on the DZ as soon they establish radio
communications.

b. As soldiers arrive in company AAs, units make status reports by squad,

platoon, and company. As commanders establish CPS in the AAs, they
receive status reports from within the battalion by radio, messenger, or direct
contact between commanders.

4-17. SECURITY MEASURES

Security during assembly includes protection of unit AAs and DZ/LZs. All
units are responsible for their own security regardless of the security
provisions of higher headquarters. Airborne units arc vulnerable to enemy
ground attack from all directions during assembly. For this reason, and
because of the size of DZs/LZs, the security requirements are great in
comparison with the size of the airborne force.

a. In small-unit drops, jumpmasters or chalk leaders provide local protection

as their plane loads assemble and recover equipment dropped in aerial
delivery containers. Commanders of airlanded soldiers provide local
protection while the equipment is unloaded. Soldiers move to company AAs
in tactical formations suitable for security as well as speed and control.

b. The assault clement, after seizing assault objectives, has the mission of
gaining and maintaining the security of the DZ. The assault clement protects
the assembly of soldiers on the DZ; they accompany supplies and equipment
not recovered by assault units and, in some cases, the later landing of other
soldiers or unit air supply. The size of the security force for a DZ/LZ depends
on the expected enemy. The security force can usc a series of small OPs or
roadblocks and patrols. These security provisions arc usually quite simple
because of the short time the AA is to be occupied. However, the planning is
in minute detail, including mission, size, composition, and organization of
each security element; location of OPS or roadblocks; routes of patrols;

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 FM 90-26

communication; supporting fires; and boundaries. Security groups move out

on their assigned missions promptly on arrival in the assembly area.

4-18. REORGANIZATION
The initial effort of all commanders and staff officers is the seizure of assault
objectives followed by reassembling and regaining command and control.
Smaller units with specific missions proceed without waiting for the parent
units to assemble. Reorganization is faster and more precise in the daytime
than at night.

a. Planning. Reorganization details are included in the landing plan.

Reorganization occurs after initial assault objectives are secured. Factors to
consider when planning reorganization include:

• Designation of unit AAs.

• Use of assembly aids.
• The assembly plan.
• Reports.
• Security measures.
• Establishment of command and fire control communications.
• Reconnaissance.
• Coordination and final preparations before the attack.
• Time or conditions for assault units to move out on their missions.
• Recovery of accompanying supplies.
• Assembly of stragglers.

b. Considerations. Planning considerations for reorganization of units

following an assault landing include:

(1) Brigade commanders coordinate the reorganization plan of lower units.

However, the actual reorganization takes place at battalion and separate unit
levels.
(2) Battalions and separate units reorganize in a prearranged manner,
making usc of predesignated AAs, control posts, and assembly aids. The AAs
arc established on or just off the DZ. For reference, they are identified by
prominent landmarks and marked by assembly aids carried by the soldiers.
The first parachute units to land arc charged with gaining and maintaining the
security of the DZ. Other units move directly to their AAs. They carry all
equipment needed for the assault.
(3) Units seize assault objectives and assemble as quickly as possible in the
existing conditions.
(4) Designated personnel remain on the DZs/LZs to protect the area,
assemble stragglers, care for casualties, and complete the removal of supplies.
(5) The reorganization is complete when units are assembled and
communication is established.

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4-19. BRIEFBACKS
As with the ground tactical plan, each echelon (fire team through brigade)
must briefback his landing plan. The landing plan remains tentative until
commanders complete briefbacks and coordinate changes.

a. Landing Plan. In the case of the landing plan, briefbacks ensure

coordination of who is using what DZ/LZ/EZ and when, the preferred
orientation of DZs, and who is landing in which sectors and when. The
landing plans follow the commander’s priorities, use the best airlift tactics,
and support ground tactical plans. Assembly plans of one unit do not
interfere with the assembly plans of other units.

b. Assembly Plan. One of the most critical parts of the landing plan is the
assembly plan. Each leader must brief his soldiers, require a briefback,
rebrief his soldiers, and require another briefback. Each soldier should know
exactly what to do, how to do it, and when to do it to assemble quickly.

c. Aircraft Requirements. The briefback of the landing plan identifies

aircraft requirements for each subunit. If there arc not enough aircraft
available to lift the entire assault force at one time, commanders must decide
the units that should be lifted first, and then allocate aircraft accordingly. In
making this decision, they analyze the priorities dictated by the mission and
the higher commander.

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5-1 5-2 5-3 5-4 5-5 5-6
5-7 5-8 5-9 5-10 5-11 5-12 5-13 5-14 5-15

This chapter implements STANAG 3466/ASCC 44/18C

CHAPTER 5

AIR MOVEMENT PLAN

After development, briefback, and approval of the landing plan, planners

begin to develop the air movement plan. This plan is the third step in
planning an airborne operation and supports both the landing plan and the
ground tactical plan. It provides the required information to move the
airborne force from the departure airfields to the objective area. The plan
includes the period from when units load until they exit the aircraft. The air
movement annex to the OPORD contains the air movement plan.

5-1. JOINT PLANNING

Although the Air Force component commander is solely responsible for
executing the air movement phase, the air movement plan is the product of
joint Army/Air Force consulting and planning. The Army contributes its
landing plan and the procedures for the control and disposition of personnel
at the departure airfield(s). The Air Force controls takeoff times and, based
on the Army’s landing plan, coordinates timing between different departure
airfields to ensure the proper arrival sequence at the DZ/LZ/EZ. The Air
Force also designates rendezvous points and develops the flight route
diagrams. The combination of METT-T and the orientation of DZs/LZs/EZs
determine the orientation of the flight routes.

5-2. ELEMENTS
The air movement plan contains the information required to ensure the
efficient loading and delivery of units to the objective area in the proper
sequence, time, and place to support the ground tactical plan.

a. Elements of Air Movement Table. The air movement table forms the
principal part of the air movement plan, including the following essential
elements:
• Departure airfield for each serial.
• Number of aircraft for each serial.
• Chalk numbers for each aircraft, each serial, and each departure
airfield; aircraft tail numbers correspond to aircraft chalk numbers.
• Unit identity of the airlift element.
• Name/rank of each USAF serial commander.
• Number and type aircraft.
• Employment method for each aircraft (PP/HD/CDS/LAPES).
• Army unit identity.
• Name/rank of each Army commander.

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FM 90-26

• Load times.
• Station times.
• Takeoff times.
• Designated primary and alternate DZs for each serial.
• P-hour for the lead aircraft of each serial (given in real time).
• Remarks such as special instructions, key equipment, and location of
key members of the chain of command.
b. Additional Elements. Besides the air movement tables, the air movement
plan contains the following information:
Flight route diagram.
Serial formation.
Air traffic control.
Concentration for movement.
Allowable cabin/cargo loads.
Airfield/FLS MOG (aircraft maneuver on ground space).
Aircraft parking diagram.
Army personnel and equipment rigging areas at the departure
airfield.
Army control procedures during preparation for loading.
Emergency procedures including SERE/SAR planning.
Weather considerations.
JSEAD, counterair, and BAI considerations

5-3. TYPES OF MOVEMENT

The type of movement must be considered when determining how to load the
aircraft. Is it administrative or tactical? Airborne units can conduct an
administrative movement to an ISB or REMAB, and then transload into
assault aircraft by using tactical loading. (Chapter 8 discusses transload
operations.)

a. Administrative movements are nontactical. Soldiers and equipment are

arranged to expedite their movement and to conserve time and energy.
Economical use is made of aircraft cabin space, and planners make maximum
use of ACL.

b. Tactical movements are when personnel and equipment are organized,

loaded, and transported to accomplish the ground tactical plan. The proper
usc of aircraft ACL is important, but it does not override the commander’s
sequence of employment.

5-4. AIRCRAFT REQUIREMENTS

When the airborne unit deploys, planning guidance from higher headquarters
indicates the type of aircraft available for the movement. Based on this
information, the unit commander determines and requests the number of
sorties by the type of aircraft required to complete the move. The air
movement planner must ensure that each aircraft is used to its maximum
capability. This is based on the information developed on unit requirements,
ACLs, and available passenger seats. The methods of determining aircraft
requirements are the weight method and the type-load method.

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 FM 90-26

a. Weight Method. This method is based on the assumption that total weight,
not volume, is the determining factor. Since aircraft sometimes run out of
space before exceeding the ACL, this method is no longer widely used. It has
been replaced by the type-load method. However, during recent operations, it
was discovered that aircraft can actually exceed their ACL before running out
of space. The long distances involved in reaching an objective area, the
necessity of the aircraft to circle for extended periods before landing, and the
large amounts of fuel needed to sustain the aircraft can result in the aircraft
having to reduce its ACL. As a rule, the longer the deployment, the lower the
ACL.

b. Type-Load Method. In any unit air movement, a number of the aircraft

loads contain the same items of equipment and numbers of personnel.
Identical type loads simplify the planning process and make the tasks of
manifesting and rehearsing much easier. Used for calculating individual
aircraft sortie requirements, the type-load method is the most common and
widely accepted method of unit air movement planning. It requires
consideration of load configuration and condition on arrival at a desired
destination, rapid off-loading, aircraft limitations, security requirements
en route, and the anticipated operational requirements. The type-load
method, therefore, is more detailed and is used in planning unit movements.

5-5. LOAD PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS

When preparing the air movement plan, the S3 Air considers tactical
integrity, cross loading, and self-sufficiency of each load.

a. Tactical Integrity. The S3 Air keeps units intact as much as possible. For
parachute operations, this can mean placing units larger than squads on
separate aircraft so they exit their respective aircraft over the same portion of
the DZ. This facilitates rapid assembly by placing units close to their AAs on
landing.

(1) The S3 Air keeps squads together on the same aircraft if possible; fire
teams are never split.
(2) Fire support teams and their RATELOs should be on the same aircraft
with the commander they support; they should jump so as to land next to him.
(3) Platoon leaders (and PSGs on different aircraft) should have their FOs
and RATELOs and at least one machine gun crew and one Dragon gunner
on the same aircraft.
(4) Each aircraft must have at least one unit NCO or commissioned officer
for each unit with soldiers on board. Each aircraft has Army leadership
present.
(5) Tactical integrity can be ensured by distributing the company
commander, unit 1SG, and XO in the lead, middle, and trail aircraft,
respectively.
b. Cross Loading. Cross loading distributes leaders, key weapons, and key
equipment among the aircraft of the formation to preclude total loss of C2 or
unit effectiveness if an aircraft is lost. This is an important factor in rapid

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FM 90-26

assembly and must be given careful attention in training and on combat

jumps.

(1) Separate key personnel in case any aircraft aborts or fails to reach the
DZ. This prevents the loss of more than one key officer/NCO of any one unit.
Properly planned cross loading accomplishes the following:
(a) Soldiers from the same unit will land together in the same part of the DZ
for faster assembly.
(b) Equipment/vehicle operators and weapon system crews will land in the
same part of the DZ as their heavy-drop equipment so they can get to it, derig
it, and get ready to fight quickly.
(c) If one or more aircraft abort either on the ground or en route to the DZ,
some key leaders and equipment will still be delivered.
(2) When planning airborne force cross loading, remember – the fewer key
people on the same aircraft, the better. If possible, separate the following
personnel:
(a) The brigade commander and his battalion commanders.
(b) The battalion commanders and their company commanders.
(c) The commander, his XO, and his S3.
(d) The primary brigade and battalion staff officers and their assistants.
(c) The company commanders, XOs, and 1SGs from the same company.
(f) The platoon leaders and PSGs from the same platoon.
(3) Always plan for the possibility that one or more heavy-drop aircraft will
abort before it gets to the DZ, or the equipment will streamer in and become
unserviceable.
(a) Cross load heavy-drop equipment to have the least possible impact on
the mission if it does not arrive in the DZ. Separate critical loads so if any
aircraft aborts or fails to reach the DZ, no single unit loses more than one key
officer/NCO or a significant proportion of the same type of combat-essential
equipment.
(b) Coordinate closely with the Air Force so heavy-drop loads are loaded in
the reverse order they should land.
(c) Do not include the same type of critical equipment from the same unit, or
like equipment from different units in the same aircraft loads. This applies
whether it is to be airdropped or airlanded.
(d) Cross load heavy-drop equipment in one of the following ways:
• Select HEPIs to support the ground tactical plan. Place loads so they
land close to the location where they will bx used. Cross load the
parachutists to first support the ground tactical plan; then coordinate
their landings with those of the heavy-drop platforms. When using
multiple HEPIs, coordinate the selected HEPI for each load with the
Air Force mission commander.

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 FM 90-26

• Do not load two or more like platforms from the same unit on the
same aircraft because the aircraft are moving too fast to drop more
than one platform in the same sector.
(e) Separate radios, mortars, antitank weapons, ammunition bundles, and
other critical equipment or supplies as much as possible. No like items of
combat-essential equipment from the same unit should be on the same
aircraft.
• A weapons system should be loaded on the same aircraft as its crew.
NOTE: Only one crew-served weapons squad/team should be on
each aircraft.
• A RATELO should jump the same aircraft as the leader he
supports, either just before or just after him. Another good
technique is for the leader to jump the radio himself. In this way, he
can still set up immediate communications even if he and his
RATELO are separated on the DZ.
• The CWIE and the DMJP can and should be jumped at any position
in the stick to support cross loading and assembly plans. The
commander must make a risk assessment when he determines the
location of parachutists in the stick carrying this equipment. Risks to
both the parachutist and mission accomplishment are present. If the
parachutist falls inside the aircraft, the remainder of the soldiers may
not be able to exit on that pass. Also, this equipment increases the
risks of the parachutist being towed outside the aircraft.

• Individual crew-served weapons (such as machine guns, mortars,

antitank weapons) and other critical equipment or supplies should
be distributed on all aircraft.
• Communications equipment, ammunition, and other supply bundles
must be cross loaded.
c. Self-Sufficiency. Each aircraft load should be self-sufficient so its
personnel can operate effectively by themselves if any other aircraft misses
the DZ, makes makes an emergency landing somewhere else, or aborts the
mission.

(1) A single (complete) weapons system should have the complete crew for
that system on the same aircraft along with enough ammunition to place the
weapon into operation.
(2) For airland or heavy-equipment drop operations, trailers and weapons
are manifested with their prime movers.
(3) Squads should stay together on the same aircraft; fire teams are never
split. Squads/fire teams should jump both aircraft doors to reduce the amount
of separation on the DZ.

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FM 90-26

5-6. LOAD PLANNING SEQUENCE

Planners scan best accomplish the movement of forces by air for an airborne
assault by developing plans in an orderly sequence, such as —

a. Preparing vehicle load cards. (See paragraph 5-7.)

b. Preparing air movement planning worksheets for each unit (company

through battalion). (See paragraph 5-8.)

c. Preparing basic planning guides (company and battalion) and forwarding

them to higher headquarters (battalion and brigade). (See paragraph 5-9.)

d. Establishing priorities for entry into the objective area by echelon: assault,
follow-on, and rear. Units establish priorities within each echelon to phase
personnel and equipment into subsequent echelons if aircraft are not
available.

e. Preparing a unit aircraft utilization plan to determine aircraft

requirements and type loads. (See paragraph 5-10.)

f. Preparing air-loading tables to facilitate rapid deployment. (See paragraph

5-11.)

Units receive their missions and review previous plans. Then they–

a. Revise the plans based on the task organization dictated by the ground
tactical plan.

b. Allocate available aircraft. If aircraft are not available, they phase

low-priority items to the follow-on or rear echelon.

c. Prepare air-loading tables and manifests.

d. Prepare the air movement table.

c. Prepare a DD Form 1387-2 for hazardous materials IAW TM 38-250.

5-7. LOAD PLANNING OF VEHICLES

Vehicle load plans arc based on SOP and mission tailoring. Then, they are
updated according to aircraft availability and type.

a. Heavy-drop vehicles are first loaded with as much unit equipment as they
will hold. The vehicle's load capacity should not be exceeded, and all cargo
must be secured in the vehicle's cargo compartment. Vehicles arc measured
and weighed after they have been loaded. (Guidance for weighing and
marking of airdrop vehicles is in FM 55-9 and AR 220-10.) Some items,
especially ammunition, cannot be rigged on the vehicle, but can be carried as
ballast on the platform. (See the appropriate FM for rigging different vehicles
for heavy-equipment drop.)

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 FM 90-26

b. Vehicle load cards are made for each vehicle to be loaded aboard an
aircraft. (Figure 5-l.) Each sketch includes such information as load data for
the vehicle; length and width of the vehicle; and, when the vehicle carries
cargo, the names and locations of the cargo in the vehicle.

Figure 5-1. Example of a completed vehicle load card.

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FM 90-26

5-8. AIR MOVEMENT PLANNING WORKSHEET

The air movement planning worksheet is a consolidated list of a unit’s
equipment and personnel. (Figure 5-2.) It is not a formal DA form; it is an
example of a locally made form. If necessary, any grid-type paper can be used
in lieu of a printed form. The worksheet lists all the dimensions and cargo
loads of vehicles. It must include all on-hand equipment and personnel, and
the full amount authorized by the unit TOE. Items that are short are still
included as equipment, and personnel shortages can be filled if alerted for
deployment. This also prevents the need for constant revision of the
worksheet. Basic loads of ammunition carried with the unit, which must be
palletized or placed in door bundles, should also be included.

Figure 5-2. Example of air movement planning worksheet.

5-9. BASIC PLANNING GUIDE FORM

The basic planning guide form is a report prepared by ground units (o
determine the aircraft required for an airborne operation. The example
completed form shows the exact status of a unit’s personnel, vehicles,
equipment, and supplies. (Figure 5-3.)

a. Preparation of the Form. The example basic planning guide form is first
prepared by commanders of lower units and consolidated by higher units that
control and plan the operation. Thus, the ground forces commander has
available for planning the exact status of the personnel and equipment of his
entire force.

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 FM 90-26

b. Explanation of the Form. The separate items of the form are completed as
follows:

Figure 5-3. Example of basic planning guide form.

(1) Heading. This information is completed by the preparing headquarters.

(2) Organization. The subordinate units of an organization are listed. The
battalion commander lists each company in the battalion. The brigade
commander lists each battalion and separate company or any attached units.
The division lists each organic and attached unit in the division. Platoons and
sections are not listed separately. Company planning guides represent
consolidated figures. Attachments, such as medical specialists or FOs, are
listed separately by organization to assist in identifying all units involved.
(3) Personnel. This item addresses any of the following:
(a) Assault echelon. The commander’s advisors inform him as to the
approximate number of planes or assault aircraft assigned to the unit.
Advisors can inform the commander if the unit is to move by plane; if so, all
personnel going on the move are listed under this column.
(b) Follow-on echelon. This echelon consists of personnel and equipment
that are not airdropped or airlanded in the initial airlift, but join the parent
organization as soon as possible or at a specified date during the operation.
(c) Rear echelon. This echelon consists of personnel who remain at the base
camp or similar installation. They do not necessarily move with the overland
detail but can be moved forward later.

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FM 90-26

(4) Vehicles, equipment, and supplies. The columns under this heading are
used to show the distribution of materiel for the operation. The number of
each type of vehicle, as well as heavy or bulky equipment and supplies, are
listed herein.
(5) Remarks. In this item, additional information or notes concerning
personnel or equipment (such as the contents of air delivery containers) are
listed.
c. Collection of Forms. The S3 Air for the battalion collects the basic
planning guide forms from the subordinate companies and consolidates them
at battalion level. He submits them to US Army riggers, ALCE, and the
DACG, depending on the type of movement required.

5-10. UNIT AIRCRAFT UTILIZATION PLAN

The unit aircraft utilization plan identifies equipment by aircraft load; this
simplifies planning of identical types of loads. The goal is to have most
aircraft loads the same. The first step is to weigh personnel and equipment by
echelon. Then, add up the aircraft loads to determine how many aircraft are
needed. If too few aircraft are available to meet the planned echelonment,
this becomes readily apparent. At this point, priorities are applied and
equipment and personnel are phased back to fit airlift constraints.

5-11. AIRCRAFT LOADING TABLES

The next step after completion of the unit aircraft utilization plan is to
prepare the aircraft loading tables.

a. Loading Table Layout. Using DD Form 2131 or MAC Forms 342 or 559,
depending on the type of aircraft employed, the placement of each vehicle
and item of equipment is planned. Using templates (which can be obtained
from ALCE) and the form for the appropriate aircraft, each type of load is
laid out and lines are drawn around the template. The load must be within the
aircraft’s safe center of gravity limits; the ACL must not be exceeded.

b. Cross-Loading Plan. Before final completion of loading tables, cross

loading must be accomplished IAW the landing and ground tactical plans.

c. Loading Table Approval. When all data have been entered on the
appropriate form, the Air Force (the affiliated ALCE) approves the loads.

5-12. DEVELOPMENT OF AIRCRAFT LOADS

The development of aircraft loads is accomplished through reverse planning
The planner must have a DZ mosaic or facsimile when developing the heavy
equipment points of impact, personnel point of impact, and personnel
manifests. Aircraft loads must support the assembly and ground tactical plans
through effective cross loading.

a. Preparation of the Load. Using the mosaic, facsimile, or sketch, preparers

mark the desired single or multiple HEPI for all equipment, and the PPI. The
sketch is lined off in 70-meter (75-yard) increments from the PPI. This
represents the normal one-second parachutist interval. These lines arc made

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 FM 90-26

perpendicular to the line of flight so that the name of the parachutist

associated with a particular piece of equipment can be marked on the sketch.
For planning purposes, heavy-drop equipment lands 400 yards apart on C-130
operations and 500 yards apart on C-141B operations. The name of the
parachutist who must obtain his equipment is entered on the line nearest the
equipment. Personnel not associated with a particular piece of equipment can
be marked on the lines closest to their AA. The personnel manifest is then
taken directly off the DZ schematic. The result is a manifest order that
facilitates quick assembly.
b. Allocation of Seats. Once the commander has developed the cross-load
plan, he notifies involved units how many and which seats they have on each
aircraft. Platoons can be manifested in multiple aircraft to facilitate
cross-loading, but personnel are placed in stick order on each aircraft to exit
and land in the same general area on the DZ.
c. Internal Adjustments. Each company commander in turn cross-loads his
part of the split platoon within his part of the stick to best support the
assembly plan and ground tactical plan. (Figure 5-4.)
d. Preparation of the Manifest. Manifesting is accomplished in the reverse
order of exit. (See paragraph 5-14.)

Figure 5-4. Cross-loaded aircraft.

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FM 90-26

5-13. AIR MOVEMENT TABLE

The air movement table assigns units to serials within the air columns. The
location of units in successive serials is IAW priorities established for landing.
Units maintain tactical integrity of Army and airlift units as far as practicable.
All elements in a given serial land on the same DZ/LZ in the objective area;
however, certain aircraft in a serial can continue on to drop R&S forces in
their planned areas of employment. The air movement table form is prepared
by the ground forces commander in coordination with the Air Force
commander. This form, used as an annex to the OPORD, allocates aircraft to
the ground units to be lifted. It designates the number and type of aircraft in
each serial and specifics the departure area and the time of loading and
takeoff. Exact format for the air movement table depends on the needs of the
commander, which can be specified by unit SOP. There is no specific format,
but the air movement table should provide the information herein.

a. Heading. When the air movement table is published as a part of the order,
the following elements are included:
• Classification.
• Annex and operations order number.
• Headquarters.
• Place of issue.
• Date and time.
• Map reference.
b. Serial Number. Serial numbers are arranged consecutively in the order of
flight. Factors to be considered in the assignment of units to serials arc the
mission of the airborne unit, the size of the DZ/LZ, and the distribution
(cross loading) of personnel, weapons, and equipment.

c. Chalk Number. The chalk number specifics the position of aircraft being
loaded in each serial. Loads are numbered sequentially IAW serial
numbering, such as Serial 1 contains Chalks 1 through 12; Serial 2 contains
Chalks 13 through 24.

d. Air Force Units. This section includes Air Force information that is
important to the ground force commander.

(1) Airlift unit. This is the designation of the airlift unit that is transporting or
furnishing the aircraft for each serial.
(2) Serial commander. This is the senior Air Force officer in the serial.

(3) Number and type of aircraft. The exact number and type of aircraft that
actually fly in the serial are shown in this column.
e. Army Forces. This section includes information directly related to the
ground forces.

(1) Aircraft required. The number of airplanes required to transport the unit.
(2) Employment. Type of movement such as parachute, heavy equipment,
CDS, LAPES, or airlanded.
(3) Unit loaded. The airborne unit being loaded.

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 FM 90-26

(4) Serial commander. The senior airborne officer in the serial.

(5) Departure airfield. Name or code name of the departure airfield.
(6) Load time. The time established by the airlift and ground force
commander to begin loading. Parachutists can require from 30 to 45 minutes
to load, depending on the aircraft and any accompanying equipment (door
bundles, wedges, and parachutes for in-flight rigging). Heavy-drop and CDS
loads should take about two hours for loading.
(7) Station time. The time the passengers, equipment, and crew are loaded
and ready for takeoff.
(8) Takeoff. The time the aircraft is scheduled to depart from the airfield.

(9) Aircraft formations. The type formation the aircraft will fly.
(10) Objective. The name or designation of the DZ, LZ, EZ, or airfield.
(11) Time over target. TOT is the time of arrival at the objective area.
(12) Direction of flight over the objective area.
f. Other Items. Other items that can be included in the air movement table
(at the commander’s discretion) are as follows:
Number of personnel by serial/chalk.
Initial and final manifest call times.
Prejump training times.
Type parachute.
Weather decision.
Weather delay.
Time for movement to the departure airfield.
Air Force station time.
Remarks.

5-14. MANIFESTS
The flight manifest is an exact record of personnel by name, rank, SSAN, and
duty position in each aircraft . It is also a brief description of the equipment,
with the station number, as loaded in the aircraft. Load computations for
personnel and equipment are also listed. A separate form is made for each
aircraft. Copies are made for the DACG/DACO, pilot, ALCE, and AACG; a
copy is retained by the jumpmaster or senior Army representative on the
aircraft. The senior ground forces member or primary jumpmaster in each
aircraft finalizes the form. The Air Force authorizes it, and the ground force
representative signs it after verifying the personnel on the manifest.

5-15. AUTOMATED AIRLOAD PLANNING SYSTEM

The automated airload planning system is a computer-based automated
system designed to simplify the outload plans for combat units.

a. Files. By computerizing the necessary loading characteristics, weight

restrictions, and equipment configurations required to outload the airborne
unit, this system automatically tells the commander the load configurations
and number of aircraft required to move a specific force.

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FM 90-26

(1) Air Force aircraft characteristics. This file includes all data that affect the
placement of equipment on a particular aircraft; it contains data on the
C-130, C-141B, C-17, and C5A/B aircraft, which appropriate personnel
update as changes occur.
(2) Items and uniform. This file contains size data on all the equipment in the
unit that requires floor space. Commanders use the data for airland, airdrop,
or LAPES. The file contains information about the aircraft center of balance,
the psi of the tires, whether the item requires shoring or not, and whether the
item is turnable or not. The unique feature of this file is that it considers
inseparable items of equipment together; for example, a jeep and trailer or a
HMMWV and 105-millimeter howitzer. This permits the program to load an
item of equipment with its prime mover.
(3) Force package and options. This file contains 12 force packages and about
1,000 modular force package options.
b. Commander Input. The ALPS allows commanders to input force
packages, options, items, prime movers and the towed pieces of equipment,
and multiples of each. Once a force package or option is entered into the
program, the force package or option can be changed for the specific run of
the program to meet mission requirements.

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6-1 6-2 6-3 6-4 6-5 6-6 6-7 6-8 6-9 6-10 Section I Section II

CHAPTER 6

MARSHALING

After the air movement plan has been developed, briefed back refined (if
necessary), and approved, the next plan to be developed is the marshaling
plan; it supports the previous three plans. The tactical, landing, and air
movement plans are used to determine the number of personnel and vehicles
to be stationed at or moved through each airfield. The marshaling plan
provides the necessary information and procedures by which units of the
airborne force complete final preparations for combat, move to departure
airfields, and load the aircraft. It also provides detailed instructions for
facilities and services needed during marshaling. The procedures in this
chapter assist airborne commanders and staffs in planning for marshaling
and CSS.

Section I. THE MARSHALING PLAN

The marshaling plan appears as an appendix to the service support annex of
the airborne force OPORD or as an annex to an administrative/logistics
order. The S4 is the principal assistant to the commander for the marshaling
plans of specific units. Marshaling begins when elements of the force are
literally sealed in marshaling areas and it terminates at loading. The
procedures are designed to facilitate a quick, orderly launching of an
airborne assault under maximum security conditions in the minimum possible
time.

6-1. PREPARATION BEFORE MARSHALING

Units complete the following preparations before marshaling – especially for
airdrops. Last-minute marshaling activities include briefing personnel,
inspecting, preparing airdrop containers, issuing rations and ammunition, and
resting.

a. N-Hour Sequence. As soon as a unit is notified of an airborne operation, it

begins the reverse planning necessary to have the first assault aircraft en route
to the objective area in 18 hours. The N-hour sequence (see Appendix G)
contains the troop-leading actions that must take place within a flexible
schedule, ensuring that the unit is prepared and correctly equipped to
conduct combat operations on arrival.

b. Rehearsals. Rehearsals are always conducted at every echelon of

command. They identify potential weaknesses in execution and enhance

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FM 90-26

understanding and synchronization Full-scale rehearsals are the goal, but

time constraints may limit them. (For additional information, refer to
FM 7-20.)

c. Assembly, Inspection. and Maintenance. As soon as practicable, units

assemble the equipment and supplies that are to accompany them to the
objective area. Inspections are held to determine the status of equipment.
Maintenance is performed; parachutes, aerial delivery containers, and
heavy-drop loads are prepared. Commanders and leaders brief soldiers, and
rations and ammunition are issued. The soldiers should eat when time
permits.

d. Storage of Unneeded Items. lndividual clothing and equipment and unit

equipment not needed in the objective area are packed in suitable containers
and stored with the rear echelon or rear detachment.

6-2. MOVEMENT TO THE MARSHALING AREA

Unit marshaling areas should be located near departure airfields to limit
movement, Higher headquarters can either control the movement to the
marshaling area completely, or it can get a copy of the march table and use it
to control the traffic out of the AA, along the route of march, and into the
marshaling area. Advance parties assign soldiers to areas.

a. Movement Resources and Requirements. The S4 of the unit to be

marshaled notifies higher headquarters on the number of organic vehicles
that the unit can furnish to move its personnel and equipment to the
marshaling areas. This information and the personnel list furnished by the S3
must be available early enough during planning to procure any other
transportation required for the movement.

b. Airfield Marshaling Areas. When rnarshaling areas are on airfields, they

are temporarily placed at the disposal of the airborne unit’s higher
headquarters. The air base commander's permission is obtained by the
tactical units that must conduct activities outside of the camp area.

c. Parachute Issue and Rigging. Parachute issue and rigging may be

conducted on the ramp, alongside the aircraft, or in-flight.

(1) Ramp side advantages are as follows:

• Reduces the parachute supply problem.
• Efficient use of personnel.
• Supply accountabaility.

(2) Ramp side disadvantages are as follows:

• Parachutists may require transportation to the aircraft.
• Parachutists are rigged for a greater period of time.
(3) Plane side advantages are as follows:
• Parachutists are not required to walk while rigged.
• Decentralized execution reduces rigging time.

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 FM 90-26

(4) Plane side disadvantages are as follows:

• Parachutes must be transported to the aircraft.
• Rigging process may impede other activities.

(5) In-flight advantages are as follows:

• Prevents fatigue during long flights.
• Provides more time for rehearsals and inspections.
(6) In-flight disadvantages are as follows:
• Reduces the number of parachutists that an aircraft can carry.
• Requires loading of parachutes on the aircraft.

6-3. PASSIVE DEFENSE MEASURES

Uncommitted airborne forces pose a strategic or operational threat to the
enemy. Concentration of forces during marshaling should be avoided to keep
impending operations secret and to deny lucrative targets to the enemy.
Dispersal techniques include the following:

a. Move. Units move rapidly under cover of darkness to dispersed

marshaling areas near air facilities.

b. Control. Commanders control movement to loading sites so most

personnel arrive after the equipment and supplies are loaded on the aircraft.

c. Prepare. Commanders prepare for loading before arrival at the loading

site.

d. Avoid. Commanders avoid assembling more than 50 percent of a brigade

at a single point at any time.

6-4. DISPERSAL PROCEDURES

The degree of dispersal is based on an intimate knowledge of the operation’s
problems and what is best for the overall operation. Regardless of the
dispersed loading procedures, the airlift commander ensures that aircraft
arrive over the objective area in the order required by the air movement plan.
Depending on the situation, one of the following dispersed loading
procedures is used:

a. Movement to Departure Air Facilities. Airborne personnel and equipment

are moved to departure air facilities where airlift aircraft maybe dispersed.

b. Movement to Intermediate Staging Base. Before the mission, airlift

aircraft fly to an ISB to pick up airborne personnel and equipment. Personnel
and equipment are airlifted to dispersed departure airfields; the mission
originates from these facilities.

c. Combination of Procedures. Airlift aircraft fly to ISBs for the equipment

before the mission. The equipment is airlifted to the dispersed departure
airfields and the mission originates from these facilities, or airlift aircraft stop
en route at ISBs to pick up personnel. Crews load aircraft quickly, so the
fewest possible aircraft are at the lSB at one time.

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FM 90-26

6-5. SELECTION OF DEPARTURE AIRFIELDS

Departure airfield selection is based on the proposed air movement and the
capability of airfields to handle the traffic. Loading sites near departure
airfields are designated after the selection of departure airfields. For any
specific situation or operation, one or a combination of the following factors
can determine the selection:
• Mission.
• Airfields (number required, location, and type).
• Runway length and weight-bearing capacity.
• Communications facilities.
• Navigational aids and airfield lighting.
• Location of participating units and marshaling areas.
• Radius of action required.
• Vulnerability to enemy action, including NBC.
• Other tactical air support available or required.
• Logistical support available, required, or both.
• Facilities for reception of personnel and cargo.
• Facilities for loading and unloading of personnel and cargo.
• Facilities for dispatch of personnel and cargo.

NOTE: While dispersion is necessary to avoid the effects of

nuclear weapons, excessive dispersion increases control problems
and can diminish the effectiveness of other supporting ground
and air operations

6-6. SELECTION AND OPERATION OF MARSHALING CAMPS

The marshaling area is a scaled area with facilities for the final preparation of
soldiers for combat Commanders select marshaling camps within the
marshaling area based on the air movement plan and other considerations.
Another way to avoid concentration of personnel is to time-phase the
movement of soldiers from their home bases through the marshaling area to
the departure airfield, minimizing the buildup of forces. After choosing the
marshaling areas and departure airfields, choose loading sites near the
airfields.

a. Selection. The following factors are considered when selecting marshaling

areas.
• Distance to airfield(s).
• Time available.
• Existing facilities.
• Availability of personnel and materials for construction.
• Availability/access of maneuver and training areas.
• Communications requirements.
• Briefing facilities.
• Location of participating units.
• Security/vulnerability to enemy action.
• Logistical support available or required.

b. Assignment. In the marshaling plan, the S4 (in coordination with the S3)
assigns units to marshaling areas near the departure airfields the units will
use. Every effort should be made to locate the areas as closely as possible to

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 FM 90-26

departure airfields to reduce movement time between them; it also reduces

the requirement for vehicles.

c. Operation. The airborne forces’ higher commander is responsible for the

operation and maintenance of the marshaling areas.

(1) Operating detachments and necessary equipment are provided for each
camp. These detachments furnish signal communications, transportation,
medical, and postal services. They also operate mess facilities and utilities.

(2) Personnel from the units being marshaled or from follow-on units of the
airborne force can assist in the operation of the camps if it does not interfere
with their preparations for the airborne operation. Equipment from these
units cannot be used because it must be packed and loaded for movement to
the objective area.
(3) Small stocks of supplies and equipment of all services are maintained at
each camp to fill last-minute shortages of the units being marshaled. Service
maintenance support is furnished as required.
(4) The number of personnel required to support operation and
maintenance of marshaling areas varies. Based on past experience, about 10
percent of the number of personnel being marshaled is required for
supporting services.

6-7. FACILITY REQUIREMENTS

Commanders can usc this information as a guide to the selection and
modification of existing facilities for brigade TF use. Figure 6-1 (page 6-6)
shows a typical marshaling area layout for a brigade-size unit that needs about
100 acres.

a. Task Force Camp. The brigade or battalion (task-organized for the

mission) and a MACG occupy a brigade TF camp. If no facilities exist,
support elements must construct the camps.

b. Camp Specifications. The brigade TF camp should be near a departure

airfield and large enough to support the brigade, its attachments, and
supporting personnel, The MACG supports the marshaling requirements of
the brigade camp. Each brigade camp has a site for rigging the brigade’s
equipment for air delivery (airland, airdrop, and LAPES).

c. Camp Security. The camp itself should be surrounded by security fencing

or, at least, triple-strand concertina. It should have a posted security zone
outside the perimeter that is at least 50 meters wide and cleared of brush and
trees. If available, lights should be used to illuminate the security zone. Gates
to the camp should be two lanes wide to accommodate heavy traffic.

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FM 90-26

Figure 6-1. Example of brigade marshaling area.

d. Billeting. Quarters, unit headquarters, messes, supply rooms, and latrines

should be constructed and allocated to maintain unit integrity.

(1) Bivouac site. If billets are not available, a bivouac site can be prepared
with tents laid out in company streets. (See FM 101-10-1/2 and CTA 50-909.)
(2) Mess facilities. FM 101-10-1/2 provides the guidelines for determining
mess hall size.

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 FM 90-26

(3) Latrine areas. There should be enough latrines to serve at least 4 percent
of the male soldiers and 6 percent of the expected female soldiers. Latrines
should be built at least 100 yards downwind from food service facilities to
prevent contamination of food and water. They need to be 30 yards from the
end of the unit area, but within a reasonable distance for easy access.
(4) Shower facilities. Enough shower facilities should be provided to support
the size force in the marshaling area.
e. Rigging. The airborne force requires facilities for rigging heavy-drop
equipment, CDS, and LAPES platform loads. Although equipment can be
rigged outdoors, it should be rigged in a large building, such as a hangar,
where it is protected from weather. The following facilities are needed to
out-load:

(1) Loading area control center. The LACC is provided for the initial
preparation of vehicles for heavy drop, LAPES, or airland. It should have a
10-foot by 20-foot area for each vehicle and a 20-foot-wide area between rows
for maintenance. A large area must be provided on either side of the LACC
for maneuverability within the LACC for maintenance or other vehicles.
Figure 6-2 shows an example LACC for heavy-drop rigging.

Figure 6-2. Heavy-drop LACC.

6-7
FM 90-26

(2) Rigging sites. The rigging site shown in Figure 6-3 accommodates the
rigging and outloading of about 50 platforms in a 24-hour period, depending
on the availability of trained personnel, equipment, and supplies. The rigging
site uses an assembly line rigging technique. Riggers can operate as many
lanes as required (with augmentation and as available space allows), although
four are provided in this example.
(a) Lanes. Each lane has five rigging stations, one for each of the following:
• Vehicle preparation.
• Platform preparation and load positioning.
• Lashing installation.
• Parachutes and extraction system.
• Joint Army/Air Force load inspection.
(b) Personnel. Each rigging site requires about 240 support personnel and 60
riggers (two shifts), Support personnel typically include:
• One OIC for each rigging site.
• Two warrant officers (MOS 921A) for each rigging site.
• Twenty-five support personnel for each rigging lane.
• Twenty support personnel for each platform outload at a rigging site.
• Each site requires 30 riggers, plus 1 for each rigging station, 2 for
each joint airlift inspection station, and 1 for each outload station.
• One ammunition specialist (MOS 55B) for each rigging site.
(c) Equipment. The following items of equipment are usually required to
load equipment on platforms and to load platforms on vehicles for
transportation to the departure airfield:
• Four 14-ton air-transportable cranes.
• One 40-ton crane
• Two 5-ton wreckers
• Ten 10-ton M172 semitrailers and tractors.
• One 6,000-pound, rough-terrain forklift.
• One 10,000-pound rough- terrain forklift
• Five tractors and trailers for hauling air items
• Trailers with ammunition for ballast.

(d) Rigging areas. A 75- by 110-meter area (roughly) is required for the
rigging area itself. The ground surface should be clear, level, and compact.
Each assembly line is about 25 feet wide by 110 feet long; it has at least a
30-foot gap between lanes to allow for vehicular movement Each line
requires a foundation of 2-inch by 10- or 12-inch planks by 25-feet-long
planks; it is laid side by side every 5 feet to support the roller conveyors (if a
hardstand is not available). Space is reserved at the beginning of each lane to
pack ammunit ion and other supplies onto vehicles and at the end of each lane
to operate the loading equipment.
(c) Holding areas. Holding areas for rigging supplies are provided on either
side of the rigging site for delivering and unloading rigging supplies.
(Figure 6-4.) Enough space must be provided to drive through and park the
trucks delivering materials to this site.

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 FM 90-26

Figure 6-3. Heavy-drop rigging site.

6-9
FM 90-26

Figure 6-4. Holding areas

6-8. STAFF AND SUPPORT AGENCY RESPONSIBILITIES

The staff of the unit to be marshaled advises the MACG, through a liaison
officer or by personal contact, of the requirements for the deploying unit at
the marshaling areas. Support units provide their services until the assault
force departs and the marshaling areas close.

a. Staff Members and Duties. Staff members of the marshaling unit perform
specific duties as follows:

(1) The S1 requisitions replacements, requests recreational facilities, and

coordinates medical support.
(2) The S2 coordinates security and deception measures to ensure secrecy.
(3) The S3 submits the personnel roster and outlines training, briefing, and
rehearsal requirements.
(4) The S4 identifies the deploying unit’s requirements for supply,
maintenance, transportation, and storage facilities.
(5) The staff makes all arrangements far enough in advance of the
marshaling period to enable support personnel to procure the facilities and
install thcm where necessary.

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 FM 90-26

b. Support Agencies. When the divisional airborne brigade deploys and the
marshaling areas close, the division support command acts as the provisional
logistical unit at the home station. The theater commander responsible for the
AO provides the provisional logistical support unit for the ISB. If a support
unit cannot pre-position at the ISB, a support unit from the home station
command is included in the advance party. Marshaling control agencies assist
the airborne and airlift force in the execution of the operation.

(1) Marshaling area control group. To enable the majority of the airborne
force to concentrate on preparing for planned operations, support agencies
are designated by division headquarters to provide most of the administrative
and logistical support. These nonorganic units and certain organic units not
participating in the airborne assault are organized into a provisional unit
known as the MACG. The MACG commander is the principal logistical
operator for the deploying force; he executes the logistical plan. Typical
assistance provided by this unit includes:
Transportation.
All classes of supply.
Communications.
Campsite(s) construction, operation, and maintenance.
Messing.
Maintenance.
Rigging.
Recreation and other morale services.
Local security personnel to augment the Air Force, when required.
Health service support.

(2) Airlift control element. The ALCE coordinates and maintains operational
control of all airlift aircraft while they are on the ground at the designated
airfield. This includes aircraft and load-movement control and reporting,
communications, loading and off-loading teams, aeromedical activities, and
coordination with interested agencies, The ALCE's support function includes
activities that relate to the airfield. Typical tasks for this Air Force unit
include:
(a) Support and control exercises and contingency operations, as defined in
MAC and TAC manuals and mission directives, on both a planned and a
no-notice basis.

(b) Conduct around-the-clock operations to provide supervisory control and

to ensure effective usc of the tactical airlift force on assigned missions.
(c) Direct, execute, and coordinate mission directives, plans, and orders
assigned.
(d) Distribute completed loading manifests as required.
(c) Furnish copies of the aircraft parking plan to support units.
(f) Coordinate loading of aircraft.
(g) Coordinate disposition of Army equipment and personnel remaining
behind or returning because of aborted sorties.

(h) Ensure that appropriate and adequate briefings for Army and AF
personnel are conducted.

6-11
FM 90-26

(i) Coordinate flight clearances.

(j) Coordinate configuration of aircraft.

(k) Schedule and coordinate proper AF coverage of assault LZs, DZs, and
EZs.
(l) Schedule and publish air movement tables for supported units.
(m) Provide or arrange weather support for the mission.
(3) Departure airfield control group. The DACG ensures that Army units and
their supplies and equipment are moved from the marshaling area and loaded
IAW the air movement plan. Timing is critical at this point in the
operation – strict control of both air and ground traffic must be maintained
on and across active runways.
(4) Arrival airfield control group. The organization of the AACG is similar to
the DACG. When personnel, supplies, and equipment are arriving on aircraft
and need to be moved to marshaling camps or holding areas, the AACG is
responsible for offloading them. Like the DACG, the AACG works closely
with the ALCE unit at the arrival airfield.

Section Il. OUTLOAD

Complex outload operations are more difficult because they are usually
conducted at night under blackout conditions.

6-9. OUTLOAD PLAN

Since most or all of the airborne units’ vehicles are rigged for air delivery,
airborne units must rely on the supporting unit for transportation during
outload. These requirements are closely related to and dictated by the
loading plans developed for the operation.

a. Contents of Loading Plan. Loading preparations are included in the

marshaling plan. Loading plans outline the procedures for moving personnel
and heavy-drop loads from the alert holding area to plane side. They also
outline the use of available materiels-handling equipment. The loading plans
are closely coordinated with the supporting airlift units.

b. Formulation of Loading Plan. A loading plan is formulated at joint

conferences. It contains information about the number of personnel and the
amount of equipment to be airlifted, ACLs, and the general sequence of
movement.

c. Adherence to Loading Plan. Strict adherence to the loading timetable is

mandatory. The loading of equipment and supplies must be completed in
time to permit postloading inspection, joint pretakeoff briefing, and
personnel loading by the designated station time.

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 FM 90-26

d. Loading Responsibilities. The general delineations of loading

responsibilities in connection with the airborne operation are as follows:

(1) Airlift commander. He –

(a) Develops plans for specific loads and the sequence of movement in
conjunction with the unit being moved.
(b) Establishes and disseminates instructions for documenting and
manifesting all cargo and personnel.

(c) Provides instructions for loading and unloading aircraft and for cargo
tie-down.
(d) Parks aircraft IAW the parking plan.
(e) Provides loading ramps, floor conveyors, tie-downs, load spreaders, and
other auxiliary equipment such as operation ejection equipment.
(f) Prepares aircraft for ejection of cargo and for the safe exit of parachutists
from aircraft in flight. Cargo to be ejected in flight is tied down by Air Force
personnel.

(g) Ensures that an Air Force representative is present to provide technical

assistance and to supervise the loading unit during the loading operations of
each aircraft.
(h) Verifies documentation of personnel and equipment.
(i) Furnishes and operates materiels-handling equipment required in aircraft
loading and unloading if the Army unit needs it.
(2) Airborne commander. He –
(a) Establishes the priority and sequence for movement of airborne
personnel, equipment, and supplies.
(b) Prepares cargo for airdrop, airland, or extraction IAW applicable safety
instructions.
(c) Marks each item of equipment to show its weight and cubage and, when
appropriate, to show the center of gravity. Ensures hazardous cargo is
properly annotated on DD Form 1387-2 IAW TM 38-250.

(d) Documents and manifests all loads of Army personnel, equipment, or

both.
(e) Directs and monitors movement of ground traffic to the departure
airfield or loading area, and accepts delivery at the destination.

(f) Delivers properly rigged supplies and equipment to the aircraft IAW the
loading plan.

(g) Loads, ties down, and unloads accompanying supplies and equipment
into and from the aircraft with technical assistance from a representative of
the Air Force. Cargo to be ejected in flight is tied down and ejected by AF
personnel. (Exception is made in the case of containers of supplies and
equipment that are pushed from the jump exits by paratroopers immediately
before their exit from the aircraft.)

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FM 90-26

(h) Ensures that Army personnel are seated aboard aircraft, are properly
equipped, and have their safety belts fastened by station time.
(i) Briefs and supervises Army vehicle operators to ensure that the operators
thoroughly comprehend airfield vehicular traffic procedures and pertinent
safety precautions before they operate vehicles around aircraft.

(j) Provides vehicles and loading personnel to outload Army personnel and
cargo from aborting aircraft and reload them on spare aircraft if time permits.

6-10. OUTLOAD PROCEDURES

A control system at arrival airfields is essential to prevent congestion and to
facilitate orderly movement of cargo and personnel.

a. Parking. The main parking consideration is loading access. Dispersal must

provide the most security possible with the least possible vulnerability and, at
the same time, allow maneuvering room for loading the equipment.

(1) Chalk number. To facilitate identification of individual aircraft during

loading, all aircraft are given a chalk number IAW the parking plan. The
displayed chalk number should be readily discernible to personnel
approaching the aircraft.
(2) Parking plan. The airlift force commander furnishes the airborne unit
commander with an accurate parking plan to include airfield layout, location
of aircraft by chalk number, location of standby aircraft, and access route(s).
b. Controlling Traffic. A traffic control system is essential to avoid
congestion at loading and unloading sites. In outloading, any force control is
accomplished by using a call-forward system in which loads are brought into
the loading area as required. The following control system outline applies to
airlanding facilities as well as airfields. (Figure 6-5, page 6-15.) The system
provides a separate loading facility for personnel, heavy-drop loads, and
aerial supply. The separation is essential to control loading and decrease the
time required to load. The airfield control system is set up with the minimum
required personnel and communications equipment, and with regard to the
size of the forces being moved.

c. Loading Procedures. The actual outload is complex and requires close

supervision to ensure all equipment and personnel are Ioaded on the correct
aircraft as quickly and efficiently as possible.

(1) Initially, personnel and equipment are dispersed in marshaling areas

distant from the loading airfields, but in close communication with control
groups at the airfields.
(2) When called, the unit or equipment is moved by planeload to the
call-forward area. The fewest possible planeload are maintained on hand in
the call-forward area to ensure uninterrupted loading. Guides and military
police are used as required.
(3) As aircraft arrive in the loading area, planeload are called forward; unit
members load and tie equipment down with the technical assistance of Air
Force personnel.

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 FM 90-26

Figure 6-5. Concept of outload control.

(4) Control personnel maintain a log listing the departure of each aircraft. It
contains the following information:
• Aircraft tail number.
• Summary of load or unit load number. (Manifests are correlated
with this entry.)
• Time aircraft was available for loading.
• Station time.
• Takeoff time.
• Remarks.

d. Unloading Procedures. At arrival airfields, the control system is the

reverse of that used at departure airfields. On arrival, crews unload aircraft
and move the loads to dispersed holding areas where arriving elements build
up to convenient size for further movements. Crews keep load categories
separated to facilitate control and movement.

6-15
Section I 7-1 7-2 7-3 7-4 7-5 7-6 7-7 7-8

Section II 7-9 7-10 7-11 7-12 Section III 7-13 7-14 7-15

CHAPTER 7

TACTICAL OPERATIONS

The employment of airborne forces on the ground is similar to that of other

infantry ground units. The entire range of these operations is movement to
contact, deliberate attack, hasty attack defense, or withdrawals. FMs 7-8,
7-20, and 7-30 discuss doctrinal employment of airborne units. They also
discuss tactics, techniques, and procedures for the conduct of tactical
operations. This chapter only discusses the differences that result from
variations in organization, equipment, and method of arrival in the combat
area.

Section I. GROUND TACTICAL OPERATION

The ground tactical operation phase of an airborne operation can include
raids, linkup, relief, withdrawal (either overland or by air), exfiltration,
recovery, survival operations, or airfield seizure. Aspects of these operations,
when conducted from the objective area, are in this section.

7-1. RAIDS
The organization, equipment, and capabilities of airborne units give them the
ability to conduct airborne raids behind enemy lines. Dispersed and
fluid-type warfare provide many opportunities for the conduct of airborne
raids. Army, Air Force, or Navy aircraft can be used to transport the raiding
force. (See FMs 7-20 and 7-85 for information on the planning, preparation,
and execution of raids.)

a. Mission. The airborne force can conduct raids–

• To destroy enemy installations or positions.

• To capture or kill the enemy.
• To rescue friendly personnel.
• To harass or disrupt enemy operations.
• To seize critical equipment or similar intelligence objectives.

A planned withdrawal is executed on completion of the assigned mission.

b. Objectives. Types of objectives vary; commanders can find suitable

objectives deep in enemy territory or close to the area of combat. When there

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is a choice, the objective that most nearly fulfills the following conditions
probably gives the best chance for success:

• It can be successfully engaged with small forces.

• Once seized, it can be held and defended with available forces.
• It is difficult for the enemy to reinforce.
• It is easy to locate under poor visibility conditions.

c. Similarities to Ground Raids. Airborne raids are similar to ground raids,

except the raiding force uses air transport to move to the objective area and
can withdraw by air. Air transport permits the raiding force to bypass enemy
positions and to overcome terrain barriers and distance factors. The objective
of the airborne raid is more likely to be beyond the supporting distance of the
parent unit than other types of raids.

d. Coordination. Commanders compile overall plans at higher command

levels because of the coordination required with multiservice agencies. The
raiding force is mainly concerned with the scheme of maneuver employed
within the objective area. Higher headquarters coordinates the operation with
other Army agencies, Air Force units, and Naval units that may be involved.
The commander’s initial estimate of the situation determines the time
required for planning.

e. Preparation. This closely parallels the preparation required for an

airborne assault with emphasis on the following aspects:

• Detailed intelligence.
• Deception and CI plans.
• Detailed withdrawal plans, including contingency plans.
• Force composition.

f. Training. Special training for each operation should be conducted except

when raids must be mounted on short notice. The training should be
immediately before the operation and teach the raiding force its duties and
roles. Training should end with at least one joint rehearsal of the operation,
including the withdrawal phase. This rehearsal should occur early to ensure
that lessons learned can be incorporated into the OPLAN.

g. Composition. The nature of the mission may require attachment of

specialized units or equipment to the airborne unit conducting the raid. The
size of the force should be as small as possible and still accomplish the
mission; usually, it is no larger than a battalion. The raiding force is
reorganized into self-contained elements tailored to accomplish special tasks,
including assault parties, security parties, and a reserve. However, the TOE
structure is retained so the established chain of command can be used. To
maintain flexibility, a reserve may be kept outside the objective area until
needed.

h. Time and Duration. Airborne raids can be conducted at night, dawn, or

twilight; in fog or mist; or during other low visibility conditions. These
conditions facilitate surprise and the delivery of the raiding force to the

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objective with a minimum risk of detection. Executing a daylight raid usually

requires greater use of support fires, including tactical air support, and the
use of measures to limit enemy observation and intelligence.

i. Conduct. Immediately on landing, the elements of the raiding force

independently begin their assigned tasks without further assembly.

(1) The actions of the raiding parties are decentralized; each operates as
required by its own missions, but their actions are coordinated by the raid
commander. In the attack of objectives, speed should be stressed.

(2) The force entering the objective area must be strong enough to defeat the
enemy forces in the immediate AO and to accomplish the assigned mission.
Therefore, the key to the success of the overall mission is to isolate the
objective area; it prevents the enemy from moving strong tactical forces into it
to defeat the raiding force. Isolating the battle area can be accomplished by
stealth or force.

(a) Stealth. The raiding force can enter the objective area with such speed
and stealth that enemy forces do not have time to locate them or time to react
with sufficient combat power. Stealth operations are possible when the
objective area is in a remote part of the enemy area or when the unit can
quickly accomplish the mission.

(b) Force. If the mission cannot be accomplished before the enemy can
locate the raiding force and move tactical forces to the area to attack, then
force must be used. This requires extensive support from outside agencies to
isolate the objective area, to keep the enemy from moving forces to the area,
and to prevent the enemy from launching a major air attack into the area.

j. Withdrawal. The withdrawal is carefully planned because it is usually the

most difficult part of the operation to execute. The raiding force can be
withdrawn by air, land, or sea or a combination of these.

(1) The airborne withdrawal can be performed by assault or

medium-transport aircraft, helicopter, or water-based aircraft; it can be
preceded by overland withdrawal to pickup points. Space in the returning
aircraft is restricted. All equipment and supplies should be evacuated if
possible, but plans should stress the withdrawal of personnel rather than
equipment. All equipment that cannot be withdrawn is destroyed.

(2) The commander must designate the required landing areas early in the
planning phase. He should not change areas at the last minute.

(3) The raiding force can withdraw overland by exfiltration. (See

paragraph 7-5.)

(4) Evacuation by sea is practicable wherever water approaches exist.

Submarines, destroyers, and small boats can be used. Plans should provide
for alternate beaches and possibly for NGF to cover the withdrawal.

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k. Requirements for Army Aircraft. The characteristics of Army aircraft

(mainly helicopters) make them ideal for use in raid operations. Habitual
employment of the same Army aviation personnel during raid-type training
lessens the need for extensive rehearsal before raid operations. Army aircraft
are needed in the objective area for reconnaissance, movement, and
evacuation of forces that remain in contact with the enemy.

l. Communications. A reliable communications system must be established

within the objective area, and from the objective area to the headquarters
outside the area that controls the overall operation.

m. Command Structure. The headquarters that controls the operation must

have over all the units taking part in the operation; control of all elements
by one commander is essential.

7-2. RECOVERY OPERATIONS

Recovery operations are specialized raids organized to liberate imprisoned or
detained personnel or to return specific equipment to friendly control. These
operations are normally performed by SOF, but may be performed by
infantry units. They include recovering and extracting downed or hijacked
aircrews and poIitical or military leaders. Airborne forces use surprise and
combat power to overwhelm resistance before detainees or prisoners can be
harmed.

a. Success of the Operation. Success depends on–

• Speed and surprise.

• Violent action.
• Quickly identifying, securing, and safeguarding evacuees.
• Limited time on the objective.
• Rapid and orderly extraction.

b. Planning. The planning of personnel and equipment recovery operations

is the same as for the raid. The difference is that the commander must pIan
for the extraction of recovered personnel and for the loading and extraction
of sensitive equipment. Personnel and equipment recovery raids are often
executed as contingency missions. They require the commander to plan and
execute the recovery quickly. An ISB or REMAB should be considered for
rehearsals and OPSEC.

c. Augmentations. This type of operation often requires augmentation by

personnel with special skills. Examples are medical personnel, technical
experts, mechanics, or crew members trained in repair and retrieval
operations, and linguists or translators.

d. Organization. The recovery force is organized the same as for a raid.

Special teams are sometimes needed to perform certain missions involved in
the recovery. Reconnaissance teams can be inserted ahead of the force to
reconnoiter the objective, to locate the detained or imprisoned personnel,
and to provide guides.

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(1) All planning and execution takes place as described for the raid. The
emphasis must be on detailed, timely intelligence.

(2) Medical teams, to include a physician, must be available to care for the
detainees; they should accompany the search team.

(3) Guide teams and escort teams are planned. Escorts should be planned on
a 1:1 ratio for detainees.

(4) Teams must be trained in searching and clearing buildings and

operations in a MOUT environment in general. (See FM 90-10-1 for detailed
information on infantry operations in urban an area.)

e. Execution. The enemy must be assaulted when he least expects it. The
force must ensure that friendly detainees are not harmed during the
assault–either by friendly or enemy personnel. Evacuees can be categorized
as follows:

• Category 1. All previously identified US nationals. No special

security measures are required.
• Category 2. All other US nationals with credible proof (visa or
passport), such as tourists, American expatriates, or US
businessmen. No special security measures are required.
• Category 3. Those with questionable US citizenship and foreign
nationals and their immediate families, such as those employed by
the US government. Armed security guards are required.
• Category 4. Possible infiltrators, saboteurs, and unfriendly
foreigners. These personnel are treated the same as EPWs.

Recovered personnel can be identified by total numbers or by name, if names

are available to the recovering force. The evacuee’s chain of command can
assist in assembly and identification.

f. Extraction. The commander should plan for the extraction point to be

close to the point of recovery. This prevents the detainees from moving
cross-country or the raid force from transporting bulky equipment long
distances. For small groups of detainees or small items of equipment, the
extraction point can be farther away. Recovery operations can use any
method, or combination of methods, of extraction. Close planning and
coordination are required with Army, Air Force, or Navy aviation for
evacuation of the target area.

g. Operations After Recovery. Once evacuees have been recovered to a

secure location, they are processed for return to control of the appropriate
authority. The recovery area is organized into five operational areas:
command, reception, processing, comfort, and departure. All evacuees are
registered and informed of their legal rights. They are screened for medical
problems and intelligence information. Evacuees are updated on the host
nation in a secure area. Their privacy is protected. Evacuees are later
prepared for further transportation, if required.

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7-3. WITHDRAWAL/EVACUATION OF UNITS

Evacuation/withdrawal of an airborne force can be preplanned or become
necessary because of enemy action. The limitations of transport aircraft and
the circular shape of the airhead introduce complicating factors not present
in a normal ground withdrawal. (Figure 7-l.)

a. Evacuation Sequence. When the situation permits, the plan usually

provides for evacuation in the following sequence: supplies, materiel, and
soldiers.

b. Withdrawal/Evacuation Factors. The following factors must be

considered when executing either a withdrawal or an evacuation.

(1) The operation requires sufficient aircraft and suitable LZs.

(2) Local air superiority or absence of enemy air interference is essential.

(3) The operation is sensitive to weather, primarily in the objective area, but
also in the base area.

(4) Surprise and deception are essential to the operation’s success. An alert
and determined enemy can be expected to try maximum interference as soon
as he detects evidence of a withdrawal.

(5) The withdrawal of the DLIC is the most critical phase of the withdrawal.

(6) The decision to withdraw by air must be made early to permit adequate
planning and coordination.

(7) Priorities for evacuating soldiers, supplies, and materiel must be

established; supplies and equipment that cannot be evacuated are destroyed
(with the exception of Class VIII medical supplies).

c. Responsibilities and Procedures. The breakdown of withdrawal or

evacuation responsibilities is as follows:

(1) Airborne commander. The overall commander directing the conduct of

an airborne operation orders the withdrawal or evacuation of the force.

(2) Ground force commander. The ground force commander determines the
priority of unit movement. He furnishes the airlift commander a list of units
broken down by priority into aircraft loads, indicating departure points and
destination. He establishes the DACG, which performs the following
functions:

(a) Ensures that prescribed planeloads of personnel and equipment are

available in the ready areas and are prepared to load.

(b) Calls prescribed paneloads forward from ready areas as aircraft arrive.

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(c) Notifies the Air Force when aircraft are loaded.

In a planned withdrawal, the ground force commander provides trained

teams to load and secure equipment; technical assistance is given by qualified
airlift personnel. In a forced withdrawal, such teams are not available.
Therefore, the ground force commander can request the airlift commander to
land Army loading teams in the objective area.

(3) Airlift commander. The airlift commander controls air movement,

establishing facilities within the objective area to coordinate the arrival and
departure of aircraft.

Figure 7-1. Withdrawal by air.

7-4. LINKUP
When the commander anticipates that an airborne force will engage in
sustained combat after linking up with ground forces, planning should
provide for this. Preservation of the force is vital since the airborne force will
most likely be deployed behind enemy lines. (See FMs 7-20 and 7-30 for
information on linkup operations.)

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7-5. EXFILTRATION
If an airborne force cannot link up with ground forces or cannot be extracted
by air, it must prepare to conduct an exfilttration by single companies,
platoons, or squads to reach friendly lines.

a. Situations. Stealth and evasiveness are key elements of exfiltration

Commanders favor this method of extraction when–

(1) The enemy has air superiority.

(2) The enemy can prohibit air or water extraction.

(3) The distance to friendly lines is short.

(4) The terrain provides cover and concealment (for movement on foot) and
limits enemy mobile units.

(a) Soldiers and units can use multiple exfiltration routes if the enemy
detects them. They can also use captured enemy vehicles and equipment to
assist in the exfiltration.

(b) The exfiltration force can exfiltrate in one body or in small groups.
Exfiltrating in small groups saves the time assembly can cost the unit.

(5) The exfiltrating force moves lightly equipped and unburdened with
captured personnel or materiel.

(6) The exfiltration route passes through an area occupied by friendly locals
or guerrilla forces who can assist the movement.

(7) Areas along exfiltration routes are uninhabited.

(8) The enemy force is dispersed or cannot concentrate against the

exfiltrating force.

b. Patrolling. Units employ aggressive patrolling to detect enemy weak

points.

c. Size of Units. Units should be small to avoid detection but large enough
to protect themselves. Terrain (especially avenues of approach to friendly
lines), enemy strength, and friendly strength (including fire support)
determine the size of units. All elements should have communications
equipment. They should move at night or during limited visibility over close
terrain.

d. Use of Vehicles. Commanders can exfiltrate vehicles or can use them in a

limited maneuver role. Before departure, units redistribute supplies. They
also determine the disposition of dead and wounded personnel, and allocate
vehicles for their transportation. Crews can destroy in place vehicles that are

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 FM 90-26

not mission capable or those to be left in the airhead, then join the main body
as it exfiltrates.

e. Approach of Friendly Lines. Units should approach friendly lines in

daylight. The units depart the airhead at a prescribed time interval while the
covering force maintains security and simulates normal unit activity.

f. Communications. Units establish communications with friendly forward

units and coordinate fire support, recognition signals, and passage of lines.

7-6. SURVIVAL OPERATIONS

A vital part of all premission planning is the development of en route plans
and postmission plans for survival, evasion, resistance and escape
operations, and for SAR operations. Such plans enhance survival of the force
and the transport of aircrews. (See FM 20-150, FM 21-76, and AR 350-30.)

a. Responsibilities of Airborne Commander. The airborne commander is

responsible for helping develop the plan in coordination with all supporting
agencies Hc ensures that all members of the airborne force and supporting
aircrews arc briefed on the plan.

b. Development of Plans. Each plan is unique because each situation has

unique problems. The plan devised by the airborne commander must address
these problems, while gaining from the individual abilities and training of the
airborne soldiers and their supporting aircrews. The following considerations
apply to SERE/SAR plans devised during airborne operations.

(1) Plans enhance survival of soldiers who can no longer accomplish their
assigned missions. The group’s senior combat arms officer must decide if any
missions remain that the group can accomplish. If not, then he must try to
evade and escape enemy capture if unable to link up and be extracted with
the rest of the force. Because of the depth of penetration behind enemy lines,
most successful plans can involve either air or water movement away from
enemy-held territory.

(2) Dismounted forces can move a great distance (especially at night) over
rugged terrain to reach an area where they can rendezvous with SAR aircraft
or boats. Escape and evasion plans for airborne elements should include
avoiding contact with the locals; however, the aid of friendly insurgent forces
can be enlisted. The plan can also include the use of E&E networks that arc
in place behind enemy lines; however, these nets must not be compromised by
the volume of evaders.

7-7. BREAKOUT FROM ENCIRCLEMENT

A breakout from encirclement is conducted when units operating behind
enemy lines are cut off from friendly forces and surrounded by superior
forces. Given airborne unit missions, the chance of operating as an isolated
force behind enemy lines is great. The breakout is characterized by
determination of enemy weak points, deception, massing of combat power,
and a direct attack for a violent and timely breakout. (FM 7-20 discusses the
considerations for planning and the execution of breakout operations.)

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7-8. RELIEF
Airborne personnel are capable of sustained action after their heavy
equipment has been introduced into the airhead. They can be used in any role
that might be assigned to an infantry unit. When ground or naval forces link
up with airborne personnel who may face employment in another airborne
operation, the controlling headquarters should relieve the airborne forces so
they can be withdrawn to a rear base, reorganized, and readied for the next
airborne operation. (Reliefs are discussed in FMs 7-20 and 7-30.)

Section Il. AIRFIELD SEIZURE

An airfield seizure is executed to clear and control a designated airstrip. The
purpose can be to allow follow-on airland forces to conduct transload
operations or to establish a lodgment in order to continue combat operations
from that location. Airfields can be seized and occupied by friendly forces for
a definite or indefinite period.

7-9. REQUIREMENTS
Requirements for the seizure of an airfield, subsequent securing of the
airhead, and the introduction of follow-on forces depend heavily on the
factors of METT-T and the commander’s concept of the operation.

a. Planning Factors. Certain factors must be considered when conducting

the estimate for an airfield seizure.

(1) The key element is surprise. Assault of the airfield should be conducted
at night to maximize surprise, security, and protection of the force. Timing is
critical; the assault should be executed so that the follow-on assault echelon
(airdrop or airland) can also be delivered under the cloak of darkness.

(2) Enemy air defenses near the airfield and along aircraft approach and
departure routes must be suppressed.

(3) The size of the airfield must be sufficient for landing and takeoff of
aircraft to be used after seizure. Minimum operating length determines how
much of the airfield must be cleared.

(4) The configuration and condition of the airfield, including taxiways and
parking, determines the maximum-on-ground capacity for aircraft at one
time. This, combined with offload/transload time estimates, impacts directly
on scheduling follow-on airflow into the airfield. Surface composition and
condition and predicted weather conditions must allow the airfield to accept
the required number of sorties without deteriorating the surface below
minimum acceptable safety standards.

(5) The airfield location must facilitate follow-on operations. If transload

operations must occur, the follow-on target must be within the range of the
aircraft to be used. If not, then forward area rearm/refuel assets must be
available and positioned to support the follow-on operation.

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(6) The airfield must be defensible initially with assault forces against any
immediate threat and with planned follow-on forces against larger,
coordinated counterattacks.

b. Airborne Force Task Organization. The airborne force’s task

organization varies, depending on METT-T factors. However, airfield
seizures require the designation of elements to clear runways, assault
designated objectives, and screen areas valuable to the operation besides
normal task-organization considerations. Supporting assets and attachments
should be considered in organizing the force. As with any other airborne
operation, the commander organizes his force into three echelons: assault,
follow-on, and rear.

(1) The future of the army is fighting joint combined-arms operations with a
mix of light and heavy forces. The original concept for the light division and
the restructure of the airborne and air assault divisions envisioned that the
needs for antiarmor and other CS would be provided by corps in the form of
plugs. The concept of fighting pure is contrary to the concept of
combined-arms warfare. Heavy units would be task-organized with light
infantry and other forces into TFs to gain the complementary effect of the
combined arms. The mix of the force would be determined by the threat. The
insertion of light armored assets in the assault echelon would provide, in the
early phases, an increased antiarmor capability.

(2) Reconnaissance and security teams can be deployed ahead of the main
body. They can be used to determine enemy dispositions on the airfield and
whether airfield runways are cleared or blocked. They can also look for
enemy air defense assets near the airfield. These teams maintain radio
contact with the airborne commander who is en route to the objective. They
can be used in the selective destruction of enemy facilities by directing air
strikes or by employing laser target designators to limit collateral damage to
the airfield. Reconnaissance and security teams can also be used to sever
land-line communications not vulnerable to friendly EW efforts or to provide
early warning of the approach of enemy reaction forces. Reconnaissance and
security teams can come from a LRSU, special operations forces, or battalion
scout platoons. However, the commander must weigh the risk of team
compromise and consequent loss of surprise against the value of intelligence
obtained.

(3) Air Force CCTS are required to provide airspace management assistance
as well as control of aircraft after landing (for example, parking locations and
taxiing control). Combat control teams can be inserted ahead of the force as
part of a JAAP; it can jump with the airborne assault or can airland with the
first assault aircraft.

(4) TOW, scout, and MP vehicles, or other mobile weapons platforms,

should be front-loaded in the airland assault echelon. These vehicles, relying
on surprise and speed for security, must quickly move to blocking or
screening positions. They also provide a mobile antiarmor capability.

(5) If engineer units are to accompany the assault force, they should be
tasked to clear the runways of obstacles. Special consideration must be given

7-11
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to the type and quantity of obstacles on the runway. This has a major impact
on engineer assets required by the TF, the time for clearance, and the
planned time of arrival of airland sorties. To assist the engineers, bulldozers
and mine detectors (metallic and nonmetallic) can be dropped in the initial
assault. To reduce injuries, the commander should outfit runway clearing
elements with elbow and knee pads when they are parachuting onto a
hard-surface runway. Selected personnel can be tasked to jump-start disabled
vehicles or airfield support vehicles required to assist the offload. Engineer
personnel must understand the amount of space required to land specific
types of aircraft. (See Appendix C.)

(6) Civil affairs and PSYOP personnel help the commander control civilians
and PWs.

(7) Depending on the threat, commanders can determine that certain

objectives near the airfield and key terrain surrounding it (control towers,
communications nodes, terminal guidance facilities) should be secured at the
same time units are clearing the runways. This requirement increases the
number of personnel designated to participate in the initial airborne assault.
Should this be necessary, commanders can adjust aircraft loads. Those
aircraft designated to drop personnel cannot transport as much airland cargo
because the station near the jump doors must remain clear.

(8) A number of other assets can be available to assist insertion, and

support.

(a) Airborne battlefield command and control center. The ABCCC’s

mobility and communications capabilities provide valuable .

(b) C-130 Talon. This aircraft’s sophisticated navigational equipment

permits insertion even under the most adverse weather conditions.

(c) AC-130. The availability of AC-130s allows for continuous fire support
from a mobile and accurate airborne platform. If air refueling is available, the
AC-130 can stay on station and provide overhead support for extended
periods. (For more information, see FM 7-20.)

(d) Unit-level communications. At this level leaders can augment

communications by using hand-held radios for special elements and teams
and by setting up special nets for the initial assault.

c. Airfield/Lodgment Actions. Several actions must take place to accomplish

the seizure of an airfield and the subsequent establishment of the lodgment.
These actions or considerations include:

(1) Quickly seize critical enemy facilities that will prevent the
reinforcement of the enemy force defending the airfield complex. At the same
time, the assaulting force must isolate the objective area to further reduce the
possibility of reinforcement.

(2) Deploy and employ enough ground combat forces to prevent enemy
penetration of the lodgment area (airhead, beachhead).

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(3) Establish a coherent defense against air attack to ensure that the
assaulting force is not interdicted or the airfield damaged or destroyed by
air-delivered munitions.

(4) Ensure enough combat power (ADA, maneuver, FA, and so on) is
employed to preserve the air and sea LOCs and to facilitate the delivery of
follow-on forces by air, land, or sea.

(5) Seize the airfield quickly enough to facilitate a rapid buildup of forces to
expand the airhead into a lodgment line. This ability is expressed in terms of
airframes to perform over-the-horizon insertion of forces.

(6) Quickly establish an AACG. This group can be under the control of the
battalion XO or S3 Air. It requires positive control to facilitate rapid
offloading of aircraft. Aircraft execute either combat offloading of pallets or
engine-running offloading of vehicles, equipment, and personnel. Personnel
should prepare all vehicles and equipment for immediate offloading as soon
as the aircraft stops. Dunnage and tie-downs remain on the aircraft to save
time.

(7) Deny the enemy the use of airborne sensors and UAVs. All ADA
measures, air superiority, and effective camouflage operations measures must
be executed to contribute to this effort.

7-10. SEQUENCE OF OPERATIONS

The sequence of events during the assault, seizure and consolidation of the
force on the captured airfield dictates the timing of the delivery of the
follow-on echelon to the objective area.

a. Insertion of the CCT/JAAP Into the Objective Area. Insertion can be overt
or covert based on the threat. Insertion of these teams depends on the ability
to get them into the area undetected. If surprise is paramount, the airborne
force may rely on other means to pinpoint the objective area and on other
sources of intelligence and navigation.

b. Preassault Fires. Preassault fires maybe used when collateral damage can
be controlled with no danger to the airfield. They are normally used to
suppress or neutralize enemy air defense systems and installations (SEAD).
Air Force assets may be used to jam enemy radar and communications during
this period and before the parachute insertion.

c. Airborne Assault (by Assault Echelon A if the airborne force is so

task-organized) to Isolate the Airfield and Establish the Airhead. The
assault initially starts at P-hour to eliminate enemy resistance on the airfield
and to secure the runway(s) from direct fire. The airfield complex is further
isolated by the establishment of blocking positions to deny access to and from
the airfield area. Simultaneously, key facilities are seized and or neutralized.
Particular attention should be directed to limit collateral damage since these
facilities may be necessary for sustained combat operations after the
lodgment is established.

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d. Insertion of Assault Echelon B with Additional Combat, CS, and CSS

Assets. An RSL is established to provide early warning to the main body. It
may consist of a series of infantry OPs and antiarmor ambush sites as well as a
cavalry screen. Assets for this task are best formed from vehicle-mounted
scouts or light armor assets. They should be task-organized with infantry to
fight and delay the enemy as the main body prepares for a possible
counterattack.

e. Reserve. A reserve should be constituted at every level to weight the main

effort. A mounted reserve provides the greatest degree of flexibility. The
reserve should be committed to exploit success, complete the mission, or to
handle contingency missions. (For more information, see FM 7-20.)

f. Clearance of the Runway(s). The enemy may have pre-positioned vehicles

or other obstructions on runways, taxiways, or parking aprons to deter and
slow down the use of the airfield complex by attacking forces. Once the
assault echelon has seized initial objectives, the runway clearance teams
(engineers, infantry, and other designated personnel) begin clearing or
repairing the runway(s), This clearance includes the removal of dunnage from
heavy-drop platforms. It must be done immediately to facilitate the
introduction of follow-on forces by airland delivery.

g. Follow-on Echelon Deployment. The follow-on echelon is deployed to the

objective area once the initial assault objectives are secured and the airhead is
established. This echelon may be deployed by paradrop or by air-land if the
airfield facilities have been identified, repaired, and placed into an
operational status.

7-11. SECURITY FORCE OPERATIONS

The battalion may be required to conduct security force operations in its area
of responsibility, concurrent with offensive operations against the enemy. All
actions, however, must be strictly within established rules of engagement and
the law of land warfare. The objectives of security force operations are as
follows:

To isolate the insurgency from its civilian support (population and

resource control).
To prevent interference with friendly operations by the civilian
population (population control).
To secure military installations and lines of communication from
insurgent attack.
To solicit the active support of the civil population for the friendly
cause. (For more specific information, see FM 7-20.)

7-12. NONCOMBATANT EVACUATION OPERATIONS

Political concerns dominate shows of force and demonstrations. Military

forces conduct these operations within delicate Iegal and political constraints.
The political will to employ actual force–should a demonstration of it fail–is
vital to the succcss of these operations. Actual combat is not their goal. The

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 FM 90-26

force coordinates its operations with the country team or teams. Before
commitment, the chain of command should certify that the force understands
the national purpose, ROE, and inherent risks of the operation.
Noncombatant evacuation operations relocate threatened civilian
noncombatants from locations in a foreign or host nation. These operations
normally involve US citizens whose lives are in danger. They may also include
selected host nation natives and third country nationals.

a. Under ideal circumstances, there should be little or no opposition to an

evacuation; however, commanders should anticipate possible hostilities. In
the LIC environment, this type of operation usually involves swift insertion of
a force and temporary occupation of an objective, followed by a planned,
quick withdrawal. This mission is ideally suited to an airborne element. It
involves only the force required for self-defense and the protection of the
evacuees.

b. Military, political, or other emergencies in any country may require

evacuation of designated personnel as the situation deteriorates. The
Department of State initiates requests for military assistance; they also obtain
necessary clearances from other governments. This assistance can include
basing and overflight authorizations, and the use of facilities essential to
performing the evacuation.

c. If the chief of the US diplomatic corp expects trouble, hc should direct the
early withdrawal of dependents and nonessential personnel by ordinary
transport. If this has already occurred, only a minimum of personnel normally
require emergency military evacuation. Thorough planning ensures that US,
host nation, and international media understand the operation’s intent. This
enhances security and the dissemination of positive information.

d. The evacuation may take place in a benign environment, face a threat of

violent opposition, or require combat action. The specific situation
determines the type of evacuation required. The evacuation force commander
has little influence over the local situation. He may not have the authority to
preempt hostile actions by military measures; yet, he must be prepared to
defend the evacuation effort and provide protection for his forces. Thus, the
key factor in NEO planning is a correct appraisal of the political-military
environment in which the force will operate.

e. An understanding of the role and status of host nation security forces is

important. Host nation resources can provide essential assistance to the
operation. These politically sensitive operations are often monitored or
controlled at the highest level. Diplomatic and legal restraints limit military
action to only those activities that permit the evacuation without hindrance.
Care of the civilians and the maintenance of order at the evacuation site will
be the ground forces commander’s responsibility.

f. Airlift operations demand close cooperation among the airlift control

element, the ground forces commander, and the diplomatic mission. Aircraft
commanders supporting the evacuation should coordinate flight information
with the appropriate sovereign airspace authorities to the maximum extent
possible, However, positive airspace control may be difficult and airspace

7-15
FM 90-26

control systems may be inadequate. In cases where sovereign authorities are

unable or unwilling to either approve or deny clearance, each aircraft
commander must operate at their own discretion. They use caution
proportionate to the circumstances to lessen risk. If no effective airspace
control exists, the airlift commander should assume airspace control
responsibilities and keep the diplomatic mission and ground forces advised
on the progress of the airlift.

g. Commanders should remember that NEO can quickly turn into

peacemaking or peacekeeping operations. They must plan for these
contingencies.

h. Rescue and recovery operations are sophisticated actions that require

precise execution, especially when conducted in hostile countries. They may
be clandestine or overt. They may also include the rescue of US or friendly
foreign nationals; and the location, identification, and recovery of sensitive
equipment or items critical to US national security.

(1) Hostile forces can oppose rescue and recovery operations. On the other
hand, these operations may remain unopposed if the potentially hostile force
is unaware of them or unable or unwilling to interfere. Stealth, surprise,
speed, and the threat of overwhelming US force are some of the means
available to overcome opposition.

(2) Rescue and recovery operations require timely intelligence, detailed

planning, deception, swift execution, and extraordinary security measures.
They usually involve highly trained special units, but they may also receive
support from the general purpose forces.

i. The US executes strikes and raids for specific purposes other than gaining
or holding terrain. Strikes and raids can support rescue or recovery
operations or destroy or seize equipment or facilities that demonstrate a
threat to national collective security interests. They can also support
counterdrug operations by destroying narcotics production or transshipment
facilities or support a host government’s actions in this regard, Strikes and
raids are the most conventional of peacetime contingency operations The
principles of combat operations apply directly. The unified CINC normally
plans and executes them.

Section Ill. SUPPORTING OPERATIONS

Airborne units can deploy from a CONUS base directly to the objective area.
A more common method would be for the airborne unit to first deploy to a
REMAB or to an ISB before establishing a lodgment in the AO. In certain
circumstances, the objective can be beyond the range of aircraft operating
from a REMAB or ISB in friendly territory. Therefore, a forward operating
base in hostile territory can be seized to facilitate or project further
operations.

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 FM 90-26

7-13. REMOTE MARSHALING BASE

The REMAB is a secure base to which the entire airborne unit (including
organic and attached support elements) deploys and continues mission
planning. (Figure 7-2.)

a. Location. The REMAB is within the geographical area encompassed by

the command authority of the theater or JTF commander. This ensures that
the CSS elements providing support to the airborne unit are operating within
their normal area. It prevents or lessens out-of-sector support requirements
for CSS elements. The REMAB should be in an area similar in terrain and
climate to the objective area. Time spent at the REMAB lets the unit begin
acclimatization.

b. Planning and Coordination. The REMAB also provides a secure location

for the unit to conduct detailed planning and coordination with the
controlling headquarters staff.

Figure 7-2. Base options for force projection.

c. Command Preparation. In the REMAB, the commander conducts

rehearsals, refines and modifies plans, determines PIR, and coordinates with
the proper intelligence source to receive that information.

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FM 90-26

d. Additions to the Unit. In the REMAB, individual specialists who augment

the force are integrated into the unit if they have not already joined. Specially
trained supporting units, such as aviation and communications elements, also
join the force at the REMAB.

e. Functions of a REMAB. The REMAB must provide–

(1) Access to the controlling headquarters staff.

(2) Physical security of billeting, planning, maintenance, and communications

areas.

(3) Mess, billeting, latrine, and shower facilities for the force and its
supporting elements.

(4) Access to a C-141- or C-130-capable airfield, possibly with all-weather

operations.

(5) Access to secure communications and processed intelligence.

(6) Access to rehearsal areas where sites can be built and live-fire rehearsals
can be conducted.

(7) Access to the unit locations of major supporting elements such as naval
landing craft or Army aviation units.

(8) An external security force and an active CI agency.

(9) Vehicle transport for personnel lift, equipment transfer, and

administrative use.

(10) Access to maintenance support facilities.

(11) Medical support facilities to augment the airborne medical personnel.

(12) Covered areas for packing parachutes and rigging airdrop loads.

7-14. INTERMEDIATE STAGING BASE

Elements of the airborne force deploy to an ISB to make final plans,
coordinate, and task-organize. The unit’s organization and composition are
finalized for movement to the objective area. Deployment to the ISB is
common when terrain or distance precludes insertion to the objective area
directly from the REMAB or CONUS. Contingency missions often involve
the use of an ISB. Intermediate staging base operations are often employed
when the mission requires transloading from strategic airlift assets to theater
airlift assets.

a. Facilities. The ISB is not occupied for long periods; however, some
facilities are needed to support the airborne force. These include the
following:

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 FM 90-26

• Materiels-handling equipment required for transloading.

• A location away from civilians or traffic routes.
• Security and CI elements.
• Secure communications.
• Fuel for aircraft and vehicles.
• Potable water supply.
• Austere airfield support facilities, possibly capable of all-weather
operations.
• Areas for test firing weapons.
• Covered and concealed areas for assembly of the airborne force and
rigging of parachutes and door bundles.
• Austere billets or rest areas.
• Austere messing arrangements.
• Medical treatment facility.

b. Location. The ISB location should provide adequate OPSEC to prevent

compromise of the operation.

7-15. FORWARD OPERATING BASE

Objectives for airborne or airland assault operations maybe beyond the range
of aircraft operating from an ISB or REMAB in friendly territory. Therefore,
a base in hostile territory must be seized for the further projection of force or
for the recovery of previously deployed forces.

a. Establishing an FOB requires seizure of an airfield or airstrip. The force

conducting the follow-on operation can be a part of the force seizing the FOB
or a new force introduced after the FOB is seized. In most operations, the
FOB is retained only as long as necessary to support the follow-on mission. A
planned withdrawal is executed on mission completion.

b. Before launching subsequent airborne or airland assaults, reorganization

may be required. This is especially true if the subsequent assault force comes
from the unit that seized the FOB. To lessen this requirement, the follow-on
assault force can be the reserve for the initial mission, or it can be a
completely new force that only refuels or transloads at the FOB. Transloading
must be accomplished quickly. Loads must be prerigged and loaded to
facilitate transloading. Control is established by the CCT and ADACG.

c. If the FOB is used to receive previously committed forces, planning

considerations must include:

• Accountability procedures.
• Medical care and evacuation.
• Maintenance requirements.
• Resupply/refueling operations.

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Section I 8-2 Section II 8-3 8-4 8-6 8-7 Section III 8-9 8-10 8-11 Section IV 8-12 8-13 8-14 8-15 8-16

8-1 8-5 8-8

Section V 8-18 Section VI 8-19 8-20 8-21 8-22 Section VIII 8-24 8-25 8-26 8-27 8-28 8-29 Section IX 8-30 8-31
8-17 Section VII 8-23

8-32 8-34 8-35 Section X 8-36 8-38 Section XI 8-39 Section XII 8-41 8-42 8-43 8-44 8-45 8-46
8-37 8-40
8-33

CHAPTER 8

COMBAT SUPPORT

T he commander uses combat support elements to enhance the combat

power of his subordinate maneuver units. He must know CS capabilities,
assign them appropriate missions, and control their operations to apply
superior combat power at the decisive time and place. Specific applications
of the command and support relationships are discussed in this chapter and
outlined in Table 8-1, (see page 8-2).

Section I. COMMAND AND SUPPORT

RELATIONSHIPS
Regardless of the relationship of the CS element to the unit, the airborne
commander is responsible for integration and synchronization of available CS
to accomplish his mission.

8-1. ELEMENTS
Combat support elements provide significant amounts of more combat
power. The leader of a CS element that is attached, OPCON, or DS serves as
special staff officer to the commander besides functioning as the CS leader.
During planning, preparation, and execution of the mission, the CS leader
advises the commander and staff on the employment of the CS unit, then he
follows the commander’s directions.

8-2. DECENTRALIZATION
During the airborne assault, most CS units are initially attached to the
elements of the assault echelon (battalion/company). As more assets enter the
airhead, including the parent headquarters of these CS units, CS assets can be
returned to parent-unit control for more effective employment.

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FM 90-26

Table 8-1. Command and support relationships.

Section Il. FIRE SUPPORT

Fire support planning for an airborne operation is initiated on receipt of the
mission. Concurrent with the development of the concept of the operation,
the commander plans for fire support so that it is provided throughout the
operation.

8-3. UNIQUE ASPECTS

Fire support planning, coordination, and execution for airborne operations
are more complex than in conventional ground operations; the differences are
as follows:

a. The assault elements of the airborne force are quickly placed in direct
contact with the enemy deep in hostile territory. Initial operations are
decentralized and communications can be limited or nonexistent

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 FM 90-26

b. Airborne unit vulnerability increases during the time between landing and
assembly into a fighting force. This time varies based on unit size and
METT-T factors. During this vulnerable period, reliable communications are
essential to the coordination and execution of fire support missions.
c. Calls for fire are often sent under conditions where units are in critical
need of fire support. Units lack firm knowledge of the situation, especially the
location of friendly and enemy units. This can also come at a time when
reliable ground communications have not been firmly established.
d. Initially, artillery support in the airhead is limited. This situation occurs at
the same time as the arrival of the assault echelon, the main effort, or the
operation’s opening phase. Consequently, the bulk of fire support must come
from air support, organic mortars, or NGF. Support can also be provided by
long-range artillery of advancing friendly forces (if in range), long-range
rocket/missile fire, and strategic air force bombs or bombers.
e. During the initial airborne assault and periodically thereafter, airspace
over the DZ contains a high density of airdrop aircraft. This complicates fire
support aspects of airspace management.

8-4. MISSIONS
Fire support assets can perform a variety of missions in support of the
airborne assault. The following are examples of standard missions arranged
by type of asset.

a. Tactical air support, mortars, and limited field artillery can be the only fire
support available to the airborne force until the lodgment is established. It
can provide any or all of the following types of support:
(1) Close air support.
(2) Column cover for the assault echelon, follow-up echelon, and resupply
sorties.
(3) Suppression of enemy air defenses along the corridor selected for
penetration and near the objective.
(4) Reconnaissance both before and during the operation.
(5) Counterair operations to gain and maintain air superiority along the
corridor and in the objective area.
(6) Preassault fires of the airhead and other critical targets, and deception.
(7) Battlefield air interdiction of the objective area, including armed
reconnaissance missions targeted against enemy forces that react to the
airborne assault.

(8) Air defense of marshaling areas, resupply airfields, and the airhead.
b. Naval gun fire, when available and in range, is a reliable, accurate,
high-volume source of fire support. It can provide any or all of the following
types of support:
(1) Preassault fires of the objective and other critical targets.
(2) Suppression of enemy air defenses.

8-3
FM 90-26

(3) Direct support and general support of forces in contact.

(4) Interdiction (land and sea).
c. Artillery of linkup forces within range can provide the following support:
• Interdiction fires.
• SEAD fires.
• Counterbattery fires.
• Direct support to maneuver units.

d. Army aviation assets can augment other fire support when the ISB/FSB is
within range or when a secure airfield permits airland and buildup of Army
aviation transported in USAF airlift aircraft. They can support–
(1) R&S forces.
(2) Interdiction of enemy reaction forces, especially mechanized forces with
accurate, long-range antitank fires.
(3) Seizure of objectives with rocket fire and gunfire.

8-5. PRINCIPLES
Fire support planning and execution relies on careful, thorough planning
based on fire support principles designed to support maneuver. (See FM
6-20-30 for a detailed discussion.)

a. Unity of Control. This principle is met through the establishment of a

joint headquarters (such as JTF) to include a joint operations center, which is
responsible for providing adequate fire support to the maneuver commander.
b. Continuous Liaison. Liaison, especially between Army and Air Force
units, is necessary at all echelons down to battalion level. It must be
supported with adequate communications to facilitate command and to
control lateral dissemination of information and coordination. Joint
agreements memorandums of understanding, joint SOPS, and joint SOIs all
facilitate the use of this principle. Each assault battalion and brigade must
have attached TACPs and naval gunfire LOS (if NGF is available).
c. Centralized Coordination. Due to the nature of the airhead (basically a
perimeter defense) and the required continuous airflow into the airhead, fire
support assets must be closely controlled to prevent fratricide and waste of
assets.
(1) During the initial stages of an airborne operation and before adequate
ground communications can be established, coordination and control of fire
support are accomplished from an airborne platform (an ABCCC or
JACC/CP). (Appendix D provides detailed information on operations of the
ABCCC and AWACS.)
(2) On landing, each battalion or brigade/regimental headquarters
establishes contact with the ABCCC (or JACC/CP) through the TACP or
FSO. Fire support, such as CAS, beyond that available from organic or DS
assets would be requested from the ABCCC. Prioritization and coordination
of requests arc accomplished by the ground force commander’s
representative in the ABCCC. His responsibilities include the following:

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 FM 90-26

• Prevent fratricide of ground personnel.

• Ensure that requests do not interfere with incoming serials, other
aircraft, or naval operations.
• Determine the fire support means to be employed in coordination
with appropriate battle staff members.
• Determine (in coordination with the battle staff) any added safety or
control measures required; transmit them to the appropriate ground
elements.
(3) For air missions, the battle staff establishes contact with the appropriate
flight, provides essential information, and then hands the flight off to the
appropriate TACP or FAC for mission execution. At that point, the mission is
conducted the same way as conventional operations. If NGF or air support is
available, it is essential that a naval gunfire LO be present in the ABCCC to
perform a similar function.
(4) Once adequate facilities have been established in the airhead, fire
support coordination responsibilities are passed from the airborne platform
to the ground to be conducted as in conventional operations–there is no
doctrinal time for this transfer. In some situations (for example, raids), this
cannot occur; however, once a brigade main or tactical CP is on the ground,
the transfer takes place.
d. Application of Adequate Control Measures. Fire support coordination
measures, both permissive and restrictive, are employed to ensure the safety
of friendly personnel, to synchronize all fire support means, and to permit
maximum flexibility with minimum restrictions on the employment of fire
support. The joint commander must also establish a common target and map
grid system to permit transmission of target and friendly unit locations. This is
critical if standard maps are not available. Provisions must also be made to
identify friendly force locations through the employment of smoke, panels,
beacons, or other devices. (Airspace control measures are discussed in
Chapter 2. See FM 6-20-30 and FM 101-5-1 for a detailed description of fire
support control measures.)

8-6. PLANNING
On receipt of the WO, the commander and his staff begin planning. They
develop four basic plans (regardless of the type mission, force size, or
duration of the operation) in a reverse planning sequence. The FSO
responsibilities for each plan are as follows:

a. Ground Tactical Plan. The following fire support planning and

coordination actions are the responsibility of the brigade/battalion FSO
during ground movement.
(1) Support the scheme of maneuver. The goal is to place the maximum
amount of indirect fire power on the ground as quickly as possible.
(2) Control indirect-fire systems. Initially, control is decentralized; an FO
calls for fire directly to a fire support asset.
(3) Plan fires to block enemy avenues of approach (consider FASCAM
delivered by air).

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FM 90-26

(4) Plan fires to eliminate enemy resistance (groups and series in the
objective area).
(5) Plan fires to defend key terrain needed to link up with friendly forces.
(6) Plan fires to support security/reconnaissance forces in the objective area.
(7) Plan fires on top of, to the flanks, and beyond assault objectives.
(8) Plan close air support.
(9) Plan final protective fires.
(10) Recommend priority of fires.
(11) Select initial FA and mortar positions that can be quickly occupied from
DZs/LZs.
(12) Select subsequent FA and mortar positions to provide combat outposts
and security forces.
b. Landing Plan. Planning and coordination of fire support during the air
movement and preassault fires are the JTF’s responsibility; he plans SEAD
fires along the flight route and in the objective area. Once on the ground,
friendly positions are marked. The airborne FSO must ensure that preassault
air strikes are planned against other enemy positions in the objective area.
Preassault fires are planned as follows:
• On and around the LZ/DZ (alternate and false).
• On enemy air defense artillery.
• On enemy command, control, and communication.
• On enemy indirect-fire systems.
• Sequence and location of delivery for FA and mortars.
c. Air Movement Plan. Fire support during movement to the objective area
is the responsibility of the airlift commander and staff. However, the airborne
force commander must be closely involved because of the possibility of
downed aircraft or a mission being diverted. Planning considerations include
the following:

(1) Ensure fire support personnel and equipment are included on load plans
and manifests.

(2) Plan targets on enemy ADA along flight routes and alternate flight routes
(JTF level).

d. Marshaling Plan. The FSO starts planning on receipt of the mission and
assignment of assets. All leaders and fire support personnel must take part in
the planning process from the beginning. All fire support personnel and
equipment are prepared and rehearsals are conducted. Then, the fire support
plan is briefed to all other leaders and staff involved in the operation.

8-7. ARTILLERY EMPLOYMENT

The initial phase of the airborne operation is decentralized and flexible until
the assault objectives are secured and the airhead is established. During the
parachute assault, the FA battalion is attached to the airborne infantry
brigade. As soon as practicable after organizing on the ground, normal

8-6
 FM 90-26

command relationships are resumed; FA support is provided within

thecontext of assigned tactical missions. After reorganizing, airborne artillery
adheres to tactics and techniques applicable to other artillery units. (FM
6-20-30.)

Section Ill. NAVAL GUNFIRE

When operating on islands or near a coastline, NGF support maybe available
to the airborne force. Naval guns can provide high-volume, long-range,
accurate fires, which employ a variety of ammunition.

8-8. AIR AND NAVAL GUNFIRE LIAISON COMPANY

The ANGLICO provides ship-to-shore communications and fire control
teams to adjust fire. In the absence of ANGLICO fire control teams, the FIST
can call for and adjust fires through the ANGLICO team.

8-9. ANGLICO ORGANIZATION

Deployed ANGLICO forces comprise a command element, operational
element (air/NGF teams), and support element.

a. The company is organized into groupings. (Table 8-2.) The

headquarters/support section and divisional air/NGF section furnish
command, control, administration, training, and logistics support for the
company. They also provide fire support planning and liaison personnel to
the airborne unit. Three brigade air/NGF platoons provide liaison and
control for air and NGF to the assault companies, battalion, and brigade.

Table 8-2. Air and naval gunfire liaison company.

8-7
FM 90-26

b. Each brigade platoon is divided into a brigade team and two supporting
arms liaison teams, which support two forward battalions. Each SALT has
two firepower control teams, which support the forward companies of the
battalions. (Table 8-3.)

Table 8-3. Brigade air and naval gunfire team.

c. The ANGLICO assists the staff in matters concerning air and NGF. It
coordinates requests for air and NGF support from the battalions of the
brigade and represents the ABCCC, AC-130, and AWACS, if required.
d. The LO and FCTS operate in the ground spot net. They communicate with
the ship by HF radio to request and adjust NGF. The FCT communicates
with the LO, using VHF radios. The LO also can communicate with aircraft
using UHF radios.

8-10. TACTICAL MISSIONS

Naval gunfire ships are assigned one of two tactical missions: direct support
or general support.

a. Direct Support. A ship in DS of a specific unit delivers both planned and

on-call fires. (On-call fires are to the ship what targets of opportunity are to
artillery units.) A fire control party with the supported unit conducts and
adjusts on-call fires; they can also be adjusted by an NGF air spotter.
b. General Support. General support missions are assigned to ships
supporting units of brigade size or larger. The normal procedure is to have
the fires of the GS ship adjusted by an aerial observer or to have the LO

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 FM 90-26

assign the fires of the ship to a battalion SALT for fire missions. On
completion of the mission, the ship reverts to GS.

8-11. COORDINATION AND CONTROL MEASURES

Coordination and control measures that apply to NGF are the same as for FA
except for the addition of the terms fire support area and fire support station.

a. Fire Support Area. The FSA is a sea area within which a ship can position
or cruise while firing in support. It is labeled with the letters "FSA" and a
Roman numeral–for example, FSA VII.
b. Fire Support Station. The FSS is a specified position at sea from which a
ship must fire; it is very restrictive positioning guidance. It is labeled with the
letters "FSS" and a Roman numeral-for example, FSS VII.

Section IV. AIR FORCE SUPPORT

A sound air support plan is an integral part of the ground combat plans.
Reconnaissance, interdiction, and CAS are planned and ample
communications for liaison and control are provided.

8-12. TYPES OF MISSIONS

All air combat missions are performed concurrently and are mutually
supporting. They include CAS, interdiction, tactical surveillance and
reconnaissance, tactical airlift, and specialized tasks.

a. Counterair Operations. The ultimate objective of counterair operations is

to gain and maintain theater air supremacy. This has two purposes; it
prevents enemy forces from effectively interfering with friendly areas and
activities, and it precludes prohibitive interference with offensive air
operations in the enemy area. This is accomplished by destroying or
neutralizing the enemy’s air offensive and defensive systems.

(1) Offensive. Offensive counterair operations are conducted to seek out and
neutralize or destroy enemy air forces at a chosen time and place. They are
essential to gain air supremacy and to provide a favorable situation for other
missions. Typical targets include the following:

• Enemy aircraft.
• Airfields.
• Tactical missile complexes.
• Command and control facilities.
• POL and munitions storage facilities.
• Aircraft support equipment and their control systems.

(2) Suppressive. Suppression of enemy air defense is conducted to

neutralize, destroy, or temporarily degrade enemy air defense systems in a
specific area by physical attack, electronic warfare, or both.

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FM 90-26

(3) Defensive. Defensive counterair operations contribute to local air control

by countering enemy offensive actions. An in-place and operational radar
warning and control system, consisting of both ground and airborne elements,
can be effectively used by theater forces. They integrate and control the
employment of fighters, surface-to-air missiles, and antiaircraft artillery
systems.
(4) Tasks. Counterair tasks that can be employed as a part of offensive and
defensive counterair operations include air-to-surface attacks, fighter sweeps,
and force protection (escort).
b. Close Air Support. The objectives of CAS are to support surface
operations by attacking hostile targets close to friendly surface forces. Each
air mission requires detailed integration with those forces.

c. Air Interdiction. The objectives of AI are to delay, disrupt, divert, or

destroy an enemy’s military potential before it can be brought to bear
effectively against friendly ground forces. These combat operations are
performed far enough away from friendly surface forces so that detailed
integration of specific actions with the maneuver of friendly forces is not
possible or required. AI attacks against land force targets that have a
near-term effect on the scheme of maneuver of friendly forces, but are not
close to friendly forces, are referred to as BAI.
d. Tactical Surveillance and Reconnaissance. The TSR operations are
directed toward satisfying the requirements of joint force and component
commanders engaged in surface and tactical air operations. These operations
provide timely information, either visually observed or sensor recorded, from
which intelligence is derived for all forces. Surveillance operations
continuously collect information; reconnaissance operations are directed
toward localized or specific targets.
e. Tactical Airlift Operations. Tactical airlift forces perform four primary
tasks: deployment, employment, logistics support, and aeromedical
evacuation. Deployment operations make possible the movement of entire
units within an area of operations. When combat forces and their logistics
support are moved by air into an objective area for combat, the airlift is
termed an employment operation.
f. Air Force Specialized Tasks. Specialized tasks are those operations
conducted in direct or indirect support of primary tactical air missions. These
activities include, but are not limited to electronic combat, combat search and
rescue, and air refueling operations.

8-13. ORGANIZATION OF TACTICAL AIR SUPPORT

Tactical air support can be provided through missions incidental to air
activity throughout the combat zone. It can also be provided by air units in DS
of or attached to a joint force, or under OPCON of a joint force commander.
A single tactical air force supports an airborne operation. The tactical air
force, or designated units, can be attached to or under OPCON of a joint
airborne force. When the mission requires the basing of tactical air support
units in the airhead, they are always attached to the joint airborne force.

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 FM 90-26

8-14. PLANNING TACTICAL AIR SUPPORT

Adequate tactical air support of an airborne operation requires some
integration of airborne forces and tactical air activity to support conventional
ground operations.

a. The air support plan is based on the overall Air Force mission and the
amount of available strategic, tactical, and airlift effort. The effect of
forecasted weather en route and in the proposed AO must also be
considered.
b. Offensive and defensive air operations must be continuously planned in
support of an objective area. Immediate tactical air support must be
continuously available (on air alert) in spite of an apparent absence of targets.

8-15. COMMAND AND CONTROL

With the beginning of air operations in the objective area, provision must be
made for command and air control of these operations and for integration of
the air and ground effort. A joint operations center, where the supporting
tactical air force and the airborne force is represented, performs the
planning, integration, direction, and supervision of the air effort IAW the
needs of the airborne force.

a. Preparatory Phase. If a joint airborne force develops and includes tactical

air elements, the joint force commander directs part or all of the preliminary
air efforts while other preparations for the operation are completed. If the
airborne force does not include tactical air elements, tactical air support
before and during the mounting of an airborne operation is an Air Force
responsibility. Therefore, requests from the joint airborne force commander
involving both reconnaissance and fire missions are processed through
normal JOC channels.

b. Assault Phase. Requirements during the assault phase are the same for
all airborne operations. During the dropping or airlanding and assembly of
assault elements, aircraft that are on air alert status over DZs/LZs defend
against hostile surface or aerial reaction to the assault.
c. Consolidation and Exploitation Phase. Air control net facilities in excess
of TACPS and ABCCC are meager until the airlanding of more supplies and
reinforcements during this phase. In an operation that does not involve an
immediate linkup after seizure of objectives, the airlanding of reinforcing or
supporting elements provides for the rapid expansion and improvement of
tactical air control nets to meet the needs of any anticipated emergency.
(1) Aircraft providing support subsequent to the assault phase can be based
within the objective area, outside the objective area, or both. In view of the
logistics demands of aircraft, air support is based within the objective area
only when it cannot be effectively provided from outside. Limitations in the
effective radius of aircraft are the determining factors. An existing airstrip or
sufficiently adaptable terrain is one of these factors in the selection of an
objective area.

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(2) A single commander in the objective area has command over both
ground and air elements. However, such command can be retained by an
officer charged with broader responsibilities whose headquarters is outside
the objective area.

8-16. AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL

Air traffic control in the airhead is initially an Air Force CCT responsibility.
The CCT can be augmented with and later replaced by Army ATC units. Air
traffic services provided to airborne units come from contingency corps
assets. Liaison, beacon, and tower teams are the most frequently employed
elements.

a. During alert, marshaling, and deployment, a liaison team is sent to the

headquarters that is planning the operation; it serves as a part of the
section and provides advice on airspace management, especially in the
airhead. The main concern in planning is the handoff between CCT and ATC
parties, which takes place within 72 hours after the assault. CCT controls the
airhead with the advice and assistance from ATC personnel until follow-on
ATC elements arrive.

b. Beacon and tower teams deploy with the aviation or infantry brigade
assault CP attached to the S3 section. These teams provide initial ATC in the
airhead. The beacon team provides terminal guidance for Army aircraft from
their ISB into the airfield. The tower team augments the CCT party and
controls helicopter movement. The amount of control given up by CCT to the
ATC teams depends on the size of the airflow.

c. Operational control of ATC assets usually passes to the senior aviation

unit commander once he is established in the airhead. FARP and aviation
assembly area operations include ATC elements and services, as specified by
the senior aviation unit commander.

Section V. ARMY AVIATION OPERATIONS

Army aviation provides the force with unique capabilities. When properly
used, it increases the force’s combat power by providing the advantages of
speed, range, mobility, flexibility, and increased firepower.

8-17. HELICOPTER TACTICAL MISSIONS

Army Aviation provides close support to units in contact and the capability
for air assault operations in support of the ground tactical plan. (Table 8-4.)
They serve as aerial CPS that enable the commander to make his presence felt
on the battlefield and to influence the action at the decisive point in the
battle. Army aviation assets can evacuate the wounded, provide aerial R&S,
and transport radiological and chemical survey teams. Appropriate missions
for these forces include the following:

• Exploitation of initial airborne assault.

• Armed aerial reconnaissance and counterreconnaissance.
• Limited CAS capability.

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• Early warning of guerrilla, airborne, or other infiltration threats.

• Engagement and destruction of enemy ground forces by highly
mobile maneuver tactics.
• Domination of unoccupied areas between highly dispersed friendly
positions.
• Provision of immediately responsive air-to-ground fire support for
either air or surface mobile task forces.
• Provision of tactical and logistics support for guerrilla and special
forces.
• Provision of organized raid-type forces.
• Tactical cover and deception.
• Electronic warfare.

Table 8-4. Helicopter deployment capabilities.

Note: Table 8-4 should be used only as a guide for commanders

because environmental conditions will affect capabilities.

8-18. DEPLOYMENT
When possible, organic and attached Army aircraft self-deploy to the
objective area, arriving as soon as possible after the initial assault. Flights are
closely controlled and regulated to avoid interference with airlift aircraft
flights. Terminal guidance can be furnished by pathfinder teams, USAF
combat control teams, or Army ATC teams in the airhead.

a. When the distance from the departure area to the objective area is beyond
the range of Army aircraft, many deployment options exist. When the
distance from the forward battle area is within their range capabilities,
aircraft are serviced in the departure area and flown to forward areas within a

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planned schedule. They are reserviced in the forward area and depart over
planned routes to the objective area. Forward arming and refueling points
can be leapfrogged ahead if multiple legs are involved. A variation of this
technique is the employmnet of Naval carrier-type vessels as a refueling base
or for transport on one leg of the trip to the objective area. Selected utility
and cargo helicopters can employ extended-range fuel tanks to assist in
deployment. Also, USAF aircraft aircraft, such as the C-130, may refuel Army
helicopters at remote, unimproved airfields using the wet-wing technique.
b. When none of these methods can be used because of the distance to the
objective area, Army aircraft can be disassembled and transported in airlift
aircraft. For light Army aircraft, no or partial disassembly for transport and
reassembly for use in the objective area is possible. However, this can be
time-consuming depending on the aircraft–the impact on tactical plans must
be considered. For other aircraft, particularly large helicopters, the
complexity of the reassembly process in the objective area prohibits their
early employment.
NOTE: See FM 1-100 for a detailed discussion of combat aviation
operations.

Section VI. AIR DEFENSE

Air defense of an airhead occurs in an environment that is unique in two
respects: First, it is in an area that has a high density of friendly aircraft,
Second, the quickest and potentially most deadly threat to the airhead can be
enemy air. The principles and guidelines for employment of air defense
weapons in support of airborne operations arc similar to those for other
operations. The following major factors of ADA employment operations are
unique.

• The phasing of units and air defense support into the airhead.
• Early warning procedures.
• Airspace control measures.

8-19. AIR DEFENSE ARTILLERY ELEMENTS

The airborne brigade is normally task-organized to include an ADA battery.
This battery can be augmented with added assets, depending on the level of
air threat expected.

a. During the initial phase of the operation, one battalion from the brigade
will normally be inserted with one Stinger section, which will provide air
defense as the battalion develops the airhead. Stingers are not jumped with
the team members, but are palletized or door-bundled and dropped
separately.
b. Once the entire brigade is on the ground, a main CP is established. The
SHORAD battery commander normally locates his CP with the brigade CP.
He assumes control of all platoons, and he coordinates defense of the
airhead.

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c. The SHORAD battery has three Vulcan platoons, a Stinger platoon, and,
normally, two forward area alerting radars. Vulcans and FAARs are usually
airlanded. FAARs should be moved into the airhead as soon as airframe
availability permits since they provide essential early warning to the air
defense and maneuver units.
d. The SHORAD battery commander ensures that early-warning
information is disseminated to his Vulcan platoons and Stinger sections. This
will normally be done over an early-warning net rather than the battery
command net.
e. The air defense liaison team at the brigade CP is the SHORAD battery
commander’s representative to the brigade commander. The liaison team
advises the brigade staff on the air defense status. They coordinate with the
Air Force LO, the Army aviation officer, and the FA officer on all matters
concerning airspace usage.

8-20. EARLY WARNING

Early-warning capability for the airhead can be provided by either the US Air
Force or the Army.

a. Early warning will initially be provided by the Air Force in the initial
assault or for short-term operations.
(1) An Air Force CRC will transmit early-warning information if the airhead
is within range, or will retransmit by ABCCC if necessary.
(2) An Air Force CRP may also be deployed to the ISB to provide early
warning. The CRP can employ the same communications as the CRC.

(3) If airland operations are scheduled, an Air Force vehicle-mounted FACP

can be delivered to the airhead. (See Appendix D for more information.)
(4) The AWACS can send its early-warning messages to the ground
commander’s TACP, or the SHORAD CP. (Specific procedures for AWACS
early warning of Army units in contingency operations are discussed in
TRADOC Pam 34-4.)
b. The Army has two systems for early warning in the airhead.
(1) Tactical defense alert radar. The TDAR can be airdropped with the air
defense unit, and then linked by wire or radio to all air defense units in the
airhead. The TDAR has a 20-kilometer range, which provides a warning of
air attack. The time of the warning varies, depending on air speed (fixed-wing
can be one to two minutes in advance while rotary-wing may be up to ten
minutes in advance). The TDAR can be mounted on a pedestal or in a
HMMWV.
(2) Forward area alerting radar. The FAAR system is a complete,
self-contained, acquisition radar system (AN/MPQ-49), which consists of a
radar set (AN/TPQ-43 and TPX-50 IFF), the M561 Gamma Goat, and a
trailer with a 5-kilowatt generator set. The system must be airlanded into the
airhead. It requires about 30 minutes to emplace and can detect targets out to
20 kilometers.

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Section VII. ENGINEER SUPPORT

Combat engineers are critical combat multipliers. The primary mission of
airborne engineers is to increase the combat effectiveness of friendly soldiers,
to facilitate their movement, and to hinder the enemy’s movement. Many of
the principle functions of the standard combat engineer battalion are carried
on by airborne engineers but with different emphasis on the type and extent
of work to be accomplished due to the limited transportation and heavy
engineer equipment. Both corps and divisional engineer assets will be needed
to support a divisional deployment. Airfield construction and repair
packages, as well as airborne combat engineer battalions from the corps
engineer brigade, will be task-organized to support divisional operations. This
section focuses on forward aviation combat engineering as the primary
engineer task in an airborne assault.

8-21. ENGINEER EMPLOYMENT

The task organization and subsequent C2 of engineer assets depends on the
mission. An airborne combat engineer company is usually attached to a
brigade for the airborne assault. The combat engineer company or its
elements can be further attached to airborne battalions/companies based on
the brigade’s mission and ground tactical plan. After the engineer battalion
lands, the combat engineer companies are brought under its control.

8-22. TACTICAL MISSIONS

During airborne operations, priority is established among the following
engineer support missions:

a. Mobility. Engineers provide mobility support to ground and air units.

(1) Forward aviation combat engineering, including preparation or
rehabilitation of airstrips/airfields, EZs, and LZs.
(2) Assistance in the assault of fortified positions.
(3) Removal of mines, booby traps, and obstacles.
(4) Construction and repair of roads.

(5) Assistance in stream crossing.

b. Countermobility. During the expansion and defense of the airhead before
reinforcement by air or ground linkup, engineers provide the following
countermobility support:
(1) Erection of obstacles, roadblocks, and mine fields to secure the airhead.
(2) Destruction of bridges, railroads, power plants, communications centers,
and key installations, or the preparation of such installations for demolition as
part of strategic interdiction operations.
c. Survivability. Based on the commander’s concept of the operation,
engineers plan and construct defensive positions for facilities, air transport
facilities, antiarmor weapons, FA, and dismounted forces.
d. Other Engineer Tasks. Engineers can support the airborne force in other
ways:

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 FM 90-26

(1) Division and corps engineer terrain analysis detachments can analyze the
terrain selected for DZs, LZs, and assault airfield sites.
(2) Army or corps topographic companies can produce quick response map
overprints, map revisions, and photo maps to provide the deploying units with
the most current information available.
(3) Engineer well-drilling detachments can be airlanded to provide water for
sustained operations.
(4) Engineer bridge companies can be airlanded to provide medium or heavy
bridging support.

Section VIII. FORWARD AVIATION COMBAT

ENGINEERING
The combat engineer construction and maintenance effort in support of
forward aviation operating facilities is a mobility functional area. Immediately
available resources are used to accomplish FACE missions. Expedient
techniques are used and extensive construction is limited to avoid enemy
detection. The FACE projects that fall into this mobility function are
discussed herein. (See FM 5-101 for detailed information on all facets of
FACE operations.)

8-23. CAPABILITIES
The following are the capabilities of the combat engineer construction and
maintenance effort:

a. Construction of Landing Zones. Landing zones are required during

helicopter movement of personnel and logistics, refueling and rearming,
medical evacuation, and reconstitution. Engineer support is rudimentary for
each type. Locations are selected that have suitable soil conditions without
strength improvement to carry helicopter loads. Loose objects, including
powdery snow, are cleared from the rotor wash area; all trees must be cleared
from the rotor zones.

b. Construction of Low-Altitude Parachute Extraction System Zones.

LAPES zones require relatively flat, stump-free terrain with features similar
to those for a C-130 landing strip as specified in TM 5-330. Since the
fixed-wing transport aircraft (typically a C-130) does not land when
discharging its cargo, the ground strength requirements are based on the
equipment being discharged.
c. Construction of Flight Landing Strips. The flight landing strip allows
landing and takeoff of specific fixed-wing aircraft (see criteria established by
TM 5-330). It must be relatively flat with a surface that can support fully
loaded, freed-wing aircraft. Proper site selection is based on minimal need for
surface improvement and earthwork.
d. Maintenance/Repair of Forward Aviation Facilities. Maintenance
includes all activities required to correct deficiencies resulting from normal
damage and deterioration. Repair includes restoration of damage due to

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FM 90-26

abnormal use, accidents, and hostile forces. As an economy measure,

maximum use of existing facilities should be planned.

8-24. RESPONSIBILITIES
The ground force commander is responsible for the construction, repair, and
maintenance of airlanding facilities in the airhead. The airlift commander
furnishes the ground force commander his requirements and the
recommended priorities in order of accomplishment. The ground force
commander establishes final priorities after joint consideration of the ground
force and airlift requirements. Any deviations are coordinated with the airlift
commander.

a. Construction or rehabilitation of airlanding facilities and airfields is

initiated early. Plans for the initial assault provide for the seizure of airfields
or sites for airlanding facilities to support the tactical and logistics plans.
Assault units are augmented to perform minimum initial construction.
b. The airborne and airlift commanders prepare plans to cope with the
problem of disabled aircraft on landing facilities. Airborne personnel provide
assistance in moving disabled aircraft that might interfere with subsequent
operations.

8-25. PLANNING
A large number of widely dispersed, low-activity, airlanding facilities are used
in preference to a few highly developed airfield complexes, both in the
departure and in the objective areas.

a. The number and location of airlanding facilities and airfields vary with
the–
• Size of the force to be employed and supported.
• Planned buildup, including the number and type of aircraft to be
accommodated.
• Tactical and logistics plans.
• Terrain in the objective area with particular attention to airfields,
highways and roads, open areas, soil characteristics, relief, and
vegetation.
• Enemy capabilities.
• Engineer capabilities.
• Weather during the time of operations.
b. At least one assault airlanding facility is desirable in each
brigade/battalion area. This does not include facilities for employment of
organic and attached Army aviation, alternate facilities to offset losses from
enemy action, or desired additional facilities.

8-26. SITE SELECTION

Certain technical principles should be considered when selecting sites for

airlanding facilities. Maximum use should be made of all existing aviation
facilities. The site selection should fulfill the mission and provide for future
expansion. It should be on terrain with soil that can be quickly and easily
compacted to the standards listed in TM 5-330. The amount of earthwork is

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 FM 90-26

minimized by choosing a location that takes advantage of all prevailing grades

that fall within the required specifications.

a. Airstrips and EZs are constructed across long, gentle slopes for ease of
drainage. The bottoms of valleys or other depressed areas are avoided.
Locations that require extensive clearing of flightway obstructions to meet
glide angle requirements are also avoided.

b. Approaches are oriented IAW the prevailing winds in the area. The
orientation should ensure 80 percent wind coverage based on a maximum
allowable beam wind of 13 mph. If dust is a problem, the runway should be
located 10 degrees to the prevailing wind so that dust clouds blow diagonally
off the runway.

8-27. EXPEDIENT SURFACING

Landing mats and membranes are used as expedients for FACE site
surfacing. Landing mats are used when the strength or smoothness of landing
surfaces is not adequate. Membrane surfacing is used where soil strength is
adequate but can become too weak when wet. Membrane is placed under all
landing mats in high-traffic areas, such as runways and taxiways, to provide a
waterproof covering for the soil. It is also used for dust control in aircraft
traffic areas where chemical dust palliatives are either less satisfactory or
require more time and effort to use. (The types, specifications, and
emplacement of matting material are described in TM 5-330. Placement
techniques, anchoring, repair, and maintenance of surfacing membrane are
discussed in TM 5-337.)

8-28. REPAIR OF CAPTURED FACILITIES

An appraisal of the damage to a captured aviation facility precedes the
decision to rehabilitate it. Occasionally, the effort to restore a badly damaged
site is greater than that required to construct a new one. The enemy usually
uses one or more of the following destruction measures:

• Placing delayed-action bombs, mines, and booby traps.

• Demolishing drainage systems and pavements.
• Placing obstacles and debris on the landing surface
• Flooding surfaced areas.
• Blowing craters in runways and hardstands.
The first priority in restoring a captured airfield is to establish minimum
facilities for immediate operation of friendly aircraft. This requires removing
delayed-action bombs, mines, and booby traps from the traffic areas; clearing
debris from the traffic areas; and repairing craters and landing surfaces.
Adequate repair to the drainage system must be made promptly.

8-29. ENGINEER PACKAGES

A number of engineer support packages are available to the commander to
meet his requirements for FACE tasks. The greater the requirement for
construction, the larger the number of aircraft sorties needed. The teams
discussed herein are typical and can be modified to fit the situation.

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FM 90-26

a. Airfield Seizure. From an engineer perspective, airfield seizure involves

three basic tasks: assessment, clearance, and repair.
(1) Airfield assessment team. This team consists of two or three qualified
combat engineers who deploy into the airhead as early as possible. Once in
the airhead, they assess runway/airfield damage and repair requirements and
provide recommendations to the commander on use of undamaged portions
of the airfield. They also determine what local construction materials and
equipment are available, minimizing engineer impact on airlift sorties.
(2) Runway clearance element. This element is responsible for removing
obstacles and demolitions from the runways in preparation for airland sorties
and repair teams. It typically contains teams trained in detecting and
neutralizing mines and booby traps, “hot wiring” secured vehicles, and an
obstacle removal team that can be equipped with heavy equipment
(bulldozers or scoop loaders) to remove runway obstructions too heavy to be
manhandled. This equipment can also be used to jump-start inoperable
equipment left on the runway as obstructions.
(3) Light airfield repair team. This (team repairs light damage to an airstrip
due to bombing or erosion and sustains extensive airland operations. (Figure
8-1.)

Figure 8-1. Typical light airfield repair team.

(4) Heavy airfield repair team. This team repairs extensive damage to an
airfield. (Figure 8-2.) It can be provided by a construction platoon from the
airborne light engineer company.

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 FM 90-26

Figure 8-2. Typical heavy airfield repair team.

b. Airfield Construction. Tactical operations can occur where a facility does

not exist for use in expanding the airhead and establishing the lodgment. In
these instances, the airborne force must be tailored with enough engineer
assets to build needed runway facilities within the allotted time. Airfield
construction can be accomplished by an airborne combat engineer battalion
(corps), an engineer combat support equipment company, or an airborne
light equipment company with augmentation. The recommended equipment
package is shown in Table 8-5.

Table 8-5. Typical light airfield construction package.

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FM 90-26

Section IX. INTELLIGENCE AND ELECTRONIC

WARFARE SUPPORT
Airborne operations often take place well beyond the range of some
intelligence assets, which otherwise could support the airborne force. During
planning for airborne operations, corps, EAC, other services, and national
systems are the primary sources of intelligence. During the operation, organic
resources provide much of the intelligence needed with more support coming
from higher levels. MI units provide the airborne force with teams for
interrogation, EW, and signals intelligence collection as well as CI support.
They also provide a key part of the system designed to quickly collect,
analyze, and disseminate information to the airborne force.

8-30. INTERROGATION SUPPORT

Interrogators are specially trained linguists and intelligence analysts. Their
job is to screen and interrogate EPWs, detainees, and refugees and to exploit
captured enemy documents. Their mission is to collect and report all
information that meets the priority intelligence and information requirements
of the supported commands.

a. Interrogation operations conducted below division level stress rapid

screening and brief tactical interrogations of EPWs, detainees, and refugees.
Enemy documents found on EPWs are used to support the screening and
interrogation efforts; these documents can provide substantive combat
information or intelligence for the commander. All other equipment and
documents are evacuated as soon as possible to the rear areas for
exploitation.
b. Forward-deployed interrogation teams can be placed in DS of the
maneuver brigade. The brigade can further allocate these DS interrogation
teams to its subordinate maneuver battalions to accomplish specific missions
for a specific period. Direct support interrogation teams are tasked by, and
respond to, the brigade or battalion S2. These teams usually operate from the
maneuver brigade’s EPW collection point in the BSA. Each team has two
interrogators, one vehicle, and one VHF FM radio.

8-31. COUNTERINTELLIGENCE SUPPORT

Contingency missions for the airborne division, and the manner in which its
subordinate maneuver brigades are deployed, can dictate one or more CI
teams (reinforced) to be placed in DS of brigade combat operations. The CI
teams revert to MI battalion control for GS to the entire division once the
division is deployed and operational.

a. Counterintelligence teams can identify and recommend countermeasures

to the specific enemy HUMINT and surveillance and target acquisition
means that pose a significant threat to airborne brigade operations. They help
develop or refine friendly forces profiles and monitor and evaluate the most
sensitive aspects of the brigades’ OPSEC program and deception operations.
More specifically, they assist the brigade’s coordinating and special staff in
the following:

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 FM 90-26

(1) Identify the hostile collection and rear operations threat to the brigade
and its subordinate maneuver battalions.
(2) Determine the EEFI that require protection.

(3) Identify brigade and battalion vulnerabilities to enemy RSTA,

reconnaissance, and destruction activities.

(4) Maintaining intelligence, OPSEC, and deception data bases.

(5) Nominate enemy RSTA and reconnaissance assets or units for
suppression, neutralization, destruction, or exploitation.
(6) Recommend OPSEC and deception measures to be employed, and
monitor their effectiveness.
b. Individuals from supporting CI teams are located with EPW interrogators
at the battalion/brigade EPW collection point. They perform CI screening
and line-crosser operations from this location. These teams will operate in
and out of the brigade’s zone of operations and may cross boundaries to
accomplish their mission.

8-32. ELECTRONIC WARFARE/SIGNAL INTELLIGENCE ASSETS

All ground-based EW/SIGINT systems available within the division MI
battalion can support the airborne brigade/battalion. The division’s airborne
EW system, QUICKFIX IIB, also has a significant collection capability; it can
operate within the airhead if airlanded via airlift aircraft. All these systems
can support airborne unit operations once deployed into the airhead. Major
Army EW/SIGINT systems available to airborne units are discussed herein.
Additional assets are available from the corps MI assets (see FM 34-25).

a. AN/ALQ-151(V)2, QUICKFIX IIB. The AN/ALQ-151(V)2 subsystem is a

division-level, special-purpose countermeasures system. This subsystem is
part of the heliborne system (EH-60A). The EH-60A includes a modified
UH-60A helicopter fitted with special avionics and EW mission equipment to
include ESM and ECM equipment. The ESM equipment is used to detect a
target signal of interest and to locate its transmitting antenna.
b. AN/MSQ-103B, TEAMPACK (Lightweight). The AN/MSQ-103B,
TEAMPACK, is a division-level, special-purpose receiving set. It is mounted
in a protective shelter on an M1028 CUCV. It is used to intercept, process,
display, and record noncommunications signals. The set operates over a
frequency range subdivided into six separate bands within the UHF/SHF
ranges. The operator has a secure VHF radio for tasking and reporting. The
operating range of the AN/MSQ-103B is line of sight out to 30 kilometers.
c. AN/PRD-10, M A N P A C K . The AN/PRD-10, MANPACK is a
division-level, man-portable, vehicular radio receiver and DF processor
system. It is configured using commercial, nondevelopmental item equipment,
which is easily transported and maintained in the field. The AN/PRD-10
provides accurate intercept and line-of-bearing information.
d. AN/TLQ-17A(V)1-Series, TRAFFICJAM. The AN/TLQ-17A(V)1,
TRAFFICJAM, is a division-level, transportable, electronic countermeasures
set. This tactical mobile-jamming set is used against communications signals
transmitting in the 1.5- to 80-MHz frequency range. The AN/TLQ-17A(V)1

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can be used for surveillance or jamming against ground and airborne

communications. It has both manual and automatic jamming capabilities for
VHF and HF groundwave frequencies and can be operated in a mounted or
dismounted configuration. The range is LOS dependent. A VHF secure
voice radio provides communication.
e. AN/TRQ-32(V)2, TEAMMATE. The AN/TRQ-32(V)2, TEAMMATE, is
a corps- and division-level radio receiving set. It is used to receive, record,
and determine the direction of transmitted signals. Communications intercept
is provided in the HF, VHF, and UHF ranges. Direction-finding LOB
support is provided in the VHF range only. Up to four sets can be netted by
way of FM data links for automated DF operations. The AN/TRQ-32(V)2,
TEAMMATE, is housed in an S-457B/G shelter, which is mounted on an
M1028 CUCV. The communications subsystem provides secure FM voice
radio, nonsecure field telephone, and secure UHF data links.

8-33. REMOTE SENSORS

Remote sensors are a near all-weather, day/night surveillance system. They
provide an added source of information for the battalion commander. These
sensors can be used either alone or to complement or supplement other
assets, such as GSRs. They provide information for the production of
intelligence and timely, accurate target acquisition data. Sensors are
emplaced in areas of expected enemy activity and monitored by teams in
friendly forward areas. Movement of enemy forces within the sensor radius is
detected and indications are transmitted to the monitoring team. These
indications are then analyzed by the team, and the resulting information is
reported to the battalion S2.

a. Ground surveillance system personnel from the division’s MI battalion can

be attached to, or placed in direct support of, the maneuver battalion. They
can be further attached to the maneuver battalion’s subordinate companies or
the scout platoon. These sensors are used–
To monitor roads, trails, and avenues of approach to the airhead.
To monitor road junctions and bridges.
To monitor possible AAs.
To monitor DZs and LZs.
To provide target data for immediate use.
To extend OP capabilities.
To monitor obstacles and barriers.
To perform similar tasks designed to detect the movement of
personnel or vehicles.
b. Sensors are hand emplaced in the target area by emplacement teams. The
major advantages of hand emplacement include accurate determination of
sensor location, better camouflage, and confirmed detection radius of each
sensor. Disadvantages include threat to the emplacement team, the time
required to install several strings, and the limited number of sensors that can
be carried by the emplacement team. The emplacement team is transported
by helicopter providing an accurate and quick response to the ground
commander’s request for support. This means of delivery provides access to
areas normally inaccessible to ground elements, speeds emplacement, and
increases the number of sensors that can be emplaced during a single mission.

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 FM 90-26

c. Airborne units can employ the remotely monitored battlefield sensor

system. In a tactical environment, REM BASS will provide the commander
with a near all-weather, day and night target development capability in all
types of terrain. Such a capability is necessary for the timely allocation of
resources and combat power. With REMBASS, the commander has the
capability for real-time detection of the enemy, and their exact location.
REMBASS is integrated into the overall battlefield RSTA plans at each
echelon (battalion and brigade).
(1) The REMBASS is a ground sensor system. It detects, classifies, and
determines direction of movement of intruding personnel and vehicles. It uses
monitored sensors emplaced along likely enemy avenues of approach. These
sensors respond to seismic and acoustic disturbances, IR energy, and
magnetic field changes to detect enemy activities.
(2) The three types of sensors (magnetic, seismic/acoustic, and
infrared-passive) are normally employed in arrays of strings that complement
one another. They are designed to function automatically, transmitting
information when movement activates them. E a c h s e n s o r h a s
detection/classifying techniques suited to the physical disturbance (magnetic,
seismic/acoustic, and infrared-passive). Each has a built-in, self-disabling and
antitampering feature. Target data is transmitted by FM radio link to the
monitor. The following information can be obtained:

• Target detection.
• Rate of movement.
• Length of column.
• Approximate number of targets.
• Type of targets (wheeled vehicles, armored vehicles, or dismounted
forces).
(3) The REMBASS has transmission ranges of 15 kilometers, ground to
ground and 100 kilometers, ground to air. Because of its flexibility and wide
range of applications, various equipment combinations can be selected to suit
any given mission.

8-34. GROUND SURVEILLANCE RADARS

Ground surveillance radars provide the maneuver battalion with a highly
mobile, near all-weather, 24-hour capability for battlefield surveillance. Units
can employ them on patrols and at OPS and can use them with remote
sensors and NODs. Ground surveillance radars can be used near or forward
of the units’ FLOT, on their flanks, or in their rear areas. The S2, company
commander, or scout platoon leader of the supported battalion selects
general locations for the GSR; then GSR team leaders select the actual site.

a. Surveillance platoons organic to the division’s MI battalion have two types

of radar-AN/PPS-5 and AN/PPS-15–that provide the supported commander
with timely and accurate combat information and target acquisition data.
They can detect and locate moving objects when other assets cannot. They
are best used for random, short periods of time to search small areas or on a
schedule for random or specific targets.
b. The AN/PPS-5 radar detects and warns of enemy dismounted movement
over 3,000 meters; AN/PPS-15 radar works between 1,500 and 3,000 meters.

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Units can also use the AN/PPS-5 to search beyond engaged forces for
indications of reinforcement, withdrawal, and enemy movements to outflank
or bypass friendly forces in the engagement area.
c. The AN/PPS-15 radars provide the commander with highly mobile GSR
support in operations where the heavier, less portable AN/PPS-5 radar is
impractical.

8-35. EMPLOYMENT
The airborne force commander attaches intelligence and EW assets from the
MI battalion to maneuver units for the airborne assault. The organization of
the IEW unit varies based on the situation. Some assets return to higher
echelon control as these levels of command establish CPs in the airhead.
Other assets can remain attached (GSR, CI/IPW, and so on) to the battalion
or brigade. (FM 34-80 provides a detailed discussion of employment, and
information flow for IEW assets.)

Section X. SIGNAL SUPPORT

Victory on todays fast-moving, complex, lethal battlefield requires a reliable,
secure, quick, and flexible communications system. This section discusses the
key signal resources employed in airborne operations. Many sources provide
signal support to the airborne force to include the joint communications
support element in the joint headquarters, organic airborne signal units, and
US Air Force or US Navy/Marine elements.

8-36. JOINT AIRBORNE COMMUNICATIONS CENTER/COMMAND

POST
The joint communications support element provides modified C-130 and
C-141 aircraft for the JTF commander to use en route to the theater or in
orbit. The aircraft have roll-on/roll-off modules and provide SATCOM,
UHF, VHF, HF, secure/nonsecure voice, and teletype to link the JTF
commander with higher headquarters and component commanders. (Table
8-6.) After arriving in theater (for example, at an ISB or REMAB), crews can
off-load the JACC/CP modules and place them into operation in a ground
mode. The Defense Communications Agency provides more communications
support through the Defense Communications System. Through DCS satellite
relay support, the DCA connects the JTF commander in the JACC/CP to
higher headquarters.

8-37. AIRCRAFT COMMUNICATIONS

Signal units organic to the airborne force usually provide support for
installation of Army communications in Air Force aircraft. These units can
install air-to-air or air-to-ground communications equipment and associated
equipment based on mission requirements. Three communications systems
options exist: a secure en route communications package that is UHF
air-to-air; HF air-to-ground; and SATCOM air-to-ground and air-to-air.

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 FM 90-26

Table 8-6. JACCP/CCP linkage.

a. Secure En Route Communications Package. The SECOMP is used

mainly for air to air between key ground force leaders on different airdrop
aircraft. It has an AN/ARC-51BX radio that can transmit and receive voice
between aircraft. The operator uses the intercom position to talk to the
commander on the same aircraft when outside transmission is undesirable.
The radio has KY-58 VINSON security. The operator can use a guard
receiver to monitor a fixed-frequency guard channel. The frequency range is
225- to 399.95-MHz and the operator can preset up to 20 channels. About 10
minutes before the drop, the operator can set on LOS mode to net with
JAAP SATCOM radios in the airhead, although this net is used only to
deliver abort instructions or other last-minute information.
b. High-Frequency Operations. After coordination, the ground commander
can use the second HF radio in the aircraft. He can secure this radio with the
KY-65 PARKHILL device, using the DMDG with the secured radio for
communications. The DMDG enables the commander to send and receive
digital messages in electronic form.
c. Satellite Communications Operations. MC-130, AC-130, ABCCC, and
JACC/PT aircraft (as well as HH-53, PAVE, low helicopters) have
hard-mounted, hatch-mount, satellite antennas; they routinely employ
SATCOM during operations. SATCOM is more reliable than HF for
long-distance communications between airborne force elements, JTF
headquarters, and any elements in the objective area. JCSE or organic signal

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FM 90-26

units can provide SATCOM support. There are several SATCOM radios in
the aircraft, but the main ones used are the URC-101 and AN/PSC-3, both of
which operate in the 225- to 400-MHz range.
d. Hatch-Mounted Antennas. Sattelite communications and HF systems,
which are employed on C-130, C-141, and C-5A aircraft, require
hatch-mounted antennas. T h e m o s t o f t e n u s e d a n t e n n a i s r o u n d ,
platter-shaped and, once mounted, sits parallel to the skin of the aircraft.
Both UHF antennas can be used for SATCOM communications. Their
radiation patterns slightly overlay. This provides useful information when the
operator compares the flight route and aircraft location in reference to the
satellite used. The operator can access both antennas, keeping one
operational and one on standby.

8-38. RADAR BEACONS

The use of portable radar beacons in tactical operations improves
radar-equipped TACAIR, bombers, and NFG support ships to provide
night/adverse weather support to forces in the airhead. Commanders can use
beacons in CAS, naval bombardment, AI, aerial delivery, and special
operations.

a. Close Air Support. Radar beacons deployed with ground combat

elements provide an accurate radar offset aim point for radar bombing of
immediate or planned CAS targets. Commanders can use them to provide the
direction to the target area while laser designators provide an exact aim point.
Subordinate commanders request radar beacon CAS missions with standard
air request procedures. The agency coordinating and directing CAS support
ensures that the radar beacon and aircraft radar system are compatible, that
the threat is permissive, and that radar beacons are the best delivery mode.
b. Air Interdiction. Planned AI attacks use previously emplaced radar
beacons as radar-significant, offset, aim points. The positions, operational
status, and codes of each radar beacon are published in the OPORD.
c. Aerial Delivery. Ground forces can deploy radar beacons for aerial
delivery (airdrop) operations as agreed on between the CCT, or other
terminal control personnel, and the mission controlling agency. Radar
beacons provide airlift aircrews a positive means to locate, recognize, and
align on a DZ, LZ, or EZ. Aircrews can make airborne radar approaches and
airdrops under adverse weather/night conditions using the radar beacon as a
terminal reference.
d. Aircraft Position Updates. Aircrews can use radar beacons placed along
ingress routes to update their aircraft position. This reduces the need for
navigation aids at or near the target and increases radar delivery accuracy.
e. Naval Gunfire Operations. The NGF radar beacons can be employed in
any joint operation or to support other naval operations–for example, mine
sweeping, patrolling, or coast-watching activities.
(1) Navigation. Accuracy of NGF depends on the ability of the ship to fix its
position. Ships depend on visual reference points or landmarks to fix their
position. When visibility is reduced, ships can use radar to determine their
position relative to the known location.

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(2) First-round accuracy. Radar beacons aid in the delivery of accurate NGF
under all ceiling and visibility conditions. Navigation errors can be minimized,
improving first-round accuracy.
f. Operational Considerations. When using radar beacons, units must
consider the following:
(1) Range. Radar beacon employment range for an aircraft mission is limited
by aircraft radar capability, offset data, and aircraft altitude. Targets should
be within 15 NMs of the radar beacon location when the aircraft can ingress
to the target at or above 10,000 feet AGL. When aircraft must ingress to the
target at a low altitude (below 1,000 feet AGL): targets should be within 5
NMs of the beacon. Shipborn radar has the ability to “see” a full 360 degrees
of horizon. However, because it sits lower than aircraft radar, target coverage
for an NGF mission is limited by radar beacon signal transmission range.
(2) Placement. Placement of radar beacons depends on the following:
(a) Terrain and foliage attenuation. Since transmission of radar energy to
and from the radar beacon is LOS limited, the beacon should be placed at the
highest elevation available, while still providing for security of operations.
Foliage attenuation greatly reduces acquisition ranges.
(b) Aircraft headings. Ideally, the axis of aircraft attack should be within 45
degrees of the beacon-to-target bearing, with the beacon placed beyond the
target. Heading directly toward the beacon can degrade the accuracy of the
system–some offset can be required. (Figure 8-3, see page 8-30.) Because of
typical aircraft radar sweep limits, a heading variance of over 45 degrees can
cause the beacon to disappear from the radar scope before delivery. If a
run-in heading in excess of 45 degrees offset is dictated by other factors,
degradation of delivery accuracy can occur. Overflight of friendly soldiers
should be avoided to the extent threat and airspace permit. Placement of the
beacon along the axis of the run-in heading is not a factor for gunship
operations since the gunship usually orbits its target. For airlift aircraft, the
beacon should be placed on the PI for airdrops, either side of the leading
edge of the LZ for airland, and between the right release panels for
extractions.
(c) Aircraft position updates. For aircraft position updates, the radar
beacon should be located en route to the target and be within 10 NMs either
side of the proposed ingress flight route.
(3) Electromagnetic energy. Radar beacons are vulnerable to enemy DF
equipment. Operators should limit “on” times to prolong survivability. “On”
times must be firmly established during premission coordination between
supporting and supported units. Most beacons can be triggered by any
pulse-type signals of sufficient power transmitted in the beacon-receiving
frequency band. Like any radar system, the beacon is susceptible to radar
jamming and accidental interrogation.
(4) Weather. Areas of heavy precipitation between the aircraft or NGF
support ship and beacon can reduce the radar energy enough to prevent
triggering the beacon. The trigger range and beacon detection range can be
extended or reduced by atmospheric conditions, especially in the mid
latitudes and tropics. Cold weather adversely affects most batteries; more
time can be required for warming up the magnetron before use.

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FM 90-26

(5) Communication. The controlling agency should relay mission data to

the aircrew before takeoff or during ingress. When radio communications are
impossible, alternate methods must be prearranged.
(6) Air threat. Radar beacons can be best employed in a permissive
environment. This provides for higher flight profiles and better acquisition.

Figure 8-3. Effect of aircraft heading.

g. Responsibilities. Responsibilities for beacon employment during joint

airborne operations are divided among a number of agencies.

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 FM 90-26

(1) Before deployment, the Air Force TACC coordinates the allocation of
Air Force radar beacon assets as required by the JFC and ensures that
allocated aircraft are compatible with the deployed beacons. The JFC is
responsible for frequency management.
(2) During execution of airborne operations, the ABCCC in its role as
ASOC/TAC extension maintains operational control and a current status
list of TAF RBs in its tactical area of responsibility. This includes the type,
location, operational status, code, on/off status, and responsible ground unit
or TACP. The ABCCC directs the employment of radar beacons in its area of
responsibility and computes the required bombing data for planned and
immediate missions. TACP computations can be used for actual missions
when the ABCCC is unable to provide the data. The ABCCC can relay
beacon bombing data to the AWACS or FACP for air interdiction and CAS
missions. If AWACS is not available, the ABCCC controller can provide data
to the flight.
(3) The AWACS, as an extension of the CRC, provides vector assistance to
the beacon attack aircraft, as required. It passes radar beacon bombing data
received from the ABCCC to the attack aircraft.
(4) The TACP employs beacons for CAS. They determine beacon location,
target location, and bearing and range to the target. The TACP reports
beacon status to the ABCCC.
(5) The airlift control center maintains close coordination with appropriate
TACC for beacon use and directs the allocation of beacons for aerial delivery
operations. The ALCC resolves conflicts between CCT radar beacon activity
and associated ground or AF units before employment.
(6) The tactical airlift liaison officer coordinates the use of radar beacons for
aerial delivery operations with appropriate units and agencies. He assists the
airborne unit in forwarding specific aerial delivery mission beacon
requirements to higher echelons.

(7) The CCT employs radar beacons to support aerial delivery operations in
the airhead. They report beacon location, operational status, and code on/off
status to the AATCC, TALO, ABCCC, and ALCC.
(8) During airhead operations, the airborne force commander forwards
additional requirements for radar beacon coverage to the JFC and
coordinates relocation of beacons with the ABCCC.
h. Airdrop Procedures. Radar beacons provide a positive means to locate,
identify, and align on DZs, LZs, and EZs. While not a normal peacetime
delivery method, with some restrictions aircrews can successfully perform
airdrop missions using the beacon as a terminal reference. The navigator
receives the beacon on the aircraft radar and provides headings for the pilots
to fly to the release point. C-130 airdrops in IMC require either
AWADS-equipped aircraft or a radar beacon. A C-141 requires an
AN/TPN-27 (zone marker) or a radar beacon to perform IMC airdrops.
Special restrictions must be complied with anytime the beacon is used to
airdrop. All formation airdrops in IMC also require aircraft equipped with
station-keeping equipment.
i. AC-130 Gunship Procedures. The primary concern in any AC-130 gunship
operation with ground soldiers is the identification of friendly positions.

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Beacon operations are ideal for this purpose, especially during adverse
weather. Once in radio contact, ground personnel provide beacon offset
range in meters and specify whether the bearing is in reference to magnetic or
true north. When correcting fire, ground personnel call ordnance impacts in
meters long/short, and meters left/right from the ordnance impact area to the
target. They use bearing from the radar beacon to the target as the base line.
If ground personnel are not at or near the radar beacon, they can elect to call
the impacts in range and bearing from the target.
j. Naval Gunfire Procedures. Three fire control methods can be employed
using a radar beacon. The NGF support ship selects the best method,
considering ship position, target position, and whether the beacon position is
accurately known.
(1) Method Alpha. This method can be used when the exact location of the
radar beacon is known (OPORD or radar beacon team information). The
beacon is used as a navigation aid to determine the ship’s position.
(2) Method Alpha modified. This method can be used when the exact
location of the radar beacon is unknown, and when combat grid charts are
not available. The target location is given in polar coordinates from the
beacon. The ship plots the beacon, the ship’s relative positions, and target
relative position to engage the target.

(3) Method Bravo. This method can be used whether or not the radar
beacon location is known. Target location is expressed in polar coordinates
from the radar beacon. The beacon location is the point of aim, and offsets
are introduced into the NGF computer to lay the gun on target.
k. Authentication. Proper joint authentication procedures must be used
during radar beacon missions. Because intraservice authentication tables
differ, each air, land, and sea element must obtain the joint authenticator,
AKAC-1553, through unit COMSEC custodians. This joint authenticator,
which has been developed for crisis or contingency use only, is called the
Dryad Numeral/Authentication System. This system is used for joint
interoperability worldwide and is a portion of the intertheater COMSEC
package.

Section Xl. MILITARY POLICE SUPPORT

The MP have four battlefield missions: they ensure battlefield circulation
control; they provide area security; they are charged with the EPW mission;
and, at the discretion of the echelon commander, they provide law
enforcement assistance. These missions are composed of a number of
combat, CS, and CSS operations. The operations are performed
independently or in any combination needed to accomplish assigned missions.
The MP, in performing these operations, provide a full range of battlefield
support.

8-39. MILITARY POLICE (AIRBORNE) STRUCTURE

Airborne MP companies (consisting of 99 soldiers each) have four 21-man
platoons to support their divisions. The remaining platoon provides
battlefield circulation control and area security near the division main CP.

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8-40. MILITARY POLICE OPERATIONS

Airborne MP accompany their divisions during the assault phase to provide
support to the division airheads and support areas. Military police generally
provide DS to the maneuver brigades during the assault. After the assault is
complete and the airhead established, the MP platoons revert to a GS role.

a. The nature of airborne operations makes the capture of EPWs likely.

Thus, during the first stage of the assault phase, priority of MP support is
given to EPW operations. After assembly on the DZ, MP collect EPWs
captured during the assault. Combat elements are relieved of EPWs as far
forward as possible. Enemy prisoners of war are collected at the airhead and
held for later movement to a central collecting point. Also during the first
stage of the assault, MP perform limited straggler control and undertake
reconnaissance operations. They also provide security for critical supply
storage points when possible.
b. When the airhead is established in the second stage of the assault, the
priority of MP support normally shifts to BCC. Although vehicle support is
limited in the airhead, BCC measures are needed due to the limited roadnets
with the airhead. Battlefield coordination center measures ensure timely and
efficient use of the roadways by vehicles needed to support the assault. Also,
during the second phase of the assault, MP elements take on much of the
EPW and security support requirements. They provide area security in the
expanding areas created by the outward bound tactical forces, They also
begin to move EPWs to the central collection point for later movement to a
holding area.
c. As the airhead is expanded during the third stage of the assault, MP stress
battlefield circulation control, area security, and EPW operations to support
the division commander’s tactical plan. When the operation enters the
defense phase, MP support expands to include all MP missions, as dictated by
the commander.

Section XII. NUCLEAR, BIOLOGICAL, AND

CHEMICAL PLANNING
The airborne force will fight on the integrated battlefield the same as on the
conventional battlefield. However, CSS and communications will be disrupted
more and the airborne force may be isolated or its movement restricted by
radiation or chemical contamination. Tactics used on the conventional
battlefield are especially suitable to the integrated battlefield–full use of cover
and concealment, overwatch, and suppression. However, in such an
environment, the unit must be prepared to quickly implement protective
measures to enhance its survivability. They must also provide timely
information to higher headquarters to assist in the employment of and
protection from nuclear and chemical weapons.

8-41. COMMAND AND STAFF RESPONSIBILITIES

The commander meets his responsibility for preparing individuals and units
to operate in an NBC environment by the following:

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• Reduce unit vulnerability through terrain shielding and increase

protective measures, while positioning elements to accomplish the
mission.
• Specify a level of protection, when faced with an NBC threat, that
will reduce the risk of mass casualties.
• Receive and submit reports on enemy use of NBC weapons IAW
procedures established by higher headquarters.
• Withstand an NBC attack with minimum interference to the assigned
mission.
More specifically, the brigade/battalion commander in conjunction with his
staff–

• Determines the presence of a chemical hazard (using observation,

chemical alarms, or detection devices), warns personnel, and takes
proper defensive action.
• Requires that tasks be performed while personnel are in MOPP.
• Determines the presence of a radiological hazard (using radiation
detection equipment), warns personnel, and takes proper defensive
action.
• Conducts monitoring and surveying to determine the extent and
degree of contamination in a given area.
• Establishes priorities for the treatment and evacuation of casualties.
• Decontaminates personnel and equipment.
• Conducts area damage control operations to minimize the impact of
NBC weapons.

8-42. CHEMICAL STAFF

The brigade/battalion commander relies primarily on his chemical staff to
provide advice and recommendations on all aspects of NBC operations. The
chemical staff consists of a chemical officer, a chemical operations NCO, and
an NBC enlisted alternate. The chemical staff is normally assigned to the S3
section of the battalion staff. Specific responsibilities include the following:

• Prepare unit NBC defense SOP.

• Supervise NBC training and defense preparation.
• Ensure that NBC equipment is available and serviceable.
• Advise commanders and other staff officers on all aspects of
operations in an NBC environment.
• Coordinate e f f o r t s o f N B C d e f e n s e assets within the
company/battalion.

8-43. UNIT PROTECTIVE MEASURES

The following paragraphs provide guidance on measures which will reduce
the brigade/battalion’s vulnerability to NBC effects, and enhance its ability to
detect, avoid, and measure NBC hazards.

a. Unit Vulnerability. A unit’s vulnerability to an NBC attack is determined

by its nearness to the enemy, its dispersion, its level of NBC training, and the
degree of protection available to its personnel and equipment. When
determining this vulnerability, it is assumed that the enemy can deliver his
weapons on the most vulnerable location within the brigade/battalion area.

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(1) To determine how vulnerable a brigade/battalion would be to an

enemy-delivered weapon–
(a) Determine, from brigade, the yield of the weapon most likely to be used
against the brigade/battalion.
(b) Determine the degree of exposure of brigade/battalion elements.
(c) Determine the radius of vulnerability. The Rv is the radius of a circle
within which friendly soldiers will likely become casualties.
(d) Estimate the results of a potential enemy attack by drawing a circle
showing the Rv on a transparent map scale, aligning the map scale to find the
most vulnerable point, and making a visual estimate to determine coverage of
the brigade/battalion.
(2) If coverage exceeds a level acceptable to the commander, the unit may
decrease its vulnerability by digging positions or moving into existing
protection, such as built-up areas. A centralized location maybe depopulated
if the unit is in an assembly area. Units maybe separated laterally or in depth
in a defensive situation. Distance between moving elements in the offense
may be increased.

(3) While dispersion decreases the risk of destruction from nuclear attack, it
may increase the possibility of defeat in detail and complicates the problem of
control. The degree to which units can be dispersed depends on the mission
of the brigade/battalion and on the risk the commander is willing to accept.
b. Monitoring. Radiological monitoring involves the use of radiac
instruments to detect and measure residual radiation. Monitoring is
performed while stationary. Its primary purposes are to allow warning of all
personnel of the arrival or presence of a radiological haired and to provide a
basis for prompt action by the commander to minimize the hazard.
Monitoring is included in normal reconnaissance and intelligence activities of
all units. Radiological monitoring at all levels is initiated on order of the
commander, on order of higher headquarters, or as required by SOP or other
standing instructions. Units discovering radiological contamination in an area
report according to their SOP and mark the area with a radiological
contamination marker. Company-size units ensure soldiers are trained to
operate unit dose-rate meters.
(1) Periodic monitoring. Periodic monitoring is routinely conducted when
operating on the integrated battlefield. It requires units to monitor a
designated point in their area a minimum of once each hour.
(2) Continuous monitoring. All units initiate continuous monitoring when a
fallout warning is received; when on an administrative or tactical move; when
a nuclear burst is reported, seen, or heard; when radiation above 1 centigray a
hour is detected by periodic monitoring; and on order of the commander.
c. Surveying. Surveying may be necessary if monitoring reports do not
provide the information needed to evaluate the contaminated area.
d. Operation Exposure Guide. Battalion operations in a nuclear
environment will be complicated by the necessity to control exposure of
personnel to nuclear radiation. An OEG provides a method of determining
the maximum radiation dose to which units maybe exposed. The OEG will be
received from higher headquarters and stated in terms of degree of risk. The

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maximum dose is determined using the past accumulated dose or radiation

history of the unit.
e. Defense Against Biological Attack. Defense against a biological attack is
keyed on recognition of a biological threat by the enemy, preventive measures
that can be taken by friendly units, and prompt evacuation of casualties.
(1) Recognition is accomplished by alerting unit personnel of indications that
a biological agent may have been employed.
(2) Preventive measures can be taken by each unit to reduce casualties from
biological attack. These include the following:

• Maintain personal hygiene and field sanitation.

• Avoid practices that produce extreme fatigue.
• Provide immunization for enemy biological agents.
• Provide instruction on the care of wounds.
• Use only approved sources of food and water.
• Ensure rodents and other pests are controlled.
• Quarantine contaminated areas.

(3) Casualties of biological attacks will be processed the same as an illness

resulting from normally transmitted diseases. The patients are reported to an
aid station by unit aidmen or evacuated from the airhead (on available
aeromedical evacuation) to a hospital, as required.

8-44. DEFENSE AGAINST CHEMICAL ATTACK

Unit protective measures are governed by the nature of the threat, the
mission, the situation, and the weather.

• Avoid crossing contaminated areas as much as possible consistent

with the mission.
• Cross unavoidable contaminated terrain as quickly as possible,
preferably in vehicles, at speeds and intervals that minimize
contamination of following vehicles.
• Decontaminate after crossing.
• Plan heavy work-rate activities for the coolest part of the day, if the
situation and mission permit.
• Thoroughly train each soldier in the use of individual and collective
protective measures.

8-45. MISSION-ORIENTED PROTECTION POSTURE

Mission-oriented protection posture is a flexible system of protection used in
chemical warfare to facilitate mission accomplishment. It requires soldiers to
wear individual protective equipment consistent with the chemical threat, the
work rate imposed by the mission, and the temperature. Individual protective
clothing becomes standard combat dress when directed by the theater
commander.

a. Mission-oriented protection posture gives the commander and staff a

choice of chemical protection for their units ranging from no protection at all
to full protective clothing and equipment (Table 8-7). Ideally, a balance

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between the need for chemical protection and the work rate required by the
mission can be determined to minimize chemical and heat casualties.

Table 8-7. MOPP levels.

b. All combat operations are conducted under the MOPP system. When
there is a continuing immediate threat of chemical attack, the unit may be
required to wear protective clothing and equipment for exxtended periods.

c. The flexibility of MOPP in providing for varying levels of individual

protection is limited by heat exhaustion, fatigue, senses, and personal needs.
d. The staff, with primary staff responsibility in the S3 section, will be
required to recommend appropriate MOPP for a particular mission. When
the commander gives his planning guidance for a particular mission, he may
specify variations on the MOPP levels and any such variations from the
orders as published in the coordinating instructions of OPORDs and
OPLANs. In determining what MOPP to recommned, the staff evaluates the
following:
(1) The type of mission and its relative importance to the overall mission.
(a) What work rate does the mission involve?
(b) What will the temperature be during the mission?
(c) Can the mission given to subordinates be changed or modified to achieve
similar results with an increase in protection or a decrease in risk?

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(2) The chemical threat and the capability of the threat forces to employ
chemical agents, and the probability that they will do so.
(3) The expected number of heat casualties versus chemical casualties.
(4) The support required to minimize casualties from all causes, and the
estimated time to complete the mission.
(5) The effects of environmental factors such as temperature and windspeed.
(High winds decrease the probability that the enemy will use chemical
agents.)
e. Before the start of a mission, the commander specifies the MOPP level to
be used. He may later direct that this level of protection be increased,
decreased, or varied among individuals or elements within the unit according
to his evaluation of the current situation and operational limitation. He must
consider that as the temperature and work rate increase, the level of
individual protection must be reduced and work-pacing options must be
taken, or he must accept the possibility of more heat casualties. One option is
to reduce the chemical protection according to the temperature and work
rate. Other options arc contingent on the hazards of contamination present.
(1) In a contaminated area, the commander may do one of the following:
(a) Rotate jobs requiring a heavy work rate among subordinate units,
elements, or individuals.
(b) Authorize longer and more frequent rest periods. Rest periods are
necessary to allow enough cooling time for the dissipation of built-up body
heat. Work/rest periods may be repeated as many times as necessary to
complete a job.
(c) Provide adequate water supply so that personnel can increase their water
intake by drinking small amounts frequently.
(d) Use vehicular transportation whenever possible.
(2) When there is no immediate hazard from chemical agents, a commander
may rotate personnel to various combinations of reduced chemical protection
to provide relief from buildup of body heat. The commander may also allow a
small percentage of his soldiers to be out of their chemical protective clothing
at one time. The number of personnel in reduced protection is determined
based on his evaluation of the local situation. Reduced protection is
permitted on a selective basis for personnel performing certain tasks that
require manual dexterity, visual acuity, and voice communication. It may also
be necessary after considering the long-term psychological effects on
personnel wearing full chemical protective clothing and equipment for
extended periods.
(3) When there is no danger from chemical contamination (verified by the
use of the unit’s chemical-agent detector kits) and soldiers are required to
operate at moderate to heavy work rates, the commander may authorize them
to progressively reduce their protection by–

• Opening the zipper of the hood (and possibly rolling it up) for
ventilation.
• Removing the protective gloves.
• Removing the protective mask and hood.

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 FM 90-26

• Opening the duty uniform or the chemical protective clothing for

ventilation. (This will require loosening or removal of external LBE.)
• Removing some or all of the protective clothing.
(4) The commander can increase the work times significantly when a job
requires a sustained effort for proper accomplishment or is an emergency. It
must be noted, however, that soldiers who work for a long period will then
require an extended rest to dissipate the built-up heat.

8-46. DECONTAMINATION
Chemical decontamination involves removing, neutralizing, absorbing, or
weathering the chemical agent. Biological decontamination involves
destroying or exposing the biological agent to sunlight. Radiological
decontamination involves physically removing the radioactive material.

a. Types of Decontamination. There are three types of decontamination. See

FM 3-5 for more information on all types of decontamination operations.
(1) Chemical contaminants on the skin are removed or neutralized by basic
soldier skills.
(2) Hasty decontamination is done to remove gross amounts of NBC
contaminants from weapons, combat vehicles, and each soldiers’ clothing and
equipment.
(3) Deliberate decontamination is conducted by specialized decontamination
units so that soldiers do not have to wear complete NBC protective
equipment.
b. Priorities. The battalion commander normally prescribes the priority of
decontamination. He allocates necessary decontamination squads to ensure
its accomplishment. The following are normal priorities:
(1) Personnel. Individuals or units are removed from contaminated areas, if
possible, and are provided water for bathing. Fresh clothing and equipment
are made available, and a means of disposing of contaminated clothing,
equipment, and water is provided.
(2) Food and water. Ration containers are decontaminated with soap and
water or other neutralizing agents, and rations are inspected by qualified
medical personnel before consumption. Closed containers of water may be
decontaminated by neutralizing agents, or uncontaminated water may be
transported from another location.
(3) Critical equipment. Personnel and unit equipment vital to mission
accomplishment are decontaminated or exchanged as required.
(4) Terrain. Small terrain areas may often be decontaminated by weathering,
or by moving or turning the contaminated earth with spades or mechanical
means.

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 Section I 9-1 9-2 9-3 9-4 9-5 9-6

9-7 9-8 9-9 9-10 Section II 9-11 9-12

9-13 9-17
9-14 9-15 9-16

CHAPTER 9

COMBAT SERVICE SUPPORT

C ombat service support for airborne operations must be planned,

organized, and executed to sustain a fast tempo in highly mobile and
dispersed operations. Just as the airborne force is tailored for airdrop or
airland combat operations, the logistical system is tailored to support and
sustain the airhead or lodgment by airdrop, airland, overland, or sea, as
resources are available. Doctrinal distances do not always apply to airborne
operations. Therefore, the logistical planner must be prepared to adapt and
innovate with the resources at hand. Thus, airborne operations logistics
depend greatly on outside support.

Section I. LOGISTICAL PLANS AND

PREPARATIONS
Logistical plans cover the four essential elements of logistics: supply,
maintenance, transportation, and services. Brigades, battalions, and
companies start their logistical plans as soon as they receive a WO or
instructions to implement an OPLAN. The plan covers both support during
combat and preassault preparation. The part of the plan covering the
preassault phase includes supplying the unit, moving to the marshaling area,
and conducting logistical operations in the target area. Brigade plans are
more inclusive and detailed than battalion and company plans; battalions and
companies are more concerned with the execution of scheduled logistical
functions.

9-1. LOGISTICAL STRUCTURE

A DISCOM forward area support team in each brigade support area
provides the brigade with CSS. The team is tailored to satisfy the
requirements of the supported brigade and is formed around a forward
support maintenance company and a forward medical company. The division
support command forms three echelons to support the assault echelon, the
follow-on elechon, and the rear echelon. Each is tailored to the mission.

a. Assault Echelon. This echelon consists of a portion or all of the FAST as

determined by the commander’s concept of the operation. It is normally
attached to the supported brigade during marshaling. This attachment
remains effective during the assault phase. The FAST is tailored for the
mission and can include elements from a forward maintenance company, a

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FM 90-26

forward medical company, and a forward supply company. It can also include
a detachment from the quartermaster airdrop equipment support company
that can assist in the recovery and evacuation of airdrop equipment from the
DZ. The FAST may receive augmentation from corps based on mission
needs.

b. Follow-On Echelon. Most of the DISCOM enters the AO in the follow-on

echelon under control of the DISCOM. Normally deploying by airland
assault, the CSS follow-on echelon includes the remainder of the DISCOM
HHC (-), a detachment of the quartermaster airdrop equipment support
company, the remainder of the maintenance battalion, and the supply and
transportation battalion. Remaining DISCOM units stay at the departure
airfield in the rear echelon.

c. Rear Echelon. This echelon remains at the departure airhead or ISB and
consists of elements not immediately required in the airhead to support the
airborne force. These elements include the remaining portions of the
DISCOM MMC, maintenance battalion, quartermaster airdrop equipment
support, and the finance and personnel service companies (corps unit).
Depending on the duration and nature of the operation, the rear echelon may
be called forward and deployed into the AO after the lodgment is established.

9-2. LOGISTICAL PLANNING RESPONSIBILITIES

Responsibility for planning various logistical aspects of the operation is
shared by several agencies.

a. Assault Force. The airborne force (normally, a brigade or battalion TF)

conducting combat operations has the following responsibilities:

(1) Concentrate, organize, and equip the airborne forces.

(2) Load soldiers and their accompanying supplies and equipment.

(3) Recover airdropped supplies and equipment, and provide CSS units to
unload aircraft in the airhead.

(4) Move supplies from landing fields to airhead supply points by airhead
supply units.

(5) Operate airhead supply points.

(6) Conduct logistical operations within the perimeter of the airhead with
normal logistical agencies.

(7) Repair or construct the required airfields within the airhead until ground
linkup.

(8) Consolidate, treat, and evacuate casualties from airhead airfields.

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 FM 90-26

b. Division Support Command, Rear Echelon, and COSCOM Units. These

units have the following responsibilities:

(1) Receive, procure, and deliver equipment and supplies to rear air bases
for transportation to the airhead.

(2) Move airborne forces to the marshaling camps, and provide for
accompanying equipment and supplies.

(3) Evacuate from rear air bases.

(4) Operate marshaling areas.

c. Air Force Units and Installations. These elements have the following
responsibilities:

(1) Maintain aircraft.

(2) Receive unload, and temporarily store supplies at rear air bases.

(3) Load supplies for delivery to the airhead.

d. Military Airlift Command. These units have the following responsibilities:

(1) Conduct air movement of soldiers, equipment, and supplies to landing

areas within an airhead.

(2) Assist in logistical organization for the receipt of supplies on airfields in

the airhead.

(3) Evacuate casualties from airfields in the airhead.

(4) Construct, rehabilitate, and maintain airfields in the airhead after ground
linkup.

(5) Supervise loading and lashing operations at the rear air bases for flying
safety.

(6) Coordinate deployment of aeromedical evacuation liaison teams, and

establish the tactical aeromedical evacuation system.

9-3. LOGISTICAL PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS

A number of factors and considerations affect logistical planning. Preliminary
data needed to prepare the logistical plan includes an analysis of the AO, the
ground tactical plan, the anticipated duration of the operation, and unit
strength.

a. Basic Decisions. For the logistical plan to progress, planners make basic
decisions as early as possible. This allows all responsible agencies to prepare

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FM 90-26

and execute plans for procurement and assembly of aircraft, supplies,

equipment, and personnel. They decide on the following:

(1) What forces will be involved, how they will be organized, and what their
principal objectives will be.

(2) What the tentative strength and composition of logistical units in the
airborne force will be.

(3) What amount/type of equipment should accompany the airborne force.

(4) What initial supplies will be taken.

(5) What level of supplies should be maintained in the airhead.

(6) What airfields will be used for the landing of soldiers and supplies.

(7) Where marshaling camps will be; what soldiers and materiel will be
marshaled at each camp.

(8) How long it should take to organize airheads in the landing areas.

(9) How follow-on echelons of major airborne force units should be

organized, and what method of movement should be planned for them.

(10) Where rear air bases to be used for supply purposes should be located.

(11) How available aircraft should be allocated for soldiers and supply.

(12) When (on what date) airborne forces should be ready for embarkation
by aircraft.

(13) What capacity of the ISB should be maintained at advance air bases to
facilitate supply.

(14) What evacuation policies should be set up.

b. Detailed Plans. Planners prepare detailed logistics based on the basic

decisions. The following considerations also affect the plan:

(1) What facilities are required for staging soldiers at marshaling camps.

(2) How the desired quantities of supplies will be delivered to rear air bases
at the proper time.

(3) How many, what size, and what type aircraft are available, and what their
loading characteristics are.

(4) What materiels-handling equipment is available.

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 FM 90-26

(5) What the distance is between rear air bases and landing areas.

(6) What the characteristics of the proposed airhead are, including road net,
storage, and other facilities.

(7) How long the follow-on supply phase will go on before normal supply
procedures are in effect, including time for construction, repair, or capture of
airfields.

(8) How much or how many supplies, equipment, and materials will be
available within the proposed airhead for possible exploitation.

(9) What is the climate, or what season.

(10) If units will have to designate transportation assets for the medical unit
to transport casualties.

(11) If dedicated air MEDEVAC (fixed- or rotary-wing) are required and

available,

(12) How casualty assets arc to be evacuated if no corps augmentation is

available.

9-4. PHASES OF SUPPLY

There are three supply phases for airborne operations: accompanying
supplies, follow-on supplies, and routine supplies.

a. Accompanying Supplies. These include supplies taken into the airhead by

assault and follow-on units. Accompanying supplies are issued to units before
marshaling for early preparation before air movement and for delivery in the
assault. They are carried into the assault area and include the supplies
airdropped with the deploying unit. Each unit receives and protects its own
accompanying supplies, which include unit, force, and reserve supplies.

(1) Unit supplies. These supplies include each soldiers’ combat loads, basic
loads of ammunition and other supplies, and prescribed loads of other classes
of supply. Rigging, loading, recovery, issue, and control of unit supplies are
the responsibility of the airborne unit.

(2) Force supplies. These are bulk supplies retained at battalion or brigade
that the backup unit provides. They include all classes of supply. The S4 of
the deploying unit is responsible for controlling these supplies.

(3) Reserve supplies. These are additional supplies brought into the airhead
under DISCOM control; they consist of the airborne force reserve of Class
III, Class V, selected items of Classes II and IV, and Class IX.

b. Follow-on Supplies. Follow-on supplies include all classes of supply; they

are air-delivered after the unit has made its initial assault to help the unit
operate until normal supply procedures can be set up. They are usually

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FM 90-26

prepackaged, rigged, and stored at the beginning of the operation for

immediate distribution on request. COSCOM units will most likely provide
assistance in the packaging of follow-on supplies. Quantities are based on the
G4’s estimate of the unit’s daily requirements. Plans must be developed that
permit flexibility in composition of daily requirements. The battalion S4
requests follow-on supplies for the battalion. Follow-on resupply is
discontinued as soon as practicable.

(1) Automatic follow-on supplies. These are delivered on a preplanned

schedule once a day, beginning at a time based on the ground tactical plan.
The number of days of scheduled follow-on supply depends on the specific
situation and should be enough for the airborne forces to continue their
operations until routine supply is available. Automatic follow-on supplies are
either airdropped to the unit or airlanded at a central supply point. Follow-on
supply should not be scheduled for automatic delivery on the day the
operation is to begin because units within the airhead should be fully
occupied with seizing assault objectives, establishing the airhead, and
recovering accompanying supplies.

(2) On-call follow-on supplies. These are held in the departure area in
readiness for immediate delivery to units on specific request. They include
more of the items supplied by automatic follow-on, major items of equipment,
and supplies that arc not used at a predictable rate. The airborne force
determines the quantities and types of supplies to be included in on-call
supply. Depending on the situation, on-call supplies can be segregated and
prepackaged into loads by type, such as 105-millimeter artillery ammunition,
or can be maintained in bulk pending emergency requests for specific types
and amounts. Emergency supplies must be delivered within 24 hours. Routine
supplies arc delivered on a flexible schedule–24 to 72 hours after the request.
Whenever any of the on-call follow-on supplies are used, the expended
amounts are replaced.

c. Routine Supplies. These are requested and delivered by normal supply

procedures. The DISCOM commander decides when routine supply
deliveries should begin, depending on the tactical situation and supply status
of the division.

9-5. CLASSES OF SUPPLY

The following paragraphs provide information about the classes of supply, the
use of captured supplies and salvage, water supply, and special supplies and
equipment

a. Supplies are divided into 10 major categories so that items can be readily
identified to each particular class. Classes of supply are the same for all types
of combat operations.

(1) Class I. This class includes meal, ready-to-cat, tray pack, and A-type
meals. Airborne units use MREs as the basic load and for follow-on supply.
Tray packs and A-type meals may be used later as the airhead develops and
the lodgment becomes secure. Personnel strength reports determine Class I
requirements, thereby eliminating complicated unit ration requests.

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 FM 90-26

(2) Class II. This class includes clothing, individual equipment, tentage, hand
tools, administrative and housekeeping supplies and equipment, and chemical
decontaminants. It also includes supplies and some equipment (other than
principal items) prescribed in authorization or allowance tables; it does not
include repair parts. Accompanying supplies include some Class II items.
Follow-on and routine supply include small stocks of individual clothing and
equipment while on-call follow-on supply includes major items of equipment,
as the situation dictates.

(3) Class III. This class includes POLs. Unit vehicles and equipment are
usually delivered to the airhead with fuel tanks 3/4 full to allow for expansion
during airlift. Forecasts for POL are used by units to program delivery of
POL as part of the assault and follow-on supplies. Packaged POL and bulk
POL supplies are used. Care must be taken to ensure that bulk aviation fuel is
dispensed using fuel filters and separators. Plans for POL should include
retrograde of containers for refill.

(4) Class IV. T h i s class includes construction materials and all

fortification/barrier materials. Units can only take a limited amount of Class
IV supplies into the objective area. Careful choice of drop and assault LZs
reduces the amount of Class IV supplies needed to support the operation by
minimizing the requirement for construction equipment and material. Units
exploit local resources.

(5) Class V. This class of supply includes all ammunition. Planners must
consider that, during the assault phase, ammunition tonnage is greater than
the combined weight of all other supplies. Units take a basic load only. The
amounts are expressed in number of rounds for each weapon each day.
Specified amounts of all types of ammunition for airborne forces weapons
(enough for continuity of the combat operation) comprise follow-on supply.
The amounts of ammunition needed depend on the type of operation and the
strength of enemy opposition. Follow-on resupply should be cross loaded to
offset loss of one type of item if aircraft are lost. Planners provide in advance
for possible additions or deletions of certain types of ammunition.
Expenditure rates are based only on staff estimates, which must take into
consideration the following factors:

• Degree of opposition to be encountered during and after the

landing.
• Number and type of weapons landed with airborne forces.
• Planned time of follow-on supply.
• Number and types of aircraft to be used.

(6) Class VI. This class includes personnel demand (Army and Air Force
Exchange Service) items that are usually unavailable in the airhead for sale or
issue to soldiers and other authorized individuals. It should not be confused
with the ration supplement and sundries pack. (The sundries pack has items
necessary to the health and comfort of soldiers such as essential toilet articles,
tobacco, and confections. It is available in theaters of operation for issue
through Class I channels, pending establishment of adequate service
facilities.)

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FM 90-26

(7) Class VII. This class includes major end items. Certain items of this class
can be retained for use in on-call resupply to replace those lost in combat or
during airdrop. This is critical for certain items of equipment; especially,
engineer items whose loss could significantly affect the operation.

(8) Class VIII. This class includes medical materiel, which is discussed with
health services.

(9) Class IX. This includes repair parts such as kits, assemblies and
subassemblies, and repairable and nonrepairable parts required for
maintenance support of all equipment. Maintenance elements entering the
airhead carry PLL, shop stocklisting, and designated items from the ASL.

(10) Class X. This includes materiel to support civil affairs and nonmilitary
programs. Airborne operations usually require minimal Class X during the
assault phase.

b. Captured Supplies and Salvage. Within limitations prescribed by the

commander, units use captured or abandoned enemy materiel and supplies.
The use of captured equipment/materiel eases the logistical burden in the
airhead by reducing the number of airframes needed in the early stages of the
operation. (See FMs 100-10 and 63-20 for information about restrictions on
the use of captured equipment/materiel.) Logistical considerations require
recovery of salvageable equipment; especially parachutes, air delivery
containers, and heavy-drop platforms.

c. Water. Airborne forces carry filled canteens and water purification tablets.
They carry enough full organic water containers for travel to the airhead and
consumption while they are there. Planners must plan for resupply in the air
flow to ensure soldiers have enough water in the airhead. Planners should
also determine the location of possible water supply points. Water
purification units are made available in the airhead as early as practicable.

d. Special Supplies and Equipment. Changing situations in airborne

operations can make additions, deletions, and substitutions of standard
equipment and units’ prescribed loads necessary. Conditions often require
the use of nonstandard items such as escape kits, recognition devices,
currency, special individual medical supplies and equipment, and individual
maps. Each unit arranges for these items and distributes them either before
or during marshaling, according to security principles.

9-6. DISTRIBUTION OF SUPPLY

Supply and transport units can accompany the assault echelon to recover
assault supplies transported under control of the airborne force and to
establish necessary supply points. The airborne force can use supply point
distribution, unit distribution, or both to handle supplies. Helicopters can
deliver priority supplies.

a. Throughput distribution bypasses one or more intermediate supply

echelons to avoid multiple handling. Commanders choose this method

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 FM 90-26

whenever possible to deliver supplies from the rear echelon to the using unit
in the airhead.

b. In the unit distribution method, the issuing agency transports supplies to

the receiving unit’s area. They can use ground transportation from supply
points near DZs or airfields, or they can airdrop supplies directly to the using
unit.

c. With supply point distribution, the receiving unit picks up supplies from a
distribution point and moves them in organic transportation. Distribution
points for essential combat supplies are positioned close to the soldiers being
served to benefit from the security provided by the combat elements. This
also prevents infiltrating hostile forces from cutting the supplies off from the
receiving unit, and shortens supply lines.

d. Supplies must be delivered to the airhead configured for easy handling.

Limited MHE, CSS, and transportation assets available, as well as the tactical
situation, affect supply distribution in the objective area. Multiple DZs must
be selected including sites close to the forward battalions/companies. Some
supplies should be packed into CDS bundles for expedient follow-on
resupply.

9-7. RESUPPLY BY AIR

Army and Air Force assets are used for both airland and airdrop, although
most Air Force deliveries are airdrop. Airland is better because special
equipment or rigging is not required. When airdrop is necessary, the Army
furnishes the airdrop equipment and rigs the loads. Airdrop rigging support
for division airdrop resupply comes from division and corps airdrop units.

a. Preplanned Resupply Requests. Preplanned airdrop resupply can be

automatic or on call. Automatic airdrop resupply can be arranged for a
designated time and place to support specific operations. On-call airdrop
resupply uses prerigged and pre-positioned supplies that are arranged for
before an operation and delivered when requested by the supporting unit. To
obtain a preplanned airdrop, units in the airhead request supplies and
equipment from their DS unit in the FAST. (Figure 9-1, see page 9-10.)

b. Immediate Airdrop Resupply Requests. Immediate airdrop resupply

missions result from unanticipated, urgent, or priority requirements.
Immediate requests for resupply missions must be flown faster than
preplanned missions. Unless the JFC has allocated airdrop assets for strip
alert or has otherwise kept airlift in reserve, immediate airdrop resupply
requests are filled by preempting, diverting, or canceling lower priority
preplanned missions. (Figure 9-2, see page 9-11.)

9-8. MAINTENANCE
The problem of maintenance is usually magnified by the need for security for
maintenance personnel in the assault during the initial combat and by the
damage that may occur during the air delivery of equipment. (See FM 43-5
and AR 750-1 for detailed information on all maintenance resources found in
airborne units, and their employment.)

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FM 90-26

Figure 9-1. Preplanned resupply flow.

a. Follow-On. When deployed in the follow-on echelon, the maintenance

battalion provides a forward support company to the FAST supporting each
brigade. Habitual attachments are used to establish working relationships and
develop SOPs. Maintenance responsibilities and procedures may vary
through each phase of the operation.

b. Marshaling and Deployment. To reduce maintenance requirements in the

airhead, intensive maintenance is performed before departure. Maintenance
units support unit marshaling with unit and DS maintenance, as required. The
maintenance battalion, augmented by MACG elements, provides
maintenance contact teams to inspect and repair equipment during
marshaling. Units report items requiring GS maintenance that cannot be
repaired in time for the operation to the DMMC, which requisitions
replacements for those items. The DMMC directs the maintenance battalion
to use the operational readiness float to fill critical combat requirements. The
maintenance battalion repairs all equipment that cannot be repaired at DS
level in time for unit deployment and places it in the division’s ORF.

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 FM 90-26

Maintenance support units are positioned as needed to provide repair

services.

Figure 9-2. Immediate resupply flow.

c. Maintenance in the Objective Area. Maintenance during the initial assault

and subsequent operations phase is usually performed by maintenance
personnel organic to the battalions and separate companies. The complete
forward support company plus other designated individuals and equipment
from the maintenance battalion enter the objective area in the follow-on
echelon. These personnel deploy as part of the FAST to provide DS of
primary weapons systems and communications equipment. They carry the DS
maintenance company’s ASL. They use battle damage assessment and repair
procedures for severely damaged or inoperable systems to maintain the
maximum number of systems available for combat. Direct support
maintenance support teams perform mission-essential maintenance; they

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FM 90-26

perform other maintenance only as time permits. Priority for maintenance is

usually given to weapon systems that require minimum effort to restore to
mission-capable condition. Maintenance support teams are as far forward as
practicable under the control and coordination of the FAST.

d. Expansion and Buildup of the Airhead. During this phase, the remaining
DS maintenance elements are deployed. Direct support is provided to the
brigade by the maintenance company in the BSA. Backup DS is provided by
the remainder of the maintenance battalion in the DSA. The maintenance
unit also provides backup DS to the forward maintenance elements. General
support is provided to the division by nondivisional maintenance assets from
the corps.

9-9. TRANSPORTATION
Transportation plans provide for the transport of soldiers and accompanying
supplies to the marshaling area, transportation needed during marshaling,
and the loading of unit transport with supplies and equipment for the assault.

a. In an airborne operation, transportation means in the airhead are limited.

Captured enemy vehicles are used to supplement limited transportation
resources; efficient use of organic transportation is essential. The assaulting
battalions and brigades will have austere organic transportation assets and
will not be capable of sustained combat operations without augmentation.
Ground transportation for the brigade is provided largely by the division
supply and transportation battalion. Requests for movement of supplies are
processed through logistics channels from the requesting unit S4 through the
FAST to the movement control officer on the DISCOM staff. The MCO
controls and allocates vehicles from the S&T battalion. The MCO controls
commitment of the transportation motor transport company vehicles for CSS
within the division. Requirements that cannot be satisfied are forwarded to
the division transportation officer. He can request the use of divisional
aircraft or vehicles support from other units in the division from the G3 to
satisfy these requiements These aircraft and vehicles may be provided by
other divisional units, the COSCOM MMC, or the host nation when the
tactical situation permits.

b. During an airborne operation, greater reliance is placed on Air Force

transportation of supplies, personnel, and equipment than on ground
transportation. Airhead transportation requirements can be reduced by
delivering supplies and equipment directly to the battalion or company in Air
Force aircraft. LAPES, CDS, and heavy-drop, properly used and delivered at
the correct location, can reduce transportation requirements speed delivery,
and reduce the vulnerability of ground transportation assets to enemy action.
Air Force airlift missions are categorized as preplanned or immediate.

9-10. FIELD SERVICES

Field services provided by division personnel to the brigade and battalion
during wartime operations include graves registration and salvage. A
COSCOM service element provides these services when division personnel
cannot. General support units operated by corps provide other field services
such as laundry, bakery, textile renovation, and airdrop. Limited GRREG

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 FM 90-26

services are usually the only field service available in the airhead, although all
can exist in the marshaling area. Staging bases in the rear provide airdrop
support as a service.

a. Graves Registration. Airborne units have no graves registration capability

and require augmentation to perform this function. Soldiers must learn how
to identify and process remains and to establish and operate collection points.
Units recover remains and evacuate them to designated locations IAW unit
SOP.

(1) Evacuation. After identification, designated unit personnel evacuate

remains to the collecting point in the BSA or the division collection point in
the DSA using available transportation. After coordination with the Air
Force, Army units move the remains to the airfield for aerial evacuation.

(2) Burial. Units perform hasty or mass burials only when the tactical
situation prevents evacuation. The TF commander retains authority for mass
burials. The training of graves registration personnel should include the
procedures for marking and recording hasty burial sites.

b. Airdrop Support. Airdrop is a method of delivering supplies and

equipment from aircraft to ground elements. The division relies on its organic
quartermaster airdrop equipment support company and corps airdrop units
for support. (See FM 10-400 for more information.)

Section Il. PERSONNEL PLANS AND

PREPARATION
Airborne operations pose all the personnel problems found in other types of
operations. Many airborne unit administrative personnel remain at the rear
base where administrative tasks are more efficiently performed. These factors
usually require the airborne division to decentralize and delegate many of its
personnel functions to brigades and battalions.

9-11. PERSONNEL STRENGTH ACCOUNTING

A record is kept of the personnel participating in the airborne assault and of
those that remain in the departure area. After the assault landings have been
made, the units of the airborne force submit strength reports as prescribed in
the force SOP. They include the number of personnel from other units who
have joined the reporting unit. Ideally, the air mission commander will notify
the ground unit commander of personnel who do not exit the aircraft.

9-12. PERSONNEL REPLACEMENT OPERATIONS

Airborne operations should be launched with full-strength units.
Replacements are retained at division level to fill initial combat 1osses, as
required.

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FM 90-26

a. Overstrength Replacements. Personnel losses sustained during the initial

stages (about the first three days) of the airborne operation are estimated and
reported. These include loss estimates for the air movement and early ground
phases. Shelf requisitions for overstrength replacements are based on the
total loss estimate. These replacements should be received in time to be
assigned to and train with subordinate units of the division. They do not
participate in the initial airborne assault, but are held in the departure area
and delivered to the objective area when required. Aircraft are allocated for
the movement of overstrength replacements to the objective area.

b. Unit Replacements. It is desirable to have company- to battalion-size unit

replacements briefed and available in the departure area for commitment as
required. These units remain under the control of the next higher
headquarters until released to the airborne commander.

c. Other Replacements. Replacements required besides overstrength

replacements are requisitioned in the usual manner.

9-13. CASUALTY REPORTING

The first soldier having knowledge of casualties submits prompt, factual, and
accurate casualty reports. This is done IAW appropriate regulations, through
unit SOPS, and channels to headquarters DA for next-of-kin notification.
The G1/AG and S1 prepare casualty-reporting plans, and furnish precombat
instructions and procedures. Each echelon must prepare to make accurate
and timely casualty reports. (See FMs 10-20 and 10-30 for a detailed
discussion of casualty reporting at battalion and brigade level.)

9-14. HEALTH SERVICE SUPPORT

Limited numbers of tactical/strategic airframes or the limited duration of the
mission (such as hostage rescue and withdrawal) makes comprehensive
planning for austere operations necessary. Medical plans should include
tailored medical packages to support the initial assault force, with follow-on
support to arrive during the lodgment or subsequent operations phase.
Health service support planners must be involved early in the planning
process to ensure that timely and adequate medical support is provided to the
deployed force. Planning considerations include, but are not limited to, the
following:

• Medical threat.
• Casualty estimates.
• Anticipated areas of patient density.
• Anticipated casualty mix.
• Lines of patient drift.
• Field hygiene, sanitation, and other preventive medical
considerations.
• Preplanned patient treatment stations, patient collecting points, and
ambulance exchange points.
• Evacuation policy.
• Mode of evacuation.
• Augmentation for the provision of en route medical care on
nonmedical vehicles.

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 FM 90-26

• Augmentation for patient decontamination support.

• Mass casualty plans.

Note: See FM 8-55 for a complete discussion of health service

support planning factors.

a. Health Service Support Planning. The same principles of combat medical

support that apply to other combat Army units also apply to airborne units.
The mobility of airborne medical units must match that of the units they
support. The medical units accompany soldiers at all times to provide prompt
and efficient medical care and evacuation. Airborne and air assault divisions’
medical support units are the only division-level medical elements that have
emergency surgical capabilities.

(1) In short-duration operations, a very short-term evacuation policy is

normal; usually less than 72 hours. When air evacuation is possible, necessary
medical installations are near suitable airlanding facilities. When aircraft
cannot land for purposes of evacuation, more medical facilities with an
increased holding capacity will be required in the objective area.

(2) In long-duration operations, allowing for the establishment of medical

facilities will permit a longer evacuation policy as the operation progresses. A
firm policy for a long-duration operation cannot be established in advance; it
is modified as circumstances permit or require.

(3) Evacuation and treatment elements of division-level health service

support must enter the objective area early because unit-level health service
support does not have a holding capability.

(4) Most of the division medical battalion is introduced into the airhead
during the airland phase of the assault. One medical company is initially
attached to the FAST to simplify operational control. The rest of the battalion
is committed at a time and place that best supports the division as a whole
and provides the best possible medical care. Medical battalion headquarters
resumes control of subordinate companies supporting the brigade as early as
possible to ensure effective use of the limited medical resources available in
the airhead. Medical companies supporting brigades are scheduled for
deployment early in the assault phase. They provide prompt relief for
battalion aid stations temporarily performing an expanded treatment and
holding mission. Unless the brigade mission requires offensive action over
extended distances, the supporting medical company establishes a full-size
clearing station near an LZ that is centrally located in the brigade sector.

(5) When a significant delay is anticipated between the deployment of

medical companies and the scheduled arrival of Air Force aeromedical
staging facilities in the airhead, the medical companies are reinforced by
corps medical resources. These added resources provide the capability for
holding patients and for helping to load them aboard evacuation aircraft.

(6) Medical company ambulance resources are reinforced to ensure the

capability of simultaneous support to battalion aid stations and evacuation of
patients from the clearing station to the LZ embarkation point. Elements of

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FM 90-26

the division medical battalion assigned to undeployed combat battalions are

retained at departure airfields unless an extremely large patient work load
develops in the airhead. One or more of the following methods can be used to
evacuate from division clearing stations:

• Aeromedical evacuation from the airhead by the Air Force.

• Evacuation to airland corps medical units arriving in the airhead
later in the operation.
• Evacuation through normal charnels after ground linkup.

(7) Medical elements of a division directed to link up with the airhead should
be prepared to immediately supplement airhead medical support, to accept
patient overloads, and to eliminate surgical backlogs in airhead clearing
stations. The linkup division may require reinforcement to perform this relief
mission.

(8) If corps medical resources are not readily available because of airframe
shortage or limited response time, the division forward support medical
company may have to assume some of the duties of the MASF. An
aeromedical evacuation liaison team can be deployed with the medical
company to interface with the AECC. The FSMC will assume the MASF
duties of staging, manifesting, and locating the casualties.

b. Phases of Employment. Medical support planning is conducted for each

phase of the airborne operation.

(1) Marshaling phase. Limited outload of divisional units from the CONUS
base is accomplished by CSS within the division. Medical support for the
outload of brigade-size or less airborne forces is accomplished with organic
divisional medical assets. Medical support to a force greater than brigade-size
must be provided by a fixed facility or corps-level medical units. Organic
medical platoons within maneuver battalions and the lead medical company
required during the deployment (assault) phase can provide only limited
tailgate medical support to organic elements because personnel and
equipment are preparing to deploy.

(2) Air movement and assault phase. Medical actions during this phase
depend on the size of the deploying force. Unit members are cross loaded on
multiple aircraft. This ensures that the loss of one aircraft does not keep other
members of the unit from performing the mission. The fact that airborne
operations usually occur at night to increase the elements of security and
surprise adds further confusion on the DZ. The paratrooper must be able to
perform independent actions (such as providing aid to himself and his buddy)
because he maybe separated from the aidman during the initial assault.

(a) The medical platoon organic to the combat battalion provides immediate
medical support on deployment. It has limited treatment capabilities and no
holding capacity. After the initial parachute assault is completed, unit aidmen
in the combat medic section link up with organic line companies and establish
CCPs.

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 FM 90-26

(b) As part of the DISCOM FAST, the FSMC provides division-level

medical support to a two-battalion- to brigade-size element. The medical
company can be tailored in size for the initial mission of the airborne assault
(Alpha Echelon), with a follow-on complement (Bravo Echelon) to follow
during airdrop or airland activities.

c. Air Force Health Service Support. The airborne unit collects and
transports regulated patients to the Air Force MASF when it is established. It
also provides patient staging in the airhead until the Air Force has facilities
available. The Air Force, using the tactical aeromedical evacuation system,
begins intratheater evacuation to supporting medical treatment units. The
TAES is a highly mobile system designed to deploy/redeploy on short notice
to any airfield, including the foremost assault airfields used to support combat
ground forces. As a complete aeromedical evacuation subsystem, the TAES
functions as a total system to provide interim medical care and expedite the
evacuation of the sick and injured. In its deployed form, the TAES comprises
three elements:

(1) The aeromedical evacuation liaison team coordinates with the MRO of
the forward medical treatment units, the aeromedical evacuation control
center, and the MASF to ensure a smooth and rapid flow of patients within
the system.

(2) The AECC is the element for the subsystem, coordinating activities
among the elements and ensuring tactical aircraft are made available to meet
aeromedical evacuation requirements.

(3) The MASF provides short-term holding and supportive treatment for
patients that are to be evacuated. The medical flight crews deployed in
support of the TAES provide in-flight nursing care aboard the aircraft. In an
emergency, personnel from the MASF can also provide in-flight nursing care.

The mission of the TAES is to evacuate patients between points of treatment

within the combat zone, and from the combat zone to points outside. Using
backhaul aircraft capability, TAES relieves combat commanders of patient
care and protection. The MASF does not possess any aircraft or physicians.
The aircraft are obtained from the ALCC and the physicians are at the
origination and destination facilities. Therefore, it is vital that all patients be
as stable as possible when they arrive at the MASF. Figure 9-3 (see page 9-18)
shows request procedures for aeromedical evacuation via Air Force aircraft.

9-15. PRISONERS OF WAR AND CAPTURED MATERIEL

As with any combat operation, an airborne assault and the subsequent
operations phase will produce PWS, captured materiel of the enemy, and
damaged materiel both friendly and enemy. Plans must be made to handle
these potential circumstances with limited physical battlefield clutter, to
recover equipment for rehabilitation and reissue, and to process enemy PWs
to minimize their effect on friendly operations.

a. Prisoners of War. Prisoners of war are captured and tagged with

identifying information; then, they are evacuated from the objective area as
directed by the airborne commander IAW instructions from higher

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FM 90-26

headquarters. They are evacuated to designated facilities within the

departure area. The Army processes, stages, and provides guards for the
evacuation. Prisoner of war collection points are near airlanding facilities to
ease air evacuation.

b. Captured Materiel. Captured materiel to be evacuated by air are

designated, processed, and prepared for air movement by the Army IAW
instructions from higher headquarters. An appropriate notation on the
manifest informs the airlift unit of the classification, designation, and
destination of materiel to be evacuated.

Figure 9-3. Aeromedical evacuation airlift request process.

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 FM 90-26

9-16. OTHER PERSONNEL SERVICE SUPPORT

Other personnel support system functions include the following:

• Personnel actions.
• Personnel records.
• Administrative services.
• Chaplain activities.
• Legal services.
• Finance services.
• Morale support activities.
• Public affairs.
• Postal services.

(See FM 12-6 for more detailed information.)

a. Personnel Actions. Intense combat greatly reduces the processing of

personnel actions. Therefore, actions that do not seriously affect morale
receive a lower priority. Authority to process personnel actions is
decentralized to the lowest organizational level consistent with effective
management, but not so low that an unnecessary or unwanted administrative
burden is placed on that level.

b. Personnel Records. Only the minimum individual personnel records

required to support personnel services are kept within the theater. These
records are maintained as far to the rear as possible, consistent with their use,
and no further forward than division rear or separate brigade (regiment) rear.
During contingency operations, personnel records are maintained in
CONUS.

c. Administrative Services. The administrative services office of the G1

section provides only essential round-the-clock administrative services to the
TOC and to the division main CP during combat operations.

d. Chaplain Activities. While the unit’s religious program is under the

authority of the unit commander, the chaplain is the commander’s special
staff officer responsible for implementing the program. He ensures personnel
can freely exercise their religion. Unit chaplains perform and coordinate
worship services, rites, sacraments, and religious observances. They give
particular attention to providing religious services before deployment. The
chaplain is also a personnel staff officer with direct access to the commander.
(See FM 16-1 for more information.)

e. Legal Services. Legal services are provided to commanders and soldiers of

the division by the Office of the Staff Judge Advocate. The judge advocate
provides legal advice and assistance on all matters involving military,
domestic, foreign, and international law and regulations. The staff judge
advocate also supervises the administration of military justice, processes
claims for and against the government, and furnishes legal assistance to
authorized personnel. (See AR 210-1 and AR 210-10 for more information.)

9-19
FM 90-26

f. Financial Services. Personnel deploying on an airborne operation will

undergo processing for overseas replacement; any required pay documents
will be completed at that time. Soldiers will be given the opportunity to buy
invasion currency, if appropriate. Combat payments will also be offered,
subject to the commander’s approval. (See FM 14-7 for complete details of
finance operations in a combat zone.)

g. Morale Support Activities. Morale, welfare, and recreation are the

responsibility of the tactical force commander, but they depend on support
from the rear support areas. The division G1 and brigade/battalion S1s are
responsible for requesting external support from the corps/TAACOM.

h. Public Affairs. Commanders can expect a great deal of media interest in

their activities as they prepare to deploy and conduct parachute operations.
Deploying units should coordinate with the PAO to obtain information for
briefings on soldier’s responsibilities and rights when dealing with
representatives from the media.

i. Postal Services. Outgoing mail is ordinarily suspended several days before

the operation for security reasons. However, this fact need not be publicized.
Because of the critical status of air transportation, incoming mail is usually
suspended during the initial stage of airborne operations. Once the airhead is
established, postal operations are located in the DSA and are composed
primarily of mail-handling activities. Battalion mail clerks deliver outgoing
mail to the postal section, and pick up incoming mail for delivery to soldiers
assigned to their units. Unit mail clerks are responsible for the delivery of
mail to each soldier. (See FM 12-6 for more information.)

9-17. CIVIL AFFAIRS

The G5/S5, if assigned, plans for civil affairs operations in the airhead. If the
commander does not assign a G5/S5, the S1 assumes this role. During
airborne operations, the airborne force cannot provide substantial care and
assistance to the local populace beyond minimum needs. (See FM 41-10 for
more information.) Civil affairs support includes civilian protection and
control, labor, and equipment.

a. Civilian Protection and Control. Civil affairs takes population control

measures, evacuates civilians from high-risk or sensitive areas, or relocates
civilians from the airhead. This prevents congestion and provides space for
military operations facilities.

b. Civilian Labor. Civil affairs identifies and locates civilians to work within
the airhead. Civilian labor can handle supplies; construct airfields, field
fortifications, and obstacles; and clear fields of fire. (See AR 210-10 for
restrictions.)

c. Civilian Equipment. Civil affairs identifies and locates civilian equipment

that can be used to support the airborne force. Key items include vehicles,
construction equipment, and materiels-handling equipment.

9-20
 CHAPTER 10

10-1 10-2 10-3 10-4 10-5 10-6 10-7

COMMUNICATIONS

Dynamic, effective leadership, more than any other element of combat

power, decides victory. A reliable, durable, secure, quick, and flexible
command and control system supports leaders. This system must
communicate orders, coordinate support, and provide direction to the unit
in spite of enemy actions, loss of command facilities, and loss of key leaders.
The systems available to facilitate command and control of airborne
operations have developed into detailed, universally understood operating
procedures. These procedures are designed to enhance complex joint
operations and to ensure that the airborne operaton capitalizes on surprise.
This is achieved through centralized detailed planning that supports
decentralized operations, emphasizing mission-type orders. The actions of
the 82d Airborne Division during the invasion of Sicily in July 1943
demonstrate the need for a robust, flexible, command and control system
and confirmed the key role mission-type orders play in airborne operations.

On 9 July 1943, the first of 226 planes loaded with 3,40.5 paratroopers and their
equipment began taking off from departure airfields in northeastern Tunisia to
take part in the invasion of Sicily. The force was composed of the 505th
Parachute Infantry Regiment and the 3d Battalion of the 504th Parachute
Infantry Regiment, along with other supporting units. The mission was to assist
the 1st Infantry Division landing in Sicily, to capture the Parte Olivio airfield
and to disrupt enemy communications and movement of reserves. This was the
first time in military history that an airborne unit of this size had been given such
a mission. It was also the largest night drop ever made.

During the flight across the Mediterranean, there was no interplane

communication. A strong tail wind broke up the planned formations and blew
some planes off course. As a result, many pilots missed their checkpoints and
became lost. Some turned back but most continued on in the general direction of
the island. Because the formations had been so badly broken up, planes
approached Sicily from many directions. Once over land, the pilots found many
of the planned DZs hidden by haze and dust from the preinvasion bombing.
Many planes came under heavy antiaircraft fire and either turned away from
their DZ or dropped their sticks of paratroopers early. Paratroopers and their
equipment were spread over 60 miles of enemy-held territory-not dropped on the
planned DZs.

Despite the scattered drop that forced drastic changes to the original plans, each
soldier knew his mission When paratroopers realized they were not on their
correct DZs, they immediately organzied into small groups led by whatever

10-1
FM 90-26

officers or NCOs were present. They began disrupting enemy communications,

destroying enemy positions, halting enemy movement toward the landing
beaches, and fighting their way to their orginal objectives. Later, Italian
prisoners estimated the number of American paratroops to be between 20,000
and 30,000, a considerably larger number than the actual 3,405 paratroopers of
the 82d Airborne Division.

During an interview after the war, General Kurt Student, commander of the
German paratroops during the war, gave his assessment of the airborne
operation in Sicily. He described it as effective even though the paratroopers were
widely scattered. In his opinion, the amphibious landing could have been driven
back to the sea if the soldiers of the 82d Airborne Division had not blocked the
German reserves.

A comprehensive communications system has developed since the operation in

Sicily. The system requires detailed planning and coordination to ensure
effective control during airborne operations. This chapter outlines a
communications system that allows the battalion or brigade commander to act
within the operational concepts of AirLand Battle doctrine. (See FM 101-5,
FM 7-20, and FM 7-30 for additional information and doctrine on for all
levels of command.)

10-1. FUNDAMENTALS FOR USING SIGNAL FACILITIES

Several guiding fundamentals exist for using signal facilities in airborne
operations

a. Airborne forces use all available means of communication with priority to

command channels.

b. Airborne commanders have access to all signal facilities controlled by the

USAF on a common-user basis.

c. Commanders exchange LOs with radios to maintain contact between

headquarters and to ensure close real-time coordination.

d. Commanders coordinate with and thoroughly brief all personnel to

include supporting combat aviation, airlift forces, higher headquarters, lateral
units, and follow-on ground units. The briefings ensure proper use of a large
number of channels in the integrated system.

e. Commanders ensure positive and continuous communication by

establishing alternate or duplicate channels and routes of signal
communication.

f. To ensure radio contact, commanders must make provisions for relaying or

retransmitting messages.

g. Essential signal personnel must move in the first air serials; all subsequent
signal units precede the echelon they serve.

10-2
 FM 90-26

h. Elements cross load communications personnel and identify them with

their key leaders for relocation in the bump plan.

i. The joint commander establishes communications with the airborne and

airlift commanders.

10-2. CONSIDERATIONS
Airborne operations require communications between all elements, which is
not always easy. Communications inherent in airborne operations are
discussed herein,

a. The use of special navigational aids and horning devices to lead the aircraft
to the correct DZ,/LZ can cause communications problems. Highly
specialized airborne force personnel (CCT/LRSU) equipped with
navigational aids, homing devices, radar, and visual signals must be
airdropped into the objective area in advance. Personnel can then set up their
equipment to guide subsequent aircraft.

b. For proper control in the subsequent movement of personnel, supplies,

and equipment into the objective area, units in the area must have long-range
radio communication with the rear base. Units initially establish long-range
radio communications from higher to lower headquarters. The higher
headquarters can be on land, sea, or air many miles from the objective area.
Often, they must maintain contact through a system of relays or
retransmission sites.

c. Airlift forces bringing reserves or supplies require air-ground radio

communications when–

• The operation is aborted.

• The weather prevents the planned resupply.
• The enemy gains control of the DZs/LZs/EZs.
• Undetected antiaircraft installations exist along the line of flight and
preclude resupply.
• Reserves are needed at any one of several points other than the
primary DZ/LZ.

d. Close air support plays a more important role in airborne operations than
in normal operations. The airborne commander needs direct and positive
radio communication with supporting CAS until sufficient fire support assets
can be delivered to the airhead.

e. Key leaders jump with their tactical radios or use small handheld radios to
quickly establish control once on the ground. Also, small radios can be
carried in by soldiers or parachuted into the area in separate containers. The
method of delivery and the need for ground mobility impose limitations on
the size, weight, and amount of communications equipment for RATELOs.
Larger vehicular-mounted sets can be brought in by heavy-drop platforms or
airland aircraft.

10-3
FM 90-26

NOTE: Units plan for alternate means of communications to

prevent loss of signal security. (See FM 24-1 for tactics and
techniques.)
f. Commanders must resolve relationships, nets, frequency management,
codes, navigation aids, and a myriad of other details before mission execution.
The operation’s joint nature creates the greatest potential for communication
problems. Contingency plans, rehearsals, and joint SOIs aid the commanders
in resolving problems. Airspace control and air defense communications
deserve special attention for three fundamental reasons:

(1) DZs or LZs have a high volume of air traffic.

(2) Close air support initially provides the main means of fire support.
(3) The enemy might respond first by air, so Army air defense systems must
quickly distinguish friend from foe to prevent fratricide.

10-3. COMMUNICATIONS PLANS

Commanders must prepare plans. These ensure integration and
coordination of the signal facilities of each of the following airborne force
components:

Airlift units.
US Naval, US Air Force, and artillery units that provide fire support.
The command that retains control until it makes contact with
advancing ground forces.
The commander of advancing ground forces.
Friendly advancing units with whom contact is expected in the
airhead.

a. Communications Plan. Communications plans for airborne forces should

include the following:

(1) Procurement of additional personnel for special communications

facilities.

(2) Preparation of SOPs and SOIs.

(3) Headquarters communication to subordinate, adjacent, higher, and other
concerned headquarters.
(4) Allocation of frequencies, channels, codes, and ciphers not included in
the SOI.
(5) Instructions to subordinate signal officers concerning proposed signal
responsibilities.
(6) Distribution of plans and orders for all units in the marshaling area.

(7) Signal intelligence and signal security.

(8) Use of joint and special cryptographic aids.
(9) Communications personnel and equipment to go into the airhead by
teams with each serials.

10-4
 FM 90-26

(10) Communications equipment and supplies to be landed by aircraft and

the sequence of their delivery. (This should include extra equipment to
replace losses expected in the assault.)

(11) Signal unit elements that remain at the departure airfield to aid in the
movement of communications supplies and equipment.
(12) Location of the rear echelon in the airhead or at the departure
airfield/ISB and the communications personnel required.
(13) The installation and operation of communications channels used for air
support requests.
(14) In addition to provisions for the standard ground communications
system airborne communications plans must be provided for the following:
• JAAP units.
• Small-unit assembly in the forward area.
• Contact nets.
• Communication to and among base elements that remain in the
departure area.

b. Communications During Marshaling. Communications during

marshaling mainly concerns facilities provided by the MACG and the USAF.
Airborne force communications personnel are mainly concerned with
preparing for the operation.

(1) Facilities furnished by the MACG can include FM radio, HF radio,

TACSAT, retransmission, wire, telephone, teletype, facsimile, and messenger
sevice.
(2) Airborne and airlift unit communications centers maintain close liaison.
(3) For prompt relay of messages, signal personnel must maintain telephone,
teletype, and auxiliary radio channels between the airborne headquarters in
the rear area and the temporary headquarters in the departure area.
(4) Communications required to control the dispersed elements of the
command in the several departure areas depend on–
(a) Length of time various elements are to be in the marshaling area.
(b) Communications facilities of the US Army and USAF units in the
marshaling areas.
(c) Possibility of establishing a permanent rear echelon at the departure
area.
(d) Requirements for communications with points of arrival and departure.

(e) Availability of personnel and equipment not destined for immediate

tranfer into the airhead.

(5) Higher headquarters has the responsibility to establish an internal wire

net within the marshaling area.
(6) Units must use existing facilities.

10-5
FM 90-26

c. Communications During Air Movement. En route to the objective area,

the airborne commander can use SECOMP to pass changes in the plan to
other aircraft loads. In the absence of SECOMP, aircrews can relay messages.
Aircraft key personnel or jumpmasters use internal PA systems to pass
changes to onboard personnel. To pass key intelligence updates or to initiate
contingency plans, selected aircraft have hatch-mounted SATCOM radios.
These radios can receive transmissions from reconnaissance or JAAP teams
in the objective area or from the rear CP at the marshaling camp or REMAB.

d. Communications in the Objective Area. The airborne force

communications officer plans communications for the objective area. These
plans include the following

(1) An assault net to operate early during the operation in the objective area.
(2) A transition from the assault net operations to the normal nets.

(3) Communications from the objective area are to–

Airlift forces.
Follow-on forces.
Higher headquarters.
Supporting tactical air elements.
Departure airfield (if possible).
Linkup forces (if applicable).

e. Consolidation and Exploitation. Communications during consolidation

and exploitation of an airhead are the same as for other ground operations.

10-4. ARMY NETS

Army radio nets provide flexible communications for the initial assault
phase of an airborne operation, for quick displacement of CPs, and for
periods when commanders must maintain voice communication.

a. Predeployment TACSAT/IHF Net. Communications personnel from the

deploying unit’s higher headquarters install, operate, and maintain this net.
Units use it for a variety of purposes, including intelligence updates and
receipt of combat information from LRSUs or the JAAP. (Figure 10-1.)
LRSUs or JAAPs operating in this net arrange predetermined contact times.
They establish code words or procedures to indicate when the LRSU/JAAP
net is operating under duress. The senior commander establishes contingency
plans and procedures for when the LRSU/JAAP and headquarters miss their
communications checks.

b. Outload Net. The deploying Army unit commander uses an outload net to
monitor and control unit outload. (Figure 10-2.) The unit uses either small
handheld radios or standard FM equipment, and should always use a secure
net. FM equipment comes from a support unit employed until load time, so
the deploying unit can load its own equipment. If the deploying unit uses
handheld radios, it must coordinate frequencies to prevent interference with
aviation operations.

10-6
 FM 90-26

Figure 10-1. Predeployment TACSAT/lHF net.

Figure 10-2. Outload net.

10-7
FM 90-26

c. En Route (LOS) VHF SECOMP Net. The airborne commander uses this
net to relay instructions and updates to subordinates in other aircraft. (Figure
10-3.) Supporting communications personnel install, operate, and maintain it.
Although it is a secure net, the enemy may still detect transmissions
Therefore, either US Army or USAF commanders can impose listening
silence restrictions, mainly during penetration. The airborne commander’s
aircraft acts as the net control station.

Figure 10-3. En route (LOS) VHF SECOMP net.

d. En Route TACSAT Net. Supporting communications units install,

operate, and maintain this net; operators and equipment remain on the
aircraft. (Figure 10-4.) The secure TACSAT net links the airborne force
commander, airborne rear CP (which acts as NCS), ABCCC, and JAAP. This
allows rapid adjustments and implementation of alternate plans that result
from last-minute intelligence or combat information. Airborne elements can
practice listening silence LRSU/JAAP and rear CP elements can employ
blind transmissions to provide situation updates. To ensure that this net
remains operational, at least two aircraft in the formation must have
TACSAT capability. If ground aborts occur, the airborne commander can
move to the second aircraft as part of the bump plan. If an air abort or
communications malfunction occurs, the formation still has TACSAT
communication with the objective area and the rear CP.

10-8
 FM 90-26

Figure 10-4. En route TACSAT net.

e. FM Nets. Brigade- and battalion-level TFs employ the following FM nets:

(1) Brigade command net. User stations install, operate, and maintain this
FM-secure net. (Figure 10-5.) The brigade TOC serves as the NCS. This net
can serve as the assault net for the initial phase of the airborne assault.

Figure 10-5. Brigade command net.

10-9
FM 90-26

(2) Brigade operations and intelligence net. Units use this FM-secure net to
pass routine and recurring intelligence reports. (Figure 10-6.)

Figure 10-6. Brigade operations and intelligence net.

(3) Brigade administrative and logistics FM net. The Brigade S4 in the BSA
serves as the NCS for this secure FM net. The net is used to coordinate CSS
during ground operations. (Figure 10-7.)

(4) Battalion task force command net. Users install, operate, and maintain
this FM-secure net, which serves as the assault net for the battalion.
(Figure 10-8.) The TF TOC serves as the NCS.
(5) Battalion task force operations and intelligence net. Scouts, combat and
reconnaissance patrols, and attached MI assets can use this FM-secure net as
a reporting net. (Figure 10-9, page 10-12.) Assets for this net may have to be
allocated from other noncommitted units to provide communications
equipment to units.
(6) Battalion task force administration and logistics net. The unit S4 in the
combat trains serves as the NCS for this secure FM voice net. (Figure 10-10,
page 10-12.) The S4 uses it to coordinate CSS during ground operations.

10-10
 FM 90-26

Figure 10-7. Brigade administration and logistics net.

Figure 10-8. Battalion task force command net.

10-11
FM 90-26

Figure 10-9. Battalion task force operations and intelligence net.

Figure 10-10. Battalion task force administration and logistics net.

10-12
 FM 90-26

f. Special-Purpose Nets. Units employ the following nets for special

purposes connected with the conduct of airborne operations.

(1) Airfield seizure net. This secure net requires standard FM voice
equipment normally handheld. (Figure 10-11.) Units use this net to command
and control the airfield seizure operations during the airborne assault.

Figure 10-11. Airfield seizure net.

(2) Airfield control net. The TOC uses this FM voice net to control and
coordinate airfield activities and airland sortie arrivals. (Figure 10-12, page
10-14.) The element includes at least the S3 air officer, FSO, ADA
officer, and TACP. Optional elements include aviation liaison personnel,
Army ATC personnel, and ANGLICO personnel. Need and communications
availability determine who participates in this net. When feasible, wire
communications should supplement radio communications.

10-13
 FM 90-26

Figure 10-12. Airfield control and coordination net.

(3) Air traffic control net. This net actually includes two nets (UHF and
VHF) for control of fixed- and rotary-wing communications. (Figure 10-13.)
Collocated CCT/ATC elements act as the NCS for this net.

Figure 10-13. Air traffic control net.

10-14
 FM 90-26

(4) JTF TACSAT VHF voice net. This net interfaces TACSAT to FM. It
allows the ground commander to talk to the JTF commander, the ISB, R&S
forces, or other units via FM radio. (Figure 10-14.) This arrangement
provides the advantages of TACSAT range and FM radio mobility. The JTF
operations center serves as the NCS. Supporting communications units
install, operate, and maintain this system. Planning for employment must
include a TACSAT-to-FM interface frequency.

Figure 10-14. JTF TACSAT VHF voice net.

(5) JTF TACSAT VHF data net. This net provides facsimile support to
elements of the JTF by rapidly transmitting plans, orders, and overlays.
(Figure 10-15, page 10-16.) Supporting communications units install, operate,
and maintain it. The JTF operations center functions as the NCS.

10-15
FM 90-26

Figure 10-15. JTF TACSAT VHF data net.

(6) Brigade radio teletypewriter net. Units employ this RATT net to send
hard-copy messages for long distances without reliance on SATCOM assets.
(Figure 10-16.) Along with IHF radios, it serves as a SATCOM backup
system.

Figure 10-16. Brigade RATT net.

10-16
 FM 90-26

10-5. TECHNIQUES
The C 2 communications techniques depend on the communications
equipment, which depends on the type, size, and mission of the unit.

a. Initial Radio Communications. Airborne units committed by parachute

depend on lightweight, two-way radios; visual communications; and
messengers. They can use TACSAT to send messages back to the rear
echelon. The dispersion of landing forces and the quick action required for
success on landing make communications difficult to establish and maintain.

b. Reinforced Radio Communications. Units can airdrop extra wire and

radios and other communications equipment mounted on vehicles. The value
of the vehicular-mounted radios in airborne operations lie in the unit’s
mobility-CPs and units are moving during the initial phase of an airborne
operation. Units can also use longer-range vehicular-mounted radios to
communicate with CAS and airlift aircraft; elements of the land, sea, or air
LOC; and the rear support base. COMSEC is crucial, and units must train
and rehearse regularly to maintain COMSEC.

c. Wire Communications. In the initial phases of the airborne operation,

units seldom use wire communication because of the weight of materiel, the
time needed for initial installation, distances involved, and the rapid initial
movement off the DZ. As the situation stabilizes, units lay telephone wire
between CPs and within units. Sometimes, units can use local
communications systems that have been seized. To reduce the length of wire
circuits, commanders locate CPs as near to subordinate units as conditions
permit.

d. Messengers. Units use messengers often to carry documents, maps,

photographs, and code books. Leaders must ensure messengers know their
destinations and routes. Efficient messenger service requires intelligent,
well-trained, resourceful personnel.

e. Miscellaneous Communications. Other forms of communications that

can be used are panels, pyrotechnics, sound and visual signals, and code
words.

(1) Units can use air-ground recognition panels extensively. Planned codes
should always provide for-
• Unit identification.
• Location of friendly soldiers and installations.
• Target designation.
• A simple method of requesting supplies.

(2) Units can use pyrotechnics as a supplementary means for communicating

with aircraft, adjusting artillery, designating targets, and marking bomb lines.
(3) Because airborne operations require precise timing and are normally
executed in phases, units can develop code words for execution of tasks.
When arranged in a desired sequence, this execution checklist performs two
functions: units can use code words to report critical events or tasks when

10-17
FM 90-26

they occur or are executed; and they can schedule reporting (due to events)
to occur during the operation (enemy contact, mission abort, and so on).
Units can use this technique to preserve radio listening silence. Tailoring
execution checklists to unit requirements by certain elements aids
memorization and prevents compromising the information.

10-6. AIRSPACE CONTROL

The joint force commander usually assigns overall responsibility for airspace
control to the USAF component commander. The airspace control authority
works through the Army Air Traffic Control Center and controls all aircraft
operating in the designated airspace until completion of the airborne
operation. This includes centralized control in the objective area as required
by airlift/airborne concepts; it covers operations dispersed from air facilities
over multiple routes with simultaneous operations at several DZs/LZs.
USAF, Army aviation, and air defense units all participate in airborne
operations by closely coordinating in their operations with the commander
who controls the airspace. Brigade and battalion commanders must be
prepared to manage this airspace with organic, assigned, and attached
personnel and equipment until dedicated USAF personnel arrive and assume
the responsibility. They may be reinforced with assets from corps and from
the USAF to assist with this responsibility. (See FM 100-28, FM 100-42, and
FM 100-103.)

10-7. ELECTRONIC WARFARE PLANNING

The need for air superiority in an airborne operation requires disrupting or
destroying the enemy air force and air defenses so they cannot interfere with
the operation. US Army and USAF EW assets aid in this process. The JTF
commander or a designated component commander, has other dedicated
assets. Commanders within a joint force have many resources that can satisfy
their EW requirements. The information derived from all EW assets within
the JTF must be available to its elements as quickly as possible.

a. Staff Responsibilities. All staff elements must coordinate to ensure a

well-organized command and a successful operation. Commanders structure
staffs to ensure the integrated application of intelligence, firepower,
deception, OPSEC, logistics, and other staff functions. Rapid improvements
in warfare technology require commanders to stress the integration of
protective countermeasures such as EW.

(1) The intelligence staff offers recommendations to the command. The

operations staff is responsible for operations to include applying ECM,
firepower, deception, and OPSEC.
(2) The brigade or battalion commander is responsible for EW support
within his command. He can assign this job to an existing staff element (S2),
the signal officer, or a component element of the division that supports the
assault force.

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 FM 90-26

(3) Tactical units, brigade and below, request information from, or forward
information directly to, subordinate tactical commands at the same time they
forward it to higher commands.
b. Support Requests. The S3 coordinates EW support for the land battle.
For conventional ground operations, he does this through the division G3.
The G3 sets the priority for requests and forwards them to the appropriate
agency based on the urgency of the request (planned or immediate) and on
the assets available.

(1) Predeployment. Requests for EW support while planning for the

airborne operation usually follow conventional lines. Units send requests
through operations channels to the G3.
(2) En Route. Requests for EW support en route are the responsibility of
the AMC. Immediate requests usually relate to adjustments needed to aid
penetration of enemy airspace. These measures include counterair and
JSEAD. The AMC commands and controls EW assets through an EW
weapons controller located on the ABCCC. (Figure 10-17.)
(3) Objective Area Support. Once the airborne force seizes the airhead, they
can relay requests for preplanned Air Force EW support back to ARFOR for
tasking. Air Force channels (TACP) handle immediate requests similar to
immediate CAS requests. The ABCCC, however, is the processing and
tasking agency for these requests in its role as airborne TACC/ASOC.

Figure 10-17. ABCCC control of EW assets.

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 This appendix implements STANAG 3570/ASCC 44/13G

APPENDIX A

JOINT AIRBORNE ADVANCE PARTY

Terminal guidance aids and control measures are used on the ground in
the objective area to assist and guide incoming airlift aircraft to the
designated DZs/LZs. Combat control teams comprised of Air Force
personnel are organized, trained, and equipped to provide aircraft terminal
guidance. Army teams from the LRSU, a divisional asset, are organized,
trained, and equipped to deploy into the objective area and conduct R&S
operations before the deployment of the airborne force. The combination of
the CCT and LRS teams is known as the JAAP.

Section I. COMBAT CONTROL TEAM AND

LONG-RANGE SURVEILLANCE UNIT

A-1 . EMPLOYMENT
The CCT’s mission is to locate, identify, and mark the DZ/LZ and to establish
and operate navigational aids and ATC communications. This assists and
guides airlift aircraft to the appropriate DZ/LZ. Long-range surveillance
teams place under surveillance one or two NAI in the objective area. They
observe and report to the ground force commander. One of the assigned NAI
are usually the main body DZ/FLS.

A-2. DEPLOYMENT

The ground force commander develops plans to deploy the CCT and LRS
teams during the planning stage of an airborne operation. Because of the risk
of compromise in deploying teams into the objective area before the assault
phase, the timing for employment and method of delivery is determined
jointly by the airborne and airlift commanders. They consider the
requirement for CCTs to be fully operational in minimum time after reaching
the DZ/LZ. This allows navigational, identification, and directional aids to be

A-1
FM 90-26

available for the maximum number of aircraft. Early deployment of the LRS
teams is also critical so that detailed and accurate information can be
assembled and passed to the ground force commander.

a. The CCT and LRS teams can be delivered to the objective area by the
following methods:
(1) Airdropped using static line or military free-fall parachuting techniques
(HALO, HAHO) in advance of the airborne assault.
(2) Airlanded using STOL or rotary-wing aircraft in advance of the airborne
assault.
(3) Airdropped or airlanded in the lead serial.
(4) Deployed over land by infiltration or other deceptive means.

(5) Deployed by submarine or small-surface craft.

(6) A combination of any of the above.
b. HALO is the preferred method of deployment for the JAAP. Insertion
occurs about 24 hours before the insertion of the main airborne force.
c. The organization for deployment depends on the size of the CCT, the
number of LRS teams, and the equipment to be deployed. Necessary airlift
for the JAAP is from aircraft allocated to the Army airborne units.
d. The elements of the JAAP may operate independently in the objective
area, or they may operate out of the same patrol base. They always remain in
communication and conduct linkup immediately before the airborne assault
to exchange information and report. Security of the JAAP is provided
through stealth.
e. Unit integrity must be maintained if the JAAP is deployed with the main
body. For airborne operations, they must be deployed with their equipment in
a lead aircraft toward the front of the stick. In airland operations, allocate the
JAAP and their equipment space in a lead aircraft to put required
navigational and control facilities on the ground as soon as possible.

A-3. COMBAT CONTROL TEAM MISSION

The CCT’s mission is to quickly establish assault zones (DZs/LZs) in austere
and nonpermissive environments. The mission includes initially placing en
route and terminal navigational aids; controlling air traffic; providing
communications; and removing obstacles and unexploded ordnance with
demolitions.

A-4. COMBAT CONTROL TEAM FUNCTIONS

For each tactical airlift mission involving the use of an assault DZ/LZ/EZ, a
CCT performs the functions described below.

a. Formulates and issues ATC clearance, instructions, and advisories to

effect safe, expeditious movement of air traffic in the assault zone area of
responsibility.

A-2
 FM 90-26

b. Establishes an airport traffic area around each assault zone and controls
all air traffic within this area under visual and instrument flight rules to
include conventional approach control functions.
c. Relays advice and information to inbound aircraft about conditions in
DZ/LZ/EZ areas that can have an impact on mission accomplishment. This
includes any information deemed necessary to assist in guiding the inbound
aircraft to the objective.
d. Develops terminal instrument procedures for assault zones.
e. Provides and operates navigational aids to support airlift operations that
are not supported by a combat communications group or other agency.
f. Marks the assault zone. Army/Navy unconventional warfare forces employ
a receiving unit on the ground to provide terminal guidance. A CCT is usually
not required. Unconventional warfare forces use only the ground mark
release system.
g. Removes obstacles and unexploded ordnance from assault zones.
h. Provides limited weather information and observation.
i. Establishes ground-to-air and point-to-point communications. For each
mission, the CCT can establish any or all of the following communications
nets:
(1) UHF/AM. Ground-to-air communications for the control of air traffic.
(2) VHF/AM. Ground-to-air communications for the control of air traffic.
(3) VHF/FM. Primary point-to-point communications with the CCT for
intrateam It is also used as point-to-point communications between CCTs
and other agencies within an objective area (such as LRS teams, FDC,
medical personnel) or as an alternate ground-to-air communications
capability with Army and allied aircraft.
(4) HF/SSB, ground-to-air long-range communications net. This net can be
used to control air traffic.
(5) HF/SSB, point-to-point. This communications net is used by CCTs,
ALCC, TALO, and ALCE for the of the airlift forces.
(6) SATCOM, point-to-point. This communications net is used for like
the HF/SSB point-to-point net.
j. Enters the objective area by the most feasible means in a combat situation.
k. Selects or assists in selecting sites for assault zones and recovery zones.
l. Gathers current ground intelligence data in the objective area, and
coordinates with intelligence representatives to ensure the timely exchange of
data.
m. Coordinates with Army and Air Force medical personnel on casualty and
patient staging points.
n. In the absence of an ALCE, performs limited ALCE duties when directed
by the airlift commander.

A-3
FM 90-26

o. Records statistical data concerning airland extraction and airdrop

operations, including circular error and short field landing assessment.
p. Due to its unique qualifications, also functions in related tactical
operations such as special missions, combat search and rescue, USAF special
operations, and forward air guide duties.

A-5. COMBAT CONTROL TEAM ORGANIZATION

The Air Force assigns combat control teams to MAC. MAC numbered air
forces task CCTs to support joint airborne operations and training exercises,
surveys, and other higher headquarters requirements. Each team consists of
Air Force parachutists trained and equipped for mobile operations. A
standard team is composed of 2 officers and 24 enlisted men; however, a
commander may tailor manning authorizations as required. If a tactical
situation does not warrant the use of an entire team, it is task-organized into
smaller elements for simultaneous operation of DZs, LZs, or EZs.

A-6. ARMY LONG-RANGE SURVEILLANCE TEAM MISSION

The Army LRS team in the airborne assault conducts R&S operations on one
or two NAI in the objective area. The team also observes and reports on the
status of the DZ/FLS. All reports are made to the ground force commander
over long-range, man-portable communications systems.

A-7. ARMY LONG-RANGE SURVEILLANCE TEAM FUNCTIONS

On notification of impending deployment into an objective area, LRS teams
can perform any of the following functions:

a. One or two days before the insertion, LRS teams to be deployed to isolate
with the CCT, receive an OPORD, and conduct mission planning.
b. Perform static line or HALO parachute operations to insert into the
objective area.
c. Conduct surveillance operations on assigned NAI-for example, road
intersections, bridges, main supply route in the objective area, enemy
nodes, helicopter LZs. The main assault force DZ will be treated as a named
area of interest.
d. Conduct surveillance of enemy high-value targets.
e. Conduct forward area limited observation program to provide limited
weather and terrain information to the commander.
f. Establish communications with friendly forces in the objective area with
the TF commander at the home station. For each mission, the LRS team can
establish any or all of the following communications nets:
(1) URC-101 tactical satellite communications. Used to report to the TF
commander en route to the objective area.
(2) PSC-3 data burst high-frequency transmission device. Used to send LRS
SPOTREPs to the home station from the objective area.
(3) PRC-104 long-range high frequency. Used by the teams to report back to
the base station in the objective area.

A-4
 FM 90-26

(4) PRC-77/126 FM radios. Used for communications within the team and
with other agencies in the objective area.
g. Other potential missions as directed by the commander to include:
(1) Conduct radiological/chemical surveys of the objective area before the
main body deploys.
(2) Emplace remote sensors, guidance beacons, or jamming equipment.
(3) Direct-fire missions for artillery and NGF.
(4) Conduct pathfinder operations as necessary to support airborne/air
assault operations.
(5) Conduct damage assessment and NBC-1 report in the AO.
(6) Conduct linkup operations with conventional and unconventional friendly
forces in the objective area.
(7) Assess indigenous communications systems for possible future friendly
use.
(8) Collect information through eavesdropping and wiretapping.

A-8. ARMY LONG-RANGE SURVEILLANCE TEAM ORGANIZATION

The LRSU in the airborne division consists of six teams of six men each. The
team leader is a SSG; his assistant is a SGT. There are three SP4
scout/observers and one PFC RATELO. All members of the team carry the
basic infantry MOS and are required to be parachute qualified. The team
leader is coded as an airborne ranger. A TF may employ from one to six LRS
teams in the assault with two to three teams being the norm.

Section Il. DROP ZONES

The selection and marking of DZs to support the airborne operation is a
critical event in the planning stages and supports the ground tactical plan.
The DZs must be large enough to accommodate the required number of
personnel and equipment to be delivered by airdrop and must be identifiable
from the air to prevent a disintegration of the unit as a result of dispersion on
the ground.

A-9. DROP ZONE CRITERIA/SELECTION

Drop zone criteria/selection is the joint responsibility of the COMALF and
the commander of the forces being supported. In accordance with AF
Regulation 3-1, DZs are measured in yards when working with Air Force
aircraft. They are measured in meters when working with Army aircraft.

a. Personnel From Single Aircraft. The minimum size DZ for one

parachutist from a single aircraft is 600 yards wide and 600 yards long. For
each added parachutist, 75 yards is added to the length. For example, to find
the minimum DZ for a 20-man stick from a single aircraft, the calculation is
as follows:

A-5
FM 90-26

Length for one man = 600 yards

Length for 19 additional men = 19 X 75 = 1,425 yards
Length for 20 men = 600 + 1,425 = 2,025 yards
For unilateral CCT operations or training, the 75-yard increment allowed for
each additional parachutist can be computed from the point of impact rather
than added to the total length of the minimum size DZ for one man.

b. Equipment From a Single Aircraft. The minimum DZ is 600 yards by

1,000 yards for a drop of one heavy equipment platform from a single aircraft.
For each other platform, 400 yards is added to the DZ length. (For C-141
aircraft, 500 yards is added to the minimum length for each added platform.)
c. Multiple Points of Impact. To meet specific operational requirements,
multiple points of impact are authorized if the drop personnel have been
properly prebriefed. If the points are placed laterally, the width must be
increased accordingly. (This manner of placement reduces the amount of
wake turbulence across the DZ.)
d. HALO/HAHO Personnel. The size of the DZ varies with the number of
personnel to be dropped, their proficiency, the exit altitude, and wind. The
CCT leader determines the suitability of a DZ for a HALO/HAHO jump.
The CCT leader should be a qualified HALO/HAHO jumpmastcr, or a
member of the JAAP should be qualified to give advice about the DZ criteria.
DZ suitability criteria arc identical for HALO and HAHO operations.
e. Container Delivery System. The minimum sizes of CDS DZs depend on
three factors: the drop altitude, the number of bundles being dropped, and
the number and type of aircraft. Tables A-1 provides the minimum DZ sizes
consistent with these factors.

f. AWADS Formation SKE Procedures. The DZ width is increased by 400

yards.
g. Limited Visibility and Visual Formation Procedures. The DZ width is
increased by 100 yards (50 yards on each side of the DZ centerline).
h. Instrument Meteorological Conditions Airdrops. When airdrops are
conducted during instrument conditions, ceiling and visibility minimums must
be enforced for Army personnel training drops. A 200-foot AGL minimum
ceiling is required. For Air Force training, a 300-foot ceiling and 1/2 mile
visibility are required for personnel and equipment. For combat, ceiling and
visibility minimums are zero/zero. For joint exercises, AF personnel are
authorized to use Army minimums. When the ceiling is less than a 600-foot
AGL, all personnel, including CCTs, are cleared from the DZ no later than
five minutes before the airdrop TOT. They remain clear until completion of
the drop(s).
i. DZ Selection Criteria. Some DZs are selected to support highly mobile
ground forces, but are not surveyed. Drop zone size is determined by mode of
delivery, actual load dispersal statistics, and personal knowledge. Recovery of
air items and air load are considered, For example, small trees covering the
entire DZ might limit recovery of air items but allow 100 percent recovery of
the air loads.

A-6
 FM 90-26.

Table A-1. High-velocity/delayed-opening CDS DZ sizes.

j. Area DZs. An area DZ comprises a planned flight track over a series of

acceptable drop sites (1/2 nautical mile either side of track). This establishes
a line of flight between points A and B. The distance between A and B should
not exceed 15 NMs with a change in elevation of no more than 300 feet. The
CCT or special operations reception committee is free to receive the drop at
any location along the line of flight between points A and B. The selected DZ
is marked by a beacon, prebriefed block letter, or GMRS.
k. Circular/Random Approach DZs. A circular DZ has multiple run-in
headings. The size of the DZ is governed by mission requirements and
useable terrain. A verbally-initiated release system can be used with no
markings.

A-10. DROP ZONE MARKINGS (DAY)

Drop zones will not normally be marked for combat drops unless the CCT or
pathfinder teams have been inserted before H-Hour. Daylight markings must
be established and understood by all participants. (Figure A-1, see page A-8.)

a. Timing Points. For day VFR airdrop operations, the timing points are not
marked. The lead navigator selects the timing point, which is usually a
prominent terrain feature. In the absence of such a feature, two timing points
can be selected (before employment, if possible) and marked by the CCT. If
terrain allows, these points are an equal distance from the extended
centerline of the DZ; no more than 1,300 yards before the point of impact,
and between 300 and 350 yards on either side of the centerline (350 yards
minimum for C-141).
b. Point of Impact. For computed air release point drops, except AWADS,
the PI is marked with raised-angle markers or colored panels placed flat on
the surface. These panels form a block letter a minimum of 35 feet by 35 feet;
the only authorized letters are A, C, J, R, and S. (See MAC Regulation
55-130 for suggested circular/random approach DZ markings.) The letters H

A-7
FM 90-26

and O are authorized for circular DZs. Smoke (other than red) can be
displayed adjacent to and downwind of the letter identifier to assist in visual
acquisition of the DZ and to indicate the surface wind direction. For CDS
drops, smoke should be displayed 150 yards before the PI (six o’clock
position). The PI is not marked for AWADS drops nor will smoke be
displaced other than red smoke.
c. Trailing Edge. The trailing edge of the DZ is not marked for daylight
operations.
d. Red Smoke Flare Light. Red smoke flare lights on the DZ indicate a
no-drop.

e. Signals Other Than Red. Smoke/flares/lights other than red on the DZ

indicate clearance to drop.
f. No Smoke. When smoke is not displayed, a prebriefed signal displayed at
the PI or a radio call from the CCT (or designated reception party) is
clearance to drop.
g. Emergency Signals. Communications security permitting, visual signals
should be confirmed by radio instructions to the aircrews. Temporary closing
of the DZ or temporary postponement of the airdrop is indicated by forming
the letter identifier into two parallel bars; they are placed perpendicular to
the line of flight. An emergency no-drop or drop cancellation is indicated by
red smoke/flares/lights or by forming the letter identifier into the letter X.

Figure A-1. Drop zone markings (day).

A-8
 FM 90-26

A-11. DROP ZONE MARKINGS (NIGHT)

Assembly of personnel and equipment at night on an unfamiliar and hostile
DZ maybe the most difficult task an airborne force must do. The marking of
the DZ can be done using the same techniques discussed for daylight DZ
marking. However, the uncertainty and confusion that is inherent with a night
drop must be considered. (Figure A-2).

Figure A-2. Drop zone markings (night).

a. Timing Points. For night operations, timing points are marked (if the
tactical situation permits). If terrain allows, these points should be an equal
distance from the extended centerline of the DZ, but not further than 1,300
yards before the point of impact. The timing points should be between 300
yards and 350 yards (minimum 350 yards for C-141) from either side of the
centerline. Each timing point is marked with a green rotating beacon.
b. Point of Impact. The PI is not marked for AWADS drops. If the hostile
environment permits, the PI for VFR airdrops is marked with a minimum of
nine white omnidirectional lights placed to form a block letter that is a
minimum size of 35 feet by 35 feet. The only authorized letters are A, C, J, R,
and S. The letters H and O are authorized for circular DZs. When more than
one DZ is in the area, a different letter must be used on each. Besides the
block letter, white ATC lights or flares are displayed on the PI. For CDS

A-9
FM 90-26

airdrops, the white ATC lights or flares are displayed 150 yards from the PI at
the 6 o’clock position.
c. Trailing Edge. An amber rotating beacon is placed on the centerline axis
of the DZ at the trailing edge (if the tactical situation allows).
d. Emergency Signals. A no-drop condition is indicated by a red beam from
the ATC lights and flares. During unilateral training operations, the absence
of prebriefed DZ markings indicates a no-drop situation. A cancelled mission
is indicated by making the block letter into an X.

Section III. LANDING ZONE OPERATIONS

Airfield criteria to be used in a specific theater of operations are based on
local conditions and determined by Army and Air Force staff engineers
acting for the joint force commander.

A-12. LANDING ZONE CLASSIFICATION

The following general data are intended to relate the Army airfield
classification system to the Air Force classification system. The correlation of
these airfields cannot be exact; specifications depend on operating gross
loads, use of aircraft arresting equipment, and criteria for the particular
instrument approach planned, as well as the model and type of aircraft. Air
Force airfields are constructed to standards that indicate the expected life of
the airfield. Expedient airfields arc those surfaced with membrane, landing
mat, or both. Airfields intended for longer use are of semipermanent
construction and conform to the full operational standards of the theater of
operations. Pavement standards are usually upgraded by using conventional
asphaltic or portland cement concrete. They are constructed to the required
thickness for extended use.

a. Assault Zone. This is an unsurfaced landing area, usually clay or

compacted soil, which meets the following criteria:

(1) It is in uncontrolled airspace with no terminal ATC available,

(2) It is not published in IFR/VFR supplements.
(3) It is 3,500 feet or less in length.
(4) It is surveyed by a CCT.
Requests for CCTs to perform assault zone surveys are evaluated by MAC
NAF CCT staff agencies on an individual basis. For example, the zone can be
longer than 3,500 feet, paved, and require a CCT survey. Combat control
teams are not qualified to perform engineering surveys and, therefore, do not
survey sites for anticipated DZ construction.

b. Expeditionary Zone. This zone is surfaced with membrane, landing mat,

or both. It is usually surveyed by Army or Air Force engineers. Combat
control teams can conduct surveys of this type of airfield but require
assistance from engineering personnel to determine the weight-bearing
capacity of the landing surface

A-10
 FM 90-26

c. Semipermanent/Permanent Zone. This is surfaced with asphalt or

cement. It is usually surveyed by engineering units but can be surveyed by a
CCT. Air Force survey teams may consist of an ALCC/ALCE commander or
representative, a flight safety officer, a pavement evaluation engineer, and
flight facilities personnel. CCTs can be tasked by the COMALF to conduct
reconnaissance reports of captured enemy airfields of this type.

A-13. MARKINGS AND IDENTIFICATION

Specific details concerning the type and location of LZ markings as well as
airfield identification procedures are agreed on at joint planning conferences.
(Figure A-3, see page A-12.) Existing international agreements are
considered. This information is a special subject at the final briefing to ensure
all required ground and aircrew members understand the LZ recognition and
identification procedures.

a. Airfield Markings. Landing zones are designated with conventional

markings. The figures in this appendix pertaining to LZs reflect landings in
only one direction. When landings can be expected at both ends of the LZ,
the first 500 feet at each end are marked as the approach end. The COMALF
directs the establishment of required communications and NAVAIDS. These
communications and NAVAIDS are usually provided from within CCT
resources during transitory operations.
b. Control Point Location. The control point should be located so the entire
length of the landing, taxiing, and parking areas are in full view of the
controllers. It should be upwind of the landing area so the dust and debris
that rises from an unimproved landing strip dots not obscure the vision of the
controllers.

A-14. DAY OPERATIONS

The usable landing area is marked with vertically mounted VS-17 panels.
Orange panels are placed only at the approach end; all other panels arc
cerise. The appropriate airlift commander reduces the panel markings to the
approach end, touchdown area, and end of runway on well-defined runways
during day VMC operations. The taxiways and ramp areas are not marked for
daylight operations. For emergency signals, either a red flare or red light
beam denotes a go-around. The ATC light gun is aimed directly at the pilot.

NOTE: All marker panels are erected vertically to enable the

pilot to readily observe the markings when the aircraft is on the
final approach. At the discretion of the mission commander, the
panel markers can be erected to provide for landing in the
opposite direction by folding the panels in half.

A-15. NIGHT OPERATIONS

The usable landing area must be marked with portable lights (or suitable
substitutes). (Figure A-4, see page A-13.) Six green lights are placed at the
approach end-three on each side (about 6 feet apart). Four red lights are
placed at the departure end of the runway–two on each side (about 6 feet
apart). All other runway lights are white. Reflectors can be used to
supplement the lights.

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FM 90-26

Figure A-3. Landing zone markings (day).

a. Loading and Taxiing Areas. Loading and taxiing areas are marked as
determined during mission planning. Suitable lights with blue lenses are used;
they are placed 500 feet apart on straight parts of the areas. When possible,
reflectors are placed halfway between the blue lights. Light spacing can be
reduced to 75 feet on curves and at corners or intersections.
b. Visual Aids. Visual aids such as strobe lights, rotating beacons, or others
may be needed. When strobe lights are used, they are placed 100 feet apart
on the extended runway centerline. The light closest to the LZ should be

A-12
 FM 90-26

placed at the outer edge of the overrun. The rotating beacon and other visual
aids are positioned as determined during mission planning.

Figure A-4. Minimum landing zone markings (night).

Section IV. LOW-ALTITUDE PARACHUTE

EXTRACTION SYSTEM
Sustained ground operations after a successful airborne assault may depend
on resupply by means other than airlanding of supplies and follow-on forces.
A primary means of resupply is the low altitude parachute extraction system.
LAPES is a low-altitude method of aerial delivery. This system employs a
15-foot drogue parachute deployed behind the aircraft and attached to a

A-13
FM 90-26

towplate on the aircraft ramp. At the release point, the parachute forces are
transferred from the twoplate to the ring slot main extraction parachute(s),
which then extracts single or tandem platforms from the aircraft. Ground
friction decelerates the load. The total distance from release to stopping
point of the load depends on ground speed, size, number of extractions
parachutes, weight of the load(s), and the type of terrain. Using LAPES with
tandem platforms, loads up to 37,175 pounds can be delivered into a small
EZ. Since proper site selection for the EZ depends on a variety of conditions,
specific criteria to ensure safety must be used in physically locating the EZ.
(Figure A-5.)

A-16. EXTRACTION ZONE CRITERIA AND MARKINGS FOR LAPES

(DAY OPERATIONS)
The impact/slide-out zone should be clear of obstructions and relatively flat,
but it can contain grass; dirt; sand; short, light brush; or snow.

a. The approach zone on the leading edge of the impact/slide-out zone

should consist of two 400 foot zones (800 feet in total length).
(1) The 400-foot zone nearest the impact/slide-out zone can be a graduated
slope. It can slope from a maximum of 1 foot at the leading edge of the
impact/slide-out zone to 12 feet at the farthest end from the impact/slide-out
zone.

(2) The next 400-foot zone can be a graduated slope from a maximum of 12
feet at the inner edge to a maximum of 50 feet at the farthest end.
(3) The inner portion of the approach zone must be clear enough so the
impact panels are visible. Because of the steep aircraft approach, the
approach zone slope must not exceed a 15:1 ratio.
b. The clear area can be a maximum of 1 foot high adjacent to the
impact/slide-out zone, sloping upward to 2 feet at the outer edge.

c. The lateral safety zone can be a graduated slope with obstacles limited to a
maximum of 2 feet at the inner edge to 12 feet at the outer edge.
d. The climb-out zone should contain no obstructions that would prevent a
loaded aircraft from maintaining normal obstacle clearance climb rate after
an inadvertent touchdown, delivery abort, or extraction malfunction.

A-17. EXTRACTION ZONE CRITERIA AND MARKINGS FOR LAPES

(NIGHT OPERATIONS)

The impact/slide-out zone should be clear of obstructions and relatively flat

but can contain grass; dirt; sand; short, light brush; or snow. (Figure A-6, see
page A-16.)

a. The approach zone on the leading edge of the impact/slide-out zone

should consist of two zones: one 600 feet in length and the other 1,000 feet in
length (1,600 feet total length).

(1) The 600-foot zone nearest the impact/slide-out zone should be a level
area.

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 FM 90-26

(2) The next 1,000-foot zone can be graduated from a maximum of 1 foot at
the inner edge to a maximum of 12 feet at the farthest end.
(3) The entire approach zone must be clear so approach zone and impact
area lights are visible to the aircraft.
b. The clear area and lateral safety zone are the same as for daylight
operations.

Figure A-5. LAPES zone markings and criteria.

A-18. EXTRACTION ZONE CRITERIA AND MARKINGS FOR LAPES

(MULTIPLE OPERATIONS)
Lane dimensions for multiple LAPES operations are the same as for single
operations. When establishing two or more lanes, only the right side of the
lane is marked. If available, radar reflectors are placed at the trailing edge of
the first and last lanes. (Figure A-7, see page A-17.) When possible,
additional lanes are staggered 100 feet down from lane one. However,
additional lanes can be established side by side beginning at the same parallel
starting point. There are always 150 feet between lane centerlines. Extraction
lanes are designated in numerical sequence from left to right. The left lane in
direction of flight is designated as lane one. The lead aircraft extracts on the
downwind lane. Normally, aircraft spacing is either 10 seconds or 1 minute.

A-15
FM 90-26

Figure A-6. LAPES night zone marking.

A-16
 FM 90-26

Figure A-7. Multiple LAPES zone markings.

A-17
 APPENDIX B

DROP ZONE SUPPORT TEAMS

This appendix outlines the requirements for US Army DZ support teams to

support tactical airdrop operations. It will be used to develop
implementation plans for assuming DZ support responsibilities. US Army
DZSTs will support unit airdrops of personnel, equipment, and CDS in
single-ship and formation-type airdrops. With some exceptions, these
airdrops are limited to day/night visual conditions. MAC Regulation 3-3
governs the operation of Air Force CCT efforts. Many of the requirements of
MAC Regulation 3-3 also apply to US Army DZST operations. (When
referring to MAC Regulation 3-3, DZSTs must ensure that their copy is
current.)

B-1. DROP ZONE SUPPORT TEAM LEADER DUTIES

The DZSTL represents both the airlift commander and the ground forces
commander. He has overall responsibility for the conduct of operations on
the DZ.

a. Considering flight safety as well as ground safety, the DZSTL coordinates

closely with the DZ safety officer to observe and evaluate all factors that
could adversely affect the safety of the airdrop operation. If radio contact is
possible, the DZSTL will pass surface wind information and limited weather
observations to inbound aircraft and units, as required. When radio
contact is not possible, the DZSTL must ensure DZ markings are properly
displayed as prebriefed to convey the appropriate message to aircrews. The
DZST must have radio contact with the drop aircraft for IMC/AWADS
drops.

b. The DZSTL must also evaluate the condition of the DZ before the drop to
ensure that it is suitable for a safe personnel landing, as well as to ensure that
airdropped equipment can be recovered. The DZSTL places personnel,
vehicles, and support equipment so they are not endangered by the airdrop.
(Possible parachute malfunction should be considered when determining
placement.) He also ensures the DZ is clear of all personnel and equipment
not required to support the airdrop no later than 10 minutes before the
estimated time over target.

c. The DZSTL is responsible for the operation of all visual acquisition aids
and electronic equipment, such as smoke, flares, signal lights, and radios. He
ensures that this equipment is not used by untrained personnel.

B-1
FM 90-26

d. If conditions are not safe for a successful airdrop, the DZSTL uses
prebriefed visual signals or radio communications to ensure that the no-drop
condition is made known to the incoming aircraft.

B-2. COMPOSITION/QUALIFICATIONS OF DROP ZONE SUPPORT

TEAMS
The DZST consists of at least two members. More members maybe required
depending on the complexity of the mission. The senior member of the DZST
functions as the DZSTL and meets the following requirements:

a. He must be an NCO or officer.

b. He must have completed training as a DZST member and satisfy parent

service currency requirements.

c. He must be a qualified and current jumpmaster or an airborne qualified

pathfinder for personnel and heavy equipment drops.

B-3. PREMISSION COORDINATION PROCESS

Premission briefings are vital to the successful accomplishment of any
operation. When possible, all participating members and agencies should
take part in premission coordination and briefing. This allows them to resolve
all conflicts and to ensure all agencies are informed of the details of the
operation.

a. Safety Considerations. The monthly joint airborne/air transportability

training, or appropriate joint exercise planning, conference is the source of
most taskings for missions. Taskings are coordinated as far out as possible to
meet many training requirements.

(1) Add on missions (JA/ATT, special assignment airlift missions, and so on)
outside the normal planning cycle may generate additional taskings.
Requested add-on missions accepted by a MAC airlift unit must be
supported by the requesting unit if a CCT is not available. Add-on mission
requirements are fully documented by message traffic to all concerned units.

(2) After the mission is tasked, the receiving unit coordinates as required
IAW a checklist. (See Figure B-1 for an example.)

b. Operational Responsibilities. Specific responsibilities of the various

personnel involved in the establishment of a DZ are as follows:

(1) The senior combat control representative-

(a) Locates in the ALCC or on the AFSOB.

(b) Coordinates with the G3 Air and the TALO.

(c) Ensures that either a CCT element or a DZST is available to operate

each drop zone.

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 FM 90-26

Figure B-1. Example of DZST/aircrew mission briefing checklist.

B-3
FM 90-26

(d) Coordinates airspace.

(e) Resolves conflicts with other missions.

(f) Adjusts DZ dimensions and headings.

(g) Develops aircraft communications and handoff procedures for each

mission.

(h) Establishes point-to-point radio communications between the DZST and

the ALCC or the AFSOB.

(2) The CCT-

(a) Deploys with the Army airborne and light infantry divisions.

(b) Establishes and operates DZs.

(3) The DZST–

(a) Establishes and operates DZs.

(b) Communicates with the ALCC or the AFSOB.

(c) Maintains the equipment required to operate a DZ.

B-4. EQUIPMENT
The following equipment is required to support DZ operations. It may come
with a CCT, but any unit must have–

• Raised angle marker or VS-17 high-visibility signal panels.

• Smoke (red or green, white, or yellow).
• White light (omnidirectional).
• Signal mirror.
• Binoculars.
• Flare device with red and other colored flares (other than pen-type
survival flares).
• Surface wind measuring device (anemometer).
• Compass.
• Strobe light.
Normally, rehearsals and exercise drops should have every acquisition aid
and safety device available for the airdrop aircraft if the mission scenario
permits. Drops should have the benefit of air-to-ground communications,
PIBAL mean effective wind measurement, ATC light gun, smoke or flares,
and so on, if these items arc available. During contingency or wartime
operations, units may not be able to carry as much airdrop support
equipment. Therefore, it is vital that premission coordination and briefings
thoroughly discuss visual signals (such as drop cancellation, postponement,
authentication procedures).

B-4
 FM 90-26

B-5. DROP ZONE OPERATIONS

Drop zone support team leaders must allow enough time to locate the PI,
establish a DZ heading, locate the control point, and have the DZ operational
at least one hour before the drop. During rehearsals and exercises, the
DZSTL maybe required to evaluate the conditions of DZs that have not been
used for one year or longer. This should be done before a mission is
scheduled to that particular DZ. In such cases, the DZSTL compares data in
the DZ survey form with actual conditions in the DZ and surrounding area.
He ensures that significant changes are properly annotated and discussed
with the aircrew. He also notifies the appropriate MAC NAF of the
differences. The DZSTL must be sensitive to the safety requirements of both
paratroopers and aircraft.

NOTE: It is common for trees to be within the boundaries of any

given DZ. Trees are not always considered DZ obstructions or a
hindrance to recovery operations.

a. During combat operations, DZ criteria and selection is the joint

responsibility of the airlift commander and the ground forces commander.
(For training operations, the minimum DZ sizes are specified in MAC
Regulation 3-3.)

b. Normally, the control point is set up at the PI because this location usually
offers the best view of the DZ and approaching aircraft. If the tactical
condition permits, the DZST may take advantage of this positioning, or he
may locate the control point elsewhere.

(1) For CDS operations, locate the control point 150 yards at 6 o’clock in
relation to the PI and DZ heading (tactical situation permitting).

(2) For all AWADS and station keeping equipment drops, the control point
is off the DZ when the ceiling is less than 600 feet. All personnel are also kept
off the DZ.

c. Drop zone markings for computed air release points are discussed in
Appendix A.

d. Surface wind limitations for training operations are as follows (unless

otherwise established by the airdrop unit’s service):

(1) Thirteen knots for personnel drops (including gusts within 10 minutes of
drop time).

(2) Thirteen knots for equipment without ground-quick disconnects,

(3) Seventeen knots for equipment with ground-quick disconnects.

(4) Twenty knots for CDS drops using G13/14-type parachutes,

B-5
FM 90-26

B-6. PHRASEOLOGY
When radio communication is available to the DZST, it is important for
air-to-ground communications to be brief, concise, and clear to reduce
cockpit distraction. Aircrew members are extremely busy during run in from
the initial point to the DZ and throughout the escape flight path.

NOTE: The DZST must be aware of COMSEC requirements.

All air-to-ground signals must be kept to the absolute minimum.

a. For a no-drop situation, the phrase “no drop, no drop, no drop” must be
transmitted. The reasons for the no drop should be cited at the first
opportunity and the aircraft commander asked what his intentions are. The
aircraft commander may elect to airland, or fly a race track and attempt
another drop. If the DZSTL notices a factor that could affect the safety of the
operation (such as a helicopter transiting low over the DZ while the drop
aircraft is on approach), he should notify the aircraft.

b. If the situation requires minimum radio transmissions, a premission

coordination or briefing may establish a drop clearance call as the only
necessary communication. Few C-130s have FM; however, all are equipped
with UHF/AM and VHF/AM capability. Some using units may have
UHF/VHF radios. This must be discussed at the premission briefing.

B-7. GROUND MARKED RELEASE SYSTEM

The most common type of GMRS DZ establishment uses the inverted “L”
marking system. The ground marked release system places the responsibility
for determining the airdrop release point on the ground party. When the
DZST is tasked to operate the DZ using the GMRS, several factors must be
considered in determining the release point.

a. Forward Throw. Basically, this is the distance along the flight path that an
object or a paratrooper travels from the time of exit from the jump platform
until the parachute canopy fully opens. This allows other natural forces to act
on the load and parachute. Different loads have different forward throw
values.

b. Wind Drift. To determine the distance that an airdropped object travels

under canopy as a result of wind action, use the formula: D = KAV (D =
distance travelled in yards; K = constant value [4.1 for personnel and 2.5 for
equipment]; A = drop altitude in hundreds of feet; and V = wind speed).
Mean effective wind speed should be used, if possible.

c. Panel Placement. The following procedures are used to establish a GMRS

DZ. The placement of the panels is shown in Figure B-2.

(1) Locate the desired PI.

(2) Measure the wind and compute the wind drift using the D = KAV
formula.

B-6
 FM 90-26

(3) From the PI, walk the required distance into the direction of the wind.

(4) From this spot, face the direction of the flight path and pace off the
distance for the forward throw. This establishes the actual release point
overhead.

(5) Turn 90 degrees to the right and pace off 110 yards (100 meters) for the
offset. This is done so the aircraft pilot can look out his left cockpit window
while abeam the release point and see the panels. The corner panel is placed
here. It is best to elevate the panels at a 30- to 45-degree angle for greater
visibility from the air.

(6) The other panels are located as shown in Figure B-2.

(7) Night inverted "L" drops are laid out the same way using
directional/omnidirectional white lights. Small fires, flares, or flashlights may
also be used; however, this should be precoordinated.

Figure B-2. GMRS (inverted "L"pattern).

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FM 90-26

B-8. TACTICAL DROP ZONE ASSESSMENTS

During operations, DZSTs are expected to tactically locate and assess a
potential DZ for follow-on airdrop resupply/reinforcement.

a. Normally, the Air Force CCT would be tasked to accomplish this

reconnaissance-type mission, using the MAC Form 339. When a CCT is
unavailable, a tactical DZ assessment may be made using the following
checklist guidelines:

• Drop zone name or intended call sign.

• Topographical map series and sheet number.
• Recommended approach axis magnetic course.
• Point of impact location (eight-digit grid coordinates).
• Leading edge centerline coordinates (eight-digit UTM).
• Drop zone size in yards/meters.
• Air traffic restrictions/hazards.
• Name of surveyor and unit assigned.
• Recommendation for approval/disapproval (for disapproval state
reason).
• Remarks (include a recommendation for airdrop option CARP,
GMRS, VIRS, or blind drop).
b. Airdrop operations on tactically assessed DZs are made only under the
following conditions:

(1) During training events, the airdrops will be within a military reservation
or on US government leased property.

(2) The supported service accepts responsibility for any damage that occurs
as a result of the airdrop activity.

(3) There must be adequate time for safe, effective planning.

B-9. VERBALLY INITIATED RELEASE SYSTEM

A simple, yet accurate means of ground support of an airdrop operation
involves guiding the aircraft from the ground to the release point via
air-to-ground communications. The DZSTL calculates the release point in
the same way as described for GMRS. He places himself on that release point
and guides the aircraft to a spot directly overhead and radios the aircraft to
release cargo/personnel. The following is a typical scenario:

(Aircraft) L41 - This is Bulldog, over.

(DZST) L41 - authenticate Charlie tango, over.
(Aircraft) L41, Bulldog - Sierra, reporting five minutes, over.
(DZST) Bulldog, L41 - not in sight, continue, over.
After one minute:
(DZST) Bulldog, L41 - In sight, turn left . . . . .
(DZST) (Call sign calls cease) Turn left . . . . .stop turn.

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 FM 90-26

(DZST) Standby (call about five seconds from drop).

(DZST) Execute, execute, execute. L41, out.

NOTE: Direction changes arc given in relation to the direction of

flight. Aircraft will drop on the first call of “execute.”

This airdrop option is not too difficult, especially after the DZST has the
experience of controlling even one drop this way. When executing this option,
the DZSTL could conceal himself in bushes, tall grass, or a fighting position
at the release point.

B-9
 APPENDIX C

AIRLIFT PLANNING FACTORS

A ir transport resources are seldom sufficient to satisfy all demands,

especially in large operations. In planning for airlift, commanders must use
the fewest aircraft needed to complete the task in the required time; they
decide on the use of airborne combat forces in light of continuous planning
at the highest joint headquarters in the field. The allocation of air transport
resources to supported services requires detailed staffing. To reduce the
time required for staffing, planning staffs must have the following data
available:

• The number of aircraft and crews available, by type.

• The payload that the aircraft can carry for the distance that the
operation demands.
• The number and weights of soldiers, weapons, vehicles, equipment,
and supplies in each unit involved.
• The routine maintenance requirements of the deployed force.
• The availability of materiel-handling equipment.
• Any operational limitations such as the maximum number of aircraft
allowed on the ground at any one time (MOG).
• Intelligence on the enemy situation.

Section I. AIRLIFT ESTIMATES

Planning factors presented in this appendix should be used to make rough
estimates of airlift capability. Due to the many variables involved in every
airlift operation, these factors do not universally apply. Instead, they provide
“order of magnitude” estimates. The use of detailed computer simulation
models is encouraged for extensive calculations.

C-1. AIRLIFT CATEGORIES

The following paragraphs provide broad airlift planning factors for peacetime
and wartime operations. Six airlift mission categories are described, although
many airlift aircraft can perform in more than one mission category.

a. Strategic Airlift. Aircraft in this category provide continuous air

movement from CONUS to or between different overseas areas.

C-1
FM 90-26

b. Theater Airlift. These aircraft provide air movement of personnel,

supplies, and equipment on a sustained, selective, or emergency basis to
dispersed sites within a theater of operations.
c. Civil Reserve Air Fleet. Aircraft in this airlift category provide airlift
services during emergencies and contingencies through contractual
arrangements with selected US airlines.
d. Tanker And Cargo Airlift. Aircraft in this category provide about 8
percent of the wartime cargo airlift capability.
e. Aeromedical Airlift. These aircraft move theater casualties to rear area
medical facilities during combat. They support the DOD regional health care
system in peacetime.
f. Operational Support Airlift. Aircraft in this category support the following
Air Force requirements:
• Command and staff movements.
• Aircrew repositioning.
• Medical team moves.
• Intelligence.

C-2. PALLET INFORMATION

The standard 463L pallet is 108 inches wide by 88 inches long, weighs 355
pounds with the restraining nets, and uses 2.25 inches of available aircraft
height. Unless otherwise noted, a 463L pallet is a Type I as defined by
MIL-P-27443 (USAF). After deductions for tie-down equipment, the
remaining usable area on the pallet is 104 inches by 84 inches. When one of
these pallets is loaded to 8 feet (the height allowance for pallet loads), the
space used equals 485 cubic feet. The pallet permits maximum loads,
including wheel loads of 250 psi.

C-3. MAXIMUM PAYLOADS

The size, shape, and density of most payloads rarely permit loading to 100
percent of the maximum payload capacity. Maximum payload data should
not be used for planning. Using average payload data results in more accurate
sorties predictions.

C-4. AVERAGE PAYLOADS

To determine the average payload for bulk cargo, multiply the number of
pallets by the average weight of a pallet. Average bulk payloads are calculated
using 2.3 short tons for each pallet position, including the weight of the pallet.
Oversize and outsize payloads are based on actual loading exercises or output
from the load-generator model.

C-5. AIRCRAFT DIMENSIONAL RESTRICTIONS

The following factors are used in determining the longest single item
dimensional restrictions.

a. The loading entrance cross-section dimensions usually govern the size of

the LSI. (Table C-1.) However, many other factors (such as vehicle ground

C-2
 FM 90-26

clearance, ramp incline approach angle, cargo compartment geometry, the

three dimensional conditions of the cargo, and floor-loading restrictions)
must be considered before conclusive LSI guidance can be provided.

WARNING
WHEN CARGO CLEARANCE IS WITHIN 6 INCHES OF THE
DIMENSIONAL FACTORS GIVEN IN TABLE C-1, DAMAGE TO
THE AIRCRAFT COULD OCCUR DURING LOADING.

Table C-1. Aircraft cargo door dimensions.

b. Regulations require an aisle of about 14 inches on C-130 aircraft because

they do not have catwalks in the cargo compartments. Aircrews use this aisle
to inspect loads and systems while in flight.

C-6. FUEL REQUIREMENTS AND CONSUMPTION

When planning an airlift mission, fuel requirements must be considered.
Aircraft range and payload are greatly affected by a mission’s fuel
requirements. As the distance increases, the fuel requirements increase and
the allowable load decreases. Payloads shown in various figures of this
manual already consider fuel needs. However, these figures usually assume
fuel is available at the offload location. Each aircraft requires a specific fuel
type and has a unique fuel consumption rate. (Table C-2.) Before using the
payload figures in this manual, the planner should ensure that adequate
stocks of the correct fuel exist for refueling the aircraft. If refueling is not
possible at the offload station, potential payloads could be reduced, or
additional en route stops could be required. The payloads generated by
figures in this manual are based on zero wind fuel requirements and are
suitable for general planning. Actual mission payloads would have to be
adjusted to allow for wind factors at the time of the operation.

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FM 90-26

Table C-2. Fuel types and consumption rates.

NOTE: Performance can be affected if alternate grades of fuel

are used.

C-7. AIR REFUELING

The mission planner should never consider more than two air refuelings
unless unusual circumstances exist. When considering air refueling, the
deployment distance divided by three equals the critical leg.

C-8. SPECIAL AIRLIFT DELIVERY MODES

The many variables in determining theater airlift capability make it
impractical to show comprehensive planning factors in a tabular form. To
correctly estimate the airlift capability for specific missions, headquarters
MAC/DOOM can be consulted. Theater airlift missions are developed to
support specific exercises and contingency operations in contrast to
intertheater airlift missions, which operate over established routes.

C-9. AIRFIELD RESTRICTIONS

Each aircraft has specific requirements and restrictions to ensure efficient
operations into diverse airfields worldwide. Airfield size, MOG, weather,
ATC, and navigational facilities all influence the selection of alternate
airfields. Due to the number of variables involved in determining minimum
runway requirements and maximum payloads, an operational decision is
made on a case-by-case basis. Headquarters MAC/DOVF, Scott AFB IL
62225-5001, can be contacted to obtain the most current data on suitable
worldwide airlift airfields.

C-10. MATERIELS-HANDLING EQUIPMENT

The MHE is a family of forklifts, cargo transport loaders, wide-body loaders,
container lift trucks, and associated smaller equipment designed to interface
with the rollerized cargo movement systems in air terminals and on military
aircraft. They are designed to move palletized cargo on standard 88- by
108-inch pallets between the air terminal and cargo aircraft in support of
airlift operations. Materiel-handling equipment is always required at the
departure airfield and at the arrival airfield once airland operations begin.

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 FM 90-26

C-11. MISSION SUPPORT REQUIREMENTS

For many airlift missions, MAC support equipment and personnel are
necessary to ensure the success of the airlift flow. Depending on the size and
specific circumstances of the mission, support can range from small
requirements routed through common MAC bases to large requirements
routed mainly through undeveloped airfields. These airfields have no
capability to receive or process a major airlift flow. While specific planning
factors provide a wide range of possibilities, it is important to recognize the
likelihood that mission support requirements will increase as the movement
requirements increase.

C-12. AEROMEDICAL EVACUATION CAPABILITY

Aeromedical evacuation capability varies significantly by aircraft type. (Table
C-3.) The C-141B is the primary strategic aeromedical evacuation aircraft.
Although other aircraft can be used on an opportune basis to move patients,
the C-130 and C-9A are the primary aircrafts for theater aeromedical
evacuation missions.

a. Assigned aeromedical airlift unit equipment is used to determine the

mount of retrograde airlift for aeromedical evacuation (retrograde airlift is
airlift returning from the area of hostilities).
b. The number of aeromedical evacuation medical crew members required
for strategic evacuation operations is computed on the basis of 50 mission
hours a month and a crew planning factor of 1:25. (one crew member is
planned for each 10 patients. For example, a standard crew complement to
support the C-141 planning factor of 65 patients would be three flight nurses
and four medical technicians.)
c. The number of aeromedical evacuation medical crew members required
for tactical evacuation operations is computed on the basis of 60 mission
hours a month and a crew ratio of 1:25. (A standard crew to support C-130
operations would be two flight nurses and three medical technicians.)
d. Airlift requirements for aeromedical evacuation arc determined by
dividing the number of patients by the patient load factor. (Table C-3.)

C-13. PLANNING FACTORS

Airlift planning factors can be used as source data in a computer simulation
model. They can also be used to estimate how long it would take a given airlift
fleet to deliver (close) a force to a specific location. Section II of this
appendix gives detailed information on each airlift aircraft.

C-14. ESTIMATION OF PAYLOAD DATA

The average payload of an airlift is a basic factor in converting airlift tonnage
requirements into numbers of airlift sorties,

a. Determine the route segment distance.

b. Determine the average payload for each mission. (Table C-4, see page
C-7.)

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FM 90-26

c. Determine the number of missions required using this formula:

Number of Missions Move Requirement (tons)

Required Average Payload (tons/mission)

NOTE: Any fraction of a mission is always rounded up.

Table C-3. Aeromedical airlift capabilities.

C-15. COMPUTATION OF CYCLE TIME

The cycle time of an airlift aircraft can be used to determine the number of
tons a single aircraft can deliver a day. Cycle time can be affected by choke
points in the airlift system such as diplomatic considerations, airfield
availability, weather, and en route support.

a. Determine the block speed for each route segment at peacetime cruise
speeds. Average block speed can be calculated using this formula:

C-6
 FM 90-26

Round Trip Distance

Average Block Speed =
RTFT

b. Determine the RTFT using this formula:

RTFT = (Leg 1 distance) x 2 (Leg 2 distance) x 2
Leg 1 block speed Leg 2 block Speed

c. Determine the TGT using this formula: (Table C-5.)

TGT = Onload Time + En Route Time + Offload Time

d. Determine the cycle time using this formula:

Cycle Time = RTFT + TGT

Table C-4. General airlift planning factors.

C-7
FM 90-26

Table C-5. Average ground times for contingency and exercise

planning.

C-16. DETERMINATION OF CLOSURE

Closure is defined as the total elapsed time from takeoff of the first airlift
mission at the onload base until the last airlift mission lands at the destination
base. The following process provides a closure estimate for moving an
airborne division from Tinker AFB to Cairo. Wartime planning factors apply.
The aircraft allocation is 20 C-5s and 50 C-141s. This example only covers the
cargo requirement; however, the passenger movement could be handled in a
similar manner.

a. Determine the Movement Requirements. The Army estimates the

Airborne Division, pre-positioned at Tinker AFB, has these characteristics:

Outsize Oversize Bulk Total

Tons Tons Tons Tons
500 14,000 500 15,000

Since the movement requirement contains outsize cargo, an outsize capable

aircraft must be included in the airlift allocation.

b. Determine the Aircraft Routing. Many common MAC route segment

distances are available; however, if a specific route segment is not listed, the
planner must use appropriate flight planning documents or compute great
circle distances. These figures are available:

Route Segment Distance (NM)

Tinker - McGuire 1,138

McGuire - Lajes 2,234
Lajes - Cairo 3,154

c. Determine the Average Payload for Each Aircraft Type. The longest route
segment is used to determine the average payload; however, operations into a
field with a short runway could severely limit the payload. Since over 90
percent of the movement requirement consists of oversize cargo, the

C-8
 FM 90-26

“oversize” column should be used to determine average payloads. (Table C-4.)

The 3,500 NM row yields:
C-5 average payload = 65.1 tons
C-141 average payload = 19.6 tons
d. Determine the Cycle Time for Each Aircraft Type. To determine the cycle
time for each aircraft type, the following formulas are used.
(1) Determine block speeds for each aircraft.
Leg C-5 C-141
Distance Block Speed Block Speed
1,138 389 370
2,234 415 394
3,154 427 405

(2) Determine the RTFT for each aircraft type using this formula:

distance leg 1 x 2 + distance leg 2 x 2 + distance leg 3 x 2

RTFT =
block speed block speed block speed
leg 1 leg 2 leg 3

RTFT C-5= 1,138 x 2 + 2,234 x 2 + 3,154 x 2

389 415 427

RTFT C-5 = 5.8 + 10.7 + 14.7 = 31.2 hours.

RTFT C-141 = 1,138 x 2 + 2,234x2 + 3,154x2

370 394 405

RTFT C-141 = 6.0 + 11.0 + 15.2 = 32.2 hours.

(3) Determine the TGT for each aircraft type using this formula (Table C-5):

TGT = Onload Time (Tinker) + En route Time (McGuire) +

En route Time (Lajes) + Offload Time (Cairo) +
En route Time (Lajes)
TGT (C-5) = (2 + 15) + (2 + 15) + (3 + 15) + (3 + 45)
TGT (C-5) = 13 + 45 = 13.75 hours
TGT (C-141) = (2 + 15) + (2 + 15) + (2 + 15) + (2 + 15) + (2 + 15)
TGT (C-141) = 11 + 15 = 11.25 hours
(4) Determine the cycle time for each aircraft type using this formula:

Cycle Time = RTFT + TGT

Cycle Time (C-5) = 31.2 + 13.75 = 44.95 hours
Cycle Time (C-141) = 32.2 + 11.25 = 43.45 hours

C-9
FM 90-26

(5) Determine the tons a day, an aircraft type (T/D/AC) using this formula:

(Average Payload) (24) (Number of Aircraft)

T/D/AC =
Cycle Time

(65.1) (24) (20) = 716.5 tons

T/D/AC (C-5) = 44.95

(19.6) (24) (50) = 654.5 tons

T/D/AC (C-141) = 43.45

(6) Determine the total tons delivered a day (TT/D) for the fleet using this
formula:

TT/D =T/D/AC (C-5) + T/D/AC (C-141)

TT/D = 716.5 + 654.5 = 1,371.0 tons/day

(7) Determine the closure using this formula:

Movement Requirement
Closure =
TT/D

15,000 tons
Closure = = 10.9 days
1,371 tons/day

e. Determine Revised Cycle Time. This example explains one situation when
the cycle time might have to be revised. It involves a large-scale operation
where most of the fleet of an aircraft type are scheduled to be used. In this
case, the cycle time might have to be adjusted to maintain an objective use
rate, The UTE rate is not a limiting factor unless most of the fleet is involved.
The example operation involves 210 C-141 aircraft (nearly all of the C-141s)
with a cycle time of 32 hours and an RTFT of 22 hours. The fleet must not
exceed a UTE rate of 10 hours a day. The planned UTE rate is computed
using the following formula:

RTFT x 24 = 22 x 24 = 16.5 hours per day

UTE (planned) =
cycle time 32

Since the planned UTE rate of 16.5 hours per day exceeds the objective UTE
rate of 10 hours per day, a revised cycle time must be computed using this
formula:

Cycle Time RTFT x 24 = 2 2 x 2 4 = 52.8 hours

Objective UTE 10
(adjusted)

The adjusted cycle time should now be used to compute closure.

C-10
 FM 90-26

C-17. PRODUCTIVITY FACTORS

Productivity factors (percentages) are gross measures of an aircraft’s ability
to move cargo and passengers to a user.

a. On a strategic airlift mission involving an outbound and a return leg, the

outbound leg is productive and the return leg is nonproductive. Therefore,
the productive factor would be 50 percent. It is assumed that the cargo has
already been positioned at the aircraft’s departure point. Usually, airlift
aircraft must fly one or more positioning legs to an on-load location. Since
productive cargo is usually not moved at this time, positioning legs reduce the
overall productivity factor to a value less than 50 percent. For example, an
aircraft is flying from Charleston AFB to an aerial port of embarkation at
Pope AFB (positioning leg). Then to an aerial port of debarkation at
Torrejon AB (outbound leg) and back to Charleston AFB (return leg).
Although the entire round-trip distance is 7,550 miles, only 3,550 miles (the
distance from Pope to Torrejon) is considered productive. Therefore, the
productivity factor is 47 percent (3,500 + 7,550).

b. A similar example for theater airlift is not as straightforward. Within a

theater, productive cargo is moved on both inbound and outbound legs.
However, the overall productivity factor for theater airlift aircraft is lower,
because the positioning and repositioning legs compose a greater part of the
total distance.
c. Both the strategic and theater productivity factor calculations arc situation
specific. To provide productivity factors with broad planning applications, the
following average productivity factors are compiled:
Strategic Airlift - 47 percent.
Tactical Airlift - 40 percent.
In this context, strategic airlift refers to any aircraft that is performing an
intertheater mission. Theater airlift refers to any aircraft that is operating
solely within a theater.

Section Il. SPECIFIC AIRCRAFT DATA

This section provides statistical data and comparisons of the characteristics of
the major USAF airlift aircraft. (Figure C-1, see page C-16.)

C-18. C-130E/H DATA

a. Description.
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lockheed, 4 turboprop
engines.
Wing span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 feet, 7 inches,
Overall length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .99 feet, 6 inches.
Main gear track . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 feet, 3 inches.
Usable fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60,112 pounds.
Mission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Cargo, soldiers, tactical
airdrop, and airland.

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 FM 90-26

b. Loading Characteristics.
Rear ramp, ground, or truck bed level, and 463L system.

c. Main Cabin Dimensions.

Length (maximum usable) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470 inches.
Width (maximum usable) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 inches, 105 inches.
Height (maximum usable) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 inches.
Usable floor area (fixed and ramp) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370 square feet.
Usable cube (main compartment) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,8l8 cubic feet.

d. Door Dimensions.
Width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 inches.
Height . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 inches.
e. Performance. (H-model characteristics that are different are shown in
parentheses.)
Maximum ferry range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,685 nautical miles.
(3,962 nautical miles).
Average cruise speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 knots (300 knots).
Takeoff gross weight (emergency or wartime). . . 173,700 pounds.
Takeoff gross weight (peacetime) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153,700 pounds.
Normal operating altitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18,000 feet/26,000 feet.
(23,500 feet/28,000 feet).
Minimum runway requirements:

Takeoff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,600 feet (2,300 feet).

Landing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,700 feet (2,360 feet).
Maximum ACL (floor loaded) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35,000 pounds
(35,500 pounds).
Maximum number of 463L pallets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6.
Maximum number of soldiers:
Wartime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91.
Peacetime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74.
Maximum number of paratroopers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64.
Minimum pavement for ]N)-degree turn . . . . . . . . . ...74 feet.
Minimum runway width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 feet.

C-19. C-141B DATA

a. Description.
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lockheed, 4 turbojet
engines.
Wing span . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 . feet.
Overall length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 feet, 4 inches.
Main gear track . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 feet, 7 inches.
Usable fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153,352 pounds.
Mission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cargo, soldiers, tactical
airdrop.
b. Loading Characteristics.
Rear ramp, ground, or truck bed level, and 463L system.

C-12
 FM 90-24

c. Main Cabin Dimensions.

Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,120 inches.

Width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 inches.
Height . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 inches.
Usable floor area (fixed and ramp) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...937 square feet.
Usable cube (main compartment) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,024 cubic feet.
d. Main Door Dimensions.
Width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 inches.
Heigth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 inches.
e. Performance.
Maximum ferry range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,531 nautical miles.
Average cruise speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425 knots.
Takeoff gross weight (emergency or wartime) . . . 343,000 pounds.
Takeoff gross weight (peacetime) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .323.000 pounds.
Normal operating altitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FL 310-410.
Minimum runway requirements:
Takeoff (wartime weight) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,420 feet.
Takeoff (peacetime weight) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,350 feet.
Landing (brakes only) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,840 feet.
Maximum ACL (floor loaded) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89,000 pounds.
Maximum numbers of 463L pallets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13.
Maximum number of soldiers:
Wartime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 (Flying overland).
153 (Flying over water).
Peacetime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143.
Maximum number of paratroopers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155.
Minimum pavement for 180-degree turn . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 feet.
Minimum runway width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 feet.

C-20. C-17A DATA

a. Description.
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . McDonnell Douglas,
4 turbofan engines.
Wing span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 feet.
Overall length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175.2 feet.
Mission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Long-range, heavy-lift
cargo transport.

b. Cabin Capacity.
Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 feet.
Width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 feet.
Height . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.3 feet.
Floor area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,584 square feet.
Usable cube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20,900 cubic feet.
c. Main Door Dimensions.
Width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 feet.
Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 feet, 8 inches.

C-13
FM 90-26

d. Performance.
Maximum ferry range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,700 nautical miles.
Average cruise speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460 knots.
Takeoff gross weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580,000 pounds.
Normal operating altitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FL 30 to FL 41.
Minimum runway requirements:
Takeoff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7,600 feet with
167,000-pound payload.
Landing (thrust reversal) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,000 feet with
167,000-pound payload.
Maximum ACL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172,200 pounds.
Maximum number of 463L pallets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18.
Maximum number of paratroopers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102.
Minimum pavement fo 180-degree turn . . . . . . . . . . ...90 feet.
Minimum runway width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 feet.

C-21. C-5A/B DATA

a. Description.
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lockheed, 4 turbojet engines.
Wing span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 feet, 8 inches.
Overall length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 feet, 10 inches.
Main gear track (outside) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 feet, 6 inches.
Fuel capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332,500 pounds.
Mission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Airlift cargo and soldiers.
b. Loading Characteristics.
Front and aft ramp, ground, or truck bed level, and 463L system.
c. Cabin Capacity.
Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 feet, 1 inch.
Width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 feet, 0 inches.
Height . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 feet, 6 inches.
Usable floor area (fixed and ramp) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...2,747 square feet.
Usable cube-main compartment
(floor loaded) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18,368 cubic feet.

d. Door Dimensions.
Front . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 inches wide,
162 inches high.

Rear:
Drive in (ramp down) forward or
level kneel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 inches wide,
161 inches high.
Drive in (ramp down) aft kneel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 inches wide,
153 inches high.
Truck loading (ramp level) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 inches wide,
114 inches high.

C-14
 FM 90-26

e. Performance.
Maximum ferry range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,238 nautical miles.
Takeoff to block-in speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436 knots.
Average cruise speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436 knots.
Maximum takeoff gross weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 769,000 pounds.
Normal operating altitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FL310-410.
Minimum runway requirements:
Takeoff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9,150 feet.
Landing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,610 feet.
Maximum payload (floor loaded) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291,000 pounds
Maximum number of 463L pallets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36.
Maximum number of soldiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 (Airbus configuration;
normally 73 soldiers will
ride in upstairs troop
compartment.)
Minimum pavement for 180-degreee turn . . . . . . . . . . 150 feet.
Minimum runway width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 feet.

C-15
FM 90-26

Figure C-1. USAF C-17A comparison.

C-16
 APPENDIX D

AIRBORNE ELEMENTS OF THE TACTICAL AIR

CONTROL SYSTEM

A irborne operations require extensive coordination between the US Air

Force, US Army, and often other services. The airborne element of the
tactical air control system, consisting of the AWACS and the ABCCC,
augment and even replace the ground-based elements of TACS when
response time is critical.

D-1. AIRBORNE WARNING AND CONTROL SYSTEM

The AWACS (designated by the Air Force as the E-3 radar) is a modified
Boeing 707 that houses a radar subsystem and vast communications
equipment. It is under OPCON of the TACC. The AWACS radar system can
compensate for the major limitations of ground-based radar systems such as
their inability to detect low-flying aircraft due to line-of-sight restrictions.
Other limitations of ground-based radar systems include their susceptibility to
ECM and their vulnerability to attack.

a. Communications. To complement its flexible receiving ability, the

AWACS can communicate with a wide range of systems. It has extensive HF,
VHF, and UHF radios that can be used to communicate with ground
controllers, airborne forces, and ground forces.
b. Missions. The three major missions the E-3 radar can support are
tactical, air defense, and humanitarian.
(1) Tactical. In a conventional warfare environment, AWACS serves as an
airspace control element. From this vantage point behind the front lines, the
tactical commander monitors the allied and enemy forces. He makes the
decisions needed to conduct the battle. The E-3’s radar flexibility in the
tactical environment is one of its major assets.
(2) Air defense. The E-3’s radar flexibility allows it to support tactical
missions, defensive missions, or both at the same time. The aircraft can be
used for weapons control or as a surveillance platform. In an air defense role,
the E-3 radar provides weapons control and surveillance capabilities. It also
provides C2 for weapons and control for air defense regions during stages of
increased alerts.

(3) Humanitarian. The E-3 radar can fly into a natural disaster area and can
provide an airborne CP to monitor the situation. It can also provide the
needed communications and control during large-scale disasters.

D-1
FM 90-26

D-2. AIRBORNE BATTLEFIELD COMMAND AND CONTROL CENTER

The mission of the ABCCC is to provide a worldwide capability for control of
air operations during contingencies; in the absence of or in concert with the
ground TACS; and in the forward battle areas beyond the range of
ground-based TACS elements. The ABCCC can act as an extension of a
TACC combat operation, as an interim TACC combat operation, or as an
alternate ASOC. It can also coordinate electronic combat, serve as a joint
rescue coordination center, and provide tactical threat warning.

a. Airborne Battle Staff Composition and Duties. The ABCCC battle staff
is divided into four functional areas: command, operations, intelligence, and
communications.
b. Communications Capability. The ABCCC was designed to support the
air-to-ground war. As such, each capsule has 20 radios for the battle staff to
use. They include four VHF/AM, four VHF/FM, four HF, and eight UHF.
Six of the eight UHF radios are equipped with HAVE QUICK (antijam).
This mix of radios allows the ABCCC to work with all elements of the TACS
and the forces employed.
c. Missions. The ABCCC has five missions:
(1) Airborne ASOC. The ABCCC can fulfill a limited ASOC role or can
ensure proper communications between the ASOC and TACPs or between
fighters and FACs. ABCCC is often the only agency that can fulfill the ASOC
role at the onset of hostilities.
(2) TACC combat operations. In the role of combat operations center, the
ABCCC maintains ground alert and airborne asset status. The real time
compilation of intelligence and operations information allows for flexibility in
performing current operations. In the first stages of conflict, ABCCC allows
appropriate TAF operations to be conducted in the absence of the traditional
ground-based TACS.

(3) Electronic combat. With its unique communications ability, the ABCCC
can maintain radio contact for coordination with all electronic combat assets
(ESM and ECM) available to the tactical commander. The combination of
intelligence and operations information within ABCCC allows the situational
awareness required to perform the function. Electronic combat coordination
is a growing role for the ABCCC.
(4) Joint rescue coordination center. As a JRCC, the ABCCC can track
aircraft; maintain the status of SAR forces; coordinate with other services’
SAR forces; scramble assets; and marshal, coordinate, and control SARs.
These SAR operations can be conducted in peacetime or war.
(5) Crisis management. The ABCCC can provide on-the-scene C 2 during
crisis situations. Tasks are much the same as for TACC/ASOC missions but
are accomplished on a time-compressed schedule. (See TAC Regulation
55-130 for more information about employment of ABCCC.)

D-2
 APPENDIX E

BRIEFINGS, INSPECTIONS, AND REHEARSALS

P reparation for combat includes briefings and briefbacks, inspections, and

rehearsals.

Section I. BRIEFINGS
All commanders must closely supervise briefings. Soldiers should receive
enough information about the weather, terrain, and enemy in the objective
area to perform their duties intelligently. To allow for contingencies, each
person should also know the overall plan.

E-1. BRIEFING PLAN

A tentative plan for briefings in the marshaling area is prepared before
marshaling.

a. Each of the higher units prepares a briefing plan that includes the
following:

• Time and place for each briefing.

• Briefing facilities available.
• Personnel involved in each briefing.
• Details to be covered in each briefing.
• Security measures during each briefing.

b. The briefing schedule is coordinated with airlift units so that the crews of
assault aircraft and other selected airlift personnel can attend briefings with
the soldiers they transport.

c. The briefing schedule must allow for briefback of all aspects of the plan at
each level. This requires flexibility in the plan.

E-2. BRIEFING FACILITIES

On arriving at the marshaling area, units establish briefing rooms in buildings,
huts, or tents within the sealed area. Briefing rooms should contain the best
possible briefing aids. The rooms should be big enough to hold the platoon,
the aircraft load, or the largest group to be briefed at one time. Some platoon

E-1
FM 90-26

and squad briefings take place outside regular briefing rooms with simple
aids like maps, photos, and sketches.

a. Each brigade and battalion establishes at least one briefing room. When
possible, each company establishes its own. Otherwise, the battalion provides
one or more briefing rooms for its companies to use. Platoons (or aircraft
loads) are rotated through the assigned briefing rooms according to the
briefing schedule. Individual squads can also be rotated through briefing
rooms.

b. On the departure airfield, briefing facilities are established in the joint CP

for joint briefings of the senior airborne and airlift commanders and their
staffs.

c. The briefing facilities used by the assault units are kept for use by buildup
units. Advanced landing fields, AAs, and routes in the airhead can be shown
to interested personnel, and the current situation reviewed on the basis of
situation reports.

E-3. BRIEFING RESPONSIBILITIES

The S3 prepares the briefing schedule in coordination with the S2 for
inclusion in the marshaling plan. Briefings are critical and are conducted
down to the lowest level of command. Except for key commanders and staff
officers, information about the operation is on a strict need-to-know basis
before marshaling, so marshaling area briefings must be detailed. Each
soldier must know exactly the part he plays in the operation. He must also
know the plans of his unit and of adjacent units. Contingency actions for
individuals and units must also be included in these briefings. The S2 should
ensure that the necessary briefing aids are available before soldiers enter the
marshaling areas. An annotated low-altitude air photo of the landing area,
explained by photo-interpreter personnel, is the most effective briefing aid.
Accurate terrain models and sand tables of the airhead are effective.
Large-scale maps with defenses and obstacles overprinted from the latest air
photos are valuable as well.

E-4. JOINT BRIEFINGS

For coordination and understanding, a series of joint briefings is conducted
during marshaling for selected airborne and airlift personnel. At these
briefings, information and instructions are given on all matters that are of
joint interest in the air movement and ground assault plans. The schedule and
scope of joint briefings are determined at the joint commanders’ conference.
Airborne and airlift commanders and selected staff officers attend the
command briefings conducted as part of their conferences. (FM 100-27
provides a recommended format for joint briefings.)

a. Airlift Crew Attendance at Airborne Unit Briefings. The crews of aircraft

should attend the briefings of the airborne unit they are transporting; the
aircraft crew and the airborne unit land are a team in the objective area.

b. Ground Unit Attendance at Airlift Briefings. Ground units send

representatives to airlift unit briefings to learn all they can about Air Force

E-2
 FM 90-26

plans, especially air movement plans. Although airlift units are responsible for
the air movement, airborne units are interested in–

(1) Takeoff arrangements, including marshaling of aircraft on the ground

and assembly in the air.

(2) Routes to the objective, including alternate routes.

(3) Final approach to the objective, including direction of flight, checkpoints

on the ground, altitude, and aircraft formation.

(4) Details of fighter cover and friendly air defense units.

(5) Intelligence estimates on expected enemy air and antiaircraft opposition.

(6) Evasion and escape procedures.

(7) Ditching procedures.

(8) Anticipated weather, including the direction and velocity of the wind at
the object ive.

(9) Communications, including signals for the parachute exit.

(10) Use of alternate DZs/LZs.

c. Final Briefing. All aircraft commanders attend the final aircrew briefing, if
possible, It is conducted by the airlift commander or representative just
before takeoff. It includes all last-minute information and instructions for the
air movement.

E-5. MISSION BRIEFING

The mission briefing is presented by the Air Force for the commanders of the
various dispersed airfields, and for required crew members, plus
representatives from other organizations or services as appropriate. When the
dispersed concept is employed, each commander at the dispersed airfields
conducts mission briefings for the crew members at their respective locations.
Joint representation provides a basis for mutual understanding before the
mission and is encouraged at all briefings. This briefing is a comprehensive
coverage of all the mission’s phases.

a. Scope. Since the scope of the mission briefing varies with the nature and
complexity of the mission to be performed, it is not possible to outline all
detailed matters to be covered. Handouts can be used for certain subjects
such as navigation, operations, and others at the discretion of the
commander. The briefing order is as follows (although the briefing includes
only the items that fit the mission):

• Opening statement by the unit or mission commander.

• Intelligence.

E-3
FM 90-26

• Operations (first of two sections).

• Navigation.
• Weather.
• Communications.
• Flight surgeon.
• Operations (second section).
• Commander.
• Chaplain.

b. Content. The following items are discussed in the mission briefing. Special
briefings for more detail are the option of the commander.

(1) Opening by the unit or mission commander. This includes–

(a) A brief description of the overall operation.

(b) The purpose of the operation.

(c) The role of the unit.

(d) Participation of other organizations.

(2) Intelligence. This includes–

(a) The general situation, enemy, and friendly forces.

(b) Enemy capabilities.

(c) Friendly air and ground activity, including rescue.

(d) Priority intelligence requirements.

(e) Evasion and escape.

(f) Conduct if captured.

(g) Security.

(h) Reports.

(i) Debriefing, as required.

(3) Operations. This includes–

(a) Execution of the marshaling plan and trip numbers (including

designation of spares).

(b) Loading of emergency equipment needed for the mission.

E-4
 FM 90-26

(c) Inspection of aircraft.

(d) Loading of aircraft, including liaison with unit being transported.

(e) Inspection of personal equipment and crew.

(f) Completion of forms (including clearance, weight and balance, and

manifests) and collection of them before takeoff.

(g) Times for stations, engines, taxiing, check-in, and takeoff.

(h) Taxi and runup procedures.

(i) Aborts during runup or takeoff, or while in flight.

(j) Takeoff.

(k) Route and return.

(1) Route, DZ/LZ, and return (including aeromedical evacuation or

diversionary routes, if applicable).

(m) Use of CCTs/LRSU.

(n) Coordination of the crew over the DZ.

(o) Landing and taxiing procedures.

(p) Emergency procedures (other than SOP).

(4) Navigation. This includes–

(a) Airspace restrictions.

(b) Navigational aids.

(c) Emergency airfields.

(d) Coverage of DZ/LZ and salvo area(s) with photos, maps, or other aids.
(This should be covered in a separate briefing after the mission briefing.)

(e) Time hack.

(5) Weather. This includes–

(a) Existing and forecast weather at departure time, on the airfield, en route,
and in the objective area.

E-5
FM 90-26

(b) Winds at the departure airfield, en route, and at the objective area
(including drop altitude where applicable).

(c) Weather outlook, if the operation is to take place more than 24 hours
after the general mission briefing.

(d) Time and location of the final weather briefing (if applicable).

(6) Communications. This includes–

(a) Call signs.

(b) Frequencies.

• Check-in.
• Taxi.
• Takeoff.
• En route (including special reporting procedures).
• Objective area.
• Landing.
• Emergency.
• Rescue.

(c) IFF use.

(d) Communications security, authentication, and radio silence.

(7) Flight surgeon. This includes–

(a) Health service support missions and type of units involved in the
operation.

(b) Required immunizations.

(c) Use of water purification tablets.

(d) Waste disposal.

(e) Endemic and epidemic diseases in the AO.

(8) Operations (second section). This includes–

(a) Schedule for further briefings.

(b) Critique.

(c) Messing and transportation.

(d) Flying safety.

E-6
 FM 90-26

(e) Mission reports and other forms.

(f) Maintenance support.

(9) Commander. This includes–

(a) Special command instructions.

(b) Designation of time and place for final briefings on topics such as
weather decisions.

E-6. COMMAND AND STAFF BRIEFINGS

Although special emphasis is placed on briefing soldiers in the marshaling
area, operational briefings for unit commanders and staff officers continue,
regardless of the amount and scope of briefings received earlier. Any details
of the operation previously withheld for security reasons are divulged. New
intelligence and changes in plans are promptly disseminated. Information and
instructions previously issued are reviewed. A common briefing on all
battalion missions should be given to all regimental/brigade and battalion
commanders. If this is done, battalion missions can be shifted with little delay
in case of inaccurate landings. Company commanders in a battalion should be
given a common briefing so that company missions can be changed if an
unexpected event occurs after landing.

E-7. BRIEFBACKS
Briefbacks and rehearsals are not the same. Briefbacks are related to the
planning process; rehearsals are related to execution. Briefbacks to the
commander of operational concepts should be required from all subordinate
commanders and leaders for missions tasked in OPLANs, OPORDs, or
FRAGOs. Briefback times and locations are normally specified in the
coordinating instructions paragraph of the OPORD/OPLAN. The scope and
detail required depends on the mission and time available. It may range from
an oral review using operational graphics to an in-depth explanation using
terrain models, visual aids, and other devices. The commander should
conduct at least two briefbacks with subordinate commanders. When
possible, briefbacks should be conducted collectively at a meeting of the
order group. The first briefback occurs immediately after the OPORD has
been issued to ensure subordinates understand their mission. The second
briefback occurs after subordinates have prepared their own concepts of the
operation. However, before subordinates issue their OPORDs, the
commander may recommend changes. In quickly developing situations, an
abbreviated version may be required. The format of the briefback is a matter
of unit SOP but should include the following information:

• Division/brigade commander’s intent and mission statement.

• Intelligence overview.
• Specified, implied, and mission-essential tasks.
• Constraints and limitations.
• Unit mission statement.
• Unit commander’s intent.
• Task organization.

E-7
FM 90-26

• Concept of the operation (maneuver, fire support, engineering, air

defense).
• Coordination.
• Combat service support.
• Command and control.
• Time schedule.
• Rules of engagement (if applicable).
• Minimum force requirements (if applicable).
• Other operational considerations (deception plan, safety guidance,
and so on).

E-8. SPECIALIZED BRIEFINGS

Specialized briefings are held to present detailed instructions not required for
everyone at the mission briefing. Therefore, the mission briefing requires less
time and detail.

a. Attendance. Specialized briefings can be held for the following personnel:

(1) Aircraft commanders.

(2) Navigators (for the purpose of studying DZ overlays and timing points,
and for comparing routes, checkpoints, and so on).

(3) Radio operators (to detail special communications procedures, use of

IFF, strike reports, and so on).

(4) Loadmasters/jumpmasters (including coordination of loading, unloading,

or aerial release procedures).

(5) Aeromedical (for air evacuation flights only.)

(6) Combat control team/Army assault team.

(7) Others as required.

b. S3 Air Brief to Jumpmasters. As soon as ground tactical and air

movement planning is complete and jumpmasters are selected, the S3 Air
conducts a jumpmaster briefing. This briefing should include all primary
jumpmasters and can include assistant jumpmasters, safety personnel, and
leaders of airland chalks in the assault echelon. At this briefing, the S3 Air
gives out a jumpmaster packet for each aircraft. The packet and briefing
should provide the following:

(1) Mission and ground tactical plan.

(2) Air movement plan.

(3) Names of assistant jumpmasters and safeties; time and place to brief
them (if they are not present).

E-8
 FM 90-26

(4) Time and location for initial and final manifest call, prejump training, and
uniform and equipment inspections.

(5) Transportation arrangements for moving to the marshaling area or

departure airfield.

(6) Time and place for parachute issue and the type of main parachute to be
used.

(7) Time a weather decision will be made.

(8) Time and location for briefing.

(9) Aircraft tail numbers, chalk numbers, and parking spots.

(10) Loading time.

(11) Time and location for aircrew and jumpmaster briefing.

(12) Station time.

(13) Takeoff time.

(14) Flight plan (formation, route, checkpoints, direction of flight over the
DZ, emergency radio frequencies, and call signs).

(15) Drop time.

(16) Medical support plan.

(17) Landing plan with emphasis on assembly aids and procedures.

(18) Communications procedures on the DZ.

c. Jumpmaster Briefing to Assistants and Safeties. Time must be allowed

for the primary jumpmaster to brief his assistants and safety personnel before
he briefs the jumpers. He provides the information given to him in the S3 Air
briefing, assigns duties to all personnel, and gives his concept of actions in the
aircraft. He reviews SOP items and addresses possible contingencies. The
following are some other items to discuss in this briefing:

(1) Door assignments.

(2) Inspection procedures.

(3) Rigging station assignments.

E-9
FM 90-26

(4) Exit procedures (including the location in the stick where the jumpmaster
exits and the name of the person who assumes his responsibilities after he
exits).

(5) Actions of jumpmaster personnel in emergency situations such as

emergency bailout, hung parachutist, and so on.

(6) Procedures for handling door bundles.

(7) Briefing duties.

(8) Abort procedures and bump plan.

d. Jumpmaster/Troop Briefing. As soon as practical after the first manifest

call, the jumpmaster briefs personnel on the details of the operation. Items
discussed include the following:

(1) The DZ and alternates.

(2) Type of aircraft.

(3) Chalk number.

(4) Type of parachute.

(5) Briefing on serials, the CDS, heavy drop, and type of aircraft, if part of a
larger airborne operation.

(6) Time a weather decision will be made.

(7) Type of individual and separate equipment that soldiers will jump with.

(8) Time and place of parachute issue.

(9) Station time.

(10) Takeoff time.

(11) Length of flight.

(12) Actions in the aircraft.

(13) In-flight emergencies.

(14) Direction of flight over the DZ.

(15) Drop altitude.

(16) Predicted wind speed and direction on the DZ.

E-10
 FM 90-26

(17) Route checkpoints.

(18) Search and rescue procedures.

(19) Landing and assembly plan.

(20) Parachute turn-in points.

(21) Time and place of final manifest call.

(22) Medical support plan.

(23) Obstacles on or near the DZ.

(24) Time and location of any aircraft-related rehearsals.

e. Aircrew and Jumpmaster Soldier Briefing. This briefing is given before or

after loading the aircraft.

(1) Preflight. Items discussed concerning preflight procedures include the

following

• Takeoff time.
• Air Force CCT or DZSO contact time (when the jumpmaster will be
informed by radio of DZ conditions).
• Drop time.

(2) In-flight. Items discussed concerning in-flight procedures include the

following

• Movement in the aircraft.

• Smoking restrictions.
• Airsickness.
• Latrine.
• Lighting.
• Flight altitude.
• Formation and interval.

(3) Approach to the DZ. Items discussed concerning procedures during the
approach to the DZ include the following

• Checkpoint warning.
• Time warning.
• Visual and oral signals.
• “No drop” signal.
• Jump door restrictions.
• Drop zone identification (jumpmaster must be briefed on what
marking features, or both to look for).
• Drop altitude.
• Drop speed.
• Drop heading.

E-11
FM 90-26

Number of passes.
Turnoff direction.
(4) Emergency procedures. I t e m s d i s c u s s e d c o n c e r n i n g e m e r g e n c y
procedures include the following:

Jettisoning of load.
Fuselage fire.
Abandonment of aircraft.
Emergency bailout.
Crash landing.
Ditching.
Rapid depressurization.
Malfunctions.
Towed parachutist.
Teatment of casualties in the aircraft before the drop.

(5) Other details. The briefing official should–

(a) State which jump door affords the best view of the DZ for a safety check.

(b) Name the key people on board who must be advised of a ground abort.

(c) Inform the loadmaster who will command the soldiers on board in an
emergency if the jumpmaster is not the last parachutist.

(d) Coordinate receipt of information on the direction and velocity of DZ

winds (before the one-minute time warning).

(e) Emphasize to the aircrew the importance of receiving accurate time

warnings.

(f) Ensure the loadmaster understands that the soldiers should raise and
fasten seats.

f. Cross-Service Representation. Because of the close coordination required

in airborne operations, each unit should be represented at unilateral briefings
given by the other. This pertains mostly to the mission briefings that cover the
entire air movement phase. The security requirements of airborne operations
dictate that such cross-service representation be limited to supervisory staff
and liaison personnel on a need-to-know basis.

E-9. BRIEFING AIDS

Thorough briefing of each person taking part in an airborne operation is
essential to the success of the operation. The preassault briefing is conducted
in detail, and ground reconnaissance by the airborne unit is impractical.
Therefore, the procurement and preparation of briefing aids is vital. Each
soldier should enter the target area with enough knowledge to independently
perform his duties.

E-12
 FM 90-26

a. All units arrange for briefing aids before entering the marshaling area.
Divisional units survey the marshaling camp to find what briefing facilities are
provided. Other facilities and aids are procured by divisional units, as needed.

(1) Briefing aids (such as maps, air photos, slide projectors, kits for making
terrain models, movie projectors, and screens) can be obtained from higher
headquarters.

(2) Briefing aids such as charts, sketches, diagrams, terrain models, and sand
tables are made.

(3) Low-altitude air photos of the landing area (from intelligence channels),
on which photo interpreters mark terrain features and the size and shape of
the landing area, are also useful.

(4) Large-scale maps with antiairborne obstacles and defenses overprinted

on them are very useful. Accurate sand table models and terrain models can
be made from these maps.

b. Requirements for briefing aids vary with the operation, the construction
facilities available, and supply of materials and equipment. No standard set of
briefings aids is prescribed.

Section Il. INSPECTIONS

Unit commanders, leaders, and other selected personnel (jumpmasters,
riggers, and so on) conduct inspections to prepare the unit for operations.
Several types of inspections are conducted during the marshaling process.

E-10. INITIAL INSPECTION

The initial inspection is performed after the first manifest call. Each
parachutist is checked for proper uniform (including ID card and tags), for
the condition of his parachutist helmet and air items, and for properly rigged
equipment.

E-11. DEPARTURE AIRFIELD LAYOUT INSPECTION

Rigged equipment is checked at the departure airfield to ensure that items

such as rucksacks, weapons, and bundles are properly rigged. This can save
the time it would take a parachutist to rerig his equipment. The equipment is
quickly checked during parachute issue.

E-12. JUMPMASTER PERSONNEL INSPECTION

The jumpmaster personnel inspection is held while parachutists rig. Because
individual rigging is completed at different times, care must be taken to
maintain the exit sequence. If this is not done, cross loading and unit assembly
plans might be affected. (See FM 57-220 for more detailed information.)

E-13
FM 90-26

E-13. JUMPMASTER INSPECTION OF THE AIRCRAFT

The jumpmaster, accompanied by the USAF loadmaster, inspects the aircraft
and coordinates any activities peculiar to the airborne operation. He checks
the inside and outside of the aircraft. (See FM 57-220 for more detailed
information.)

a. In parachute aircraft, airborne representatives check–

Coverings on protruding objects that might be dangerous to

parachutists.
Aerial delivery system, including the release mechanism.
Anchor line cable.
Static line retrieval system.
Parachute doors.
Air deflector/air spoiler.
Jump platforms.
Warning and jump signals.
Seats and safety belts.
Locations and number of auxiliary exits, first-aid kits, air sickness
bags, and ear plugs.
Stowage of loose equipment in the cargo compartment.
Ditching equipment and emergency bell.
Location and condition of latrines.

b. In airlanding aircraft, airborne soldiers check items listed for parachute

aircraft and inspect–

The cargo tie-down system.

Floors for strength, load spreaders, and treadways.
Loading ramps.
Cargo doors for their locations, size, and operation.

c. The pilot and the airborne representative jointly inspect after the
equipment and supplies are loaded. The aerial delivery system on parachute
aircraft is checked for proper rigging. Weight and balance figures are
rechecked for safety. The cargo tie-down system and the ACL are also
checked.

d. Just before the soldiers enplane, a final joint check is made to ensure that
the aircraft is properly loaded and ready for takeoff.

E-14. INSPECTION OF EQUIPMENT AND AIRDROP LOADS

The marshaling plan should call for detailed inspections of equipment aided
by maintenance personnel from the supporting MACG. This ensures that all
items of equipment are in the best possible condition before rigging or
loading. All rigged loads, low velocity or LAPES, must be inspected to ensure
that they, and the equipment used on them, are assembled and installed to
meet the criteria outlined in the rigging manuals. The types of inspections are
discussed herein.

E-14
 FM 90-26

a. First Inspection. This type of inspection must be performed on a rigged

load before it leaves the rigging site. It must be conducted by a qualified
parachute rigger supervisor other than the one supervising the installation of
parachutes and extraction systems.

b. Before-Loading Inspection. This type of inspection must be performed on

a rigged load before it is loaded into the aircraft. It must be held jointly by
school-certified inspectors from the unit supplying the equipment to be
dropped, the aerial port loading the equipment, and the aircrew loadmaster
dropping the equipment.

NOTES: 1. School-certified inspectors must have successfully

completed the Airdrop Load Inspector Certification Course of
the US Army Quartermaster School.

2. DD Forms 1748 or 1748-1 is used to perform and record the

before- and after-loading inspections according to AR 59-4/AFR
55-40/OPNAVIST 4630.24B/MCO 13480.1B.

c. After-Loading Inspection. This type of inspection must be performed on a

load after it has been loaded and rigged in the aircraft. It must be held jointly
by school-certified inspectors from the unit supplying the equipment being
dropped, the aerial port loading the equipment, and the aircrew loadmaster
dropping the equipment. This inspection is not done by inspectors that
performed the before-loading inspection.

Section Ill. SPECIAL TRAINING AND

REHEARSALS
Rehearsals are always conducted and are vital to mission accomplishment.
Specialized training of ground forces and aircrews is required for some
missions.

E-15. PREMISSION TRAINING

As soon as an airborne unit receives a planning directive for an assault
landing, all unit training is aimed at preparing the soldiers for that operation.

a. Analysis of Mission, Enemy, and Terrain. An analysis of the unit mission,

the enemy situation, and the terrain in the objective area reveal the problems
that will confront the unit after it lands.

b. Review of Training Program. A review of the training program will show

what specific operational training the unit needs to improve its combat
efficiency for the operation. To add realism, training areas are selected that
resemble the objective area. Mock-ups are made of the installations,
obstacles, landmarks, and enemy defenses in the objective area.

E-15
FM 90-26

c. Specialized Training. All units, including platoons and squads, receive

specialized combat training for the type of fighting and equipment their
mission requires, and training on enemy vehicles and equipment, For
example, when the unit must capture a town or village, it receives intensive
training in house-to-house and street fighting for a night operation, the unit
receives night training. Techniques of air movement, landing and
reorganization are also trained after landing. As the detailed plan develops,
however, specialized or refresher training is given on the methods or
techniques to be used in the coming operation. This training includes the
following:

(1) Packing of equipment containers.

(2) Loading of personnel and equipment into aircraft, especially when

previous training has not included that type of aircraft.

(3) Parachute drops and assault transport landings under the expected
combat conditions.

(4) Use of assembly aids.

(5) Prejump training for parachutists.

E-16. SPECIAL TRAINING IN USE OF AIRCRAFT

Before marshaling, units are trained to use the aircraft that will transport
them, including loading and ditching techniques and flight safety rules. If
training in loading and air movement techniques has not been completed,
units will receive more training during marshaling. Sometimes, an unfamiliar
type of aircraft will be used, or a known type of airlift aircraft will have new or
modified equipment. This could include tie-down devices, loading ramps,
cargo doors, light and bell signals, ditching gear, or aerial delivery systems.
Units may have to marshal for an airborne assault without recent training in
airborne techniques. When airborne soldiers need special training in loading
and air movement, the airborne and airlift commanders at the departure
airfield prepare a training program together.

E-17. MISSION REHEARSALS

Because speed and precision are important in airborne operations, every
detail of the OPLAN should be rehearsed, especially for night operations.
Lack of equipment or training can limit the scale of the rehearsal or create
artificial conditions. Rehearsals should be like the operation. They are held
from squad to the highest level allowed by time and facilities. Because
rehearsals may cause a breach of security, division and higher commanders
control the conditions under which they are held.

a. The complex nature of airborne operations requires cooperation,

coordination, and rehearsals between the participating services. Early
planning ensures that the following are available:

• Airlift aircraft.
• Suitable training areas.

E-16
 FM 90-26

• Critical items of equipment to replace those damaged or lost.

• Replacements for casualties sustained during rehearsals.

b. Problems (inherent to airborne operations) that can be rehearsed are

listed by priority, not by sequence. During these rehearsals, airborne forces
should combine into combat teams exactly as they will in the ground
operation. These rehearsals can include the following

(1) Execution of the tactical plan.

(2) Communications procedures for the ground attack and en route.

(3) Assembly and reorganization after landing. (This can be rehearsed by

“tailgating” ground transportation.)

(4) Loading of aircraft IAW Air Force balancing procedures and

requirements.

(5) Landing and unloading procedures for airland assault aircraft, including
actions of the AACG.

(6) Supply and casualty evacuation after landing.

(7) Marshaling procedures.

c. If it is not possible to stage operational rehearsals, a thorough CPX should

be held under field conditions similar to those in the projected combat area.
Few, if any, restrictions apply for the holding of a CPX on the highest level.
Command post exercises should be conducted for all echelons, including
airlift forces.

d. A joint critique should be held after battalion and larger-scale airborne

rehearsals. Lower echelons should be rated even if time prohibits the joint
critique.

E-18. REHEARSAL OF AIRLIFT FORCES

The following are included in rehearsals of airlift forces.

• Inspection, maintenance, and servicing of all aircraft.

• Takeoff and assembly procedures.
• Close formation and low-level flying in both daylight and darkness.
• Use of instruments and navigational aids, including ways to employ
the JAAP.
• Assembly of aircraft at departure bases IAW the aircraft parking
plan.

E-17
 APPENDIX F

INTELLIGENCE PREPARATION OF THE

BATTLEFIELD

The IPB process is that portion of the intelligence cycle that integrates
enemy doctrine with the weather and terrain and relates these factors to the
mission and specific battlefield situation. It provides a basis for determining
and evaluating enemy capabilities, vulnerabilities, and probable courses of
action. It also serves as the planning basis for the formulation of the unit’s
concept of the operation and for the allocation of combat power as reflected
in the unit’s organization for combat. The process is especially critical to the
commander, the intelligence officer, the operations officer, the battlefield
deception element, and the field artillery intelligence officer. The brigade or
battalion S2 relies on the higher staff headquarters to provide detailed
information to conduct the informal IPB at their level. The formal IPB
process is performed at division, corps, and higher levels.

F-1. THE PROCESS

As with the intelligence cycle, the IPB process is cyclic in nature. All IPB
functions are performed continuously and concurrently. (Figure F-1.) The
IPB provides situation and target information with which to compare friendly
and enemy courses of action. This information is used to predict target
activity and to produce event-related forecasts of battlefield operations.

Figure F-1. The IPB process.

F-1
FM 90-26

a. Information required to develop the IPB is received from all available

sources. These include current intelligence holdings, information from higher
headquarters, and information from national intelligence agencies.
b. Airborne IPB must combine both ground IPB and air IPB. Airborne
operations are offensive in nature and require certain aspects of terrain to be
analyzed for success. Landing, drop, and extraction zones are crucial for
delivery of the airborne force to the objective area. Requirements for airfields
for follow-on forces compel consideration of the MOUT aspects of terrain
since airfields are usually located near built-up areas.

F-2. BATTLEFIELD AREA EVALUATION

Battlefield area evaluation involves assessing the battle area with regard to
the overall nature of the friendly and enemy forces and the operating
environment. The terrain and weather are evaluated to determine how they
affect operations. Enemy forces (including, ground, air, and when
appropriate, naval forces), which are expected to operate within the battle
area, are evaluated to determine their capabilities in relation to the weather,
terrain, and friendly mission. Battlefield evaluation should call attention to
significant areas and features that must be considered during the IPB effort.
(Figure F-2.)

a. The battlefield consists of the following:

(1) The area of operations is the geographical area where the commander
has been assigned the responsibility and authority to conduct military
operations. The assigned AO is based on METT-T factors and planning
considerations beyond the FLOT.
(2) The air area of operation is similar to the ground AO in that air bases,
refueling points, LZs, DZs, and air defense weapons and radars operate
within the commander’s boundaries. The major difference between air and
ground operations is the height or operating ceiling within which fixed- and
rotary-wing aircraft operate and air defense weapons can fire.

(3) The area of interest is based on METT-T and the commander’s concept
of the operation. It includes all enemy activities which might affect the
friendly force during the operation. The G2 or S2 recommends the AI to the
commander based on IPB. The commander approves the AI, and it is
forwarded to the next higher echelon by the intelligence officer where it
serves as a base for supporting intelligence requirements.
(4) The air AI is normally much larger than the ground AI because of the
vast distances they can cover and the speed with which they can influence
operations. The air AI extends upward to the maximum ceiling of enemy
aircraft and to the maximum effective altitudes of friendly and enemy air
defense systems. (Figure F-2 shows the relationship between these elements.)
b. The intelligence officer must fully understand these relationships to assist
the commander in planning a successful airborne operation. (See FM 34-130
for a complete and detailed discussion of all aspects of the preparation and
use of the IPB.)

F-2
 FM 90-26

F-2. Ground and air area of operations and interest.

F-3
 APPENDIX G

N-HOUR DEPLOYMENT SEQUENCE

The N-hour deployment sequence is developed and followed to ensure all

reports, actions, and outload processes are accomplished at the proper time
during marshaling.

G-1. PREDEPLOYMENT PLANNING AND PREPARATION

Units must prepare internal deployment standing operating procedures and
continually update and rehearse them. These SOPS should include actions
that are common to all deployments, to include airland as well as parachute
assault.
• Conduct no-notice emergency deployment readiness exercise.
• Prepare personnel for overseas deployment.
•Update and review all vehicle load plans.
• Validate and update movement plans with next higher headquarters.
• Update access and recall rosters.
• Review family support group rosters and rear detachment
responsibilities.
• Ensure special team personnel are identified and trained (air
movement/planning, NBC, outload, ammunition handling, and
so on).

G-2. EXAMPLE OF N-HOUR SEQUENCE

The following example N-hour sequence aids a unit in developing their own
deployment schedule based on their needs. (Table G-1, page G-2.) It is
flexible to allow for modifications based on the mission and the unit
commander’s concept of the operation.

G-1
FM 90-26

Table G-1. Example brigade alert sequence checklist.

G-2
 FM 90-26

Table G-1. Example brigade alert sequence checklist (continued).

G-3
FM 90-26

Table G-1. Example brigade alert sequence checklist (continued).

G-4
 FM 90-26

Table G-1. Example brigade alert sequence checklist (continued).

G-5
FM 90-26

Table G-1. Example brigade alert sequence checklist (continued).

G-6
 FM 90-26

Table G-1. Example brigade alert sequence checklist (continued).

G-7
 FM 90-26

Table G-1. Example brigade alert sequence checklist (continued).

G-8
 FM 90-26

Table G-1. Example brigade alert sequence checklist (continued).

G-9
 GLOSSARY

AA assembly area
AAA air avenues of approach
AACG arrival airfield control group

AALPS automated air loading planning system

AATCC Army air traffic control center

AB air base
ABCCC airborne battlefield command and control center
abn airborne
ACC air control center
ACL allowable cargo load
ACP assembly control post
ADA air defense artillery
ADACG arrival/departure airfield control group
ADP automatic data processing
ADSO assistant division signal officer

AECC aeromedical evacuation control center

AF Air Force

AFB Air Force base

AFM Air Force manual

AFR Air Force regulation

AFSOB Air Force special operations base

AFSOP Air Force standing operating procedure

AG Adjutant General

AGL above ground level

AH attack helicopter

AI air interdiction

A/L air land

ALACC aircraft landing area control center
ALCC airlift control center

ALCE airlift control element

Glossary-1
FM 90-26

ALFT airlift

ALO air liaison officer

ALPS automated load planning system

AM amplitude modulation
AMB air mission brief

AMC air mission commander

ammo ammunition
AMO air movement officer

ANGLICO air and naval gunfire liaison company

area of operations
AO
Army Post Office
APO
Army regulation
AR
Army forces
ARFOR
Army National Guard
ARNG
as soon as possible
ASAP
assembly
asbly
Army Standardization Coordinating Committee
ASK
ASL authorized stockage list

ASOC air support operations center

ASP ammunition supply point

AT antitank

ATC air traffic control

attachment
atch
ATO aircraft transfer order

air transportability training

ATT
Army airspace command and control

avg average

airborne warning and control system

AWACS
adverse warning aerial delivery system
AWADS

battlefield air interdiction

BAI
battlefield coordination center
BCC
brigade
bde
bn battalion

Glossary-2
 FM 90-26

BOS battlefield operating systems

BSA brigade support area

command and control

command, control, and communications
camo camouflage

CARP computed air release point

CAS close air support
cbt combat
CCT combat control team
cdr commander

CDS container delivery system

CESO communications-electronics staff officer

cfm cubic feet per minute

chemlite chemical light

chemo chemical officer

CI counterintelligence

CIF Central Issue Facility

CINC Commander in Chief
CLACC central loading area control center

clas classified
cmd command
co commanding officer
COMALF Commander of Airlift Forces
COMDTINST commandant’s instruction
comf comfort

commex communications exercise

commo communications

COMSEC communications security

CONPLAN contingency plan

const construction
CONUS continental United States
coord coordinate; coordination
COSCOM Corps Support Command

Glossary-3
FM 90-26

CP command post

CPX command post exercise

CRC command and reporting center

CRP control and reporting post

CS combat support
CSF casualty staging facility

CSS combat service support

CTA common table of allowances

CUCV commercial utility cargo vehicles

CWIE container, weapon, and individual equipment

DA Department of the Army

DACG departure airfield control group

DACO departure airfield control officer

DCA Defense Communications Agency

DCC DISCOM control center

DCS Defense Communications System

DF direction finding

DISCOM Division Support Command

div division

DLIC detachment left in contact

DMCC division movement control center

DMDG digital message device group

DMJP Dragon missile jump pack

DMMC division materiel management center

DOD Department of Defense

DRB division ready brigade

DRF division ready force
DS direct support
DSA division support area
DSC division support communications
DST decision support templating
DTO division transportation officer
DZ drop zone

Glossary-4
 FM 90-26

DZST drop zone support team

DZSTL drop zone support team leader

EAC echelon above corps

E&E escape and evasion

ech echelon
ECM electronic countermeasures
EDRE emergency deployment readiness exercise
EEFI essential elements of friendly information

e.g. for example

elev elevation
enl enlisted
EOC Emergency Operations Center
EPW enemy prisoner of war
equip equipment
ESIP equipment supply issue point
ESM electronic warfare support measures

etc. et cetera
EW electronic warfare
EZ extraction zones

F Fahrenheit
FA field artillery
FAAR forward area alerting radar
FAC forward air controller

FACE forward aviation combat engineering

FACP forward air control post

FARP forward area resupply point
FASCAM family of scatterable mines
FASCO forward area support coordinator
FAST forward area support team
fax fascimille

FCT firepower control teams

FDC fire direction center

Glossary-5
FM 90-26

FEBA forward edge of the battle area

1SG first sergeant

FIST fire support team

fl flight

fld field

FLOT forward line of own troops

FLS field landing site

FM field manual; frequency modulated

FMSC Federal Manual for Supply Cataloging

FO forward observer

FOB forward operating base

FORSCOM United States Army Forces Command

frag fragmentary

FRAGO fragmentary order

FSA fire support area

FSB forward support base

FSE fire support clement

FSMC forward support medical company

FSO fire support officer

FSS fire support station

ft foot

G1 Assistant Chief of Staff (Personnel)

G2 Assistant Chief of Staff (Intelligence)

G3 Assistant Chief of Staff (Operations and Plans)

G4 Assistant Chief of Staff (Logistics)

G5 Assistant Chief of Staff (Civil Affairs)

gal gallon

GAR-I ground to air responder–interrogator

GLO ground liaison officer
GMRS ground marked relief system
gren grenade
GRREG graves registration
GS general support

Glossary-6
 FM 90-26

GSR ground surveillance radar

GTP ground tactical plan

HAHO high altitude, high opening

HALO high altitude, low opening

HD heavy drop

HDRS heavy drop rigging site

HE heavy equipment

HEPI heavy equipment point of impact

HF high frequency

HHC headquarters and headquarters command

HMMWV high-mobility, multipurpose wheeled vehicle

HQ headquarters
hr hour

HUMINT human intelligence

hwy highway

IAW in accordance with

ID identification

IEW intelligence and electronic warfare

IFF identification, friend or foe (radar)

IHF improved high frequency

IMC instrument meteorological conditions

inc included

IOM install, operate, and maintain

IP initial point
IPB intelligence preparation of the battlefield

IPW prisoner of war interrogation

IR infrared

IRC initial ready company

ISB intermediate staging base

JA joint airborne

JAAP joint airborne advance party

JACC joint airborne communication center

Glossary-7
FM 90-26

JAG Judge Advocate General

JCS Joint Chiefs of Staff
JCSE joint communications support element

JFC joint force commander

JM jumpmaster

JOC joint operation center

JRCC joint rescue coordination center

JSEAD joint suppression of enemy air defenses

JSOF joint special operation force

JTF joint task force

KIA killed in action

KIAS knots indicated air speed

KTAS knots true air speed

LACC loading area control center

LAPES low-altitude parachute extraction system

LAW light antitank weapon

LBE load-bearing equipment

lbs pounds
LC line of contact

LD line of departure
ldr leader

LIC low-intensity conflict

LMF Light Marine Force

LO liaison officer

LOB line of bearing

LOC lines of communication

LOI letter of instruction
LOS line of sight

LRS long-range surveillance

LRSU long-range surveillance unit
LSA logistics support area

LSI largest single item

Glossary-8
 FM 90-26

LZ landing zone

m meters
MAC Military Airlift Command
MACG marshaling area control group

MACR Military Airlift Command regulation

maint maintenance
MASF mobile aeromedical staging facility
max maximum
MBA main battle area
MC mobility corridors
MCO movement control officer
mech mechanized
med medical
MEDEVAC medical evacuation

METT-T mission, enemy, terrain, troops and time available

MHE materiels-handling equipment

MHz megahertz
mi miles
MI military intelligence
mil military

min minute

mm millimeter
MMC Materiel Management Center
MMEE minimum mission-essential equipment
mission-oriented command and control
MOG maximum-on-ground
MOPP mission-oriented protective posture
mort mortar
MOS military occupational speciality
MOUT military operations on urbanized terrain
MP military police
mph miles per hour
MRE meal–ready to eat

Glossary-9
FM 90-26

MRO materiel release order

msn mission

MTP mission training plan

MVR maneuver

NAF Naval Air Forces

NAI named areas of interest

NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization

NAVAIDS navigational aids

NBC nuclear, biological, chemical
NCO noncommissioned officer
NCOIC noncommissioned officer in charge

NCS net control station

NEO noncombatant evacuation operation

NGF naval gunfire
NM nautical miles
No. number
NOD night observation device
NWP Naval Warfare publication

obj objective
OEG operational exposure guide

off officer
OIC officer in charge
OP observation post

OPCON operational control

OPLAN operation plan
OPNAVINST operational naval instruction

opns operations
OPORD operation order
OPSEC operations security

opt optional
ORF operational readiness float
OVM on-vehicle materiel

Glossary-10
 FM 90-26

PA physician’s assistant; public address (system)

PAM pamphlet

PAO Public Affairs Office(r)

pax passenger(s)
PDF Panamanian Defense Force

PE priority equipment

PERSTAT personnel status

PHA personnel holding area

PI point of impact
PIBAL pilot balloon (observation)
PIR priority intelligence requirements
PLL prescribed load list
plt platoon

POL petroleum, oil, and lubricants

POM preparation of oversea movement of units
POR preparation of replacement for overseas movement
POV privately owned vehicle(s)

PP passage point
PPI personnel point of impact

prep prepare; preparation

PRVEP prerigged vehicles/equipment package

PSC personnel service company

PSG platoon sergeant

psi pounds per square inch

PSYOP psychological operation

PT (aircraft)
PVL priority vehicle list

PW prisoner of war

R&S reconnaissance and surveillance

RATELO radiotelephone operator

RATT radio teletypewriter

RB radar beacon

Glossary-11
FM 90-26

RCT regimental combat team

recon reconnaissance; reconnoiter
ref reference(s)
REMAB remote marshaling base
REMBASS remotely monitored battlefield sensor system
rep representative
reqd required
retrans retransmission
ROE rules of engagement
RP release point
RSL remote spring launch

RSTA reconnaissance, surveillance, and target acquisition

RTFT round-trip flying time
Rv radius of Vulnerability

S1 Adjutant

S2 Intelligence Officer

S3 Operations and Training Officer

S4 Supply Officer
S5 Civil Affairs Officer
SACR Strategic Air Command regulation
SALT supporting arms liaison team
S&T supply and transport (unit)
SAR search and rescue

SATCOM satellite communication(s)

Scty security
SD special duty
SDO staff duty officer
SEAD suppression of enemy air defense
SECOMP secure en route communications package
SERE survival, evasion, resistance and escape
SCM sergeant major
SGT sergeant
SHF super high frequency

Glossary-12
 FM 90-26

SHORAD short-range air defense

SIGINT signal intelligence

SIGO signal officer

SKE station keeping equipment

SKE/ZM station keeping equipment/zone marker

SO safety officer

SOCCE special operations command and control element

SOF special operations force

SOI signal operation instructions

SOP standing operating procedure

spt support

sq square

SSAN Social Security Account number

SSB single side band

sta station
STANAG Standardization Agreement

STOL short takeoff and landing

STU III (a secure telephone)

syn synthetic

sys system

t ton
TAACOM Theater Army Area Command

TAC Tactical Air Command

TACAIR tactical air

TACC tactical airlift control center

TACP tactical air control party

TACS tactical air control system

TACSAT tactical satellite

TAES tactical aeromedical evacuation system

TAP Tactical Air Force

TAI target areas of interest

TALO tactical air liaison officer

TAW tactical air wing

GIossary-13
FM 90-26

TB technical bulletin
TBP to be published
T/D/AC tons per day per aircraft
TDAR tactical defense alert radar

tech technician

TEMIG tactical electronic magnetic ignition generator

TF task force
tgt target
TGT total ground time
TLP troop-leading procedure

tm team
TM technical manual
TO takeoff
TOC tactical operations center
TOE table(s) of organization and equipment
TOT time over target
TOW tube-launched, optically tracked, wire-guided (missile)
TPL time phase line
TRADOC Training and Doctrine Command

trns trains
TSR tactical surveillance and reconnaissance

TT/D total tons per day

UAV unmanned aerial vehicle

UHF ultra high frequency

ULACC unit loading area control center

US United States

USAF United States Air Force

USAR United States Army Reserve

USMC United States Marine Corp

USNG United States National Guard

UTE utilization time

UTM universal transverse mercator (grid)

veh vehicle

Glossary-14
 FM 90-26

vert vertical
VFR visual flight rules
VHF very high frequency

VIRS verbally initiated release system

VMC visual meteorological conditions

VTOL vertical take-off/landing

w with
w/o without
WO warning order
WOC wing operations center
wpns weapons

wt weight

xmtr transmitter
XO executive officer

yds yards

Glossary-15
 REFERENCES

DOCUMENTS NEEDED

These documents must be available to the intended users of this publication.

*CTA 50-909. Field and Garrison Furnishings and Equipment. 1989.

*FM 1-100. Doctrinal Principles for Army Aviation in Combat Operations. 28 February 1989.

*FM 57-220. Basic Parachuting Techniques and Training. 31 December 1984.

*FM 57-230. Advanced Parachuting Techniques and Training. 13 September 1989.

*FM 100-27. US Army/US Air Force Doctrine for Joint Airborne and Tactical Airlift Operations
(AFM 2-50). 31 January 1985.

*FM 100-28. Doctrine and Procedures for Airspace Control in the Combat Zone
(AF Manual 1 -3; NWP 17, LMF 04). 1 December 1975.

*FM 100-42. US Air Force/US Army Airspace Management in an Area of

Operations. 1 November 1976.

*FM 100-103. Army Airspace Command and Control in a Combat Zone. 7 October 1987.

*TM 38-250. Packaging of Materials Handling: Preparing of Hazardous Material for Military
Air Shipments. 15 January 1988.

READINGS RECOMMENDED

These readings contain relevant supplemental information

AR 59-4. Joint Airdrop Inspection Records, Malfunction Investigation and Activity Reporting
(AFR 55-40; OPNAVINST 4630.24B; MCO 13480.1B). 27 November 1984.

AR 210-1. Private Organizations on Department of the Army Installations. 15 July 1981.

AR 210-10. Administration. 12 September 1977.

AR 220-10. Preparation of Oversea Movement of Units (POM). 15 June 1973.

*This source was also used to develop this publication.

Reference-1
FM 90-26

AR 350-30. Code of Conduct/Survival, Evasion, Resistance and Escape (SERE) Training.

10 December 1985.

AR 750-1. Army Materiel Maintenance Policy and Retail Maintenance Operations.

31 October 1989.

FM 3-5. NBC Decontamination. 24 June 1985.

FM 5-101. Mobility. 23 January 1985.

FM 6-20-30. Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures for Fire Support for Corps and Division
Operations. 18 October 1989.

FM 7-8 (HTF). The Infantry Platoon and Squad (Infantry, Airborne, Air Assault, Ranger),
HOW to Fight. 31 December 1980.

FM 7-20. The Infantry Battalion (Infantry, Airborne and Air Assault). 28 December 1984.

FM 7-30(HTF). Infantry, Airborne and Air Assault Brigade Operations, How to Fight.
24 April 1981.

FM 7-85. Ranger Unit Operations. 9 June 1987.

FM 8-55. Planning for Health Service Support. 15 February 1985.

FM 10-20. Organizational Maintenance of Military Petroleum Pipelines, Tanks and

Related Equipment. 20 February 1984.

FM 10-30. Central Issue Facility. 14 November 1985.

FM 10-400. Quartermaster Airdrop and Airdrop Equipment Support Units.

2 November 1984,

FM 12-6. Personnel Doctrine. 23 August 1989.

FM 14-7. Finance Operations. 9 October 1989.

FM 16-1. Religious Support Doctrine: The Chaplain and Chaplain Assistant,

27 November 1989.

FM 20-150. National Search and Rescue Manual. (NWP-19; AFM 64-2; COMDTINST
M16130.2). 1 November 1986.

FM 21-76. Survival. 26 March 1988.

FM 22-100. Military Leadership. 31 October 1983.

FM 24-1. Combat Communications. 11 September 1985.

Reference-2
 FM 90-26

FM 25-100. Leadership Counseling. 3 June 1985.

FM 25-101. Battle Focused Training: Battalion Level and Lower. TBP.

FM 34-25. Corps Intelligence and Electronic Warfare Operations. 30 September 1987.

FM 34-60. Counterintelligence. 14 August 1985.

FM 34-80. Brigade and Battalion Intelligence and Electronic Warfare Operations.

15 April 1986.

FM 34-130. Intelligence Preparation of the Battlefield. 23 May 1989.

FM 41-10. Civil Affairs Operations. 17 December 1985.

FM 43-5. Unit Maintenance Operations. 28 September 1985.

FM 55-9. Unit Air Movement Planning. 31 August 1981.

FM 63-20. Forward Support Battalion. 17 May 1985.

FM 90-10-1 (HTF). An Infantryman’s Guide to Urban Combat (How to Fight). 30 September 1982.

FM 100-10. Combat Service Support. 15 February 1988.

FM 101-5. Staff Organization and Operations. 25 May 1984.

FM 101-5-1. Operational Terms and Symbols. 21 October 1985

FM 101-10-1/2. Staff Officers Field Manual-Organizational Technical, and Logistical Data,

Planning Factors (Volume 2). 7 October 1987.

MAC Regulation Combat Control Team Operations and Procedures. 12 April 1983.
3-3.

MAC Regulation Loadmaster Abbreviated Checklist. October 1987.

55-130.

STANAG 3466/ Responsibilities of Air Transport Units and User Units in the Loading and
ASCC 44/18C. Unloading of Transport Aircraft in Tactical Air Transport Operations,
Edition 2. 5 June 1975.

STANAG 3570/ Drop Zones and Extraction Zones–Criteria and Markings, Edition 3.
ASCC 44/13G. 26 March 1975.

TAC Regulation EC-130 Aircrew Operational Procedures. September 1988.

55-130.

TM 5-330. Planning and Design of Roads, Airbases, and Heliports in the Theater of
Operations. 6 September 1968.

Reference-3
FM 90-26

TM 5-337. Paving and Surfacing Operations. 21 February 1966.

TRADOC Pam 34-4. AWACS–Army Contingency Voice Operating Procedures: (ATDO). 4 March 1986.

Reference-4
 INDEX

aeromedical evacuation, C-5 to C-6 (illus)

airborne battlefield command and control center (ABCCC)

communications capability, D-2
duties, D-2
missions, D-2

aircraft specific data and comparisons, C-11 to C-16

air defense
early warning, 8-15
elements, 8-14 to 8-15

airdrop. See combat service support.

Air Force support

air traffic control, 8-12
command and air control, 8-11 to 8-12
missions, 8-9 to 8-10
tactical support, 8-10 to 8-11

airhead
assault objective, 3-4 to 3-6
early warning capability, 8-15
line, 3-4 to 3-6
occupation, 3-14
organization, 3-14
size, 3-14

airland
advantages, 4-9
disadvantages, 4-9
organization, 4-9 to 4-10

airlift
aeromedical, C-2, C-5
civil reserves, C-2
commanders
airborne, 2-2
airlift, 2-2
joint responsibilities, 2-2
cycle time, C-6 to C-7
factors, C-1

Index-1
 operational support, C-2
resources, C-1
strategic, C-1
support requirements, C-5
tanks and cargo, C-2
theater, C-2

air movement plan

administative movement, 5-2
aircraft loads, 5-10 to 5-11
air movement table, 5-12 to 5-13
considerations, 5-3 to 5-5
joint planning, 5-1
manifests, 5-13
requirements, 5-2 to 5-3
tactical movement, 5-2
vehicle load planning, 5-6 to 5-7

ANGLICO forces, 8-7 to 8-8

Army aviation
deployment, 8-13 to 8-14
helicopter, 8-12 to 8-13

Army warning and control system (AWACS), D-1

assault
buildup, 3-14 to 3-16
combat power, 3-14 to 3-16
conduct of, 3-12 to 3-14
development, 3-14
echelon 2-8, 3-11
follow-on echelon, 2-8, 3-11
objectives, 3-4 to 3-6
organization,
assault echelon, 2-8, 3-11
rear echelon, 2-8, 3-11
reorganization, 4-27

assembly
equipment, 4-19
security, 4-26 to 4-27

battlefield operating systems (BOS), 1-7

briefbacks, 2-9, E-7 to E-8

planning, E-1

Index-2
 FM 90-26

briefing
aids, E-12 to E-13
command and staff, E-7
facilities, E-1 to E-2
joint, E-2 to E-3
jumpmaster, E-8 to E-1 2
mission, E-3
responsibilities, E-2
scope, E-3 to E-7
specialized, E-8
troop, 4-22

combat control team (CCT)

deployment, A-1 to A-2
employment, A-1
functions, A-2 to A-4
mission, A-2
organization, A-4

combat service support

airdrop, 9-9
considerations, 9-3 to 9-5
field services, 9-12 to 9-13
logistical structure, 9-1 to 9-2
maintenance, 9-9 to 9-12
responsibilities, 9-2 to 9-3
resupply, 9-9 to 9-10
supplies, 9-5 to 9-9
transportation, 9-12

combat support
aspects, 8-2 to 8-3
elements, 8-1
execution, 8-4 to 8-5
liaison, 8-4
planning, 8-5 to 8-6

command and control, 1-10

communications
aircraft, 8-26 to 8-28
command and control nets, 10-6 to 10-16
considerations, 10-3 to 10-4
controlling airspace, 10-18
electronic warfare assets, 10-18 to 10-19
plans, 10-4 to 10-6
signal facilities, 10-2 to 10-3
techniques, 10-17 to 10-18

container delivery system, 4-6, A-6, A-7 (illus)

Index-3
FM 90-26

countermobility, 1-9 to 1-10

decision-making process, 2-3, 2-4 (illus)

drop zones
assembly aids, 4-19
aircraft, 4-21
audible, 4-20
clock system, 4-18
electronic, 4-20 to 4-21
equipment, 4-19 to 4-21
field expedient, 4-21
line-of-flight, 4-18
Stiner, 4-19 to 4-20 (illus)
visual, 4-19
assembly and reorganization
cross loading, 4-15 to 4-16
heavy-drop loads, 4-16
individual equipment and weapons, 4-16
personnel, 4-16
assessments, B-8
configuration
capacity, 4-12
shape, 4-11
size, 4-11 to 4-12
construction, 4-11
cover and concealment, 4-11
criteria/selection, A-5 to A-7
day markings, A-7 to A-8
factors affecting assembly
dispersion, 4-23
state of training, 4-23
visibility, 4-23
identification, 4-10
key terrain, 4-11
natural, 4-19
night markings, A-9 to A-10
operations, B-5
orientation, 4-12 to 4-13
out of range, 4-10
selection of, 4-10
straight-line approach, 4-10
support team leader
duties, B-1 to B-2
qualifications, B-2
responsibilities, B-2, B-4
unit assembly, 4-22 to 4-24
visibility, 4-23
weather and terrain, 4-10 to 4-11

Index-4
 FM 90-26

early warning capability, 8-15

echelonment, 2-8

equipment delivery
airland 4-9 to 4-10
container delivery system, 4-6
door bundles, 4-7
free drop, 4-6
heavy drop, 4-7
high altitude, low opening (HALO), 4-7
high velocity, 4-6
low-altitude parachute extraction system (LAPES), 4-8
low velocity, 4-7
sequence of delivery, 4-4
supply airdrop
advantages, 4-5
disadvantages, 4-5
wedges, 4-7

engineers
countermobility, 1-9 to 1-10
FACE missions, 8-17 to 8-18
mobility, 1-9 to 1-10
survivability, 1-9 to 1-10

exfiltration, 7-8 to 7-9

extraction zones, 4-10

fire support, 1-9, 8-2

follow-on echelon, 2-8, 3-11

forms (examples)
air movement planning worksheet, 5-8 (illus)
basic planning guide, 5-8 to 5-9 (illus), 5-10
drop zone support team/aircrew mission briefing checklist, B-3 (illus)
vehicle load card, 5-6 to 5-7 (illus)

forward area combat engineering (FACE) missions. See engineers

forward operating base (FOB), 7-19

Index-5
FM 90-26

ground marked release system, B-6 to B-7

ground tactical plan, 3-1

helicopter missions, 8-12 to 8-13 (illus)

high altitude, low opening (HALO)/high altitude, high opening (HAHO),

A-6

identification markings
assault aircraft, 4-21
equipment, 4-21, B-4
personnel, 4-21

inspections, E-13 to E-15

intelligence, 1-8 to 1-9

assets, 8-22
evaluation, F-2 to F-3 (illus)
support 8-22 to 8-23

intelligence preparation of the battlefield (IPB)

area evaluation, F-2 to F-3
process, F-1

intermediate staging base (ISB), 7-18 to 7-19

joint airborne advance party (JAAP), 4-18, A-1

joint responsibilities. See airlift.

landing plan
area study, 4-3
commander’s priorities, 4-2 to 4-3
considerations, 4-3 to 4-4
methods of landing, 4-4
priorities, 4-4
requirements, 4-2 to 4-3

Index-6
 FM 90-26

subunit plans, 4-3

tactics, 4-3
time-space factors, 4-4

landing zone
assault zone, A-10
construction, 4-11
day and night operations, A-11 to A-13
expeditionary zone, A-10
markings, A-11
visual aids, A-12 to A-13

limitations of forces, 1-6

long-range surveillance (LRS) team

functions, A-4 to A-5
mission, A-4
organization, A-5

low-altitude parachute extraction system (LAPES), 4-8

day operations, A-14
multiple operations, A-15
night operations, A-14

maneuver, 1-8 to 1-9

manifests
flight, 5-13

marshaling
camps, 6-4 to 6-5
dispersal, 6-3
movement, 6-2 to 6-3
N-hour, 6-1
passive defense during, 6-3
plans, 2-6, 6-1
preparation before, 6-1 to 6-2
rehearsals, 6-1
requirements, 6-5 to 6-9
responsibilities, 6-10 to 6-12

materiels-handling equipment, C-4

military police support, 8-32 to 8-33

missions
operational, 1-4
strategic, 1-4
tactical, 1-4 to 1-5

Index-7
FM 90-26

mobility, 1-9 to 1-10

multiple-lateral impact points, 4-24 to 4-25

naval gunfire (NGF), 8-7 to 8-9

NBC
MOPP levels, 8-36 to 8-39
planning, 8-33
protective measures, 8-34 to 8-36
responsibilities, 8-33 to 8-34

N-hour
example brigade checklist, G-2 to G-9
sequence, G-1
standing operating procedure, G-1

noncombatant evacuation operations (NEO), 7-14 to 7-16

outload, 6-12

parachute(s)
areas, 6-8 to 6-9
issue, 6-2 to 6-3
rigging, 6-7 to 6-9

payloads
average, C-2
maximum, C-2
restrictions, C-2 to C-3

personnel
casualty reports, 9-14
replacement, 9-13 to 9-14
responsibilities, 2-2
strength accounting, 9-13

phases of airborne operations

air movement, 1-7
ground tactical, 1-7, 3-1
landing, 1-7
marshaling, 1-6 to 1-7

Index-8
 FM 90-26

planning
assets, 2-6 to 2-7
considerations, 2-7 to 2-11
responsibilities, 2-1

prisoners of war, 9-17 to 9-18

rapid assembly
activities, 4-25

rear echelon, 2-8, 3-11

reconnaissance and security forces, 3-7

rehearsals, 2-9, 6-1 to 6-2, E-16 to E-17

remote marshaling base, 7-17 to 7-18

reserves, 3-11
battalion, 3-12
brigade, 3-12
division, 3-11

reverse planning
air movement plan, 2-5 to 2-6
assets, 2-6
considerations, 2-7 to 2-11
ground tactical plan, 2-3
landing plan 2-5
marshaling plan, 2-6

security
force operations, 7-14
measures, 4-26 to 4-27

special operations force (SOF), 2-10 to 2-11

specific missions
operational, 1-4
strategic, 1-4
tactical, 1-4 to 1-5
survivabiilty, 1-9 to 1-10

Index-9
FM 90-26

tactical operations, 7-1

airfield seizure, 7-10
breakout from encirclement, 7-9
exfiltration, 7-8 to 7-9
raids, 7-1 to 7-4
recovery, 7-4 to 7-5
relief, 7-10
supporting 7-16
survival, 7-9
withdrawal, 7-3

training
premission, E-15 to E-16
program, 1-3
specialized, E-16
unit, 1-3
use of aircraft, E-16

U
unit withdrawal/evacuation
factors, 7-6
responsibilities, 7-6 to 7-7
sequence, 7-6

warning and control systems, D-1

Index-10
 FM 90-26
18 DECEMBER 1990

By Order of the Secretary of the Army:

CARL E. VUONO
General, United States Army
Chief of Staff

Official:

JOHN A. FULMER
Colonel, United States Army
Acting The Adjutant General

DISTRIBUTION:

Active Army, USAR, and ARNG: To be distributed in accordance with DA Form 12-11E, requirements
for FM 90-26, Airborne Operations (Qty rqr block no. 4655)

U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1 9 9 2 O - 3 2 4 - 9 1 9 ( 4 5 1 0 7 )

PIN: 045906-000