Rust

Colors of rust

Iron alloy phases

 Ferrite (α-iron, δ-iron)

 Austenite (γ-iron)
 Pearlite (88% ferrite, 12% cementite)
 Martensite
 Bainite
 Ledeburite (austenite-cementite
cementite eutectic,
eut 4.3%
carbon)
 Cementite (iron carbide, Fe3C)
 Beta ferrite (β-iron)
 Hexaferrum (ε-iron)

Steel classes

 Crucible steel
 Carbon steel (≤2.1%
≤2.1% carbon; low alloy)
 Spring steel (low or no alloy)
 Alloy steel (contains non-carbon
non elements)
 Maraging steel (contains nickel)
 Stainless steel (contains ≥10.5% chromium)
 Weathering steel
 Tool steel (alloy steel for tools)
too

Other iron-based
based materials

 Cast iron (>2.1% carbon)

 Ductile iron
 Gray iron
 Malleable iron
 White iron
  Wrought iron (contains slag)

Rust is a general term for describing iron oxides.. In colloquial usage, the term is applied to
red oxides, formed by the reaction of iron and oxygen in the presence of water or air
moisture.
ture. There are also other forms of rust, such as the result of the reaction of iron and
chloride in an environment deprived of oxygen, such as rebar used in underwater concrete
pillars, which generates green rust.
rust. Several forms of rust are distinguishable visually and by
spectroscopy,, and form under different circumstances.[1] Rust consists of hydrated iron(III)
oxides Fe2O3·nH2O and iron(III) oxide-hydroxide
oxide (FeO(OH), Fe(OH)3). Given sufficient
time, oxygen, and water, any iron mass will eventually convert entirely to rust and
disintegrate. Surface rust provides no protection to the underlying iron, unlike the formation
of patina on copper surfaces.

Rusting is the common term for corrosion of iron and its alloys, such as steel
steel. Many other
metals undergo equivalent corrosion, but the resulting oxides are not commonly called rust.

Chemical reactions

Heavy rust on the links of a chain near the Golden Gate bridge in San Francisco; it was
continuously exposed to moisture and salt-laden
salt laden spray, causing surface breakdown, cracking,
and flaking of the metal.

Oxidation of iron metal

When impure(cast) iron is in contact with water, oxygen, or other strong strong oxidants and/or
acids, it rusts. If salt is present as, for example, in salt water, it tends to rust more quickly, as
a result of the electro-chemical
chemical reactions. Iron metal is relatively unaffected by pure water or
by dry oxygen. As with other metals, like aluminium, a tightly adhering oxide coating, a
passivation layer, protects the bulk iron from further oxidation. Thus, the conversion of the
passivating iron oxide layer to rust results from the combined action of two agents, usually
oxygen and water. Other degrading solutions are sulfur dioxide in water and carbon dioxide
in water. Under these corrosive conditions, iron hydroxide species are formed. Unlike iron
oxides,
s, the hydroxides do not adhere to the bulk metal. As they form and flake off from the
surface, fresh iron is exposed, and the corrosion process continues until either all of the iron
is consumed or all of the oxygen, water, carbon dioxide, or sulfur dioxidedioxide in the system are
[2]
removed or consumed.
Associated reactions

A rusted (and dirt-encrusted)

encrusted) bolt; note the surface pitting and gradual shape
shape-deformation,
caused by severe oxidation

Rust in pipes can result in brown and black water.

The rusting of iron is an electrochemical process that begins with the transfer of electrons
from iron to oxygen.[3] The rate of corrosion is affected by water and accelerated by
electrolytes,, as illustrated by the effects of road salt on the corrosion
corrosion of automobiles. The key
reaction is the reduction of oxygen:

O2 + 4 e- + 2 H2O → 4 OH-

Because it forms hydroxide ions,

ions, this process is strongly affected by the presence of acid.
Indeed, the corrosion of most metals by oxygen is accelerated at low pH.. Providing the
electrons for the above reaction is the oxidation of iron
iron that may be described as follows:

Fe → Fe2+ + 2 e−

The following redox reaction also occurs in the presence of water and is crucial to the
formation of rust:

4 Fe2+ + O2 → 4 Fe3+ + 2 O2−

In addition, the following multistep acid-base

acid reactions affect the
he course of rust formation:

Fe2+ + 2 H2O ⇌ Fe(OH)2 + 2 H+

Fe3+ + 3 H2O ⇌ Fe(OH)3 + 3 H+

as do the following dehydration equilibria:

Fe(OH)2 ⇌ FeO + H2O

Fe(OH)3 ⇌ FeO(OH) + H2O
2 FeO(OH) ⇌ Fe2O3 + H2O
Rusted pyrite cubes

From the above equations, it is also seen that the corrosion products are dictated by the
availability of water and oxygen. With limited dissolved oxygen, iron(II)-containing
iron(II) containing
materialss are favoured, including FeO and black lodestone (Fe3O4). High oxygen
concentrations favour ferric materials with the nominal formulae Fe(OH)3-xxOx/2. The nature
of rust changes with time, reflecting the slow rates of the reactions of solids.

Furthermore, these complex processes are affected by the presence of other ions, such as
Ca2+, both of which serve as an electrolyte, and thus accelerate rust formation, or combine
with the hydroxides and oxides of iron to precipitate a variety of Ca-Fe-O-OH
OH species.

What's more, rust indicator can be used for testing

testing the presence of Fe2+. Fe2+ turns the rust
indicator from yellow to blue.

Prevention
Rust is permeable to air and water, therefore the interior iron continues to corrode. Rust
prevention thus requires coatings that preclude rust formation. Stainless steel forms a
passivation layer of chromium(III) oxide.
oxide. Similar passivation behavior occurs with
magnesium, titanium, zinc, zinc oxides,
oxides aluminium, polyaniline,, and other electroactive
conductive polymers.

Galvanization

An important approach to rust prevention entails galvanization, whichh typically consists of an

application, on the object to be protected, of a layer of zinc by either hot-dip
dip galvanizing or
electroplating.. Zinc is traditionally used because it is cheap, adheres well to steel, and
provides a cathodic protection to the steel surface in case of damage of the Zinc layer. In
more corrosive environments (such as salt sal water), cadmium is preferred. Galvanization often
fails at seams, holes, and joints where the coating is pierced. In these cases, the coating
provides cathodic protection to metal, where it acts as a galvanic anode rusting in preference.
More modern coatings add aluminium to the coating as zinc-alume;; aluminium will migrate
to cover scratches and thus provide protection for longer. These approaches rely on the
aluminium and zinc oxides protecting the once-scratched
once scratched surface rather than oxidizing as a
sacrificial anode.. In some cases, very aggressive environments or long design life, both zinc
and a coating are applied to provide corrosion protection.

Cathodic protection

Cathodic protection is a technique used to inhibit corrosion on buried or immersed structures

by supplying an electrical charge that suppresses the electro-chemical
electro chemical reaction. If correct
correctly
applied, corrosion can be stopped completely. In its simplest form, it is achieved by attaching
a sacrificial anode, thereby making the iron or steel the cathode in the cell formed. The
sacrificial anode must be made from something with a more negative electrode potential than
the iron or steel, commonly zinc, aluminium, or magnesium.
Coatings and painting

Flaking paint, exposing a patch of surface rust on sheet-metal

Rust formation can be controlled with coatings, such as paint,, that isolate the iron from the
environment. Large structures with enclosed box sections, such as ships and modern
automobiles,
iles, often have a wax-based
wax based product (technically a "slushing oil") injected into these
sections (see Rustproofing).). Such treatments also contain rust inhibitors. Covering steel with
concrete
ete can provide some protection to steel by the high pH environment at the steel
steel-
concrete interface. However rusting of steel in concrete can still be a problem.

Plating

Rusting can completely degrade iron. Note the galvanization on the unrusted portio
portions.

 Zinc plating (galvanized iron/steel): iron or steel coated with zinc metal layer. Hot
Hot-
dipped method or zinc-blasting
zinc method may be used.
 Tin plating:: mild steel sheet coated with a tin layer.
 Chrome plating:: wherein a thin layer of chromium is electrolytically applied to the
steel, providing both rust protection and a highly polished, bright appearance. Often
used on the silver-coloured
coloured components
components of bicycles, motorbikes, and automobiles.

Bluing

Bluing is a technique that can provide limited resistance to rusting for small steel items, such
as firearms; for it to be successful, water-displacing
water displacing oil is rubbed onto the blued steel.

Humidity

Rust can be avoided by controlling the moisture in the atmosphere. An example of this is the
use of silica gel.
Inhibitors

Corrosion inhibitors, like gas--phase

phase or volatile inhibitors, can be used to prevent corrosion in
closed systems.

Economic impact
Main article: Corrosion

The collapsed Silver Bridge, as seen from the Ohio side

Rust is associated with degradation of iron-based

iron based tools and structures. As rust has a much
higher volume than the originating mass of iron, its build-up
build up can also cause failure by forcing
apart adjacent parts — a phenomenon
enomenon sometimes known as "rust smacking". It was the cause
of the collapse of the Mianus river bridge in 1983, when the bearings rusted internally and
pushed one corner
ner of the road slab off its support. Rust was also an important factor in the
Silver Bridge disaster of 1967 in West Virginia, when a steel suspension bridge collapsed in
less than a minute, killing 46 drivers and passengers on the bridge at the time.

The Kinzua Bridge after it collapsed

Kinzua Bridge in Pennsylvania was blown down by a tornado in 2003 largely because the
central base bolts holding the structure to the ground had rusted away, leaving the bridge
resting by gravity alone.

Likewise, corrosion of concrete-covered

concrete covered steel and iron can cause the concrete to spall,
creating severe structural problems. It is one of the most common failure modes of reinforced
concrete bridges.