DEPT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING,JBIET

By:- Mr. Rajkumar D Bhure

Assoc.Prof. ECE Dept. JBIET
Optical Fiber Communication
Spectrum for communication
Attenuation Vs Wavelength
Fiber vs. Copper
Optical fiber transmits light pulses
Can be used for analog or digital
transmission
Voice, computer data, video, etc.
Copper wires (or other metals) can
carry the same types of signals with
electrical pulses
Advantages of
OFC over conventional Copper Wire Communication
Small Size and light Weight
Abundant Raw Material Availability
Higher Band Width Low Noise
Low transmission loss and high signal security
Highly Reliable and easy of maintainance
Fibers Are Electrically Isolation
Highly transparent at particularo Wave Length
No possiblityof ISI and echoes cross talketc.
Immunity to natural hazardous.


Index of Refraction(n)
When light enters a dense medium like
glass or water, it slows down
The index of refraction (n) is the ratio of
the speed of light in vacuum to the speed
of light in the medium n=c/v
Water has n = 1.3
Light takes 30% longer to travel through it
Fiber optic glass has n = 1.5
Light takes 50% longer to travel through it
Material Used
Basic materials are plastic and Sand(Sio2)
The Dopents used increase or decrease RI
are:-
GeO2 and P2O5--- To Decrease RI
B2O3------ To Decrease RI
Elements of
Optical communication System
Optical Fiber
Core
Glass or plastic with a higher
index of refraction than the
cladding
Carries the signal
Cladding
Glass or plastic with a lower
index of refraction than the core
Buffer
Protects the fiber from damage
and moisture
Jacket
Holds one or more fibers in a
cable
Plastic Optical Fiber
Large core (1 mm) step-index
multimode fiber
Easy to cut and work with, but high
attenuation (1 dB / meter) makes it
useless for long distances
Singlemode Fiber
Singlemode fiber has a core diameter
of 8 to 9 microns, which only allows
one light path or mode
Images from arcelect.com (Link Ch 2a)
Index of
refraction
Multimode Step-Index Fiber
Multimode fiber has a core diameter
of 50 or 62.5 microns (sometimes
even larger)
Allows several light paths or modes
This causes modal dispersion some modes
take longer to pass through the fiber than
others because they travel a longer distance





See animation at link Ch 2f
Index of
refraction
Step-index Multimode
Large core size, so source power can
be efficiently coupled to the fiber
High attenuation (4-6 dB / km)
Low bandwidth (50 MHz-km)
Used in short, low-speed datalinks
Also useful in high-radiation
environments, because it can be
made with pure silica core
Singlemode FIber
Best for high speeds and long
distances
Used by telephone companies and
CATV
Multimode Graded-Index Fiber
The index of refraction gradually
changes across the core
Modes that travel further also move faster
This reduces modal dispersion so the
bandwidth is greatly increased
Index of
refraction
Step-index and Graded-index
Step index multimode was developed
first, but rare today because it has a
low bandwidth (50 MHz-km)
It has been replaced by graded-index
multimode with a bandwidth up to 2
GHz-km
Types of Optical Fibers
Total Internal Reflection
u u
u u
u u
u u
u
u u
=
=
>
= =
>
1 1 2 2
1 3
1 2 1 2
2
1 2
1
1
:
sin sin
Re

90 deg
sin sin


c c
c
c
Snells Law
n n
flection Condition
When n n and as increases eventually
goes to rees and
n
n n or
n
is called the Critical angle
For there is no pro pagating refracted ray
Light Ray confinement
nSin
0
=n
1
Sin; Sin=n
2
/n
1
;

NA= n1(2)
1/2
; T=L n
1
2
/cn
2
Acceptance Angle
The acceptance angle (u
i
) is the
largest incident angle ray that
can be coupled into a guided ray
within the fiber

The Numerical Aperture (NA) is
the sin(u
i
) this is defined
analogously to that for a lens
#
tan
1

2
f f
f
D FullAccep ceAngle
NA
=
=

1 1 1
2 2
2
2 2 2
1 2
1 2 1 2
( ) (2 ) (2 )
and
2
NA n n n n
n n n n
Where n
n
= - = D = D
- +
D
Sources and Wavelengths
Multimode fiber is used with
LED sources at wavelengths of 850 and
1300 nm for slower local area networks
Lasers at 850 and 1310 nm for
networks running at gigabits per second
or more
Sources and Wavelengths
Singlemode fiber is used with
Laser sources at 1300 and 1550 nm
Bandwidth is extremely high, around
100 THz-km
Fiber Optic Specifications
Attenuation
Loss of signal, measured in dB
Dispersion
Blurring of a signal, affects bandwidth
Bandwidth
The number of bits per second that can
be sent through a data link
Numerical Aperture
Measures the largest angle of light that
can be accepted into the core
Attenuation and Dispersion
Measuring Bandwidth
The bandwidth-distance product in
units of MHzkm shows how fast data
can be sent through a cable
A common multimode fiber with
bandwidth-distance product of 500
MHzkm could carry
A 500 MHz signal for 1 km, or
A 1000 MHz signal for 0.5 km
From Wikipedia
Numerical Aperture
If the core and cladding have almost the
same index of refraction, the numerical
aperture will be small
This means that light must be shooting
right down the center of the fiber to stay
in the core
Fiber Manufacture
Three Methods
Modified Chemical Vapor Deposition
(MCVD)
Outside Vapor Deposition (OVD)
Vapor Axial Deposition (VAD)
Modified Chemical Vapor
Deposition (MCVD)
A hollow, rotating glass
tube is heated with a
torch
Chemicals inside the tube
precipitate to form soot
Rod is collapsed to crate
a preform
Preform is stretched in a
drawing tower to form a
single fiber up to 10 km
long
Modified Chemical Vapor
Deposition (MCVD)
Outside Vapor Deposition (OVD)
A mandrel is coated with a porous
preform in a furnace
Then the mandrel is removed and
the preform is collapsed in a process
called sintering
Image from csrg.ch.pw.edu.pl
Vapor Axial Deposition (VAD)
Preform is
fabricated
continuously
When the preform
is long enough, it
goes directly to
the drawing tower
Image from
csrg.ch.pw.edu.pl
Drawing Apparatus
The fiber is drawn from
the preform and then
coated with a protective
coating
Fiber Performance
Attenuation
Modern fiber material is very pure, but there is
still some attenuation
The wavelengths used are chosen to avoid
absorption bands
850 nm, 1300 nm, and 1550 nm
Plastic fiber uses 660 nm LEDs
Image from iec.org (Link Ch 2n)
Optical Loss in dB (decibels)
If the data link is perfect, and loses no power
The loss is 0 dB
If the data link loses 50% of the power
The loss is 3 dB, or a change of 3 dB
If the data link loses 90% of the power
The loss is 10 dB, or a change of 10 dB
If the data link loses 99% of the power
The loss is 20 dB, or a change of 20 dB

dB = 10 log (Power Out / Power In)
Data Link
Power In
Power Out
Absolute Power in dBm
The power of a light is measured in
milliwatts
For convenience, we use the dBm units,
where
-20 dBm = 0.01 milliwatt
-10 dBm = 0.1 milliwatt
0 dBm = 1 milliwatt
10 dBm = 10 milliwatts
20 dBm = 100 milliwatts
Three Types of Dispersion
Dispersion is the spreading out of a
light pulse as it travels through the
fiber
Three types:
Modal Dispersion
Chromatic Dispersion
Polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD)
Modal Dispersion
Modal Dispersion
Spreading of a pulse because different
modes (paths) through the fiber take
different times
Only happens in multimode fiber
Reduced, but not eliminated, with
graded-index fiber
Chromatic Dispersion
Different wavelengths travel at different speeds
through the fiber
This spreads a pulse in an effect named
chromatic dispersion(group Delay)
T=1/vg =1/L *d/d
Chromatic dispersion occurs in both singlemode
and multimode fiber
Larger effect with LEDs than with lasers
A far smaller effect than modal dispersion
Modal Distribution
In graded-index fiber, the off-axis
modes go a longer distance than the
axial mode, but they travel faster,
compensating for dispersion
But because the off-axis modes travel
further, they suffer more attenuation
Equilibrium Modal Distribution
A long fiber that has lost the high-
order modes is said to have an
equilibrium modal distribution
For testing fibers, devices that can
be used to condition the modal
distribution so that measurements
will be accurate
Mode Stripper
An index-matching substance is put on the
outside of the fiber to remove light
travelling through the cladding
Mode Scrambler
Mode scramblers mix light to excite
every possible mode of transmission
within the fiber
Used for accurate measurements of
attenuation
Figure from
fiber-optics.info
(Link Ch 2o)
Semiconductor Optical Sources
Source Characteristics
Important Parameters
Electrical-optical conversion efficiency
Optical power
Wavelength
Wavelength distribution (called linewidth)
Cost
Semiconductor lasers
Compact
Good electrical-optical conversion efficiency
Low voltages
Los cost

Semiconductor Optoelectronics
Two energy bands
Conduction band (CB)
Valence band (VB)
Fundamental processes
Absorbed photon creates an electron-hole pair
Recombination of an electron and hole can emit a photon
Types of photon emission
Spontaneous emission
Random recombination of an electron-hole pair
Dominant emission for light emitting diodes (LED)
Stimulated emission
A photon excites another electron and hole to recombine
Emitted photon has similar wavelength, direction, and phase
Dominant emission for laser diodes
Basic Light Emission Processes
Pumping (creating more electron-hole pairs)
Electrically create electron-hole pairs
Optically create electron-hole pairs
Emission (recombination of electron-hole
pairs)
Spontaneous emission
Simulated emission
Semiconductor Material
Semiconductor crystal is required
Type IV elements on Periodic Table
Silicon
Germanium
Combination of III-V materials
GaAs
InP
AlAs
GaP
InAs


Direct and Indirect Materials
Relationship between energy and momentum for electrons and holes
Depends on the material
Electrons in the CB combine with holes in the VB
Photons have no momentum
Photon emission requires no momentum change
CB minimum needs to be directly over the VB maximum
Direct band gap transition required
Only specific materials have a direct bandgap
Light Emission
The emission wavelength depends on the energy band gap



Semiconductor compounds have different
Energy band gaps
Atomic spacing (called lattice constants)
Combine semiconductor compounds
Adjust the bandgap
Lattice constants (atomic spacing) must be matched
Compound must be matched to a substrate
Usually GaAs or InP
1 2
E E E
g
=
g g
E E
h c 24 . 1
= =
Common Semiconductor
Compounds
GaAs and AlAs have the same lattice constants
These compounds are used to grow a ternary compound
that is lattice matched to a GaAs substrate (Al
1-x
Ga
x
As)
0.87 < < 0.63 (m)
Quaternary compound Ga
x
In
1-x
As
y
P
1-y
is lattice
matched to InP if y=2.2x
1.0 < < 1.65 (m)
Optical telecommunication laser compounds
In
0.72
Ga
0.28
As
0.62
P
0.38
(=1300nm)
In
0.58
Ga
0.42
As
0.9
P
0.1
(=1550nm)
Optical Sources
Two main types of optical sources
Light emitting diode (LED)
Large wavelength content
Incoherent
Limited directionality
Laser diode (LD)
Small wavelength content
Highly coherent
Directional
Band-gap and refractive index engineering.
Heterostructured LED
Avoiding
losses in LED
Carrier
confinement
Photon
Confinement
Double
heterostructure
Burrus type
LED
Shown
bonded to a fiber
with index-
matching epoxy.
Double Heterojunction LED
(important)
n
+
GaAs
p Al GaAs
p GaAs (active region)
n AlGaAs
Metal contact
Metal contact
Epoxy
Fiber
Optics
Double Heterostructure
The double heterostructure is invariably
used for optical sources for communication
as seen in the figure in the pervious slide.
Heterostucture can be used to increase:
Efficiency by carrier confinement (band gap
engineering)
Efficiency by photon confinement (refractive
index)
The double heterostructure enables the
source radiation to be much better defined,
but further, the optical power generated per
unit volume is much greater as well. If the
central layer of a double heterostructure,
the narrow band-gap region is made no
more than 1m wide.

Photon confinement -
Reabsorption problem
Source of electrons
Source of holes
Active region (micron in thickness)
Active region (thin layer of GaAs) has smaller band gap, energy of photons
emitted is smaller then the band gap of the P and N-GaAlAs hence could not
be reabsorbed.
Carrier confinement
p
+
-AlGaAs n
+
-AlGaAs p-GaAs
holes
electrons
Simplified band diagram of the sandwich top show carrier confinement
Light Emitting Diodes (LED)
Spontaneous emission
dominates
Random photon emission
Spatial implications of
random emission
Broad far field emission
pattern
Dome used to extract more
of the light
Critical angle is between
semiconductor and plastic
Angle between plastic and
air is near normal
Spectral implications of
random emission
Broad spectrum

kT
p
2
45 . 1 ~ A
Laser Diode
Stimulated emission dominates
Narrower spectrum
More directional
Requires high optical power density in the gain region
High photon flux attained by creating an optical cavity
Optical Feedback: Part of the optical power is reflected back into the
cavity
End mirrors
Lasing requires net positive gain
Gain > Loss
Cavity gain
Depends on external pumping
Applying current to a semiconductor pn junction
Cavity loss
Material absorption
Scatter
End face reflectivity
Laser Diode
Stimulated emission dominates
Narrower spectrum
More directional
Requires high optical power density in the gain region
High photon flux attained by creating an optical cavity
Optical Feedback: Part of the optical power is reflected back into the
cavity
End mirrors
Lasing requires net positive gain
Gain > Loss
Cavity gain
Depends on external pumping
Applying current to a semiconductor pn junction
Cavity loss
Material absorption
Scatter
End face reflectivity
Optical Feedback
Easiest method: cleaved end faces
End faces must be parallel
Uses Fresnel reflection



For GaAs (n=3.6) R=0.32
Lasing condition requires the net cavity gain to be one


g: distributed medium gain
o: distributed loss
R
1
and R
2
are the end facet reflectivity's

( ) | | 1 exp
2 1
= L g R R o
2
1
1
|
.
|

\
|
+

=
n
n
R
Phase Condition
The waves must add in phase as given by


Resulting in modes given by


Where m is an integer and n is the refractive index of the cavity
t | m L
z
2 2 =
m
n L 2
=
Longitudinal Modes
Longitudinal Modes
The optical cavity excites various
longitudinal modes
Modes with gain above the cavity
loss have the potential to lase
Gain distribution depends on the
spontaneous emission band
Wavelength width of the individual
longitudinal modes depends on the
reflectivity of the end faces
Wavelength separation of the
modes A depends on the length of
the cavity
Mode Separation
Wavelength of the various modes


The wavelength separation of the modes is

A longer cavity
Increases the number of modes
Decrease the threshold gain
There is a trade-off with the length of the laser cavity





m
n L 2
=
)
`

+
= = A
+
1
1 1
2
1
m m
n L
m m

n L m
n L
2
2
2
2

= ~ A