PDC Handouts - Full Set July 11

Designed Visions
Permaculture Design Course

Handouts
July 2011
Contents
ii
Contents
An Introduction to Permaculture
A Beginners Guide to Permaculture Mind Maps of Permaculture Ethics and Philosophies An Introduction to Systems Problems and Spirals of Erosion Permaculture and Sustainability
1 3 4 5 7 9 10 11 13 14 15 16 17 18 1 2 3 5 7 8 9 9 9 10 11 12 12 13 15 16 17 19 19 19 20 20 20 21 1 1 3 3 4 4 5 www.designedvisions.com
Pattern Understanding and Applications Natures Food Webs Keeping an Observation Diary
Nine ways of observing Phenological diary Personal phenological diary
Some definitions of permaculture (pick your favourite):
Approaches to Design
Where You At?
Themes in Design Principles of Ecology Principles of Natural Sustainable Systems Guiding Principles of Permaculture Design The Golden Rules of Edible Landscaping Methods and Approaches to Design Needs and Yields Analysis
Limiting factors
The Permaculture chicken A Permaculture cup of tea Energy cycling for a house and garden system McHargs exclusion method Spiral of intervention
Microclimate Energy Efficient Planning Elevation profile More design tools
Zones and sectors - a case study Web of connections Random assembly Fukuokas four principles of natural farming Yeomans Keyline scale of permanence SWOC / PNI ~ comparing best options
Climate and Landform Soil

The Basics Estimating Soil Texture
David Holmgrens Principles
Designing in non-native environments
Soil Texture Triangle Identifying Texture by Feel Identifying Soil Texture by Measurement (Jar Test) Soil Texture by Feel Flowcharts
Designed Visions ~ permaculture design course handouts
Contents
iii 7 7 8 9 13 18 19 22 23 25 27 30 31 33 34 1 3 4 6 7 8 9 11 12 13 15 1 2 3 7 8 9 10 11 11 13 14 15 19 22 1 2 3 5 6 7 12 www.designedvisions.com
Biological Monitoring
Indicator Plants Soil Conservation and Improvement Mulching Liquid Manure Compost Making Dynamic (Mineral) Accumulators Fertile Relationships Green Manures Worm Composting Jean Pain Method Nutrient availability by pH Water in the Landscape Water Management Water Use at Home Rainwater Harvesting Water, Toilets and Solutions
Water facts
Transect mapping Biological and Soil Monitoring Chart Nutrient Management for Plant Growth
Water
Trees
Pond Design for Wildlife Wetland Eco-system Treatment (WET) Systems Ten Reasons why Trees are Important Not Seeing the Forest for the Trees Agroforestry Orchards and Fruit Trees Top Working Forest Gardening
Choice of Species Organiser The Metabolism of the tree
Humanure dry composting toilets Using Biological processes to filter and clean polluted water Determining Freshwater Quality Using the Ladder of Organisms
Cultivated Ecology
Planting Fruit Trees Multipurpose Windbreak Design Willows Horticulture techniques Kitchen Gardening Polyculture Vegetable Gardens 15 food rules for ecological public health Chemicals in Agriculture - A Comparison Integrated Pest Management (IPM) Seed Saving
Robert Harts seven layers Robert Harts garden plan Robert Harts garden layering
Contents
iv 15 17 18 21 23 1 7 8 9 10 11 13 1 3 5 6 1 5 7 8 9 10 11 15 1 2 4 4 5 7 9 11 14 1 3 4 5 8 1 4 1 2
Energy, Buildings and Structures

Energy and Permaculture Ecological Footprinting How to Save Energy in the Home Appropriate Energy Technology Appropriate Technology In Development Bioregionalism Transition Culture Real Wealth and Wiser Money
Cool climate house design Four possible future scenarios
Community Supported Agriculture Natural Farming The Land Institute Holistic Management Keyline Planning
Invisible Structures
Support local producers and retailers
People Care
Permaculture in personal and societal change Meetings techniques Groupwork Listening Skills
Accelerated Learning
Facilitation and Conflict Resolution Working with multiple clients or community groups The Guiding Principles of Accelerated Learning
Accelerated learning mindmaps Competence cycle Maslows hierarchy of needs
Vision support groups (aka action learning guilds) Parallel (six hat) thinking
Multiple Intelligences Learning Styles Mind mapping Permaculture for Children
Example childrens garden
Design Process Overview

SADIMET design process
Design Activity ~ Hints on the Process Simple Surveying Tools Permaculture Designers Checklist Drawing Plans The Diploma in Applied Permaculture Design Gaia University
Recommended reading Recommended viewing Websites
What Next? Resources
www.designedvisions.com
Chapter 1~ Introduction to permaculture
Page 1
An Introduction to Permaculture
A Beginners Guide to Permaculture
Chapter 1 ~ Introduction to permaculture
Page 2
Page 3
Mind Maps of Permaculture

Designed Visions ~ permaculture design course handouts www.designedvisions.com
Page 4
Ethics and Philosophies

Why ethics?
Ethics provide us with guidance & inspiration; they give direction to our path and underlie our objectives, regardless of occupation. If we state our ethics, we can make connections with other people with similar views. Includes all living and non-living things (such as animals, plants, air, water, land). Make provision for all life systems to continue and multiply. It emphasises the intrinsic value of all things, (not just those that are useful to us, that we can exploit or sell or that we can understand) - all life is connected. Law of necessitous use - leave an otherwise natural system alone unless we have to enter it; if we do, then: Law of conservative use - use the least possible amount of land to meet our needs - (setting voluntary limits to consumption) - reduce waste and hence pollution - do environmental impact analysis of our actions & design to buffer against adverse effects - do energy accounting of our actions & replace at least as much as is used.
Care of the Earth
Care of People
Ensure that all people have access to those resources necessary to their existence. This infers a need for a self-determined, equitable and sustainable society. Society needs to be ecologically sound and economically viable to protect and promote peoples health - for the world to be socially just and humane we need clean air, clean water, food and shelter. This original definition of people care has now been expanded to also include satisfying employment, meaningful human contact - self-reliance, interdependence and community responsibility.
Fair Shares Choose Limits to Consumption & Give Away Surplus
Frugal and equitable use of resources. The reinvestment of surpluses to further the above aims - this includes money, land, labour, information, etc. Needs not wants. At the same time, we must remember permaculture is also about creating an abundance of resources for us all to enjoy, so it doesnt always mean having less.
Take Responsibility (the prime directive of permaculture)
Take responsibility for our own existence and for that of our children - attitude shift: change is not something external to ourselves - not Someone else ought to do it, but Im responsible. Take responsibility for change. Instead of being an observer, powerless outside the current system, gain self-reliance through achievable practical solutions - direct action. Thoughtful action after protracted observation.
Co-Operation, Not Competition
Is the very basis of existing natural systems and of future survival. Create harmony not competition - build self-managing systems - things not forced into a function but doing what they would do naturally - harmony is the integration of chosen natural functions to the supply of essential needs. Permaculture is about interconnections.
Source: adapted by Aranya from an original by Patsy Garrard and George Sobol. Image by Chris Dixon Designed Visions ~ permaculture design course handouts www.designedvisions.com
Page 5
An Introduction to Systems
A basic understanding of the way systems behave is important to good design. There is a whole inter-disciplinary theory called Systems Theory dedicated to this, which studies the way complex systems behave in nature, society and science. Its an important piece of the permaculture puzzle and Howard T. Odum, a proponent of Systems Ecology clearly influenced David Holmgrens early thinking. So when we put specific things (elements) together (into systems), how do they behave (function)? Well to consider this, lets choose an example close to home; our own digestive system (systems are often named after their primary function). Now, while weve all at one time or another been aware of how it feels when it struggles with our food choices, some of us are more familiar than others with the finer details of its functioning. So what elements make up our digestive system? Well, it depends upon whom you ask. Have a look in a several different medical textbooks or do an image search on the Internet and youll see a variety of answers. Some diagrams show only our abdominal organs, while others include the mouth etc. too. This discrepancy comes from the fact that while the human body as a whole has a clearly defined edge1, the sub-systems (of which this is one) do not. I chose the diagram shown here as it includes the tongue, though I would also have added teeth and the nose, because our sense of smell is an important component of taste. This sense in turn ensures that the materials we place into our mouth are suitable for digestion, thus acting as an important filter for not just the digestive system, but the body as a whole. So its actually quite difficult to define exactly what constitutes the digestive system, as we can see that the edge between it and the other sub-systems of the body with which it interacts is rather subjective. We could also make the same observation about the respiratory system, the circulatory system, the reproductive system and so on. This is because elements (or sub-systems2) within systems are often multi-functional, each performing important, sometimes vital, functions across sub-systems and ultimately supporting the whole, while at the same time being supported by the whole. Remove the digestive system from the body and it would quickly perish, as would the rest of the body left behind. So as observers, its important for us to remember that even small elements within systems could be performing functions vital to the health and stability of the overall system and also be totally dependent upon it. So while it can be useful sometimes to sub-divide systems conceptually to make their interactions easier to consider, we mustnt lose sight of the fact that no part of a system ever exists totally in isolation. For this reason, as permaculture designers we always aim to make small changes, first observing the effects that these have and ensuring that they are beneficial, before going further.
1 This is of course an illusion. We are in constant exchange with our environment. 2 While we will often talk about elements within a system, those elements are often systems in themselves made up of yet smaller elements. Thus most elements are actually sub-systems within larger systems, though on the scale we are considering, it simplifies matters to consider them as single elements.
Page 6
Compare this to modern corporate-driven practices that expose us all to rapid changes in our environment such as significantly raised levels of electromagnetic radiation from computers and mobile phones etc. Weve not had enough time to observe the possible side-effects of fields that simply dont exist in nature. This occurs because someone wants to make a quick buck before their competitors get in on the market. Because of the complexity of systems, we often find it difficult to see the whole picture of what is going on. So another key thing we should know is that systems can sometimes behave very unpredictably (look at how unreliable weather forecasts can be, even with all the computing power now available to meteorologists). While the elements that make up a system may all act in one direction, the combination of them all may act in a completely different way. Its also important to notice whereabouts we find elements within systems. All nonhuman life makes everything using locally sourced resources and expertise ~ and that doesnt mean food from within a 50 mile radius (try walking or even cycling that on a regular basis). No, we find species thriving only where nature provides for their needs and where their waste products can be reused. If we relocate any species elsewhere, we risk creating an imbalance in the local ecology. In the same way, if we move or remove an element from any other system, we may throw it out of balance or stop it functioning completely. Imagine if your teeth were moved to between your stomach and your intestines. We might find that our digestion performed a little less well. Remove our teeth completely and, well some of us already know how that is. At least we can still manage to some degree without teeth, but lose our liver function and were in real trouble... Systems also always have functions3. Observing a system over time allows us to determine what those functions are (and in human-designed systems, such as financial institutions and corporations, its not always what they purport to be!). For most systems, one of the key functions is to ensure its own perpetuation. Hence in permaculture we aim to produce a yield and also a surplus for reinvestment. The overall functions of systems are determined not just by the functions of the elements or sub-systems that they are composed of, but also the interconnections between them. All the elements in a system can be replaced (e.g. cells in the human body, people in a university), but if the interconnections remain the same, then the system will continue to function in the same way. These interconnections are what makes any system strong (like a web), but also more complex. This makes sense of our desire to simplify things as much as possible, so we have less to think about (monoculture farming is a perfect example of this). However, simpler systems are far less resilient and more vulnerable to outside changes, like a reduction in the availability of one or more important inputs, such as oil. In contrast, a web or interconnected system can have over half its threads break and still be able to successfully harvest resources. The other key principle of systems is that these interconnections often create loops that feed back on themselves, either opposing or supporting any change. The first kind of feedback keeps a system in balance and these of course abound in Nature. They keep everything vital to life, such as temperature, oxygen levels etc. consistently at the right levels. They work by creating an opposing reaction when something goes out of balance. One example being how we continually adjust our posture, in order to stay upright as we walk or ride a bike, especially on a windy day.
3 In systems theory, non-human systems have functions and human-designed ones have purposes.
Source: Aranya ~ from Permaculture Design - a step-by-step guide to the process Designed Visions ~ permaculture design course handouts www.designedvisions.com
Page 7
Problems and Spirals of Erosion

The other kind of feedback is a reinforcing process, where a movement away from a point of balance stimulates a further movement away. Crossing your hands over on the handlebars of a bike demonstrates this very effectively, though speaking from personal experience, I wouldnt recommend it! An epidemic is another such scenario ~ the more infectious people there are, the quicker a disease spreads. After birth, a feedback mechanism is set in motion whereby we grow to the size determined by our environment to be ideal, and then at puberty the release of hormones creates feedback that keeps us at this ideal size. Balancing loops keep systems at a steady state and reinforcing ones move them from one steady state to another. While at first, reinforcing feedback processes may not seem as common as balancing ones, we can actually find plenty of examples of them around us, many as a result of our human actions. Much of the work we have to do to repair ecosystems involves identifying and reversing destructive, reinforcing feedback loops that our relatively recent human activities have set into motion. Anything that we value, but that is being progressively lost; from soil to silence, from biodiversity to darkness, from trees to a sense of purpose, can be studied to help us identify the root causes of these problems. I like to use the rather ironic example of a hole in the road, to compare permaculture with current thinking. Whereas we tend these days to think only about filling in the hole, a permaculture approach would lead us on a journey of discovery; to also find out what caused the hole to be there in the first place. Of course, the latter approach involves extra time and effort, which is more than necessary to councils and governments who only have a few years to convince us they are worth voting for again. So each successive regime patches up the mess the last lot left behind, as cheaply as possible and with no thought for the longer-term future. Not a recipe for success. So its up to us as individuals to see the folly in this thinking and come up with something better. Which brings us back to evaluating why any given thing doesnt work and where we can make different choices. Take for example, using a rotavator to clear weeds from an allotment plot. In the short term it does what is intended, but chops perennial weed roots, propagating them in the process and also brings dormant weed seeds to the surface. This ultimately means more weeds, Exercise: Start thinking about some of these which leads to more rotavating. loops yourself. Pick something familiar that you Until that is, the oil runs out see being eroded; local community, food growing
knowledge, darkness, letter writing etc. and see if you can draw the spiral thats causing the problem. What interventions could you make to turn the problem around? Identifying the root causes of what we might also refer to as resource or energy leaks, provides us with one or more points at which we can begin to address them. Well come back to this later when were figuring out the functions of our design.
Now this is a very simple reinforcing loop (which spirals more and more out of control) ~ weeds stimulate rotavating, which in turn leads to more weeds, then more rotavating and so on. An obvious point of intervention here would be to choose a different method of control. However, many loops are a little more complex than this and require a bit more consideration.
Page 8
Consider a time when humans lived in balance with nature, perhaps a time when we first began to settle in one place and make gardens. Any fruits we ate at the time would get a head start as many of their seeds would pass through us and get a fertility boost as a result. So these gardens may even have started themselves and we then spent more time there - a beneficial reinforcing feedback loop. This gave us more free time and enabled us to increase our population, putting more demand on nature to feed us. This may have led to migrations to the cooler temperate zones, where we developed an increasing dependance on sun-loving carbohydrates. The grow these we had to cut down trees and so the following spiral started:
The end game of this spiral is responsible for rural depopulation all over the world and is playing out right now in countries like Nepal.
Some current spirals:

Forest destruction, soil erosion, fertility (biomass) / fuel shortage, dung for fuel, lost fertility, more land clearance, forest destruction. * Debt traps: external inputs, loans, export natural/unprocessed products for , cash crops, loss of domestic resources, more external inputs. * Loss of genetic diversity/reliance on HYVs, increased external inputs, pest resistance, more inputs, loss of soil life, more inputs. * Poor education, no access to resources (mainly land/money), children grow up and continue cycle. * Public transport: increased private, increased prices and reduced service of public. * Lack of employment in rural areas, urban migration, skills, labour etc lost, no industry or investment, no employment. *
Problems are all around, in many different forms. The root is often loss of self dependance and self respect, inability to motivate, distance from decision-making and solution building, and inappropriate scale. Permaculture is all about breaking these spirals and re-humanising the scale of systems.
Source: Aranya / Chris Evans Designed Visions ~ permaculture design course handouts www.designedvisions.com
Page 9
Permaculture and Sustainability

So what exactly is design and how can permaculture help?
Design is the conscious assembly of concepts, materials, techniques and strategies for a particular purpose, though often taking little account of the environment in which the designed system must function. Permaculture reminds us that when we design to meet our needs, we must do so in a way that also supports the ecosystem as a whole, without which we are as doomed as that digestive system placed in isolation. Of course, permaculture is not a specific recipe, nor an end point. Rather it is an ongoing process of harmonious adaptation to natures changing conditions. The design process can help us each to find and stay on our own path. With the growing concern about living more sustainably, theres now no shortage of green options for us to choose from. Were given the impression that as long as we behave in certain ways and buy the right products, were doing the best we can, but design is about much more than just choosing the right things, its also about how we connect them together. Nature abounds with examples of beneficial relationships, showing us the importance of this strategy for long-term sustainability. So as permaculture designers, our role is to place components in the best places relative to each other, to create self-sustaining systems that also meet our needs. However, such relationships are often site-related, so we need to be able to consciously design, not just follow a recipe. In his Designers manual, Bill Mollison suggests that:
* The systems we construct should last as long as possible, and take least maintenance. * These systems, fuelled by the sun, should produce not only for their own needs, but the needs of the people creating or controlling them. Thus, they are sustainable, as they sustain both themselves and those who construct them. * We can use energy to construct these systems, providing that in their lifetime, they store or conserve more energy than we use to construct them or maintain them.
These practical design considerations provide us with clear criteria for how a permaculture design should perform. If we can design systems within these guidelines that meet our human needs, and at the same time support the eco-system as a whole, then we will be well on our way to a sustainable human society. We should invest most time and energy in the establishment a good design, so inputs decrease as time goes on. Conversely, yields may start off small but should increase as time progresses. At a certain point, the total energy yielded from the site exceeds the total amount invested and the system goes into profit.
Page 10
Some definitions of permaculture (pick your favourite):

* * PERMACULTURE DESIGN is a system of assembling conceptual, material, and strategic components in a pattern which functions to benefit life in all its forms. PERMACULTURE is a design system for creating sustainable human habitats. The aim is to create systems that are ecologically sound and economically viable; which provide for their own needs, do not exploit or pollute, and are therefore sustainable in the long term while rapidly being able to regenerate degraded systems. PERMACULTURE uses the inherent qualities of plants and animals combined with natural characteristics of landscapes and structures to produce a life-supporting system for city and country, using the least possible area. PERMACULTURE (permanent agriculture) is the conscious design and maintenance of agriculturally productive ecosystems which have the diversity, stability, and resilience of natural systems. It is the harmonious integration of landscape and people, providing their food, energy, shelter, and other material and non-material needs in a sustainable way.1 PERMACULTURE is taking natural eco-systems as the model for our own habitats. Careful thought followed by minimum action rather than hasty action followed by long term regrets.2 PERMACULTURE is not a set of rules; its a process of design based around principles found in the natural world, of cooperation and mutually beneficial relationships, and translating this into action.3 PERMACULTURE is an integrated evolving system of perennial or self-perpetuating plant and animal species useful to man.4 PERMACULTURE is the radical design of information-rich, multi-storey polyculture systems.5 PERMACULTURE is the use of systems thinking and design principles that provide the organising framework for implementing a permanent culture.6 PERMACULTURE is the conscious design of cultivated ecosystems that have the diversity, stability, & resilience of natural ecosystems. It is a harmonious integration of people into the landscape in such a way that the land grows in richness, productivity, and aesthetic beauty.7 PERMACULTURE is a design method which abandons the linear sectoral organization of human support systems (such as agriculture, energy & water management, architecture, urban planning, education, recreation, administration, etc.) in order to create linkages between the various elements needed for each specific task. Thus each element enhances the function of all others - similar to the way in which highly developed organisms work. The results are often stunning. Both in urban & rural settings, Permaculture examples demonstrate how the optimization of the overall yield saves work (i.e., time & energy) & creates beauty, flexibility, & responsiveness. Applied on a larger scale, we could create abundance everywhere in the world. All we need is human intelligence, courage, & insight.8
Graham Bell from The Permaculture Way, also attributed to Dan Hemenway Patrick Whitefield Andy Goldring Bill Mollison and David Holmgren from Permaculture One Bill Mollison and Rene Mia Slay David Holmgren Peter Bane Declan Kennedy
* *
* * * * * *
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Page 11
Pattern Understanding and Applications

Key understandings:
* We are all already experts at pattern recognition using all our senses, theyre vital survival tools for us. To understand nature better, we We need to be able to recognise first need to recognise the roles of friends from enemies, nutritious its basic patterns food from poisonous etc. Michael S.Schneider The patterns we see around us in nature are simply the forms of the Straight lines are axiomatically selfboundaries between different media contradictory and self-cancelling (the edge between them). hypothetical ventures Because life thrives on co-operative Buckminster Fuller relationships (our own bodies being perfect examples) increasing the surface area between systems facilitates more efficient exchange between them. In nature, resources and energy like to stay on the move. Life is always doing something useful, so theres never a hurry to get somewhere else. Nature lives in the NOW & this comes from her cyclic processes, as opposed to our human linear (A to B) thinking. Certain forms appear in many places & at different scales (this is what makes them patterns). We see them so often because they happen to be the most efficient way for Life to achieve particular (often exchange related) functions. Patterns have beauty, but also function. As things fall apart (e.g. weathering) more surface area (edge) is created, which in turn creates more habitats. Far from being something to fear, entropy increases the opportunities for life! By identifying natures most effective patterns, we can design human systems making use of natures 3.5 billion years of research & development. Patterns occur both in space & time, but we can apply what we learn from nature in both realms. Alas, that hasnt always been the case; take the 9 to 5 model of working for instance, which we stick to year-round while the rest of life adapts to the changing seasons. The principles of ecology we are so familiar with in permaculture are simply applied patterning, as are more specific techniques like Forest gardening. The strength of a web comes in part from its many anchor points. Transition uses this pattern to map resources & create local resilience. Whenever we plant seeds based on the advice on the back of the packet, we make use of tried & tested patterning. Sewage systems take advantage of the abundant edge in gravel beds (where the effective bacteria live) to utilise the available fertility & clean water. Hydro-electric turbines use the shell pattern to focus & accelerate water in towards the turbine, making it a more efficient generator. Biomimicry applies natures successful patterns to creating new harmonious technologies to replace less sustainable ones.
* * *
* *
Source: Aranya Designed Visions ~ permaculture design course handouts www.designedvisions.com
Page 12 Source: Permaculture Activist #39, p19
Page 13
Natures Food Webs

Natures resilience comes from the abundance of beneficial relationships that exist between species. Each of these species is connected to many others as part of a great food web and it is this multiplicity of connections that make this web so strong. Diversity ultimately leads to a stronger web, though only through an increase in possible relationships. In nature nothing of course is ever wasted; wherever such materials become available, a different species appears to make use of them. The Yellowstone Wolves Everything finds its own niche, where it can thrive For nearly 70 years the Wolves using such locally available resources and expertise. that inhabited this great nature Even where individuals of a species are being eaten by another, that species benefits from the removing of the weaker members, leaving a strong gene bank. These webs can also be considered as a kind of hierarchy - a trophic pyramid where a few top predators are supported by increasing numbers of lower level consumers, such as in the diagram below. And of course, each of these multi-cellular organisms is an excellent example of what is possible when the principle of co-operation is applied. Theres about two trillion cells in the human body, so thats quite a community to organise!
reserve were missing - hunted down and killed by humans, afraid of their kind and protective of their livestock. Over that 70 year period the Elk increased in number and because they werent being chased around became lazy and sickly beasts. Because of the increased Elk numbers, young trees were being grazed off and failing to replace the old. The forests were dying. In 1985, a controversial move was made. Ecologists who were concerned about the situation released 31 wolves back into the park. To begin with there was concern as the Wolves were killing Coyote (who had become the top predator in the Wolves absence). It seems these Coyote were taking big risks trying to get in on the Wolves kills and they were paying the price. After a while the Coyote learned not to and a balance began to recur. In the 25 years since the release, Elk numbers have dropped. returning to former levels. The herds are fitter now because they move around much more and the forests are growing back. Beavers have returned too - they rely on a good growth of willow at the waters edge, which the Elk were eating. In turn the dams they make have slowed river flow, reducing the loss of soil through run off and lowering the risk of downstream flooding. All of this happened because of the Wolves.
Source: Aranya Designed Visions ~ permaculture design course handouts www.designedvisions.com
Page 14
Keeping an Observation Diary

Its best if we can observe a site for a full cycle before making any hard-to-reverse decisions. Of course, for any land-based design that means a whole year and most of us are far too impatient to wait that long before starting. However, by making only small changes in the first year (e.g. growing annual vegetables) while at the same time continuing to observe the site, we can enjoy some progress and yet reduce the risk of making any really stupid mistakes. We can even make some early plantings part of our observations. If for instance we wish to plant an orchard in a years time, but are still uncertain about the best site to choose, we could buy some trees and plant a few of them in each of the sites we are considering. That way, the trees themselves can report back to us about how happy they are in each place. It doesnt really matter how we record our observations, as long as we do something. As long as we keep our handwriting legible, any record is better than relying on memory, something Ive discovered the hard way when examining unlabeled packets of seed each spring! Yet theres no point in setting yourself up to document lots of information every day if it soon feels like a chore. Just record what interests you (presumably what youre designing) and make it easy to do or you wont bother. A simple diary format might consist of a grid of boxes into which we record physical conditions like temperature, rainfall, perhaps even river levels etc.; any factors that relate to designing on your site. I keep a simple weather log, which has columns for three years worth of observations, allowing me to notice any long-term patterns. And because its a simple format, I rarely fail to fill it in. Photos are a great way of recording visual information, especially now digital cameras are so common. Recording shade patterns across a garden through the seasons is particularly well suited to this technique. Make a note on your calendar to take a photograph from say an upstairs window early morning, noon and evening at the beginning of each month (when the sun is out of course). The resulting photos will be very revealing about microclimates through the year. Alternatively, you might choose instead to write about or draw, paint or photograph what you see in nature on any given day, like Janet Marsh and Helen Moore have done so beautifully. This kind of diary will be more detailed, but have less raw data to work with later. Another useful record to keep is a phenological diary. Phenology is the study of plant and animal life cycles and is useful because it allows us to identify climate change by observing natures responses to it, for instance the timings of the appearance of buds, flowers and fruit and the migrations of birds and animals. While such a diary can be a useful observation tool for our own site, there is now a whole network of observers across Britain that allows the UK Phenology Network to build up a countrywide picture of these patterns. Your own observations are a valuable contribution to this and its very simple to sign up on the Natures Calendar website (www.naturescalendar.org.uk).
Page 15
Nine ways of observing
Source: Starhawk ~ The Earth Path Designed Visions ~ permaculture design course handouts www.designedvisions.com
Page 16 Source: Patsy Garrard and George Sobol.
Phenological diary
Personal phenological diary

Room dowsed? Clunking doors?
Personal patterns~ phenological diary

Additional:
Wi-fi / DECT nearby? Corridor lights?
Day:
Weather
am: pm:
Sleep
Curtains? Hours? Dreams? Undisturbed?
Energy level?
Out of 10 ?
Mental Physical (first thing) Emotional
Breakfast
What? Quantity Quality
Morning Activities
Physical? Mental? Etc.
Energy level?
Out of 10 ?
Mental Physical (morning) Emotional
Designed Visions ~ permaculture design course handouts Source: Aranya
Lunch
Energy level?
Out of 10 ?
Afternoon Activities
Mental Physical (afternoon) Emotional
Evening meal
Evening Activities
Exercise (during day)
Page 17
Self care (during day)
Relaxation? Healing? Bathing?
Page 18
Where You At?
Source: Patsy Garrard and George Sobol. Designed Visions ~ permaculture design course handouts www.designedvisions.com
Chapter 2~ Approaches to design
Page 1
Approaches to Design
Themes in Design
Yield
The sum total of surplus energy produced by, stored, conserved, reused or converted by the design. Energy is in surplus once the system itself has available all its needs for growth, reproduction & maintenance (and thus the extra is available for export, use or trade).
Resource
Energy storage to assist yield. Categories of resources;
1 Those which increase with modest use e.g. coppice, information; 2 Those unaffected by use e.g. sunlight, water through mill, view; 3 Those which disappear or degrade if not used, e.g veggies (overcome by weeds, etc), bees; 4 Those that are reduced by use. e.g. oil, clay deposits; 5 Those that pollute or destroy other resources if used. e.g. nuclear power, concrete.
Leaky barrel needs big inputs to match losses
Tight barrel circulates resources internally
1 to 3 are commonly produced in natural systems & rural living situations & are the only sustainabie basis of society. 4 & 5 are as a result of urban & industrial development. (maximise number of useful energy storages).
Entropy
Dissipated energy - no longer in a form usable by the system - bound or dissipated energy; energy unavailable for work, or not useful to the system (1+1=1.5 ....minimise entropy).
Synergy
Organisms are energy transformers. They survive by using this energy and their survival is a function of their ability to use it. Energy produced by elements in harmonious cooperation with each other is GREATER THAN THE SUM OF- ITS PARTS (1+1=3 ....maximise synergetic connections).
Guild
Assemblies of plants & animals of different species, occurring together over their range. Guilds act to assist our health, aid our management (work) and to buffer against adverse environmental effects.
Microclimate
The summation of environmental conditions at a particular site, as affected by local factors rather than climatic ones.
Chapter 2 ~ Approaches to design
Page 2
Principles of Ecology
Biological Resources Nature runs on current sunlight Patterns nature fits form to function Succession of natural systems Nature produces no waste Co-operation is what binds nature together Relative Location Multiple Functions for each element Multiple Elements for each important function Local resources Everything Gardens Diversity & Beneficial Relationships Appropriate Scale Microclimates
Stacking Edge Effect
Living things, including people, are the most effective intervening systems to capture resources on this planet and to produce a yield. Every other species is able to meet all their needs using no more than the suns ongoing supply of clean energy. The common patterns that we see around us in nature are the ones that have evolved to be the most efficient at fulfilling important functions such as respiration, feeding and procreation. Nature shows a tendency towards greater diversity and complexity, making mature eco-systems far more productive than young ones. Nothing is ever wasted in nature, what is waste for one species is food for another. Every cycle creates an opportunity for a new yield. Co-operative relationships make multi-cellular life possible. This same pattern of co-operation between species also supports life as a whole and ensures future survival. Nature puts everything where it works best; close to the resources it needs and in the most favourable environment. Everything in nature performs multiple functions, maximising the overall efficiency of natural systems. Nature provides for important basic needs such as water, food, and energy in many ways. Nature creates everything from locally sourced materials and expertise. Every living thing is shaping its environment to further benefit itself. Nature banks on diversity, though its importance is not so much about the number of elements in a system, but the number of beneficial relationships between them. Successful life forms develop to a size that makes the best sustainable use of resources available in their environment. These are areas where the overall climate is modified by the local topography. These can be as large as a moorland, or as small as under a stone. This creates a multitude of niches for different life forms to inhabit. Nature fills every available niche, making the most of both vertical space and every opportunity in time. Productivity increases at the boundary between two eco-systems because the resources from both systems are available for use.
Source: Aranya ~ in part inspired by Janine Benyus (Biomimcry) www.designedvisions.com
Page 3
Principles of Natural Sustainable Systems

A comparison of modern practice with natural sustainable practices.
* * * We need to learn the basic principles of sustainable systems. We need a long-term vision of directions for improvement. We have a duty to leave the world in a better state than we found it.
Current Modern Practice
Attempt to control nature. Heavy inputs of fertilizers. Try to eradicate pests, use of pesticides / poisons. Manipulation of natural order / use of GMOs. Create man made environment. Clear all plants except crop. Crop usually single type i.e. monoculture.
Principle
Sustainable Practice
Work with abundance of nature. Use of leguminous plants. Use of natural balance. Natural selection. Use nature as a model e.g. never bare soil, succession of plants from grass / weeds / roots / shrubs / pioneer trees / climax forest. Using different layers / stacking and diversity. Holistic, make connections. Natural Farm = agric + forest + health + village industry. Everything gardens, part of cycle of life. Natural farm = traditional agric + appropriate improvement. Make beneficial connections / co-operation. Natural balance, self-regulated / decentralised. Use feedback loops. Plan, consult, modify, test, apply. Conserve. Feed and improve soil and organisms. Healthy soil = healthy food. Invest in soil. Use biological systems, then mechanical, last chemical. Minimum use of external inputs. Synergy. Maximum use of natural forces / local resources. Include diverse perennial plants. Less use of fertilisers. Use plants to improve soil e.g. green manures. Reduce tillage - encourage earthworms. Right crop on right land. Grow what comes naturally / easily e.g. Tamarind / Ber (Zizyphus) on dryland. Single act - multiple functions. Mulching = less weeds, improved water availability + improved soil fertility. Source: Chris Evans
Work with nature, not against.
Observation of nature.
Everythings connected. Reductionist / separated, so forest separated from agriculture. Integration.
Homeostasis self regulation. Feedback systems. Living soil.
Man controlled / centralised. Plans / programmes implemented. Soil medium for plant roots feed plant nutrient.
Energy efficiency.
High use of energy and external inputs entropy e.g. single annual crop. Increased use of fertiliser. Ploughing.
Energy efficiency.
Maximum income e.g. Coconut / mango on degraded land. Single act - single function. Remove weeds from crop.
Energy efficiency.
Page 4
Principles of Natural Sustainable Systems

Principle Current Modern Practice
Linear thinking. Increased inputs Increased outputs. Attempt max. single yield / profit. Use of finite resources for max. profitability - e.g. fossil fuel, fertiliser, groundwater exploitation.
(contd)
Sustainable Practice
Cyclical nature. Turn waste into wealth.
Recycling resources increase the potential yields. Inputs provided within the system or = work. Outputs all used within the system or = pollution. Use renewable resources - create, conserve and only finally use. Harness resources passing through system. e.g. rainwater harvest, sunlight, wind energy. Grow hybrid and high response Increase diversity by crop Diversity = stability. variety seed. Same crop repeated on rotation, ally cropping, mix crops. same land for many years = build Mix variety e.g. Perennial plants, up of pests and depletion of same seasonal crops. Livestock and nutrients. poultry and aquatic life. Maximum risk, specialisation, Spread income, risk and labour. Minimum risk. unstable. Stability. Have fail safe / back up, resilience. Native seeds, (landraces) composite seed. Maximise only single yield All parts of crop have value / uses Multiple functions for e.g. High yield wheat variety e.g. Wheat = grain + straw every element. - more grain but less fodder - for fodder, thatch, ropes, craft and lower quality of fodder and compost. and grain. Maximum cash value. Yields limited only by our understanding. Maximum use value. Rely on and improve local Local resources to meet Encourage external resources. Needs met by money. resources not depend perpetually local needs. on others resources. Straight lines. Work with natural patterns Patterns & Edge. - maximise edge. Monoculture maintained. Accept and plan for change. Succession. Change. Impose order. Profitability, solely financial Reproduce system in the long term Self-replication. criteria. and produce a surplus. Unequal distribution. Equitable distribution and access. Distribution of
resources. Ethics.
Benefits trickle down. Use resources to maximise profits. Value only species of commercial use to people / owner. Short-term profitability. Competition makes for efficiency. Hierarchy and alienation. Self interest.
Upliftment of poorest first. Frugal / equitable use to meet basic needs. Intrinsic value inherent in all species. Long term trusteeship for future generations. Co-operation and harmony makes for better quality of life. Enpowerment and transparency. Care of people and Earth. Create, conserve and finally use. Source: Chris Evans
Page 5
Guiding Principles of Permaculture Design

Why? = understanding - stimulating, empowering - limiting factors / building blocks. How? = techniques, steps to action - creating designs / systems.
1. Beneficial, functional relationships (Relative location)

* * * * * Cooperation, not competition, is the very basis of existing systems and of future survival. Every element is placed in relationship to another so that they assist each other, reduce work & pollution, aid our management, assist health and buffer against adverse environmental effects. Concept of guilds, synergy. Design to maximise beneficial relationships. Based on observation, e.g. Doug Fir needs myccorhizal fungus - spread by Red Tree Vole. Clear cutting, spraying destroyed the voles habitat, thus DF grew poorly
because a key component of its guild was taken out.
Tribal groups often understand these connections better than anyone.
2. Multiple functions for single elements (for efficiency) 3. Multiple elements for single functions (for security) 4. Energy use & (re) cycling
* * * Energy inputs should decrease over time & distance. PC systems are self-managing as an objective. Select elements first that generate, then conserve & finally consume energy to perform functions (e.g house heating - greenhouse; insulation; woodbumer). Keep energy in the system for as long as possible (reduce entropy) e.g. water, nutrients; also money (invest locally), information. Create web (of relationships) to catch these resources and utilise their value in the system. If they leak out, we have to work to supply. Cycles increase the opportunity to take a yield. Living things are the best way to intercept natural energies - invest in them. Living things, including people, are the only effective intervening systems to capture resources on this planet & produce a yield. Thus, it is the sum & capacity of life forms that decides the total system yield & surplus.
5. Biological systems
* *
e.g. use legumes instead of nitrogen fertilizer; chickens & companion planting instead of pesticides.
6. Energy efficient planning (Zones, sectors & elevation)

Zones - for internal management of systems / resources - elements placed according to (a) how often we need to use and (b) how often we need to service them (i.e. how often they need us to visit them. e.g. chick house / firewood / nursery / kitchen garden - every day, therefore zone 1; apple tree - once for pruning, once for harvest, maybe for irrigation, compost - therefore zone3; etc. Sectors - for efficient management of energy entering the site (sun, wind, water, fire, etc.). What others can you think of? Elevation planning - design according to the relative elevation of elements, to facilitate efficient and sensible energy flow.
Page 6
7. Appropriate technology
Something is appropriate if it can be appropriated Often made of non-renewable resources, but can be justified (a) if they store / conserve / generate useful energy over their lives, or (b) are part of establishment or transition to sustainable ends.
8. Natural succession / stacking

Open site-to-shrubs-to small trees-to climax forest. We work to keep things at ground layer; we can imitate this natural pattern and substitute with more useful spp. Maturity erradicates immaturity. Can put all stages in at same time; use different needs, characteristics to stack non-competitive plants close by - use vertical and horizontal (3-D), + time (4-D), + relationships (synergy - 5-D).
9. Diversity
In any durable system there must be 3 different classes of life: autotrophs (auts. - use sunlight to synthesize organic molecules); heterotrophs (hets. - which dont - they steal their food from other auts.- we are hets.), and decomposers (decs) - all the organisms that break down org. molecules to make them palatable again to auts & hets. Without decs, there would be nothing for auts & hets to eat, and biomass would accumulate indefinitely. Diversity = stability Strategies to increase diversity: agroforestry, alley cropping, use of livestock, cooperative shares, increasing edge, work sharing, uneven aged crops. Edge - interface between 2 ecosystems = 3rd ecosystem, complex, containing elements of the 2 + own unique elements. More nutrients, light; nutrients; settlement patterns;
10. Patterns
* * * * Nature abhors straight lines, identical incidents, bare soil and monocultures (yet agriculture strives for all 4). Observe sequence of events; perception that patterns already exist (and how they function). Imposition of pattern onto site to achieve specific needs (solve problems, work to produce a local resource). Natural way of utilising space and increasing the number of niches and cycles in space & time (& therefore produce yield).
11. Appropriate scale

In crisis response, those working towards ethical and sustainable ends need a scale at which people can connect themselves with their problems, and thus the solutions, and how they affect their lives; when the forces of government are still recognizable and comprehendible and still intimate with other people; where the effects of ones actions are visible. This scale is optimised at the BR level. i.e. a scale at which human potential
can match ecological reality.
12. Attitude
* * * * * * The problem is the solution; turn liabilities into assets. The opposite is always true; everything works both ways. PC is information & imagination intensive (not energy or capital intensive). Yield is not limited by site, but by how we can utilise that niche, i.e. by the information & imagination of the designer. You dont have to be a farmer to be a designer. Every little helps.
The Golden Rules of Edible Landscaping
Designed Visions ~ permaculture design course handouts Source: Robert Kourik ~ Designing & Maintaining your Edible Landscape Naturally
Page 7
Page 8 Source: Chris Evans
Methods and Approaches to Design

Page 9
Needs and Yields Analysis

The Permaculture chicken
The classic example from the Permaculture Designers Manual used to demonstrate the method of meeting needs and making use of products locally to minimise work and maximise functions. Performing a needs and yields analysis for all elements in the system allows beneficial connections to be made. Intrinisc characteristics help us to choose the most suitable breed / variety / type to perform the required functions.
Image: Andrew Jeeves
A Permaculture cup of tea

Connecting outputs to inputs to create local cycles...
Image: Aranya Designed Visions ~ permaculture design course handouts www.designedvisions.com
Page 10
Energy cycling for a house and garden system
Source: Mike Feingold ~ Permaculture Teachers Guide p91 Permaculture Association / WWF UK
Page 11
Limiting factors
These factors ultimately decide our strategies in design. The physical / visible are reasonably easy to observe, though some may be seasonal. The invisible can be more challenging to notice, especially those like legislation that might change in the unknown future. Limits are the foundation of creativity
Source: Chris Evans Designed Visions ~ permaculture design course handouts www.designedvisions.com
Page 12
McHargs exclusion method

This is a useful tool to help us place our most important elements, any fussy ones needing particular inputs, or those adversely affected by multiple factors. By systematically eliminating areas or sectors not best suited to our chosen element, we can quickly narrow down options and simplify identifying an ideal site. Sometimes there are so many no-go areas that were left with only one option. This was the case when I sought to identify the best place to plant apple trees on an Irish mountainside; once Id ruled out the areas that were too wet, too windy and potentially frosty, Id only one area left. Of course you may be looking to place an element thats adversely affected only by frost, or waterlogged soil, or cold winds, or by some combination of these. This is where our overlays are really useful in making decisions, as we can choose to place only those with the relevant information over our base map. If this initial process still leaves us with more than one choice, we can then consider how our systems and elements could integrate together. This allows us to eliminate areas unsuited to any systems and elements that we wish to integrate with zone 0. For example, if we would prefer to have a spring feeding water under gravity into our home, then we can also discount any area of the site above the level of the spring for the build.
Spiral of intervention
This tool (sometimes also referred to as a cascade), gives us a hierarchy of options for action starting with the least harmful strategies. Permaculture guides us to work with nature; so the simplest intervention is to do nothing and let nature redress any imbalance. Sometimes this involves the removal of limiting factors that are preventing natural succession, such as the fencing out of grazing animals (wild or domesticated) or stopping the use of machinery or chemicals. Remember the Yellowstone Wolves? They were natures control on overgrazing of young trees by Elk. Should there be a need to accelerate succession, the next safest level of intervention we can make is biological. This means enlisting the help of plants, insects, birds, animals etc. as part of an Integrated Pest Management strategy. Should we run out of options there, we could move on to using mechanical means, which nature will still be able to repair, though over a longer period of time. Only when weve exhausted all options at that level should we consider the least safe option: chemical intervention. In theory, a skilled designer should never need to resort to the latter.
Page 13
Microclimate
MICROCLIMATE
The summation of environmental conditions at a particular site as affected by local factors rather than climatic ones.
local factors = topography, soil, vegetation, water masses, structures, etc. These factors overlay the climatic conditions to give local environmental conditions as measured by: temperature & its range relative humidity & its range wind speed,range, direction & regularity frost, rain, dew, snow Microclimate variations can be very great locally - usually due to varied nature of surfaces underlying the air layer near the ground.
dark = warm run off light = cool store heat shelter windbreak clay = wet, cold sand = dry, warm
type
rocks
colour
Soil
altitude slope Topography
ground cover reflects sun colour shade Vegetation drip line indicators reflects sun Water cools air stores heat shade windbreak
aspect heat Animals fertility
Factors
Buildings reflect sun
Conventional systems look to ignore m/c potential, to make it insignificant and land uniform in order to receive the capital inputs demanded by the system - required to support the structure of agricultural investment (and more). Applications Note limiting factors and use microclimates to increase species diversity, lengthen or advance/delay yielding time, protect against limiting effects of climate, etc. Permacuture systems include great diversity of useful plants & animals favouring many different environments. Plants themselves create microclimates (e.g. a maturing forest) Observation of a place - add time to see seasonal/extreme situations - can build polytunnel big m/climate - how can we do it for free?
Source: Chris Evans www.designedvisions.com
Page 14
Microclimate is the effect of

structures plants animals soil vegetation topography water
on
water stores heat trees make shade
rocks store heat
temperature & its range relative humidity & its range wind speed, range, direction & regularity frost, rain, dew, snow
resulting in the place being
pale surfaces reflect light & stay cooler
dark surfaces heat up quicker & get warmer
trees stop wind
warmer cooler sunnier shadier drier wetter sheltered windy more/less fertile
that allows
water reflects light
animals produce heat
hotter in the greenhouse
more niches greater spp diversity longer growing season better use of space optimum productivity
cool on the north side of the house cold air sinks to the bottom
clay soil stays wet & cooler
Page 15
Energy Efficient Planning

Permaculture design takes into account:
* * * * Zones Sectors Slope/Elevation Orientation/Aspect
depends on the degree of intensity of inputs, the frequency of visits and the amount of maintenance required. A property can be considered as a series of zones, starting with the home centre and working out to areas of less intensive input requirements. Energy efficiency/furthest away/most difficult to get to - least attention. Placement of the elements in a system depends on importance, priorities, number of visits required. Species, elements and strategies vary in each zone. Those needing most energy input are concentrated nearest the centre. Zone 00 - Self, individual, community and their relationships, needs & obligations. Zone 0 - Home or centre of activity. Zone 1 - The home garden - highly intensive. Includes herbs and vegetable garden. All things that need daily attention. Totally mulched. Start at back door and work outwards. Zones 1 & 2 are used for domestic sufficiency. Zone 2 - Intensively cultivated, spot-mulched, well-maintained, selected and grafted species. Intensive dense planting - small animals like chickens, quail, pigeon and duck. Stacking. Forest Garden. Zones 1 & 2. e.g. fruit trees for later grafting/selection. Self-forage systems for chickens, cattle, sheep, bees etc. Hardier bush and tree species, windbreaks and firebreaks, spot and rough mulching. Hedgerows. Zone 3 - Zones 3 & 4 are the zones for commercial production. Not on every site. Less intensive than Zones 1 & 2. Zone 4 Managed woodland. Long-term development. Coppice and/or standard trees. Timber, fuel and forage. Zone 5 - Unmanaged wilderness area. Our learning ground about natural systems. Rarely if ever visited. Yields may be harvested - seasonal hunter-gathering. Turfed roofs in cities. Leave corridors for wildlife in ALL the zones.
Zoning Sector planning deals with the energies that pass through a site. Good design moder-
ates these energies. Too little water is a drought. Too much water is a flood. We need to capitalise on shortages and ameliorate excesses. See microclimates. These energies include: Winter and Summer sun sectors. Wind sector. Cold air. Fire, Water/Flood, Frost, Pollution, Good & bad views! What other sectors might there be on a site?
Source: adapted by Aranya from original sheets by Patsy Garrard & George Sobol. Image unknown.
Elevation profile
Designed Visions ~ permaculture design course handouts Source: Chris Evans
* * *
Use gravity to max effect - water and storages. Flows of cold air and frost downhill, warm air rising. Movement of nutrients down slope - nutrient traps.
Page 16
Page 17
Zones and sectors - a case study

Here are a series of overlays I created for my former mobile home design. They serve as useful examples of how to map zones and of the different kinds of sectors and how best to group them to save on paper. Zones focus around the main areas of use, such as buildings, but also around desire lines where people move slowly enough to notice whats going on around them. The ideal is to gather those things that we give the most attention to, around those focuses (zone 0s) and desire lines to minimise the work and time involved in maintaining them. This is the zoning map I created for the garden; the primary desire line being the direct route in and out of the meadow and the secondary one via the shed where I kept my bike.
Sectors are all about energy coming onto the site from outside. We often call these
wild energies as they tend to be beyond our control to do much about beyond the site boundaries. Given enough overlay / tracing paper, I would always use at least two sheets, maybe more to map these. The reason for this is that later on when we do our analysis, we may be considering different combinations of these influences during the placement of each element. For one element we may need to consider the influences of wind and flooding, whereas for another it may be sun and water availability that are our concerns. So ideally use a sheet for each sector, but Id suggest that if you are to combine sectors onto overlays to save paper, to group them like this:
* * Those sectors that are directional and vary little across the site (e.g. sun, wind etc.) Those sectors that are topographical: mapped onto specific areas of the site (e.g. frost, flooding etc.)
Directional sectors
The main examples of these are:

* * The midwinter and midsummer sun sectors. The directions of both the prevailing and the coldest, most damaging winds. Consider average and gusting speeds, plus changes in moisture content and temperature too.
Essentially, anything that has a considerable effect over a long distance fits into this category. If you are on a coastal site, warm ocean currents could be considered a directional sector. Winds might also bring industrial pollution from far away. Whilst these energies can all be influenced by on-site elements, which may throw shade or slow the winds, directional sectors come on to the site at essentially the same angles regardless of where you are standing. They can be so consistent that, right across Britain, the prevailing wind is considered to come from between southwest and the west. The suns path is also fairly consistent over a wide area.
Page 18
A great tool called the Sun compass shows the changing angles at which the sun rises and sets through the year. Its calibrated to 50 North (e.g. London), but the instructions show you how to recalculate these angles for different latitudes. If youve enough time (seasons) to observe the site, you could create a shade map, showing how this changes across the site from morning to evening and month-by-month. You can place the focus of directional sector overlays anywhere on your base map; align them to north and they will tell you what you need to know in relation to your point of interest. Conveniently, once youve made a sun sector overlay like this, you can use it for any other design sited at approximately the same latitude.
Topographical sectors
The main examples of these are:

* * Areas prone to flooding. Areas prone to frost / freezing.
Water and cold damp air reliably flow downhill and collect in pockets or behind obstructions like buildings, hedges, or walls. Ice can build up on access routes where a slope sheds water onto a road or path. The levels of flooding rivers rise up on contour. As a result, these sectors are definable, though their extent can vary with the severity of any weather. While most directional sectors are represented as slices of pie coming into our point of focus, topographical sectors can be any shape as theyre created by the landscape or the structures within it.
Combined sectors
Many sectors we might want to consider though are neither purely directional nor topographical, but a combination of the two. They are formed where a directional sector interacts with a specific feature on the site. Often these lead to microclimates that give us the variety of niches we appreciate as designers. Some examples include:
* Wind funnels and sheltered areas. * Rain shadows of trees, hedges, walls or buildings. * Shade (remember shadows move through the day and their lengths change through the seasons). * Nighttime light pollution between buildings / trees etc. * Any good or bad views. * Privacy. * Any neighbouring fire risks (often seasonally inflammable materials upwind of the site).
Page 19
More design tools

Web of connections
Draw a large circle and write the names of potential elements around the outside. Choosing each in turn, go around the circle and identify where you can make connections with the other potential elements. As you find them, draw a line joining them together. In this simple example below, Ive used a selection of colours to highlight the different kinds of connections; e.g. daily, weekly, seasonal, need to be supervised etc. You might even include another colour for elements to keep apart! This example has only eight elements around the outside so its easy to see; yours will probably have a lot more. In such a web, the most-connected elements tend to stand out as having more lines than the others. However, the most value is gained from going through the process, rather than looking at the final diagram. If you notice any really good connections, make a special note to remind yourself later. How elements connect will of course vary, depending upon how each system is intended to function. Here children are involved, perhaps supervised, with the gardens activities. In other circumstances, they might be kept completely away from the greenhouse or the pond. One other thing to remember here is that some of these elements are mobile and that others are fixed in place. Chickens are very mobile, a chicken shed probably wont be; unless you determine that it would be an advantage. In order to make effective connections between less mobile elements, they will need to be placed at least in close proximity to each other, if not physically connected together.
Random assembly
This is a design tool that Ive seen used in several forms since it was introduced in Permaculture: A Designers Manual. Heres my favourite way of using it. Write down each of the elements (or systems) that you have on your shortlist onto pieces of paper or card. Stack them into a pile, turn it face down, shuffle them and divide into two piles. Turn over the top card from each pile and see if you can think of any connections between the two systems / elements. Dont hurry, as this process can help you to identify connections a quick consideration might not identify. While many combinations wont elicit useful connections, this process is very good at occasionally inspiring innovative solutions to problems, the kind that others will remember as great ideas. A recent example of this was when nut trees came up with pond, a little consideration brought up the idea of planting the trees on an island, to help stop squirrels reaching the nuts. They can swim, but dont like being at ground level where they are vulnerable to predators. Again, you should make a note of any particularly good connections, or any elements that you Random assembly: element picture cards and a connections prompt sheet used to identify possible beneficial interactions think you need to keep well apart!
Page 20
Fukuokas four principles of natural farming

When growing plants we might also consider some or all of:
* * No cultivation ~ no ploughing or turning the soil. The earth cultivates itself. No chemical fertilizer or prepared compost ~ these practices drain the soil of its essential nutrients. * No weeding by tillage or herbicides ~ weeds are an important part of building soil fertility and in balancing the biological community. As a fundamental principle weeds should be controlled, not eliminated. * No dependence on chemicals ~ weak plants develop as a result of ploughing and fertilising, increasing their vulnerability to disease and insects.
Yeomans Keyline scale of permanence

If working on a broadscale site, its worth remembering this scale that reminds us of the relative permanence of these main elements. The most permanent (unchangable) are placed at the top of the list. Bill Mollison and David Holmgren suggest an adaptation for planning permacultural systems:
1. Climate, 2. Landform, 3. Water supply, 4. Farm roads, 5. Plant systems, 6. Microclimates, 7. Permanent buildings, 8. Subdivisional fences, 9. Soil.
In essence this means putting water systems in first and improving soil at the end.
SWOC / PNI ~ comparing best options

There will be other times when a choice has to be made between two or more elements, perhaps because of a lack of space. In which case we can use a couple of simple thinking tools to help us: SWOC (adapted from the more familiar SWOT) and PNI. These provide us with frameworks to help us make comparisons. Having applied either of these tools to our different options, we should end up with a shortlist of those offering the most potential. SWOC stands for:
* * * * Strengths - what are the good things about choosing this? Weaknesses what are the not so good things? Opportunities what will this also allow me to do? Constraints what negative effects will this choice place on the things around it?
For instance, we might decide that for a windbreak, a hedge would offer us a solution that gets more effective over time (S), but takes a while to establish (W), it could offer additional outputs like wildlife habitats and food / fodder (O), but create shade and competition for other plants growing on the shady side of it (C). A wooden fence might provide a fairly instant barrier (S), but need more maintaining (W), provide a good vertical structure for climbing plants (O), but involve damaging those climbers when maintenance takes place and also throw shade to one side of it (C). Basically, the SW is about the thing itself & the OC the effect it has upon the things around it. Call it COWS if that makes it easier for you to remember! Or you could use a simpler version of this, another of Edward de Bonos thinking tools ~ PNI, which stands for:
* * * Positives what are the good things about this? Negatives what are the not so good things? Interesting things what else might be relevant, even though they may be neither good nor bad?
Page 21
David Holmgrens Principles

Observe and interact
Icon: Can be seen as different things: a tree with a hole, a person with their head in the clouds, a peep hole though which one sees the solution. * Observation of nature gives us first hand experience, as opposed to books, teachers, internet etc which are 2nd / 3rd hand sources. * We need to observe, recognise patterns and appreciate details which may often be small, slow, subtle, cyclical or episodic. Observation and listening to the land and the client are very important skills in permaculture. * Interaction is vital unless we get out there and open our eyes and use our hands and our hearts, all the ideas in the world will not save us (Holmgren) * Proverb: Beauty is in the eye of the beholder ~ everything can be viewed differently by different people. Related principles; * THE PROBLEM IS THE SOLUTION / TURN LIABILITIES INTO ASSESTS: Just as the icon can be viewed in different ways so can the situation we find ourselves in. When viewed in a positive light we can find how the situation can be used to our benefit. E.g if we have boggy land instead of thinking how do we change it, we can find plants that enjoy that habitat. *
Catch and store energy

* Icon: Sun in a bottle: can refer to a passive solar house, or preserving seasonal surpluses. * We need to be building long term assets for future generations of water, living soil, trees and seed. * Household storages of energy are preserves, seed and firewood. * Proverb: Make hay while the sun shines ~ a reminder that there is limited time to catch and store energy before seasonal abundance dissipates. Related principle; * HARVESTING IS MAINTENANCE: harvesting is catching and storing energy which also maintains the system.
Obtain a yield
* Icon: Edible yields are a measure of success. There are also many others attempting to obtain a yield. * We need to measure our work for returns (realistically, not with farm subsidies). Designs need to be maximum yield for ourselves, our communities and the Earth. * Like a child, more input is needed at the beginning: then inputs should decrease over time while outputs increase. * Proverb: You cant work on an empty stomach ~ meeting short term needs is essential.
Page 22
Related principles; * MINIMUM EFFORT MAXIMUM EFFECT; getting the most out for least put in. * YIELD IS ONLY LIMITED BY THE IMAGINATION: there are an infinite number of yields that we can get from any system, some of them not being measurable.
Apply self regulation and accept feedback

Icon: Gaia; largest self regulating system. * Whole society has a dependance on large scale remote systems, we are acting like a teenager wanting it all - now without consequences. * We need the right scale systems so we can get feedback on the consequences of our actions. * Proverb; The sins of our father are visited unto the 7th generation ~ not only do we reap what we sow but it has effects on future generations as well. * By changing ourselves we can change the world. Accepting personal responsibility and shifting from dependent consumers using unsustainable products, to responsible producers of appropriate wealth and value, will empower ourselves and create a more harmonious and balanced world capable of sustaining life for longer. *
Use and value renewable resources and services

Icon: A horse has non consuming uses/services e.g to pull a cart, plough, provide manure etc. * Renewable means using our income, non-renewable is using our capital/savings. * Proverb; Let nature take its course Related principles; * WORK WITH NATURE; Sustainable systems will emerge when working with nature not divorced for it. * EVERYTHING GARDENS; all creatures are contributing to the landscape. E.g. chicken tractor will make use of the nature of chickens to provide us with the services of scratching up the ground and pest management. *
Produce no waste
* Icon: Earthworm, the ultimate efficient recycler, aerating the soil and producing casts as a fertiliser benefiting microbes. * As well as reduce, reuse and recycle we have repair, refuse, re-educate and re-gift. * Proverb: Waste not, want not and a stitch in time saves nine ~ timely maintenance can significantly reduce waste. Related principle: * ENERGY CYCLING when energy and resources are reused within a system there is less waste e.g. re-using grey water for irrigation.
Page 23
Design from patterns to details

* Icon: Spiders web: every spiders web is unique, but the pattern is universal. * The same is true of sites, no two are the same, so work with templates / patterns and then work out the details. * Proverb: Cant see the wood for the trees ~ we cant see the bigger picture if we are concentrating on the details.
Integrate rather than segregate

* Icon: Integrated system composed of interlocking parts: people linking arms. * Synergy: the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. 1 + 1 = 3 * Connecting systems reduces inputs from the outside, and uses outputs within the systems. * Unmet needs / inputs = work. * Unused outputs = pollution. * Proverb: Many hands make light work Related principles: * BENEFICIAL RELATIONSHIPS; the connections between elements in a system are as important as the elements themselves. * RELATIVE LOCATION; where elements are placed in relation to each other allows for connections to be made.
Use small and slow solutions

* * * * Icon: Snail carrying spiral home on back The spiral is capable of incremental growth bit by bit. We need long term thinking in permaculture design, putting the effort and time in the planning stages will get you further in the long run. Proverb: Slow and steady wins the race and The
bigger they are, the harder they fall.
Related principles: * USE OF HUMAN/ APPROPRIATE SCALE * WORK OUT FROM WELL MANAGED AREAS as capacity allows, success in small areas encourages us to continue. * MINIMUM EFFORT, MAXIMUM EFFECT, e.g. perennial crops may take longer to yield but in the long term they will yield more for less effort.
Use and value diversity

* Icon: Humming bird sipping nectar from a flower. * Illustrates natures biodiversity allowing many species to fill different niches within the same habitat. By having a wide diversity ourselves we can create more abundance without needing more land.
Page 24
Proverb: Dont put all your eggs in one basket ~ emphasises the dangers of not having a diversity of yields e.g. if a pest or disease hits a monoculture than we can lose everything. Related principle: * MULTIPLE ELEMENTS FOR IMPORTANT FUNCTIONS; by having at least three elements for each important function we are safeguarding ourselves from losing everything. E.g. if we have three sources of income then we are better protected. *
Use edges and value the marginal

* Icon: Shows a world defined by edges, day and night (sunset or sunrise) land and sky, natural and built, soil and water. * The interface between two ecosystems i.e. the edge, is usually the most active and productive space and in permaculture designs we try to maximise the edge to increase productivity. * Proverb: Dont think you are on the right track just because it is a well beaten path ~ illustrates how the most obvious is not always the most important or correct.
Creatively use and respond to change

* Icon: Butterfly, change is inevitable for us just as for the butterfly. * Change is often beyond our control, influence and even comprehension. We need to be flexible and adapt to change. * To change the world we need to change ourselves, many people come to permaculture to change environments e.g. their garden but soon realise that they also need to change themselves. This leads to a more holistic approach. * In top-down thinking there is a tendency to change too much, too quickly. The Japanese farmer Fukuoka had a donothing philosophy. Before changing anything, observe first and think hard this links the principles back to the first one observe and interact. * Proverb: Vision is not seeing things as they are but as they will be ~ impresses upon us the importance of a good imagination and the ability to anticipate successional processes. Related principle: * SUCCESSION: the ecological process of change of an ecosystem, we can accelerate succession in our designs to produce a climax ecosystem more quickly, e.g. the use of pioneering plants to break up the ground and increase fertility.
Source: Looby Macnamara from David Holmgrens materials Designed Visions ~ permaculture design course handouts www.designedvisions.com
Chapter 3~ Climate and landform
Page 1
Climate and Landform

Designing in non-native environments
Permaculture design is an approach that can work anywhere in the world, because it takes account of local conditions during the process of design. That said, it can be helpful to become familiar in advance with any new environment in which you might find yourself working - to first learn the basic patterns. Most of our courses take place in cool temperate environments (in particular, Britain) and most of our students also live in such places, so our focus is naturally given to designing in this climate. For those who do intend to work overseas in warmer (or really cold) climes, plenty has already been written to help learn these patterns in Permaculture; a Designers Manual by Bill Mollison. By way of a quick overview, the key differences that a designer will encounter in an unfamiliar environment boil down to climate and landform. Flora and fauna that you find will have evolved in those specific conditions, as will any cultural practices in human societies there. Most ecosystems you might find yourself in can be categorised as either:
* * * Temperate Tropical or Deserts.
Within those categories, we may also be able to describe them as either humid, arid, islands, coastal, wetlands, or estuaries. Each of these environments has its own resource base that native societies derive a livelihood from and their own limiting factors. It is within these factors that we have to design sustainable systems and the techniques we draw on may be very different from those we use in our native environment.
Key factors include:

Climate * Availability of water / humidity / rainfall levels and any seasonal distribution * Temperature range / seasonality * Winds (and salt levels) * Light availability through the year Landform * Geology * Watersheds / bioregions * Altitude * Aspect * Slope * Soil These in turn determine the Flora and fauna * Ecosystem services * Forests * Local trophic pyramid * Availability of food sources / seasonality * Seasonal plagues / migrations
Chapter 3 ~ Climate and landform
Page 2
Addressing limiting factors

Many strategies will be to address key limiting factors, such as excessive heat or cold, wet or dry, light or darkness. For instance:
Drylands
In places where the rate of evaporation exceeds the rate of precipitation, a strong focus will be placed on water harvesting and conservation. Many environments (e.g. Australia) arent so much dry, as the rain comes seasonally and is often not stored. Tank storages are expensive for long term drought, so techniques should include building soil storages to replenish wells by use of swales or Keyline design techniques. Biomass storages can be increased by the planting of trees around such schemes and these in turn allow rainfall to move inland through the pumping effect of large areas of forest.1
Conventional irrigation often salinates soils when water evaporates from the hot surface leaving behind dissolved salts. Done for long enough, nothing will be able to grow there. Permaculture strategies address the reduction of evaporation using mulch and focussed use of water using targeted drip irrigation. Nitrogen-fixing trees can be planted to begin the repair of damaged soils. Strategies will also focus around directing whatever rainfall that occurs where it is needed, such as into basins planted up with hardy trees and shrubs (see diagram2). Another technique is to use an imprinter which is pulled by a tractor over a landscape, creating many indentations where water, debris and seeds can all accumulate. This is a shallower and more mechanical version of net and pan, a more labour-intensive strategy which uses the same pattern.
1 2 Permaculture: a Designers Manual ~ Bill Mollison p144-5 From Rainwater Harvesting for Drylands and Beyond vol 1 ~ Brad Lancaster
Chapter 4~ Soil
Page 1
Soil
The Basics
Soil is the uppermost surface of the earth, which has been slowly transformed by decomposition due to the effects of weather, vegetation and human activities. The parent material from which soil is formed can be the underlying rock, deposits from rivers and seas (alluvial soils) or the wind (aeolian soils), or volcanic ash. Soils is composed of:
* * * * * * mineral particles air water organic matter Solid particles are classified by size into gravel and stones, sand, silt and clay. Soil texture refers to the relative proportions of sand, silt and clay in the soil. Depending on the soils texture, it is described as sand, sandy loam, loam, clay loam, clay, etc. Soil can also be characterized as light, medium or heavy based on its workability. Soil structure refers to the aggregation of the finer soil particles into crumbs or larger sizes.
Soil texture and structure are of special importance for soil fertility and plant growth:
Soil supports plants by providing a permeable layer for their roots. It stores plant nutrients and water. Depending on their composition, soils differ in their ability to supply plant nutrients.
Factors determining soil fertility

The main factors that determine soil fertility are:
* * * * * * * * soil organic matter (including microbial biomass) soil texture / structure soil depth nutrient content water holding capacity drainage soil pH absence of toxic elements
Contrary to what is widely believed, the colour of the soil reveals very little about its fertility.
How does soil hold nutrients and release them?
Decomposing rock material forms soils and releases plant nutrients. The original mineral content of this material - and the nature and intensity of the decomposition process - determine the kind and amount of nutrients released. Clay and organic matter retain nutrients in a plant-available form, that is, the nutrients are attached to the soil constituents. Soils ability to retain a certain amount of nutrients determines its natural fertility.
Chapter 4 ~ Soil
Page 2
Nutrients, which carry positive and negative charges (cations an anions), are attracted by the clay and organic matter in the same way that metal filings are attracted by a magnet. Soil water containing the nutrients in dissolved plant-available form is called the soil solution. Nutrients can only be taken up by roots in dissolved form. Therefore, they have to be released from the storing complex into the soil solution to be plant-available. Organic matter can absorb more nutrients than a comparable amount of clay. It is therefore important to build up the organic matter, especially in degraded tropical soils with less ability to absorb the mineral component.
Soil organisms increase soil fertility

The activities of soil organisms are indispensable for high soil fertility and good crop production. Most of these activities are beneficial for the farmer. Soil organisms decompose organic matter to produce humus; aggregate soil particles to provide better structure; protect roots from diseases and parasites; retain nitrogen and other nutrients; produce hormones that help plants grow; and can convert pollutants that find their way into the soil.
The Soil food web

Soil organisms form the basis of a complex food web, of which we are a part. The species that form these webs are of course very specific to each environment. Bacteria and fungi, the bottom of the food chain are ultimately eaten by us all and critical to a healthy system. They feed on decomposing organic matter and a small amount can make a big difference to soil fertility.
Source: USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service Designed Visions ~ permaculture design course handouts www.designedvisions.com
Chapter 4~ Soil
Page 3
Estimating Soil Texture

Sand, Silt and Clay
Texture refers to the size of the particles that make up the soil. The terms sand, silt, and clay refer to relative sizes of the soil particles. Sand, being the larger size of particles, feels gritty. Clay, being the smaller size of particles, feels sticky. It takes 12,000 clay particles lined up to measure one inch. Silt, being moderate in size, has a smooth or floury texture. Particle name Very coarse sand Coarse sand Medium sand Fine sand Very fine sand Silt Clay Particle diameter 2.0 to 1.0 millimeters 1.0 to 0.5 millimeters 0.5 to .25 millimeters 0.25 to 0.10 millimeters 0.10 to 0.05 millimeters 0.05 to 0.002 millimeters below 0.002 millimeters
Soil Texture Triangle

The soil texture triangle gives names associated with various combinations of sand, silt and clay. A coarse-textured or sandy soil is one comprised primarily of medium to coarse size sand particles. A fine-textured or clayey soil is one dominated by tiny clay particles. Due to the strong physical properties of clay, a soil with only 20% clay particles behaves as sticky, gummy clayey soil. The term loam refers to a soil with a combination of sand, silt, and clay sized particles. For example, a soil with 30% clay, 50% sand, and 20% silt is called a sandy clay loam.
Chapter 4 ~ Soil
Page 4
Identifying Texture by Feel

Feel test Rub some moist soil between fingers
* * * * * * * * * *
Sand feels gritty Silt feels smooth Clays feel sticky Coarse textures (sand or sandy loam) soils break with slight pressure Sandy loams and silt loams stay together but change shape easily Fine textured (clayey or clayey loam) soils resist breaking Sandy or sandy soils wont ribbon Loam, silt, silty clay loam or clay loam soil ribbons less than 1 inch Sandy clay loam, silty clay loam or clay loam ribbons 1 to 2 inches Sandy clay, silty clay, or clay soil ribbons more than 2 inches
Ball squeeze test Squeeze a moistened ball of soil in the hand
Ribbon test Squeeze a moistened ball of soil out between thumb and fingers
Note: A soil with as little as 20% clay may behave as a heavy clayey soil. A soil needs 45% to over 60% sand to behave as a sandy soil.
Identifying Soil Texture by Measurement (Jar Test)

1 Spread soil on a newspaper to dry. Remove all rocks, trash, roots, etc. Crush lumps and clods. 2 Finely pulverize the soil. 3 Fill a tall, slender jar (like a quart jar) full of soil. 4 Add water until the jar is full. 5 Add a teaspoon of powdered, non-foaming dishwasher detergent. 6 Put on a tight fitting lid and shake hard for 10 to 15 minutes. This shaking breaks apart the soil aggregates and separates the soil into individual mineral particles. 7 Set the jar where it will not be disturbed for 2-3 days. 8 Soil particles will settle out according to size. After 1 minute, mark on the jar the depth of the sand. 9 After 2 hours, mark on the jar the depth of the silt 10 When the water clears mark on the jar the clay level. This typically takes 1 to 3 days, but with some soils it may take weeks. 11 Measure the thickness of the sand, silt, and clay layers. a. Thickness of sand deposit ____ b. Thickness of silt deposit ____ c. Thickness of clay deposit ____ d. Thickness of total deposit ____ 12 Calculate the percentage of sand, silt, and clay. 13 Turn to the soil texture
triangle and look up the soil texture class.
Source: Colorado State University website Designed Visions ~ permaculture design course handouts www.designedvisions.com
Chapter 4~ Soil
Page 5
Soil Texture by Feel Flowcharts
Source: Colorado State University website
Chapter 4 ~ Soil
How to test Soil Texture
Page 6
How to test soil texture
Source: Patrick Whitefield ~ The Earth Care Manual Designed Visions ~ permaculture design course handouts www.designedvisions.com Source: The Earth Care Manual, Patrick Whitefield, Permanent Publications
Chapter 4~ Soil
Page 7
Biological Monitoring
When surveying an area of ground, in addition to noting the species we see it is also useful to record the relative abundance. For this we use the DAFOR scale:
D = Dominant; A = Abundant, F = Frequent, O = Occasional, R = Rare.
If a species seems intermediate between two categories and you are unsure which to assign to it, choose the lower category, e.g. if you are unsure if something was occasional or frequent, choose occasional.
D for Dominant A for Abundant
In practice you will rarely, if ever use this. To score D, a species would have to be the most common plant by far, in well over three quarters of the area. Only use A if the plant was really very common in many parts of the area. For most species this would mean that there were thousands of individual plants present. In most squares, few species will score as highly as A and in quite a few squares there will be no species that score that highly.
F for Frequent
Use F if you found the plant in several places in the area and there was usually more than just a few individuals in each of these places.
O for Occasional
Use O for species that occur in several places in the square, but whose populations are usually not very big. You would also use O for species that are very common in one bit of habitat within the square that occupied just a small area.
R for Rare
Use R for any species that occur as a small number of individuals in the square. This small number of individuals may be located in one place in the square, or scattered over several different locations within the square.
Transect mapping
This is a tool used to describe the location and distribution of resources, the landscape and main land uses. It further allows participants to identify constraints and opportunities with specific reference to locations or particular ecosystems situated along the transect. Once completed, transect maps depict geographic features (e.g. infrastructure, local markets, schools) as well as land use and vegetation zones, problems and opportunities observed or perceived along a transect line. Activities involve walking and mapping transects with the aim to cover as many of the agro-ecological, production and social groups along the defined route as possible. Transect maps are useful for stimulating and informing internal community discussions related to broad-level land-use patterns, resource distribution, conflicts, problems and planning. They can also be used to analyze linkages, transitions, patterns and interrelationships of land use and different ecological zones along the transect. While this method is useful for engaging non-experts at a low cost, it is not as useful when locational accuracy is important, and it only provides a limited perspective of the landscape.
Source: IAPAD community mapping www.designedvisions.com Designed Visions ~ permaculture design course handouts
Chapter 4 ~ Soil
Page 8 Source: Robina McCurdy ~ Earthcare Education Aotearoa
Biological and Soil Monitoring Chart

Chapter 4~ Soil
Page 9
Indicator Plants
Source: Robert Kourik ~ Designing & Maintaining your Edible Landscape Naturally Designed Visions ~ permaculture design course handouts www.designedvisions.com
Chapter 4 ~ Soil
Page 10
Source: Robert Kourik ~ Designing & Maintaining your Edible Landscape Naturally Designed Visions ~ permaculture design course handouts www.designedvisions.com
Chapter 4~ Soil
Page 11
Source: Robert Kourik ~ Designing & Maintaining your Edible Landscape Naturally
Source: Patrick Whitefield ~ The Earth Care Manual Designed Visions ~ permaculture design course handouts www.designedvisions.com
Chapter 4 ~ Soil
Page 12
Source: Patrick Whitefield ~ The Living Landscape Designed Visions ~ permaculture design course handouts www.designedvisions.com
Chapter 4~ Soil
Page 13
S il Conservation Imp o e t Soil Co and Improvement Soil Conservation s r at n & Improvement

Soil is like our Mother Earth's skin. All plant life needs soil to germinate, grow and live its life. If the soil and soil management is good, farm production will also be good. The condition of our environment, society and economy all depend on the health of the soil. If the soil can be kept fertile, production increases, the local economy is strong, and society is safe. Just like skin covers our bodies, so soil covers the Earth. Just like our bodies are damaged if our skin is broken, or wounded, so the Earth is harmed, and production decreases if the soil is damaged or washed away. If the soil is damaged, the farming community also suffers great harm. So we need to understand the needs of soil, and what can damage it. This handout also gives information on how soil can be sustainably protected and improved. Different climates have different types of soils . Often, one type of climate will also have many different types of soil. But whatever the soil, they all have similar ingredients in them. Such as : i a particles - these forms the main part of soil mineral p t c air o u e ( e moisture (water) ma fe animal life (visible and microscopic) organic matter (dead plants and animals that are in the process of being broken down) r a i a e t f vn p roots of living plants
r a i organic t r matter
i air
en la rg ed
Chris Evans 2004 Permaculture Design Course
n rg d enlarged
root h r o hair ke p (this takes up d w ter nutrients and water u t o p t) for the plant)
r mineral r particle
t root
E erythi se s lw r i r n the Everything else is soil water, or moisture. In th water are many nutrients, and countless microts, an o n es m c w y o co i so active s e scopic organisms are also ac ve in this water. so
The ingredients listed above are found in all soils in a greater or lesser amount. When they are in the right amount, the soil is naturally fertile. Different climatesmay have different soil types, and the same climate may also have different soil types. According to the soil type, these different elements are present in different amounts. For example,we can compare sandy and clay soils (pto).
Chapter 4 ~ Soil
Page 14
Sandy Soil mineral particles are large air spaces between the mineral particles are large lots of air in the soil As a result of this : soil is light and well aerated the soil doesn't hold water, and dries out faster nutrients are washed out quickly Clay Soil mineral particles are small space between the particles is small less air in the soil As a result of this : the soil is heavy as soon as it rains, the soil is saturated and stays wet for a long time. But when it dries, the soil is very hard nutrients are held in the soil but if there is less air in the soil, plants can't get the nutrients so easily
Testing Soil
Put a handful of soil in a jar of water and shake well. Leave it to settle for 4-5 days. The different types of mineral particles will settle into separate layers
1 2 3 4
Needs of the soil

What is needed to protect and maintain fertility in the soil ?
The contents of the soil descibed above - air, minerals, organic matter, living roots, moisture and living organisms are all essential in the right quantities for healthy soil. When they are all present, soil is naturally self-fertile. Adding the right quantities as needed also maintains the quality of the soil. But if any one ingredient is present in a lesser or greater amount than normal, the quality of the soil can be harmed, or it can also be improved. All the different ingredients in the soil work together to help plants to grow. But more important than these minerals, living roots, organic matter, etc. are the living organisms in the soil. In particular, the tiny, invisible organisms, such as bacteria,and fungi play a huge role in maintaining and increasing soil fertility. These are collectively called micro-organisms micro-organisms.
1. Organic matter 2. Clay particles 3. Loam particles 4. Sand particles
Soil life and micro-organisms

Actually, micro-organisms are probably the most important life on our planet. Living in one teaspoon of fertile forest soil there are 2 billion micro-organisms. Larger organisms, and many types of fungi are also responsible for breaking down dead plants and animals. This forms organic matter Then, the smaller micro-organisms - mainly matter. bacteria and fungi - take the organic matter and change it so plant roots (the root hairs) can absorb the nutrients, as we cook bread from flour. Even if there is plenty of organic matter in the soil, without the work of micro-organisms, this cannot be taken up by the roots of living plants until it is "cooked".
Chapter 4~ Soil
Page 15
Leaves and branches, dead animals, etc. fall on the soil and are broken down. Microorganisms eat them. Then, it is their waste in the soil which plant roots absorb as nutrients. This allows the plants to grow and continue the cycle of life.
Plants take the nutrients and grow
Cycle of nutrients and the work of micro-organisms
Soil Soil micro-organisms eat the nutrients and excrete them as waste
fertility fertility
Soil organisms break down organic matter
organic matter is made into nutrients
Needs of the microorganisms (MOs)

For MOs to do this essential work, we have to understand - and provide - their needs. Then they will work themselves. Actually all they need are food and a place to work. But they need the right food - biomass to break down, and the right conditions, in terms of temperature, moisture, aeration and lack of disturbance. Then tey will work for free! They are generally most happy (and productive) in natural conditions. It is usually human activities which disturb and destroy them.
How soil is damaged

When soil is left bare, it can be damaged very easily. Many things can damage bare soil, such as : Sun :- strong sun will dry out the soil. Dry soil hardens and cracks the soil. Microorganisms will die in dry, hard soil. Water :- when it rains on bare soil, the top layer will set hard. On slopes, the topsoil is washed away downhill. Wind :- wind will dry out all the moisture from bare soil, and can actually blow the top soil away. Chemical fertilizers :- these harm the soil micro-organisms and so cause the soil structure and nutrient uptake to be damaged. Artificial poisons :- as well as killing pests, these kill many beneficial insects and organisms which work in the soil. Big, heavy machinery :- big machines such as tractors compress the soil so that there is less air space. They destroy the structure of the soil, as well as damaging soil organisms. Large livestock :- on wet soil, the feet of large livestock such as cows and buffaloes also compress the soil and damage soil structure.
Chapter 4 ~ Soil
Page 16
Chapter 4~ Soil
Page 17
The main thing to consider in soil conservation and improvement :We need to understand what benefits the soil as well as what that damages the soil, and plan our work according to this. There are 3 main strategies :1. We need to feed the soil micro-organisms, and allow a good habitat for them to live and work in. 2. The soil should not be bare. We need to keep it covered as much as possible. Especially, take care to cover and protect the soil when there is strong sun, rain and wind. 3. Stop water from running off down a slope for any distance - it runs faster, and carries off much soil and nutrients with it.
Methods of soil conservation and improvement
1. For the micro-organisms :- mulching, good compost, liquid manure, green manures, agroforestry, afforestation. 2. To cover the soil :- mulching, green manures (when land is fallow), agroforestry, afforestation, etc. 3. To stop water running off :- mulching, green manures, agroforestry, afforestation, use A-frame to make contour ditches, terrace maintenance.
livestock compost compost made of sweepings from the house and yard legumes to fix nitrogen earthworms silt from ponds, streams, etc. silt and dust collected from the run-off of the first rains deep-rooting trees to cycle fertility mulch using leaf litter to cover the soil dead insects, birds, etc soil and leaves blown in by the wind human excrement laying turf green manures rotation cropping keeping land fallow no-tillage, to allow natural soil fertility
The soil is our life. Protect it and be happy !!!
Chris DesignedEvans 2004 Permaculture Design Course Visions ~ permaculture design course handouts
Chapter 4 ~ Soil
Page 18
Nutrient Management for Plant Growth

Nutrient management for plant growth Symptoms of lack of certain nutrients
Symptoms seen on mature leaves
Leaves yellow, starting from tips Leaves die from the edges Leaves yellow between the veins Grey/white spots on fruit and grain Leaves and stems turn red colour
lack of
nitrogen potassium magnesium manganese phosphate
Symptoms seen on young leaves

Yellow spots on leaves & veins yellow Yellow spots on leaves & veins green Grey spots on seed, pods and fruit Newest leaves die back or have white tips
lack of
sulphur iron manganese copper
So, what to do if nutrient deficiencies are recognised by these symptoms ? The chart below gives examples of plants which accumulate greater amounts than usual of certain nutrients. These can be used in mulch, compost or liquid manure so those nutrients which are lacking can be added to the soil. They are called dynamic accumulators.
plant
mustard buckwheat comfrey legumes marigold nettle amaranth phosphate
contains lots of
phosphate, nitrogen, iron
carrot (leaf) potassium, magnesium nitrogen, potassium, magnesium, iron nitrogen phosphate nitrogen, potassium, iron, sulphur, copper nitrogen, phosphate, potassium, manganese
References
Secrets of the Soil.....
Source: Chris Evans ~ The Farmers Handbook
Chapter 4~ Soil
Page 19
Mulching
Mulching
For farmer and gardners, the foundation of our wealth is the soil. If soil is washed away or becomes poor, how can we grow food to eat ? We farmers, who work and play with the soil, must also learn to love the soil. One method of loving, caring for and respecting the soil is called mulching. Mulching is a method of using cut leaves, straw, leaf litter etc. to cover the bare soil while still farming and growing crops on it. The main objective of mulching is to keep the soil covered while farming it. There are many types of mulch but they all share this objective. Mulch is usually made from biomass (leaves, straw, etc.) but where spare vegetation is uncommon, stones covering the soil have the same benefit. There are various problems if soil is left bare. Rain will wash soil away, and the sun will dry it out. Wind will dry out and blow away the soil. The beneficial organisms living in the top soil will also be lost. All these reasons cause soil loss and damage, and to remake the fertility in the soil then takes extra work. So mulching is an important technique to prevent these problems happening from the start. There are 2 main types of mulching :1. Temporary mulch 2. Permanent mulch 1. Temporary Mulch With temporary mulching, the ground is kept covered for some time only. Mulch made of green or dried leaf litter, straw, etc. can be put on the soil during the fallow period, or mixed with compost and ploughed in. After crops have been planted they can also be mulched. Potatoes, garlic, onions and various vegetables benefit from a mulch after planting. The mulch will rot as the crops ripen. Mix the mulch with the soil by ploughing or digging in, after the crop has been harvested. 2. Permanent Mulch For a permanent mulch, layers of well rotted compost, semi decomposed biomass, and a thick layer of fresh biomass are put on the soil, and seed and seedlings planted into this. In this method, after establishment new mulch (green biomass) is added only twice a year, and the soil never needs to be dug. An inside view of a mulch bed thickest layer of green biomass seedling planted in hole
Fresh green or dry leaves, any straw, stones, cardboard, etc. are all useful to use as mulch
seedling
thick layer of semi-rotted/ dry biomass
thin layer of rotted compost
hole is half filled with soil
hole made
Mulching
Chapter 4 ~ Soil
Page 20
Making a Permanent Mulch

a. Preparing the mulch If necessary, dig or plough the soil one last time. If the soil is soft and fertile, this should not be necessary. Cover the soil with a thin layer of well rotted compost. On top of this put a 6 inch layer of dried or semi decomposed biomass, such as straw, leaf litter, etc. After putting down each layer soak with water if possible. On top of this put 6 inches of fresh, green biomass e.g. from weeding the field or trimming the hedge. Soak with water again. Now we can plant in the mulch bed b. Planting Seed and Seedlings Using a sharp stick make a hole down through the mulch until the ground is reached. Move the stick to make the hole larger. Fill the hole half full with fertile soil. In this soil, plant seed or seedlings. Water the seedlings well.
Best time to mulch

At the start of the rainy season the soil becomes wet and often heats up, causing the soil to let off steam. If a thick mulch is applied at this time the soil cannot breath Mulch properly and steam cannot escape. This can cause many types of pest and disease to occur. But if the mulch is put down and well watered 2-3 months before the rainy season, the soil and the mulch become balanced and these problems do not occur.
Water Air
Sun
Mulch
Micro-organisms
The best time to start a mulch is near the end of the rainy season. By this time the steam in the earth has escaped but there is still moisture in the soil to help the mulch break down into the soil. This moisture will be conserved by the mulch, and be usefull for the crops for many weeks or even months.
Maintenance of the Mulch

water as necessary put on new green biomass about twice a year plant companion plants like lemon grass, comfrey, marigold, basil, wormwood, etc. around the bed having agroforestry or edge trees nearby makes it quicker to cut the new mulch
Mulching
Chapter 4~ Soil
Page 21
The Benefits of Mulching

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Mulching stops the sun drying out the soil; Mulching keeps the moisture in the soil so reduces the need to irrigate; Mulching improves as well as protects the soil; Mulching prevents weeds growing so reduces the need to weed; Mulching keeps a balanced temperature in the soil. "Balanced" means not too hot nor too cold, and regular. This is good for plants' roots; Mulching helps to prevent spread of pests and diseases. If water splashes on the soil, it can carry naturally occuring diseases in the soil onto the underside of leaves, where the diseases can cause damage; Mulching feeds and protects the organisms in the soil (earthworms, bacteria, etc.); Mulching also fertilises the soil; Mulching prevents root crops such as potatoes, radishes, etc. from turning green;
7. 8. 9.
10. Mulching makes use of waste resources such as banana leaves, uprooted weeds, etc. by recycling them; 11. Mulching reduces the need to dig and plough; 12. Mulching works with the principles of nature and ecology; 13. Mulching is beneficial for later crops in a rotation; 14. Mulching saves time because digging, weeding and irrigation are reduced or not needed. mulch from off-farm mulch from agro-forestry
mulch from the edge
water
Mulching
Chapter 4 ~ Soil
Page 22
Liquid Manure
Liquid Manure
Ingredients

How to make
Liquid manure is a concoction made from local resources to provide pest control as well as nutrients for the garden and field. The liquid can be used as a foliar or root food for plants, and as a pest repellant against a wide range of sucking and leaf/fruit eating pests.
How to make Liquid manure

Chop up biomas into roughly 2 inch lengths. Prepare enough to half/two thirds fill the container. Fill up the container with water. Add ash, urine, etc. tie the cow dung in sacking and place in the container Cover and leave in a sunny spot, stirring once a day.
Drum (anything from 20 litres upwards, plastic or metal) Range of nutritious, aromatic plant leaves such as neem, bakaino (Melia azadirach), wormwood, comfrey, tobacco, marigold, nettle, and legume leaves such as Ipil Ipil, etc. Water Ash Livestock urine (especially cow and rabbit) About two kilos per twenty litres of water of fresh cow dung, wrapped in a jute sacking and suspended in the brew.
How to Use Liquid manure

Within a week the brew can be used. Take out the liquid according to need and dilute 1:12 water, and spray onto the leaves, or run onto the soil/mulch for irrigation. Top-up the drum with water after taking out liquid. Next time you use it it will be diluted, so only use 1:8 ratio, and the next time 1:4, and so on. After up to a month of use, remove the biomas (for mulch or compost heap) and start a new drum load.
Be careful not to use the liquid as a pesticide or repellent when beneficial insects are visiting the plants you wish to protect. These are mainly insects after pollen or nectar on the flowers (which may also parasitise pests eg) gs . So early morning and evening are good times (but use your own observations).
Liquid Manure
Chapter 4~ Soil
Page 23
Compost Making

Compost Making m o t ng ng
T g to consider when making compost a i m s Things o on it is possible to produce compost quickly compost should be well-rotted and crumbly unrotted compost can cause pests and disease for crops it's easier to carry well rotted compost more benefits can be gained from smaller amounts of well-rotted compost
To improve the method of compost making, first it's necessary to understand how compost is made and what things it needs to make it. Materials needed to rot animal manure and plant materials (biomass) : things to decompose :- leaf litter, grass, animal manure, etc.; decomposing agent :- micro-organisms break down biomass, manure, etc. These micro-organisms are present in rotted compost and fertile soil; moisture :- micro-organisms need the correct moisture to work; air :- micro-organisms also need air to work; right temperature :- it shouldn't be too hot.
Quick rotting compost needs good management of the microorganisms
Ho w to make Compost ? ake Compo st How

When making a compost heap first put a layer of thin sticks and branches on the ground
Then put a layer of the material to be rotted - manure and biomass from the livestock pens, leaves, etc. Then put a thin (2 inch) layer of soil or fine, well rotted compost. This layer should completely cover the one beneath so you can't see it. Now bury a pole upright in the heap, and without removing it, continue to add layers as before. On each 1215inch layer of manure, biomass, etc., add a thin layer of soil or compost.
Chapter 4 ~ Soil
Page 24
From time to time move the pole from side to side to keep the hole open layer of fresh manure, straw, leaf litter, etc.
layer of soil or rotted compost
layer of thin sticks or branches By doing this, the numbers of micro-organisms in the compost will increase. Then, they can decompose the manure and biomass quickly. There are most micro-organisms in the soil and rotted compost, so this does the same work as "seed" to help make more micro-organisms to rot the compost. The thin branches and the pole allow air into the heap. S m t ms of poorly rotting compost mp Symptoms ms p ry t i mp s If there is anything lacking in management of the compost heap, it will rot slowly or badly. But how to recognise what is wrong ? If there is white fungus on the pole when taken out, perhaps there is not enough water in the heap. Pouring a little water from time to time will solve this problem. If your hand is burned when you bury it in the heap, this is a bad sign. Too much heat will also kill the micro-organisms. This will slow the decomposition process. This is probably due to not enough air circulation. Make more holes in the heap to solve this. If there is a bad small from the heap, and lots of flies, add more straw or leaf litter. This can also be due to lack of micro-organisms and without them, the manure etc. will not rot down well. For this, add more soil or well rotted compost to increase micro-organisms. If you can't make a heap with layers and it is all stacked in one place, you don't have to do anything else but make holes in the heap with the poles. Move these sticks around from time to time. Just doing this will improve the compost.
Source: Chris Evans ~Permaculture Design Course Chris Evans 2004 The Farmers Handbook Designed Visions ~ permaculture design course handouts
When all these needs are W n t e n e s a e t co o will met, compost w l rot q ck y and y u will have quickly, a d you l h b t r compost to go onto o t better co t n eld the garden or fields
Composting
Chapter 4~ Soil
Page 25
Dynamic (Mineral) Accumulators
Source: Robert Kourik ~ Designing & Maintaining Your Edible Landscape Naturally Designed Visions ~ permaculture design course handouts www.designedvisions.com
Chapter 4 ~ Soil
Page 26
Dynamic (Mineral) Accumulators (contd)
Source: Robert Kourik ~ Designing & Maintaining Your Edible Landscape Naturally
Chapter 4~ Soil
Page 27
particularly phosphorus. In return, the plant provides the fungus with carbon in the form of sugars from photosynthesis. The fungus is totally dependent on the plant. This relationship is the rule rather than the exception and has been found all over the world. It has been estimated that it occurs in over 80% of land plants. The main focus of our research has been on developing a low-tech, lowcost method of multiplying beneficial fungi from normal soil in order to make a mixed mycorrhizal inoculum (see methods box at end of article). This has primarily been used in revegetation trials of degraded arid areas on our trial sites in Spain and Tanzania (see www.sunseed.org.uk for details). But recently at Sunseed, the boundary between research and the gardens has started to merge. Rik Humphreys, our organic grower, has been using the onsite produced inoculum in his gardens. This summer Rik set up a simple comparative test with a late planting of tomatoes. Twenty-eight plants in a more or less equal state of growth and health were selected for the trial. These were a local variety, raised from seed in our greenhouse in modules made from cardboard toilet roll middles. Instead of applying the inoculum to the soil where the seedlings were to be planted, the rootball of each plant was soaked in water and then coated with the inoculum before planting in the usual way. The seedlings were planted into two beds in traditional double rows, fourteen plants in each bed. One row in each bed was treated with the mycorrhizal inoculum, the other was not. During the ensuing weeks, the young plants in both beds were treated with equal care, watered and sideshooted as necessary. Then one evening, about a month after planting out I went to check on the plants, and was staggered by what I saw. In both beds, the inoculated plants showed a clear advantage in growth and general health over the others. I recall a feeling of sheer wonder, that a simple dusting with very ordinary looking soil could produce such a dramatic result. If I didnt know better Id say it was magic! Above: Rik Humphreys, Sunseeds organic grower inspects a tomato grown by the inoculum method.
Permaculture Magazine 11
Fertile Relationships
FERTILE RELATIONSHIPS
Beneficial Fungi in the Organic Garden

Alzena Wilmot and Rik Humphreys describe a low-tech way of growing healthy vegetables on poor soil.
he organic gardens at Sunseed Desert Technology are at the heart of our community and produce a range of organic vegetables and fruit throughout the year. People come here to learn about sustainable living and low-tech methods of reducing our impact on the environment. Most visitors to the project spend time both in the gardens and in the kitchens transforming the gardens produce into delicious meals that we all share and enjoy. The area that we live in is classified as semi-arid. The Andalucian region of Spain has one of the lowest rainfalls in Europe. This presents particular problems when trying to live sustainably. The soil is very poor and without using a large quantity of water it is very hard to get
www.permaculture.co.uk
anything other than the local hardy shrubs to grow. Aromatic plants such as thyme and rosemary grow very well here but the more delicate plants that we prefer to eat need a little more care. At Sunseed we have been looking at the problem from the bottom up, starting with the roots. Since the ancestors of modern plants first emerged from the sea and started out on land they have had an underground ally. This ally is a type of fungus invisible to the naked eye that forms a symbiotic association with plant roots. The relationship is called mycorrhiza (myco = fungi; rhiza=root). The fine mesh formed by the fungal hyphae functions as an extension of the plants roots, supplementing its uptake of essential nutrients,
No. 42
Chapter 4 ~ Soil
Page 28
Above: Experimental rows of tomatoes those on the right row have been inoculated and those on the left row have not. Below: Multiplying mycorrhiza in plastic lined trap troughs.
HEALTHY PLANTS In our area of Spain, growing tomatoes organically is something of a challenge, as plants are invariably affected by a mysterious disease, possibly viral in nature, which distorts leaves, stunts growth and eventually can ruin the fruit. But in our test, though all the plants inevitably show symptoms of the disease, the inoculated plants seem more capable of resisting its effects. Indeed, some of the plants that were not inoculated have completely succumbed, and will yield no fruit; there are no such plants in the inoculated lines. As this article goes to press, the tomatoes are still cropping but the yeilds so far have been recorded as follows: Tomatoes from the mycorrhizal plants: 3.125kg (6.9lb). Tomatoes from the control plants: 1.400kg (3.1lb). Rik comments, Im sufficiently impressed by the performance of the mycorrhizal inoculum cultivated here at Sunseed to use it again in future
plantings and sowings. I suppose what excites me most about it is that both the cultivation of the inoculum and its application are simple techniques which any grower in any part of the world could use to their advantage, with no need for specialized knowledge or equipment. As we have seen in the gardens and in our other trials there can be a noticeable increase in plant growth and health. The inoculated tomato plants also started to fruit earlier than those with no inoculum and at the time of writing we are still enjoying fresh tomatoes in our salads from the experimental plants. We have tried this technique on maize grown on our field trial site and found that plant growth was significantly increased on the inoculated plots. In Tanzania many farmers are now incorporating the mycorrhizal technique into their growing practises and the word is spreading. Mycorrhizal plants tend to cope better with stresses such as dry conditions and disease than nonwww.permaculture.co.uk
12
Permaculture Magazine
No. 42
Chapter 4~ Soil
mycorrhizal plants. There are other benefits that mycorrhiza can bring to the soil. Its fine structure helps stabilize the soil structure, slowing erosion. Under the soil, invisible from above, a network of fungal hyphae will start to spread from your plant, gradually colonizing other plants and in effect starting to rebuild a healthy ecosystem. This method complements organic growing and in particular no-till systems. The plants then act as fertility islands, with increased organic matter, better soil nutrient levels and with increased nutrient cycling. HELP WITH THE RESEARCH To further this research we want more people to try this simple method out and let us know if it works for them. To know if this technique is viable we need to know in what conditions it works and if the gain is worth the extra input. There is a potential wealth of experience out there that we would like to tap into. The method for inoculating plants is very easy to set up and we would love to know if it works for you in your garden, so why not have a go? In the box below right, are step-by-step instructions on how to make an inoculum from your local soil for absolutely no cost using only reclaimed materials. They are also posted on our website in full. You too could participate by setting up a trial and sending us information on how your plants are getting on. All this information can be downloaded from our website or contact us and we can mail it to you. So get involved and be part of this investigation Sunseed Desert Technology aims to develop, demonstrate and communicate accessible, low-tech methods of living sustainably in a semi arid environment. Our website explains more about our work and about volunteering on the project. Contact: Sunseed Desert Technology, APDO 9, 04270 Sorbas, Almera, Spain. Tel: +34 950 525 770 Email: sunseedspain@arrakis.es Web: www.sunseed.org.uk Top right: Delicious healthy tomatoes growing on an inoculated plant at Sunseeds test site.
www.permaculture.co.uk
Page 29
PRODUCING YOUR OWN INOCULUM OF BENEFICIAL FUNGI

The method shown in the diagram and described below is for multiplying any mycorrhiza present in soil from your local area. It takes an hour or less to set up and is very simple to maintain. Setting Up A Trap Pot (1) Soil is collected from under an area of undisturbed vegetation, or land that has not been cultivated for a number of seasons. Soil is collected up to a depth of about 15-20cm (6-8in), and is then placed in a container. This can either be a plastic container, e.g. a large plant pot or washing-up bowl or a hole dug into the ground lined with plastic bags (approximately 50 x 30 x 25cm (20 x12 x 10in) deep). In this soil a mixture of a cereal and a legume are grown together (2). These are known as bait plants, as the mycorrhizal fungi cant survive on their own they need to infect the roots of these plants in order to multiply. The trap pot is kept for three months. At the end of this period the bait plants are cut at the base and all watering stops (3). This effectively kills the plant, and tricks the mycorrhiza that has infected its roots into quickly releasing spores. After one further week the roots of the bait plants are pulled up and roughly chopped into 1cm (0.4in) long strips (4). This soil and root mixture becomes your inoculum. A small layer of inoculum 1-2cm (0.4-0.8in) deep is then added to the soil when planting seedlings (5), infecting the roots when they pass through the inoculum.
No. 42
Permaculture Magazine
13
Chapter 4 ~ Soil
Page 30
Green Manures
One of the most under-used methods of soil improvement is the use of green manures, plants grown specifically to be dug back into the soil to improve it. In principle this sounds pretty easy just sprinkle some seed on the ground after the main crop has been harvested and then dig the plants in after a few weeks. But in practice theres a lot more to it. The charity Garden Organic recently found that growing green manure can reduce the loss of the key nutrient nitrogen in the soil by up to 97 percent compared to soil left bare. So green manures seem to be the perfect solution. Green manures work by drawing goodness out of the soil and storing it in the plants cells and root nodules. When the plants are then dug back into the soil they rot down and gradually release these nutrients to the next crop in a more readilyavailable form. Regular use of green manures improves the soil structure, breaking down hard soils and adding organic matter to light soils. Green manures can have other benefits as well. Many of them provide good soil cover, suppressing weed growth and preventing erosion. Others attract beneficial insects to the garden such as bees and hoverflies which prey on pests like aphids. So how do you choose a green manure to sow? The following are readily available:
* Legumes, such as winter field beans (like fava beans), lupins and fenugreek which fix nitrogen into the roots (as long as they are dug in before flowering when the nitrogen is lost). Other peas and beans, such as sweet peas, can also be used. Winter field beans are a good late green manure since they will even grow when temperatures are starting to take a dive during mid-autumn. Clovers, red or crimson clover being the best as it dies down, also legumes. Winter tares, also known as vetches, are also winter-hardy but like rye they can be difficult to dig in. Again, part of the legume family so they fix nitrogen. Rye, such as Hungarian grazing rye, will grow well at low temperatures but can be difficult to dig in and get rid of. Mustards, can be very effective but, as they are part of the brassica family, they can interfere with your crop rotation. Buckwheat and Phacelia are both excellent at attracting beneficial insects and are easily dug in. Winter-hardy salad crops, such as corn salad and miners salad (Claytonia) are easily dug in once used and can provide some extra salad leaves while growing. Others which are not normally regarded as green manures can also do a great job. Poached-egg plant (Limnanthes Douglassii) is a great example bright flowers, grows well over winter and digs in easily. I regularly plant this in my garden and leave a few to flower to attract hoverflies.
* * * * * * *
[The above list includes most of the available green manures in the UK] Whilst this looks like a wide variety of options, there are some important factors to consider. Firstly, many green manures are great for farmers with machinery to dig in the plants but are not half as easy for gardeners who have to do it by hand. Well-known author Bob Flowerdew recommends that you avoid ryes, tares and vetches, fodder radish, and many clovers for exactly this reason. Secondly, not all green manures grow well on all soils. Tares dont do well on dry or acid soils, clovers prefer light soils and beans prefer heavier ground. If I was asked to name my top three green manures they would be phacelia, poached-egg plant and winter field beans. Im still on the lookout for other good green manures though, so please do share your experiences below.
Edited from an article by Jeremy Dore Designed Visions ~ permaculture design course handouts www.designedvisions.com
Chapter 4~ Soil
Page 31
Worm Composting
Source: Betsy Reid ~ HDRA News #147
Chapter 4 ~ Soil
Page 32
Source: Permaculture Magazine #8 p25 Designed Visions ~ permaculture design course handouts www.designedvisions.com
Chapter 4~ Soil
Page 33
Jean Pain Method

DESCRIPTION Jean Pain (19301981) was a French innovator who developed a compost based bioenergy system that produced 100% of his energy needs. He heated water to 60 degrees celsius at a rate of 4 litres a minute which he used for washing and heating. He also distilled enough methane to run an electricity generator, cooking elements, and power his truck. This method of creating usable energy from composting materials has come to be known as Jean Pain Composting, or the Jean Pain Method. The process is an amazingly simple and incredibly inexpensive system of extracting both energy and fertilizer from plant life. It is a boon for rural people since it goes a long way in overcoming the shortage of fuel, especially in hilly areas. CONSTRUCTION This centre of this power plant is a 80 cubic metre mound of chipped brushwood pieces (3 metres high and 6 across). This compost mound is made of tree limbs and pulverized underbrush, a fire-risk in the area in which he lived. In the middle of the 50 ton compost heap is a steel tank with a capacity of 4 cubic metres. It is three quarters full of the same compost, which has first been steeped in water for 2 months. The tank is hemetically sealed, but is connected by tubing to 24 truck tyre inner tubes, stacked nearby as a reservoir for the methane gas produced as the compost ferments. WORKING Once the gas is distilled it is washed through small stones in water and compressed, it is used for cooking food and producing electricity. (It can even fuel a truck as 10 kilos of brushwood supply the gas equivalent of a litre of petrol). It takes about 90 days to produce 500 cubic metres of gas - enough to keep two ovens and three burner stoves going for a year. The methane-fuelled combustion engine, that turns a generator, produces 100 watts of electricity every hour. This charges an accumulative battery which stores the current, providing all the light needed for the household. A 200 metre long plastic tube, wound around the tank, provides hot water at around 70 degrees centigrade for 18 months due to the heat-giving fermentation process. Once inside, the hot water circulates through radiators and heats the house during winters. Once the fermentation is over, the fermented compost provides 50 tonnes of nitrogen-rich manure or natural fertilizer.
Source: Ida Et Jean Pain Les Terepliers, 83930 Ville Croze, France Jean Pains book that describes this process in detail: Another Kind of Garden Designed Visions ~ permaculture design course handouts www.designedvisions.com
Chapter 4 ~ Soil
Page 34
Nutrient availability by pH
Chapter 5~ Water
Page 1
Water
Water facts
97% of the earths water is ocean salt water. The remaining 3% is fresh water but two thirds of this fresh water is frozen in the polar ice caps leaving only 1% available for human consumption. There is the same amount of water on earth as there was when the earth was formed billions of years ago. The water that you are using today could contain molecules that the Neanderthals drank. At about 150 gallons per person daily, the United States uses more water than any other country in the world. Europeans The Pacific ocean use about 53 gallons per day and Africans only about 6 gallons per day. Over a typical 100 year span, a water molecule spends 98 years in the ocean, 20 months locked in ice, about 2 weeks in lakes and rivers, and less than a week in our atmosphere. It can take a whole lifetime for groundwater to travel just one mile. Water regulates the earths temperature. Frozen water (ice) is 9% lighter than water (this is why ice floats on water). A gallon of water weighs about 8.33 pounds. Water is considered saline (salt water) and undrinkable after as little as one part salt is added to one thousand parts of fresh water. If the entire worlds water were able to fit into a one gallon bucket, the fresh water available for us to use would equal only about one tablespoon. One cubic mile of water equals over 1.1 Trillion gallons. The earth contains about 344,000,000 cubic miles of water and exists as follows:
* 315,000,000 cubic miles salt water in the ocean * 9,000,000 cubic miles groundwater in aquifers * 7,000,000 cubic miles frozen in polar ice caps * 53,000 cubic miles of water is passing through lakes and streams * 4,000 cubic miles of water is atmospheric moisture * And 3,400 cubic miles of water are locked within living things.
For example: 66% of the human body is water (about 10 gallons). 75% of our brain is water. 25% of the bone in our body is water. 83% of the blood in our body is water. 75% of a chicken is water. 80% of a pineapple is water. 95% of a tomato is water. 70% of an elephant is water. Over 90% of the worlds supply of fresh water is located in Antarctica.
Chapter 5 ~ Water
Page 2
Each day the sun evaporates a trillion tons of water. A single average size tree will give lose 70 gallons of water per day to evaporation. An acre of corn will lose 4,000 gallons of water per day to evaporation. A small drip from a faucet can waste as much as 20 gallons of water a day. A person can live about a month without food, but only about a week without water. A person must consume the equivalent of about five and one half 12 ounce bottles of water daily to live healthily - an average of 20,000 gallons of water during their life. More than 2 billion people on earth do not have a safe supply of fresh water. Water leaves the stomach five minutes after consumption. Two thirds of the water used in a home is used in the bathroom. To flush a toilet we use 2 to 7 gallons of our fresh drinking water - the single greatest water user inside our home. A five-minute shower uses 25 to 50 gallons of water. Contrary to what you may think, a bath uses less water than a typical shower. Brushing your teeth uses about 2 gallons of water. An automatic dishwasher uses 9 to 12 gallons of water. A washing machine will use 20 to 50 gallons of water for each load of clothes. At least 400 million people live in regions with severe water shortages and the number is growing exponentially. Most of the worlds people must walk at least 3 hours to fetch their fresh water. Freshwater animals are disappearing five times faster than land animals. It takes 1 gallon of water to process one bottle of beer. It takes 120 gallons of water to produce one egg. It takes 132 gallons of water to grow one orange. Processing one chicken requires 11.6 gallons of water. Processing one can of fruit or vegetables requires 9.3 gallons of water. The amount of water required to grow just one days food for a typical family of four is about 6,800 gallons. It takes 1,850 gallons of water to refine one barrel of crude oil. The average size car required 39,000 gallons of water to manufacture. It took 2,072 gallons of water to make the four tires on your car.
Source: http://www.smartwaterconcepts.com
Chapter 5~ Water
Page 3
Water in the Landscape

Where does water come from ? How much can we use ? What can we use it for ? PC ethic: use water as many times as possible (cycles/recycles) Uses of water:
* * * to pro-create life (in living organisms) to develop productive water systems (aquaculture) to develop hydraulic systems for Energy production
PC directives:
1 Hold water on the land (increase surface storages; reduce run off; decrease evaporation) 2 Tackle "problems" as near to their source as possible 3 Slow down overland flow 4 All water leaving system should be non-polluting
Sources of water: rain, run off, dew, snow, grey water, etc.(also biomass)
Methods * Soil storage (including rehabilitation) - swales, bunds, mulch, dams, ponds, tanks, terraces, net 'n' pan, trees & vegetation, keyline * Mulching, ground cover, windbreaks .... trees ! * Roof tops
In tropics/sub-tropics - emphasis of biomass as water store Keyline systems:

* * to provide a means of conserving all precipitation that falls of the site ensure water is stored in the soil itself, retards its evaporation and to use conserved moisture for rapid production of soil fertility over large & small areas of land. prevent uncontrolled run-off and allows infiltration to reduce water stress saddle, keyline, contour, ridge where used? how cleaned?
Swales:
* * * *
Dams:
Grey water:
PC Principles involved: entropy; recycling; multi-function; multi-element; biological systems; appropriate technology; energy efficient planning On our design site, * how can we protect against damaging effects of water? * how can we maximise water storage? * how can we best recycle water?
Chapter 5 ~ Water
Page 4
Water Management
Key points: * Slow down overland flow. This helps to deal with both sides of water holding on to it when it is scarce and mitigating its destructive side when it is fast moving. * Catch and store water - this can be increasing soil water storage, creating ponds, rainwater catchment etc. * Use it as many times as possible recycle water wherever possible. * Design for your situation and landscape. Where does water go on your site? What happens when it rains for days? What happens when there is a drought? Can you spot any clues in the vegetation as to where might be wetter/drier? Methods:
Swales A swale is a broad, shallow furrow that runs exactly along the contour of the land. It is designed to catch moving surface water and allow it to infiltrate into the soil to stop water moving and allow it to sink in to the soil. This water is then stored in the soil where it can be used by plants, and is protected from evaporation. Inclined swales These are swales with a very slight incline (the secrets in the name!) This means that in dry times, it will act as a swale and increase soil storage of water. However, in times of very heavy rainfall, the incline will allow the water to flow along the swale which means the water can either be stored in a pond or directed off-site. This means that inclined swales can be used in areas that experience periods of heavy rainfall as well as periods of drought. Fascines Fascines are six feet long bundles of thin poles and brash about 1 foot in diameter, bound in the middle and at each end. Fascines are an easy way of dealing with brash created from pruning or woodland management, and can be used to create simple causeways and wetlands, and also to slow surface runoff over a site. To create a causeway place the bundles across the stream, with the long end pointing in the direction on water flow. The aim is not to stop the water; it is to slow it down. Keep adding fascines until a walkway has emerged. This approach will help protect the stream banks and surrounding areas from the damaging effects of fast moving water during a flood. It will also create a mini wetland upstream of the fascines, which will also slow down water movement, increase soil storage and increase the biodiversity of the land. Contoured paths Paths that are placed along the contour of the land can slow water down as it travels down the slope, decreasing the damaging effects of surface water and helping to
Chapter 5~ Water
Page 5
increase soil absorption. Conversely, paths or tracks that go straight down a slope will speed water up and tend to create gulleys that can lead to soil erosion. Terracing If you have a steeply sloping site, you may want to consider terracing the site. Terracing will turn a steep slope, which is vulnerable to water run-off and erosion, into a series of flat areas. This will mean that instead of rushing down the slope, water will be held on the terraces. Trees and vegetation Planting trees can dramatically increase water storage in the soil, and slow down surface run-off.
* * * * Their litter, stems and trunks slow down surface runoff; Their roots create macropores (large conduits) in the soil that increase infiltration of water; They contribute to terrestrial evaporation and reduce soil moisture via transpiration; Their litter and other organic residue change soil properties that increase soil water storage.
As a result, the presence or absence of trees can change the quantity of water on the surface, in the soil or groundwater. By planting trees or hedgerows along the contour of the land, you can reduce the damaging effects of surface run-off. Windbreaks When dry winds blow over plants, water that has been drawn up from the soil into the plant leaves evaporates into the wind. This means that plants need a lot more water than usual. By reducing wind speeds, windbreaks can help retain water in the soil and protect plants from drought stress by lessening the effects of transpiration. Windbreaks will significantly reduce wind speed and so reduce crop transpiration rates and the unnecessary loss of soil water. Mulching By covering the surface of the soil with organic matter, mulching helps to retain moisture in the soil by protecting it from evaporation by the sun or wind. Rooftop water catchment Roofs can be used to catch and store water by channeling rainwater that falls on to them into storage containers or water butts. This water can then be used to irrigate crops. If the water butts are elevated above the level of the crops, gravity can be used to deliver the water to the point it is needed. Greywater Water that has been used once for washing etc from residences or buildings can be recycled and used again once it has been cleaned. One method for purifying the water is running it through a series of reed beds. The nutrients in the water are taken up by reeds and other plants and organisms, thus cleaning the water. Water that has passed through the reed beds can then be collected in a pond and used for irrigation etc. Ponds Ponds can be a valuable way of catching and storing water on site, as well as increasing the diversity of habitats for plants and animals. Ponds also store heat and reflect light, so can create favorable warm microclimates for more tender plants. Important considerations when designing a pond are water catchment and methods of retaining the water (either using a pond liner or puddling if you have clay soil).
Chapter 5 ~ Water
Page 6 Source: Graham Burnett ~ A Beginners Guide to Permaculture
Water Use at Home

Chapter 5~ Water
Page 7
Rainwater Harvesting
The rain water that falls on our roofs is a free gift from nature. If you think about it youll realise that all that rain is actually stored solar energy and we should make the most of it when it comes - especially if we live in drylands. In order to do this we need to know how big a tank or pond were going to need to store it in and we can work this out using a fairly simple calculation. First of all we need to know our catchment area and thats the area of the roof - not the area of tiles etc. but the floor area it covers. This is because the rainfall measurements in expressed as depth. To do this we just need to calculate the floor area, which in a rectangular building is simply the product of the two sides, e.g. for a 6 metre x 10 metre building: 6m x 10m = 60m2 Then to determine the volume of water harvested per year by the roof we need the annual rainfall figure (this will be in mm). Say the local figure is 1000mm, which is exactly 1metre: 60m2 x 1m = 60m3 Now not all this water will be collected; in heavy rain splashing will create losses, as will evaporation of light rain from warm roofs in the spring and summer. So well multiply this figure by a fudge factor to account for these losses: 60m3 x 0.8 = 48m3 = 48,000 litres Now we wont need to store all this at once as well be using it as we go, but it would be wise to have a tank big enough to accommodate enough water use during the longest expected period of drought. Lets say two months in our case: Tank size = 2months/12 months = 1/6 x 48m3 = 8m3 = 8,000 litres Now thats quite a big tank and one best placed in the ground, though that will then require a pump to lift it again for use when required.
Chapter 5 ~ Water
Page 8
Water, Toilets and Solutions
Chapter 5~ Water
Page 9
Humanure dry composting toilets

The problem
The problem of how we deal with our sewage is one of the most basic issues humanity has had to deal with but one which we have still spectacularly failed to come to grips with. As soon as we mix our excrement with the 7 litres of fresh drinking water the average toilet uses to flush it away we have 7 litres of highly polluted water to deal with. In towns this is either very expensively treated with chemicals and large energy inputs, or, for those towns 'lucky' enough to be by the coast, pumped straight out into the sea. In rural areas the usual approach is a septic tank, which often crack and can contaminate groundwater.
The Solution
The ideal solution is to keep the water and the solids apart from each other in the first place. Although there are systems for treating 'black' water (the liquid from your toilet) using reed beds, which are very effective, they could be seen as a bit of a 'using a sledgehammer to crack a walnut' - they can be expensive and are a lot of work to install. The approach to dry composting that most inspired us is the 'Humanure' method, pioneered by John Jeavons in his book 'The Humanure Handbook' (available from Walnut Books - see below). The basics of the approach are this; your toilet is a bucket inside a wooden box, with a toilet seat on top. Every time you use the toilet you cover your 'deposit' with a handful of sawdust, which effectively prevents problems with flies and odours, and, if you can get some nice fresh pine sawdust, acts as an air freshener too! When the bucket is nearly full you empty it onto your compost heap, constructed in such a way, with layers of alternating 'dry' materials (straw, bracken), kitchen waste, garden waste, leaves, animal manures. A compost heap structured in such a way should, so the theory runs, get so hot in the middle that all the pathogens in the humanure are killed (indeed, Jeavons asserts that aside from the use of some very unpleasant chemicals, such composting is the only way to kill them off). Once the composting is complete the fine, crumbly, sweet smelling compost is completely safe to use on your vegetable and fruit garden. For an excellent guide for how to build a humanure sawdust toilet go to: www.rdrop.com/users/krishna/sawdust.htm
Our Experience
When we arrived at The Hollies, it had no running water, no septic tanks, no toilets. The old house had only an old hand pump and no water in the house at all. When we built the new wooden house we wanted a low-impact toilet system which was easy and quick to install. We therefore chose humanure systems for both buildings. The toilet system itself was easy enough to put together using left over bits of wood from building the house. The main expense was the toilet seat and lid. One good tip here, particularly if you have young male children, is to fit some kind of rim around the inside of the toilet seat which fits inside the bucket, thereby preventing any misdirected wees going over the top of the bucket. Jeavons doesnt mention this in his book (maybe he doesnt have young children!), but it is suggested on the website mentioned above, where they recommend buying two buckets the same size and cutting the rim off one, and affixing it to the bottom of the lid so that it fits snugly into the bucket.
Chapter 5 ~ Water
Page 10
The next tip is the sawdust. The kinds of sawdust you can get make all the difference between a smelly toilet and a smell-free one. Very dry very fine sawdust isnt much good, the best stuff we have had so far is fresh macrocarpa (a kind of cedar) sawdust, which is still a bit damp and has a lovely perfume to it. Leaves are ok but you need a lot to be effective and the loo fills up very fast, requiring emptying more often. We also tried moss, which was alright but gave the bathroom a sort of damp forest smell which I didnt really like. It seems like a sawdust which is already a bit moist is somehow more absorbent than one which is dry. We have had (providing we have decent sawdust) no problem with smells or flies, and our children have got into the habit of putting a handful of sawdust in after they have finished Im not sure if, when we build our proper house, I would have our toilet so close to the bath. It would perhaps be more suited to a room on its own. It certainly doesnt need to be kept in an outhouse though; given even half decent sawdust there is no smell problem. We are now onto our second compost heap. The first one is now covered and after only 3 months or so is already half the size it was when we stopped filling it. The question is how can you know that your heap has got hot enough to be completely safe for garden use? Some people say that if you are in any doubt use it one your fruit bushes and trees, but I dont want to, I want to use it on my vegetables! What I intend to do when the first heap has finished is to get it tested for particular pathogens, and I am also going to get a thermometer so that I can monitor the temperature in the current heap.
Conclusions
When I first heard about this system I was cynical, it must be smelly, it must have lots of flies all over it. It isnt, it doesnt. It, for me, is the Rolls Royce of toilets. It is simple, it is humble, it is effective. There is something very affirming and grounding about carrying the bucket to the compost heap once a week, you feel like you are actually taking responsibility for your waste, becoming part of an ancient cycle with Nature.
Relevant Web Sites
Joseph Jenkins, the man who is responsible for all this has his own website at www. jenkinspublishing.com The Compost Resource page can be found at www.oldgrowth.org/compost The Earth Star Primal Habitat Projects experiences of humanure can be found at www.geocities.com/-newliberty/earthstar/intro.htm There is a good bit as well on a homeschoolers website called www.angelfire.com/ mo/sasschool/compost.html The City Farmer people, who are doing brilliant work promoting urban agriculture, have a bit on humanure, at www.cityfarmer.org/comptoilet64.html#toilet Theres plenty of other stuff out there Im sure, let us know if you find anything good.
Source: www.theholliesonline.com Designed Visions ~ permaculture design course handouts www.designedvisions.com
Chapter 5~ Water
Page 11
Using Biological processes to filter and clean polluted water
Chapter 5 ~ Water
Page 12
Determining Freshwater Quality Using the Ladder of Organisms

Scientists consider water to be a freshwater source if it has a salinity (saltwater content) of less than .005%. Freshwater habitats can be ponds, lakes, bogs, rivers, streams, creeks, marshes, and swamps. Even a puddle or a drainage ditch can be a source of freshwater. A reservoir is an example of an artificial freshwater resource. Anything around a freshwater habitat could influence the life found there, such as farms, manicured lawns (which may contain chemicals), asphalt, trees, or other bodies of freshwater. We can learn about the health of a freshwater habitat by studying the organisms living within it. Scientists have determined that certain organisms can tolerate a polluted freshwater environment, while others can only live in a healthy freshwater environment. A macroinvertebrate is an animal without a backbone living in one stage of its life cycle, usually the nymph or larval stage. Macroinvertebrates can spend a few years living in this stage in a freshwater habitat and can be seen without a microscope. Many macroinvertebrates are benthic organisms, or bottom dwellers. Scientists look at the number and type of organisms present in a freshwater habitat to determine its health. The water quality of a freshwater habitat is good when it is rich in oxygen and capable of supporting a variety of organisms. Water quality is fair when it contains less oxygen and low concentrations of pollutants, and poor water quality habitats suffer from high levels of pollutants. Some organisms can only be found in healthy freshwater habitats with good water quality, while others can tolerate fair water quality, but are unable to survive in a poor water quality habitat. And some organisms are able to live just about anywhere. A pollutant is something introduced to an environment that is not native to it: for example, warm water introduced to a stream is called a thermal pollutant and can harm the organisms adapted to live in the cool water, environmental pollutants taint freshwater habitats, and human and animal waste products contain bacteria such as fecal coliform that pollute freshwater. You can use the list of organisms below to determine the quality of water their presence indicates. The larvae of a stonefly, for example, is a macroinvertebrate that is very sensitive to chemical and physical changes in water, and its presence indicates good water quality. Clams and crayfish are able to survive in fair water quality areas, but not in poor water quality areas. Blackfly larvae and leeches can be found in any type of water, and their presence alone suggests a poorer quality of water.
Determining quality of freshwater using the ladder of organisms
Good Water Quality Mayfly larvae Stonefly larvae Caddisfly larvae Dobsonfly larvae (Hellgrammite) Water penny Riffle beetle Trout
Fair Water Quality Crayfish Scud Dragonfly nymph Cranefly larvae Clam Damselfly larvae Sow bug Catfish
Poor Water Quality Aquatic worms Leech Pouch snail Midge fly larvae Blackfly larvae Carp
Chapter 5~ Water
Page 13
Pond Design for Wildlife
Chapter 5 ~ Water
Page 14
Source: Patsy Garrard and George Sobol
Chapter 5~ Water
Page 15
Wetland Eco-system Treatment (WET) Systems

The water on our planet; the most abundant and the most abused, is yet the most accommodating of our natural resources. We take for granted the capacity of water to be renewed and purified, largely by natural means. Water distils itself through the sun powered hydrological cycle in which it passes from rain to river, from river to the ocean, ocean to cloud, cloud to rain and rain back to the river again. Rainfall is filtered as it passes through the soil and subsoil - on its way to wells and springs. It supports a community of animals, plants and micro-organisms which act as a biological purification system. This closely integrated community of living things, together with the physical properties of its environment, constitute an ecosystem. This ecosystem is based upon the photosynthetic abilities of plants to absorb solar energy and the power of the microbial population to absorb chemical nutrients from soil and water redistributing them to many diverse life forms. Wetland Ecosystem Treatment, or WET Systems, function by harnessing this innate ability to absorb and transform the organic nutrients found in wastewater, converting these into plant biomass and soil. Within the WET System the natural productivity of wetlands is harnessed creating a purification process which uses the wastewater as a resource, converting waste into yield. As wetlands are the most productive and species diverse ecosystems to have evolved, the potential for a high biomass yield from the system is great. Our WET Systems are not simple Reedbed Treatment Systems or conventional Facultative Pond Systems, although they do contain reeds, as well as a range of aquatic and marginal plants and a variety of willow types and wetland tree species. The WET System comprises specially designed and constructed earth banks and ponds. As the wastewater flows through the WET System, which is densely planted with wetland trees and marginal plants, it is both purified by microbiological action and transpired by growing plants. Up to 40 different wetland species are used in and around the lagoons, ponds and reed beds. Several species of willow and many of reed, rush, sedge and other marginals are used depending on the type of wastewater to be purified. Wastewater storage and treatment are combined in these constructed ecosystems which are designed with a large volume and holding capacity. The total hydraulic load is lowered by the evapotranspiration of the trees and the growing biomass absorbs the organic load. Coppicing the willow on the system keeps it at the peak growth rate enabling the maximum absorption of organic matter, as well as producing a useful harvest of willow each year. The aims of a WET System design are to purify wastewater, create a rich, multi-species ecosystem and produce a useful and varied yield. The main difference between conventional Reedbed Treatment and a WET System is that unlike a conventional reedbed, no gravel is used in the construction of a WET System - soil in the rootzone is the filtration medium. The basis of the purification process is, as with conventional treatment processes, microbiological; it relies on the biochemical transformations provided by the
Chapter 5 ~ Water
Page 16
plethora of micro-organisms found in the soil. In WET Systems the bacteria and fungi which transform the waste are in a symbiotic, mutually beneficial, relationship with the roots of the wetland plants and trees. Within this symbiosis the plant roots provide oxygen, sugars and attachment points for the microbes, whilst the microbes mineralise the organic matter found in the wastewater making this available to the growing plants. When coppiced the trees can be managed to produce timber or pole wood as well as willow wands which, depending on the varieties planted and the coppice cycle, can be used a source of osier whips for basketry and poles for hurdle making. Pole wood can also be produced for use in creating living willow sculptures and other structures; over a four or five year coppice cycle it can be harvested and seasoned for use as firewood. WET Systems become more efficient at purifying the wastewater entering them the longer they are established. This is in distinct contrast to mechanical systems which over time can break down due to mechanical faults and wear on components. The plug flow kinetics of the system give a robust process which is able to cope with shock loading. The purification processes occur in the soil/root zone and each year as new soil is created by the growing plants shedding their leaves and the system matures - the root zone expands and the purification potential increases. Whilst the number of wetland habitats in the landscape has diminished, WET Systems provide a refuge for frogs, toads and newts, and shelter for birds, as well as a large variety of insects and pond life. Depending on the type of wetland ecology which is required and what yields are preferred the final polishing ponds can sometimes be stocked with several species of fish which area further yield and also act as a biological indicator that the process is functioning well. WET Systems are designed for domestic wastewater and many types of agricultural and agro-industrial effluent, including dairy farm yard and parlour washings, silage liquor runoff, cider mill wastes and pig slurry. When dealing with high strength wastewater the WET System can be preceded by an anaerobic digestion pre-treatment option. This traps the potentially damaging the greenhouse gas - methane, allowing this fuel gas to become a significant potential source of energy for the site. In domestic applications the WET System can be designed and planted as a garden feature including an ornamental or wildlife pond and bog garden. WET Systems can be used to treat sewage from individual dwellings of any size, or for treating the wastewater from farms, villages and hamlets instead of using conventional, mechanical, treatment processes. Biomass type willow can also be planted and used to fuel a combined heat and power boiler and so contribute to the energy needs of the farm, community or dwelling generating the wastewater which feeds the WET System.
Source: Jay Abrahams ~ Biologic Design Designed Visions ~ permaculture design course handouts www.designedvisions.com
Chapter 6~ Trees
Page 1
Trees
Ten Reasons why Trees are Important
Trees are important, valuable and necessary to our very existence. Its not too hard to believe that, without trees we humans would not exist on this beautiful planet. Trees are the ground troops on an environmental frontline. Our existing forest and the trees we plant work in tandem to make a better world. 1. Trees Produce Oxygen ~ Lets face it, we could not exist as we do if there were no trees. A mature leafy tree produces as much oxygen in a season as 10 people inhale in a year. What many dont realize is the forest also acts as a giant filter that cleans the air we breath. 2. Trees Clean the Soil ~ Trees absorb pollutants that have entered the soil. Trees can either store harmful pollutants or actually change the pollutant into less harmful forms. Trees filter sewage and farm chemicals, reduce the effects of animal wastes, clean roadside spills and clean water runoff into streams. 3. Trees Control Noise Pollution ~ Trees muffle urban noise almost as effectively as stone walls. Trees, planted at strategic points in a neighborhood, can abate major noises from roads and airports. 4. Trees Slow Storm Water Runoff ~ Flash flooding can be dramatically reduced by a forest or by planting trees. One Colorado blue spruce, either planted or growing wild, can intercept more than 1000 gallons of water annually when fully grown. Underground water-holding aquifers are recharged with this slowing down of water runoff. 5. Trees Are Carbon Sinks ~ To produce its food, a tree absorbs and locks away carbon dioxide in its wood, roots and leaves. Carbon dioxide is a global warming suspect. A forest is a carbon storage area or a sink that can lock up as much carbon as it produces. This locking-up process stores carbon as wood and not as an available greenhouse gas. 6. Trees Clean the Air ~ Trees help cleanse the air by intercepting airborne particles, reducing heat, and absorbing such pollutants as carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen dioxide. Trees remove this air pollution by lowering air temperature, through respiration, and by retaining particulates. 7. Trees Shade and Cool ~ Shade resulting in cooling is what a tree is best known for. Shade from trees reduces the need for air conditioning in summer. In winter, trees break the force of winter winds, lowering heating costs. Studies have shown that parts of cities without cooling shade from trees can literally be heat islands with temperatures as much as 12 degrees Fahrenheit higher than surrounding areas. 8. Trees Act as Windbreaks ~ During windy and cold seasons, trees located on the windward side act as windbreaks. A windbreak can lower home heating bills up to 30% and have a significant effect on reducing snow drifts. A reduction in wind can also reduce the drying effect on soil and vegetation behind the windbreak and help keep precious topsoil in place. 9. Trees Fight Soil Erosion ~ Erosion control has always started with tree and grass planting projects. Tree roots bind the soil and their leaves break the force of wind and rain on soil. Trees fight soil erosion, conserve rainwater and reduce water runoff and sediment deposit after storms. 10. Trees Pump Water and Minerals from Deep Underground ~ Ultimately making them available (when they shed their leaves and annual roots each year) to all the other plants around them and in turn to the animals that feed on them.
Source: Adapted from an article by Steve Nix Designed Visions ~ permaculture design course handouts www.designedvisions.com
Chapter 6 ~ Trees
Page 2
The Metabolism of the tree
Source: Alick Bartholomew ~ Hidden Nature
Chapter 6~ Trees
Page 3
Not Seeing the ForestTrees Not Seeing the Forest forChris Evansfor the Trees the by
In (re)afforestation work we usually talk about the planting of trees. Lots of em. But theres a fundamental limitation in this ethic that planting trees is what we need to save the planet. We should be rather talking about planting forests. Until our planting site has in it the components of the Mother of all plantations - the climax forest system - the trees we plant will always be weak and prone to exposure, disease and drought. Could this be why in America the U.S. Department of Agriculture accepts an 85% mortality rate in its plantations on clear fell sites over 100 Ha ? Guilds and Diversity This is illustrated by a tale of connections in the North American Pacific Coast Forests, between Douglas fir(Pseudotsuga mensezii), soil mycorrhizae and a certain Red Tree Vole. The vole was found to transport spores of the mycorrhizae, needed by the fir for its uptake of soil nutrients within the soil of these forests. On clearfell sites, the habitat of the vole was destroyed and thus it would disappear. As a result, survival of fir seedlings was severely reduced. These components survive together and benefit each other in a symbiotic association known in Permaculture circles as guilds. In design, we work to create guilds, or rather to place the right species in such a way that they can create themselves. This illustrates the importance of diversity in our plantations. Soil life Thus we are not just looking at planting trees, but accommodating the soil life which is the foundation of healthy biological systems, be they forests, wetlands or prairie grasslands. In one gramme of undisturbed forest soil there may be 1000 million bacteria. These are the life, the very creators of the soil and thus everything that grows upon it. They give the productive capacity of our soil. Roots of plants growing in undisturbed soils form associations with the soil microorganisms - the latter make nutrients available for the former, and the microorganisms gain carbon in particular. Up to 80% of Carbon fixed in photosynthesis goes into below ground processes. While this carbon is lost to the plant, it is not lost to the system, of which the plant is only a part. The soil organisms improve plant growth through effects on nutrient cycling, pathogens, soil aeration and water holding capacity. Giving priority to feeding and supporting the life in the soil makes caring for plants growing there a much easier task. Succession A further lesson from Nature we would be wise to apply is the principle of succession the re-development of the climax system following disturbance. In forests, this may occur naturally in landslides or the toppling of aged trees, creating clearings in the forests. The human causes are well known clearfell, livestock pressure, etc. In either situation, if allowed, Nature will re-colonise sites using biological systems specifically adapted to the situation. If soil is poor and soil moisture low, She will establish plants which can survive. These can be called pioneer ground covers, followed by pioneer shrubs and trees. Often they are nitrogenfixing legumes, able to synthesize nutrients from the air when theyre not available in the soil. Such plants have the chief purpose of preparing the ground for the next stage covering and protecting the soil, giving natural water and nutrient cycles a jump-start, and thus giving species which would not otherwise have survived a suitable niche in which to thrive. This process continues, each stage leading to a more fertile one, where the ability for a greater range and diversity of species to thrive increases until the climax state is reached once more. Throughout this process the annidated nature of the system becomes evident, with multi-storey stacking producing crops and system yields in a vertical plane as well as the conventional horizontal system (as with mono-crops).
Chapter 6 ~ Trees
Page 4
Limiting Factors For vital growth of biological systems, such processes and conditions are dependent on a few crucial factors mainly in the soil surface areas - moisture, air (oxygen), organic matter, temperature, the presence of symbiotic relationships (Friends), etc. When any one of these factors is sub-optimal or missing, growth is impaired even if other needs are in abundance. All the irrigation in the world will not produce an orchard if there is no fertility in the soil, and vice-versa. Total Yield Medicinal herbs, spices, dyes, fibre plants, bee forage plants, root crops and wildlife habitat are all part of the total yield. In forestry often these Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs - thankfully theyre not called minor forest products anymore) are ignored - especially when were not treating our planting site as a complete ecological system. Implication for design - in imitation of nature So the simple planting of trees is thus changed to creating, or allowing, complex interactions based on what happens naturally. We design to imitate this because its efficient - nature does it using only sunlight - and successful. Design is also about reducing the limiting factors for optimum productivity.
Permaculture is the direct application of the principles of ecology (Nature) in the design of sustainable human habitats.
Our designs need to incorporate as many as possible of the above principles when looking at forest plantations. We have a series of design options, for which we need to understand factors such as: * natural characteristics of the plant species * niches in time & space the plant occupies is it a pioneer, shade loving, drought tolerant, fast to establish, light demanding, frost tolerant, etc * size of the plant above and below ground (wide canopy, deep tap root, etc) * companions to the plant - birds, insects, other plants, etc. * human-used products of the plant When we have an idea of such criteria, we select and place the elements to work together, satisfying human and ecological needs of the site. The following design pattern illustrates how we can make optimum use of these characteristics and relationships.
10-12m
high canopy climax
mid canopy
low canopy
shrub
Chapter 6~ Trees
Planting distance
10-12m
Page 5
Sub-tropical examples
Fruit m/p* mango, jackfruit, avocado, Chiuri, carob Artocarpus, Terminalia, neem citrus, guava, star fruit, peach, pear, lapsi alder, teak, pine, sisso, Sesbania grandiflora banana, papaya, citrus, mullberry, sapota, coffee Acacia (khayer), Albizzia, Cassia fistula, alder cardamon, papaya, banana, kumquat Lucaena, Gliricidia, Cassia Flemengia, Calliandra, Sesbania Fruit, pineapple, sugar cane Sesbania, crotalaria, taro, tumeric, Cassia siamea
Plants per Ha.

65-100
Temperate examples
walnut, chestnut oak, ash, Honey locust apple, peach, apricot, cherry plum, pear, persimmon, damson H.locust, Melia, Robinia dwarf of apple, etc, hazel, Sea buckthorn, mullberry, tree lucerne, hazel (coppice) alder, willow, elder, tagasaste blackcurrant, gooseberry, etc. S.buckthorn Caragana, tree lupin raspberry Tagetes, lupin, bush clover
Time to Production
6-12 ys 30-100ys 3-5 ys 8-25ys 2-5ys
5-6m
225-300
Fruit m/p*
2.5-3m
800-1200
Fruit m/p*
1-1.5m
3400-8400
Fruit m/p*
1-2ys 1-2ys 6-12mo 3-6mo
0.5-0.75m 13-30,000
Fruit m/p*
*m/p = multi-function
We can then fit additional functions in and around our plantation with the following examples:
Function Sub-tropical types Temperate types
Ground covers Mucuna, Setaria, vetiva, lemon grass, citronella clover, comfrey, alfalfa, lupin,wild garlic, grass, lab-lab, Artemisia, Tagetes, mints perennial grasses, Artemisia, Tagetes, mints Climbers Thorny fences grape, passion fruit, jasmine, betel nut, black pepper, Bauhinia (malu) kiwi (hardy), grape, passion flower S.buckthorn, H.locust, Berberis , hawthorn, gorse
Agave, Berberis, citrus, wild pear (mel), Zanthoxylum (timur)
The conventional method of mono-crop planting at 2.5m spacing ignores all the opportunities of working with the diversity, succession and stacking principles of natural systems. Similarly, to plant climax-type trees at such spacing can be a waste when theyll need selecting anyway. The above design template allows for diversity, succession, stacking, rapid covering of the ground and quick production too. The latter is important for example when farmers are foregoing grazing needs by protecting the site - but within three to six months fodder can be harvested from the developing understorey. We certainly dont need to be afraid of over planting. Research shows that Gliricidia sepum can reach densities of up to forty thousand trees per Hectare (i.e. 50cm distance between plants) before biomass production is reduced.
Practical Planting Experiments in Britain, North America and Nepal have illustrated the principle of needing to plant the system, not just the tree. Plantations where a couple of handsfull of forest soil (especially when from a mature tree of the same species) were placed in the pit in the root zone have showed over 50% better survival than those with no inoculant. Options This design is only used to illustrate the principles, however. There are countless ways of adapting the design according to needs of the site and user group. Where sites are very poor or if the right planting materials, time, or labour is in short supply, then the establishment does not have to happen at the same time. We can start by broadcasting the pioneers, such as Artemisia, Sesbania, Crotalaria,
Chapter 6 ~ Trees
Page 6
Cassia, etc. and next year, following cut-and-mulching of these, establish the next layer. Eventually, the most valuable, long lasting climax species (which youve been growing yourselves in a local nursery in the meantime, of course) can be added.
Any tree species planted as seedlings will benefit from a nurse crop of pioneer/green manure/legume-type plants sown close around. We have used Sesbania, Crotalaria, and Cassia to do this - they grow quick (and will self-seed), so providing shelter on exposed sites (or a sun trap if planted in an arc open to the sun-side where sunlight is in short supply), as well as fixing nitrogen, and bump-starting the soil life processes. The design can vary in terms of products over horizontal and vertical planes, for example layers of fruit at all levels (vertically), or clumps of fruit at mid-canopy level, fodder at ground level, timber trees at upper canopy level, etc. We can play with succession by cutting (thinning) to maintain clearings at ground level, thus a high degree of edge diversity around the clearing. So design varies as succession continues. Agroforestry Contour planting on bunds within cultivated fields (e.g. LEISA - low external input sustainable agriculture ; SALT - sloping agricultural land technology) are not excluded from such applications. The design is rather squashed into contour lines, horizontal planting distances can be reduced to leave up/down slope space for annual cropping systems. Complexity, not Complications So if you think this is getting complicated, imagine varying all these dimensions (horizontal, vertical, time and relationships) at once ! This is the traditional way of forest farming - the Cavite (Philippines), Chagga (Tanzania), the Western Ghats (Goa, India) are living examples. In Western Nepal, the Raute (meaning Lords of the jungle), nomadic hunter-gatherers on the verge of extinction take it a step further - they just wander through natural forests, gathering what they need and not returning for up to nine years. They dont even have to plant ! Which just leaves one option, to merely protect a site and allow nature to do the rest. However, the above design principles allow us to create intensely productive systems for humans, thus taking the pressure off damaged forest areas, allowing them to exist for their own intrinsic value, and for the health of the Earth.
Teaching method The principles and variations of plantation and agroforestry design are limited when taught in two dimensions. A fun way is to use an earth pile, and sticks of different length and thickness, from tall, thick sticks (climax trees) to short pieces of straw (ground cover layer). Students can mould landscapes according to their own situations.
References Hart, Robert (1991) Forest Gardening Green Books Perry, D. A. and Amaramthus, M. P . (1987) The Use of Mycorrhizal Fungi and Associated Organisms in Forest Restoration, in Restoring the Earth Chris Evans, Appropriate Technology Asia Kathmandu, NEPAL. cevans@gn.apc.org 1-1.5m
Chapter 6~ Trees
Agroforestry
Chapter 6 ~ Trees
Page 8
Choice of Species Organiser

Chapter 6~ Trees
Page 9
taste storage time of harvest market value etc. size yields needs
Orchards and Fruit Trees

root stock your needs & preferences scion grafting budding top working air layering cuttings etc. vegetative nurseries
characteristics season
seed a to propagation
varieties cultivated wild p Spp. selection l c i
site selection/ se i e s e e t on on a e e t placement protection pest management fertility water pruning harvesting products time mkt demand
Orchards & r ha Fruit Trees u t T es es

p i i e principles o i i pollination
care
diversity m/function m/element stacking cycling edge m/climates etc.
t to integration Agroforestry soil consn/keylining shelterbelts access beekeeping livestock etc.
production storage harvesting integration pollination pruning
planting
shelter & protection access fertility water
S e r e Some References
Baker, H. (1980) Growing Fruit. RHS Brickell, C. (1979) Pruning. RHS Flowerdew, R. (2000) The Complete Fruit Book. Kyle Cathie Garner, R.J., (1993) The Grafters Handbook. Cassel Kourik, R. Designing & Maintaining Your Edible Landscape
l m n /S st Element/System n ly s Analysis
weeding
Chapter 6 ~ Trees
Page 10
Top Working is a method of grafting improved fruiting varieties onto wild root stock without needing the complications of a nursery. Its cheap and easy to carry out, uses local resources, and your dont even need a nursery to produce good quality fruit trees
What is Top Working ? Top Working is the union of an improved (or superior local) scion onto a wild root stock, usually done in situ on established seedlings or trees growing in garden, field, forest or hedgerow. You can graft apple onto wild (crab) apple; peach & plum onto blackthorn, etc. 2. Preparing root stock.
Cut the root stock anywhere between 2 inches to 5 feet from ground level. A stem anywhere between half to 12 inch diamter is suitable. The cut should be level & clean. The important task is to join the cambium of root stock and scion. The cambium is a green layer of growth cells between the bark and the wood.
How
ake to m
Top Working
Method 1. Selection of scion & rootstock. Both scion & rootstock should be from healthy, disease free and compatible stock. Scion is from a tree with characteristics you wish to grow (taste, fruiting time, storability, etc.). Rootstock should be sturdy & suited to local conditions. 3. Preparing scion
The scion should be prepared from last years wood. Pencil thickness is suitable, with 3-4 buds. The top end is cut near the uppermost bud. The bottom end is cut to produce a slanting wound about 1" long as in the diagramme.
5. Binding After joining, the graft(s) need to be bound as tight as possible to facilitate the join, while not allowing water into the cut areas.
stock. 4. Joining scion & root stock Three methods areshown here:
Whip & Tongue graft a tongue is cut to secure the graft 6. Aftercare This as important as the graft itself. The graft should not be disturbed or the join will separate. After 3-4 months (next summer) the plastic should be carefully removed and the graft allowed to grow. Any sprouts coming from below the graft should be cleanly removed. Water deeply and mulch for the first few months.
cambiums in contact Rind graft cut through the bark & insert scion from above
Cleft graft (here the scion is cut on both sides to a point)
The time for top grafting is during or towards the end of the winter dormant season. As sap starts to rise in the spring, a good graft will allow passage from the rootstock to the scion, which will sprout a fruiting branch. Around the tree plant companion species such as lemon grass, comfrey, nasturtium, balm, basil, onion, garlic, mint, marigold. As the tree grows, add compost and mulch under the drip line - not near the stem
Top Working
Chapter 6~ Trees
Page 11
Forest Gardening
Robert Harts seven layers
Source: The Garden magazine ~ June 2002
Chapter 6 ~ Trees
Page 12
Robert Harts seven layers (contd)
Source: The Garden magazine ~ June 2002
Chapter 6~ Trees
Page 13
Robert Harts garden plan
Source: Robert Hart ~ Forest Gardening
Chapter 6 ~ Trees
Page 14
Robert Harts garden layering
Source: Robert Hart ~ Forest Gardening
Chapter 6~ Trees
Page 15
Planting Fruit Trees Planting Fruit Trees

Fruit is a store of goodness. It is juicy, tasty and nutritious, and it holds vitamins essential for our health and well being. All over the world people have planted fruit trees since early times. Even if people have only a small piece of land they show interest in planting fruit trees. But if you don't have the skills and knowledge to plant and care for fruit trees they can die, or at best be less productive. So all the effort that went into acquiring and planting fruit trees goes to waste. In this paper we can learn about how to plant and maintain fruit trees to get the best production using local resources and with minimum work. There are many types of benefit from fruit, for example: it is tasty and nutritious; if you eat fruit after a meal the food is easier for the body to digest; fruit is like wealth which you can sell or exchange; after you plant a fruit tree it only requires a small amount of maintenance, and will last for many years (it is perennial); because they are perennial, fruit trees help to protect the soil and the environment. fruit trees give nectar to bees, give firewood from pruning, habitat for birds and wildlife, and many other benefits. In order to get these benefits, the first important thing is to plant the fruit tree well. Only then will fruit trees give their benefits to people and the community. Choosing the right places to plant fruit trees When selecting where to plant a fruit tree, you need to consider the following needs: protection from animals easy maintainance shelter from the wind enough room to grow suitable good soil Below are good places to plant fruit trees:
Cross Section of the Pit

soil, soil, rotted compost halfhalf-rotted compost and soil
in old pit latrines on the edge of the house's yard terrace edges on the edges of fields Preparing the Pit If you're planting the fruit tree in an old pit latrine, then your pit is already prepared. If not, you need to select a good place and dig a pit. The pit should be at least 3 feet deep (if you have deep soil, then 4 feet is even better). The pit should be 3 feet wide.
Fruit Tree Planting
1 metre 1 metre 1 metre 1 metre 1 metre
soil green biomas 1 metre
Chapter 6 ~ Trees
Page 16
In the bottom of the pit, put 6-8 inches of green biomass, then cover it with soil that has been dug out of the pit. Then put a 12-18 inch layer of semi-decomposed biomas mixed with un-rotted animal compost and soil. Then put in a layer of well rotted compost mixed with soil. All the dug soil should be put back in the pit until it is heaped above the pit, which is now ready for planting. If you have a problem with ants or termites, mix oil seed cake (such as mustard) with the soil. One part of cake should be mixed with 10 parts of soil.
Planting the Fruit Tree

When you plant the fruit tree in the prepared pit, first remove as much soil and compost as is needed for the size of the roots. The roots should be open, and point downwards. When the soil has been returned around the roots and filled in, tread on the soil to press it down. Around the pit make a shallow trench to collect water. Lastly, put down rotted compost covered with mulch. If you don't have enough biomass, use rocks to cover the soil.
Companion Planting
Various plants can be planted around the fruit tree which help it to grow even better and give more production. This is called companion planting. Garlic, onion, marigold, basil, mint, lemon grass, nasturtium, comfrey, coriander, fennel, dill, tansy and wormwood are some examples of companion plants. There are many benefits of planting them with the fruit tree. Companion planting helps the fruit tree, but doesn't take much extra work
Chris Evans 2004 Permaculture Design Course Designed Visions ~ permaculture design course handouts
Fruitwww.designedvisions.com Tree Planting
Chapter 6~ Trees
Page 17
Benefits of Companion Planting Companion plants help to protect from harmful pests They attract beneficial insects They produce vegetables, herbs, nectar for bees, etc. They can be cut and used as a mulch They can be stacked densely in different layers They help to balance the environment They help to conserve soil moisture They help to prevent weeds from growing
What the Fruit Tree needs : Protection from damaging pests Water Fertility
Companion planting also helps to provide these three needs. However, extra maintenance brings extra yields. Compost:Compost It's good to provide compost once a year, in early Spring. Water:Water If there's a rainy season, and if the fruit tree is dormant over winter, you don't need water then. But if there is a dry season when the tree is growing and fruiting, irrigation will make a big difference. Where to put Water and Compost Don't put water and compost right next to the stem of the tree, because the roots that feed grow further away. So water and compost need to be put in a circle away from the tree.
rotted compost
Fruit Tree Planting
Chapter 6 ~ Trees
Page 18
Each year as the tree starts to grow, put compost around under the drip line.
Pruning the Fruit Tree

To keep your fruit tree healthy and giving the best production, branches should be pruned once a year when the tree is not growing (it is dormant). Dead or diseased branches should be cut immediately. Any branch touching another, or competing for light and space, should be cut. Use a sharp tool for this. After cutting large branches, cover the wound with fresh cow dung.
Cut out dead, diseased and unwanted branches.
This is how it looks after unwanted branches are removed. Cut at a slant
Big branches should be cut with a saw, and small branches with a sharp hook or secateurs.
Cut just above a healthy bud to prevent too much wood dying.
Source: Chris Evans
Fruit Tree Planting
Chapter 6~ Trees
Page 19
Multipurpose Windbreak Design

Balancing Function and Yields
Windbreaks are rows of vegetation, usually trees, strategically placed to protect an area from winds. Although planting windbreaks is an investment that takes some land out of production, well-designed windbreaks have often been shown to protect the health and productivity of crops enough to make the overall return positive. Farmers in the tropics have looked at finding ways to increase the benefits further by creating multipurpose windbreaks. A multipurpose windbreak is designed to provide multiple functions and/or products, in addition to wind protection. Multiple produces from a windbreak can include yields such as fruit, timber, animal fodder, mulch, wildlife habitat, and other economic or farm products. Adding multiple functions or products to a windbreak plan can make the installation and management more satisfying and economically viable for the farmer. The desire for additional yields must always be balanced by the need to maintain the integrity of the wind protection. Multipurpose windbreaks require special care in planning and management to maintain the primary function of wind protection while maximizing secondary yields. When planning a multipurpose windbreak, it is best to factor in all the basic necessities for effective wind protection first. The basic design should include the appropriate orientation, placement, length, height, profile, number of rows, spacing, density, and continuity to provide effective protection. There are a number of excellent publications available in books, extension materials, and on the web that cover the specifics of form and position of effective windbreak design (see Web Links below). Once the form and position are carefully determined, then multiple functions or products can be added.
General guidelines for multipurpose windbreak design: * The species used should be selected first for their wind tolerance and appropriateness for the site (climate, soils, etc); the products should be a secondary consideration in selecting species. * Windbreaks designed for multiple products should comprise of multiple rows. This affords some protection of the producing trees by the other trees in the windbreak. It also enables more flexibility in management and harvest of products without compromising wind protection by creating gaps. * Trees yielding products such as fruit, food, fodder, or mulch should ideally be located in the interior or wind-sheltered rows of the windbreak, for maximum protection. * A diversity of species should be used to allow for greater flexibility in management and for better resistance of the windbreak as a whole to damage from insects or disease. Fruit or nut production
Incorporating fruit or nut-bearing species into the windbreak can provide increased family food or marketable produce. However, fruit trees battered by wind will usually have reduced yields resulting from poorer pollination, wind damage to flowers or young fruits, and reduced quality if the fruit falls to the ground or is bruised. In very windy areas, therefore, fruit from windbreaks is generally used just for family consumption. To maintain the windbreaks primary function, wind-tolerant fruit tree species should be used. These should be integrated with other wind-tolerant species to form an
Chapter 6 ~ Trees
Page 20
effective windbreak. Also, keep in mind that fruit trees in a windbreak should be pruned only very sparingly, as pruning can greatly compromise wind resistance. There are a number of things that can be done to maximize the secondary yield of fruit or nuts:
If strong winds are seasonal, choose species that flower and bear in calmest months Plant fruit trees in the more sheltered areas of windbreak to maximize fruit production and quality * Select trees which bear fruit on main branches, trunk, or interior of tree, rather than on outer branches (for example, fruits like jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus) or jaboticaba (Myrciaria cauliflora). * Know the cultural requirement of the fruit trees and care for them appropriately * Irrigate if necessary * Example species that have been used for this purpose: coconut palm (Cocos spp.), dwarf Brazilian banana (Musa spp.), jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus), mango (Mangifera indica), longan (Dimnocarpus longan), cashew (Anacardium occidentale), macadamia (Macadamia integrifolia), tamarind (tamarindus indica) Timber trees * *
Since planting trees for a windbreak involves a long-term investment, the idea of including trees that will be harvested for timber one day appeals to many farmers. The main drawback of having timber as a secondary yield from a windbreak is that wind stress or damage may compromise the timber trees form or produce timber of poor quality. Also, since windbreak trees should be pruned only sparingly or not at all, the lack of pruning may reduce timber yields on certain species that require a lot of pruning for optimal timber production. Of all multipurpose uses of a windbreak, planning for timber harvest requires the most careful effort. Since entire trees will be removed, the planting, harvesting, and replanting must be coordinated to avoid creating gaps. Integrating timber trees with permanent rows of non-timber windbreak trees will help maintain the effectiveness of the windbreak. To maximize secondary yield of timber, plan to selectively harvest. Some farmers plan to harvest entire rows on a rotational basis; others selectively harvest in a staggered pattern. Consultation with a professional forester is recommended. Example species that have been used for this purpose: Eucalyptus dunnii (Dunns white gum), Grevillea robusta (Silky oak), Pterocarpus indicus (Narra), and Azadirachta indica (Neem).
Mulch or fodder from nitrogen-fixing trees
Some farmers like to integrate nitrogen-fixing trees (NFTs) in a multi-row windbreak, and prune the NFTs regularly to provide a nutrient-rich mulch for crops, or a nutritious fodder to supplement the diet of farm animals. (For more on NFTs see Overstory #4.) Although pruning should be avoided for most windbreak trees, the practice of cutting back NFTs and allowing them to resprout can be integrated with windbreak management. Pruned NFTs are much more susceptible to wind damage if they are allowed to regrow to a large size, but if they are cut regularly and the regrowth kept small they will be effective as a short row. To maintain the windbreaks primary function with this practice, it is essential to prune the NFTs regularly. Also, planting these species on the most sheltered side of the windbreak will help prevent problems and improve productivity. Example species that have been used for this purpose: Leucaena leucocephala K636 (Giant leucaena), Sesbania sesban, Calliandra calothyrsus, and Gliricidia sepium.
Chapter 6~ Trees
Page 21
Wildlife Habitat
The ability of windbreaks to provide wildlife habitat and corridors is one of the most documented, both in tropical and temperate areas. Many farmers enjoy providing important ecological benefits from their windbreak. Farmers that harbor wildlife may also enjoy other benefits, such as economic returns from wildlife or a more balanced pest/predator population in their crop area. Keep in mind that providing wildlife habitat will harbor all kinds of animals, which may include rodents or other animals that are a problem for crops. To maximize wildlife habitat in a windbreak:
* Create long, contiguous windbreaks that function as wildlife corridors * Connect windbreaks to larger forest, wood lot, or wild areas if possible * Plant known food/pollen source for target species * Use a wide diversity of species * Create an understory (shrubs and herbaceous plants, for shelter and foraging) * Allow deadfall/old logs/snags for habitat (if not a safety hazard) * Create a diversity of other niches for habitat (mulch, large trees, shrubs, etc.) References * International Institute of Rural Reconstruction. Agroforestry Technology Information Kit, 1990. IIRR, Room 1270, 475 Riverside Dr., New York, NY 10115.To order this book through our association with Amazon.com link to: * http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ISBN=0942717317/agroforestercom * P Ramachandran Nair, An Introduction to Agroforestry. 1993. Kluwer Academic . Publisher. This comprehensive textbook bridges the gap between theoretical and practical knowledge in agroforestry. To order this book through our association with Amazon.com link to: * http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ISBN=0792321359/agroforestercom * D. Rockeleau, et al. Agroforestry in Dryland Africa. 1988. ICRAF, P Box 30677, .O. Nairobi, Kenya. * Agroforestry Information Service (AIS) for the Pacific Fact Sheet, "Windbreaks for the Pacific Islands," FACT Net (Farm, Community, and Tree Network) Internet: http://www.winrock.org/forestry/factnet.htm Email: forestry@msmail.winrock. org * Your book purchases through our association with Amazon.com give you their discount prices and prompt service, while helping to support The Overstory. For other titles you can search Amazon.com's wide selection at: * http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/redirect-home/agroforestercom Web Links * The USDA National Agroforestry Center has very informative brochures on windbreak design and usage http://www.unl.edu/nac/windbrks.htm * PFRA Shelterbelt Centre presents extensive information on windbreaks for northern climates http://www.agr.ca/pfra/shbpub/shbpub.htm * Windbreaks and wildlife http://www.ianr.unl.edu/pubs/Forestry/ec1771.htm * Australian Organic Grower's perspective on windbreaks and pest management * http://www.nor.com.au/community/organic/library/farmplan/windbrek.htm * Information on the economics of shelterbelts http://www.agr.ca/pfra/soil/swork2. htm#index
Source: Kim Wilkinson and Craig Elevitch ~ Multipurpose Windbreak Design: Balancing Function and Yields Designed Visions ~ permaculture design course handouts www.designedvisions.com
Chapter 6 ~ Trees
Page 22
Willows
Source: Gina Cooper
Chapter 7~ Cultivated ecology
Page 1
Cultivated Ecology
Horticulture techniques
Favour: * Perennial crops * Self-seeding annuals * Soil fertilisation by crop (green manures) * Mulch and compost * Maximum ground cover * Companion planting * Use of vertical (stacking) and horizontal (guilds / companions) planes * Minimum / no tillage * Crop rotations * Salads and herbs - indigenous vs exotic * Diversity Observe and use: * Microclimates * Edges * Sun sector * Own seed / independent producers * Natural conservation Techniques: * Terracing * No-dig beds * Raised beds * Potato towers * Herb spirals / circle gardens * German (Hugel) beds * Pot, tub and indoor growing * Relay cropping * Green manuring * Greenhouse / polytunnels Avoid: * Bare earth * Biocides * Hybrid seeds * Chemical fertilisers Broadscale techniques: * Pitting and simple earthworking * Tree forage / alley cropping / relay cropping / mixed cropping * Regenerative Agriculture (Keyline / holistic management / compost teas) * Do-nothing farming / seed pelleting * Foggage Source: Chris Evans
Kitchen Gardening
site/spp. selection your needs experience/find out whats there production
{
taste storage time of harvest market demand/value, etc.
Chapter 7 ~ Cultivated ecology
Agroforestry soil consn/keylining shelterbelts wider access beekeeping livestock special needs, etc. propagation
{
Kitchen itchen Garden
access microclimate water fertility shelter & protection/pest management weeding Some References
integration with other needs
harvesting
self-seed/volunteers direct sowing of seed, bulbs etc. growing starts (seedlings) from seed & transplanting cuttings, layering, etc.
seed saving pollination crop care & management
principles
{
reduce work link needs to yields minimise leaks optimise space no bare soil does what you want fun to be in learn as you go
diversity local resources m/function m/element stacking cycling edge m/climates, etc.
Beckett, K.A. (1992) Growing Under Glass. RHS Biggs, T. (1979) Growing Vegetables. RHS Brooks, A. & Halstead,A. (1980) Garden Pests & Diseases. RHS Browse, P.M., (1999) Plant Propagation. RHS Clevely, A. (1996) The Kitchen Garden Month-by-Month. David & Charles Dobbs, E. (2001) Growing Your Own Vegetables. Which Books Hessayon, Dr.D.G. (2001) The Vegetable & Herb Expert. Expert Books Hessayon, Dr.D.G. (2002) The Pocket Vegetable Expert. Expert Books Jeavons, J. How to Grow More Vegetables Kourik, R. Designing & Maintaining Your Edible Landscape Pears, P. & Strickland, S. (1999) Organic Gardening. RHS Robinson,P. (1999) Drought Resistant Gardening. RHS Salt, B. (1999) Gardening Under Plastic. B.T. Batsford Ltd.
Page 3
Polyculture Polyculture Vegetable Gardens
Page 4
Page 5
Source: Permaculture Magazine #18 p9-11
15 food rules for ecological public health

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Eat less but better Eat simply Eat no more than you expend in energy Eat equitably; dont take food out of anothers mouth Eat a plant-based diet with flesh sparingly, if at all Celebrate variety; get biodiversity into the field and thence to your plate; e.g. try aiming to eat 20-30 species per week; Think fossil fuels; energy transporting food to you or you to food = oil Eat seasonally, where possible Eat according to the proximity principle, as locally as you can; support local suppliers Learn to cook quickly producing simple meals, leave fancy food for really special occasions Be prepared to pay the full externalised costs; if you do not, others will. Drink water, not soft drinks Be aware of the hidden ingredients; look at the label to locate the unnecessary salt and sugars; if they are there, dont buy. Educate your self without becoming neurotic! Enjoy food in the short-term but think about its impact long-term; be confident. Its your food now but your childrens environment in the future!
Source: Tim Lang & Michael Heasman ~ Food Wars: the global battle for mouths, minds and markets Designed Visions ~ permaculture design course handouts
Page 6
Chemicals in Agriculture - A Comparison

Disadvantages
1 decreases soil's natural fertility 2 damages soil structure and soil air 3 reduces soil capacity to hold water & increases the need for irrigation 4 overall reduces yields and increases costs of farming practices 5 damages predator and other useful insects 6 increases resistance and populations of harmful organisms 7 the chemicals and the factories that make them pollute the environment 8 directly affects health by poisoning food 9 reduces genetic diversity of agriculture and environment 10 uses non-renewable resources (fossil fiels) in production & use 11 results in emergence of new weeds, pests etc. 12 requires use of large expensive machinery, increasing farmers' debt
Advantages
1 can give immediate & short term increase in yields 2 makes money for agricultural inputs coorporations 3 increases scientific approach to farming
So how useful are chemicals in farming? Compare and decide for yourself.
Page 7
Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

Farmers are always concerned about their crops. After the hard work of farming, it's their worst nightmare to lose them again. There are many creatures which can badly harm crop production, reducing the yield and productivity in the farm or garden. A creature which does this is called a pest. Bacteria, insects, fungi, birds, est rats, weeds, etc. can all be harmful. Preventing, reducing or curing the harmful effects of pests can be done by management of the pest or the crop and its environment. To do this in a sustainable way often means using a range of methods together to prevent and control pests. Because these methods are all linked, the term Integrated Management of the pest is used. So this chapter gives information about Integrated Pest Management. Why we use this approach? Chemical which kill pests to reduce pest damage are widely used these days. But there are many effects of doing this. For example: Conventional chemical pest control leaves poisonous residues in the soil and on the plants that we eat, often for a long time By eating the plants that have been in contac t with poisons, people suffer from many types of disease, such as headaches, paralysis, and even deformed births If we don't know how to properly used the poisons - such as using masks, gloves, etc., the poisons can get on our skin, clothes, in our water or food containers, etc. Through incorrect use of poisons, up to 400,000 people die every year Poisons are used for protection of crops from harmful pests, but often this also kills beneficial plants and animals which are helpful in controlling pests, building soil or pollinating plants. Too much use of poisonsoften result in the pests becoming resistant to the effects. As a result, the resistant pest can increase. This means next time we have to use a stronger dose of poisons, or use a new brand. We use IPM methods to provide solutions to these problem. Other benefits are: to get healthy food to reduce farm production costs to increase production to protect the environment to reduce the need of harmful chemicals to prevent pests becoming resistant to chemicals to make sustainable farming systems
I have a right to clean and healthy food
Integrated pest management can be divided into 2 main areas. Firstly, (a) how to revent ontrol ure prevent damage from pests, and secondly, (b) how to control or cure pest damage once it has already started to occur. In IPM we give priority to prevention rather than cure so here there is more information on prevention. Various techniques are described below. In integrated management one method may not be enough to stop a pest, so it is important to use as many methods as possible.
Page 8
(a) How to Prevent Pests ? Need

1. Healthy Soil 2. Healthy plants 3. Fencing 4. Diversity 5. Companion Planting 6. Decoy planting
Methods used
compost, mulch, irrigation, rotations, green manures, etc. compost, irrigation, weeding, species selection, green manures, etc. living fences mixed cropping and rotations mix aromatic/smelly plants e.g. coriander, fennel, marigold, lemon grass, basil, onion, garlic etc. providing alternative plants for pests to attack
7. Helping pest predators providing habitat and food for beneficial pest predators 8. Repelling pests liquid manure, herbal controls
Beneficial insects Approaches to Prevent Pests ?
Harmful insects
1. & 2. Healthy Soil and Healthy plants Because the health of the soil and the plants growing in it are so closely linked, we can look at both of these together. Just like people are healthy with a nutritious and balanced diet, the soil is also healthy with plenty of organic matter, nutrients, micro-organisms, etc. It then supports healthy plants, which can resist disease. Unrotted compost can cause pests and diseases in the soil, so always use well rotted compost. Water is essential for the soil and plants. Having the right amount of water at the right time helps plants to grow, stay healthy and resist pests and disease. Crops attract certain types of pest and disease. Always planting the same crops in the same place causes those pests to increase and damage the crops. This is why crop rotations are beneficial. For example, potatoes and their relatives - tomato, aubergine, sweet pepper, etc. shouldn't be planted in sequence on the same piece of land for up to 2 years. The rotation
Page 9
helps to break the pest and disease cycle so they will not harm the next crop. After crops that attract many diseases are harvested, such as potatoes and other vegetables, planting onions or garlic for a season helps to clean the soil of the many pests and diseases attracted by the previous crop.
3.
Diversity
Continuous monoculture planting of the same crop will always suffer more from pest attack. For example, if only cauliflower is planted, a fungus or insect which feeds on cauliflower can destroy the whole crop in a very short time, and is difficult to control. This why it's good to plant a variety of crops together, called mixed cropping cropping. It's possible to plant many types of vegetable in the kitchen garden. For example, cauliflower, Swiss chard, radish, carrot, peas, broad bean, lettuce, turnip, coriander, fennel, dill, kohl rabi, spinach etc. can all be planted together. If any one of these is attacked by a pest, there are all the others that will still give production. Find out more by leaning about Mixed Vegetable Gardening or Polyveg systems. 4. Fencing Without a fence, many types of pest can get on to the land and damage crops. So a fence is very important. The most beneficial type of fence is a living or green fence fence, or hedge This is not just a barrier, but can give other benhedge. efits as well. For example, a barrier of lemon grass around the vegetable bed will help to protect against weeds and other pests, and also can be cut as mulch to put on the bed. Similarly, carrot is affected by a root eating insect - the carrot root fly - which flies at about knee height. So a barrier of plants that are at least knee high around the carrot bed can help to protect against this pest, and give other benefits such as food, mulch, nectar, etc.
Oy ! those vegetables look tasty, but how can we get to them ? 5. Companion Planting
Plants give each other various types of support. For example, the scent of garlic helps repel many types of pest. Marigold gives a chemical from its roots which helps to repel soil nematodes which otherwise eat plant roots.
Page 10
The flowers of marigold also give a strong smell which help to repel insect pests. Some insects recognise the smell of the plants they eat, so strong smelling repellent plants help to protect these vegetables. Legumes such as peas and beans help to provide extra nitrogen to other plants. Mixing these plants with grains, vegatables, fruits or any type of crop to help protect them is called companion planting Marigold, mint, basil, lemon grass, planting. wormwood, garlic, onion, coriander, fennel, dill, nasturtium, tansy, etc. are all companion plants and it is beneficial to mix them with and around other crops. 6. Attracting Predator Insects and Animals
Ninety five percent of insects are useful, and only five percent cause damage to crops. There are many insects and other animals which will attack harmful pests. These are called predator insects or animals animals. Predator animals are farmers' friends. The more they are present on farms, the more they can help controlling pests. How to help predator animals ? If there is the right habitat, they will arrive and stay themselves. Their food are the pests on the crops. Many types of predator insects feed on nectar from flowers. They like flowers of marigold, fennel, dill, coriander, basil, carrot, etc. If these perches are planted mixed with the crops, or in the fence, the predators will come themselves and do their work. Also, if leaf litter and weeds are piled on the edge of the cropland or beds, many predators use this as habitat. Also rocks and stones are good habitat for lizards, which eat insects. Frogs also eat lots of insects. Frogs like ponds to live and breed in. Bats also eat insects. By providing a perch leaves to sit on, birds of prey can catch rats living and feeding in the crops.
flowers rocks
weeds
pond
Page 11
7.
Decoy Planting
Harmful insect pests will eat other plants as well as the crops farmers plant. So if these are added to fences around the crops, or even mixed in with the plants, these will be attacked instead of the crops. This is called decoy plantng ing. For example, an insect that attacks cotton plants also eats the castor oil plant. So by planting castor around the cotton plants, the cotton can be saved. Like this, nettles will attract caterpillars, which prevent them eating vegetable crops. 8. Liquid Medicine
astor castor
Wormwood, neem, persian lilac, chilli, garlic, onion skins, marigold leaves, cow Artemisia dung, ash, oil seed cake, Wrightia indica arborea, Adhatura vasica and tobacco are examples of plants wormwood which can be used to make a medicine which repels pests and also acts as a fertilizer.
Adhatoda vasica
marigold
Wrightia arborea
garlic
chilli
neem or Persian lilac
Don't spray liquid medicine when beneficial insects are in the field or garden, or they will be harmed. Otherwise, spray in the early morning or evening.
(b) What to do once pests start to attack ?

It may be that even after using all the techniques given above, pests still attack the crops. Below are examples of methods used after problems have started : Liquid Medicine Cow's urine Neem oil Ashes Oil seed cake Tobacco juice
Observation
The most important work in integrated pest management is observation. Which pests are harmful, to which crops, at what time ? Where do they come from ? How do they breed ? What can be done to prevent them coming ? By understanding these things, the life cycle of the pest can be understood and so can be interrupted to prevent the pest becoming a pest. In this way pests can be prevented early on from being harmful to our crops.
Page 12
Seed Saving
Although this paper mainly uses examples of vegetable seed production, the principles it describes are relevant to any species whose seed we want to save. Farmers need to have many skills to manage both the soil and the homestead. Out of those skills, seed saving is probably one of the most important. By giving more attention to seed saving, farmers can improve the quality of their seed each year. This can then improve crop production. This can be done without having to increase inputs of fertilizer, irrigation or cultivation. So with a little extra care in seed production, farmers can easily increase their farm production. Why save seed yourself, on your own land? so the seed required is available at the right time; to save the cost of buying seed; to trust that the species or variety of seed is the one you need; to produce seed that is adapted to the local climate, soil, etc.; to increase income from local resources, and to improve local varieties and conserve bio-diversity. Things to pay attention to in seed saving
1 2
Choose healthy and disease-free plants to save seed from. Select plants according to the qualities or characteristics you need. For example :unction Function Qualities or characteristics needed
Timber Fodder Vegetables Medicine
straight stems, strong, long lasting, etc dense foliage, nutritious, etc. tasty, disease & drought resistant, etc. bitter, strong, stores well, etc
3 4 5
Seed producing plants are adapted to the local climate. Select seeds from as many plants of one variety as possible. Save from at least 10 plants, in order to maintain genetic diversity and strength. Once a plant has been identified to save seed, don't pick its leaves, flowers, etc. But if any part is damaged or diseased, these should be removed and discarded. Select plants for seed saving as early as possible, and label them.
RADISH
Page 13
Give extra care to plants selected for seed saving. Provide water, nutrients, weed control, pest control, etc. according to the needs of the plant. Compost, liquid manure, ash, oil seed cake etc. can be used for this. As plants mature they may fall over, so staking may be necessary. Only allow the best plants to flower. For any variety, poorer plants should not be allowed to flower so they don't mix with the good plants, which will lower the quality of the seed. Leaving the plants for seed saving, all others should be pulled and eaten, composted or mulched before flowering. Different species which cross pollinate should not be allowed to flower at the same time. It is possible that some species will cross, so they should not flower in the same place, at the same time. To prevent cross pollination one of the following 2 methods should be used: a. Plants that cross should be far apart, so that insects or wind will not be able to cross pollinate; b. Plants which cross should be planted to flower at different times. For example, if a cauliflower grown for seed flowers in July, a cabbage also for seed should flower in August. This way the flowering time will be separate, and there is no danger of crossing.
10
Species which will cross pollinate
The species in the following families will cross pollinate

Cauliflower family : cauliflower, cabbage, broccoli, sprout, kale, kohl rabi all cross. turnip, chinese cabbage and Turnip family : chinese mustard all cross. red and green chard will cross. Chard family : chilli and sweet peppers will cross. Pepper family : zucchini, dwarf and climbing Pumpkin family : pumpkins will cross.
When attention is paid to all these points, good quality, pure seed can be produced. But if any one is ignored, then the quality of the seed cannot be guaranteed and the work and time can be wasted.
Page 14
Things to consider when picking and storing seeds

Only pick seeds or pods when they are ripe. Only collect good seed or pods. Reject any seeds different in size, shape or colour from the average good seed. Dry the seeds well. Usually seeds are dried in the sun. Some types, like lemon, orange, etc. should be dried in the shade, for example above the fireplace. If seed is sun dried, be sure to allow them to cool before packing. If possible, pack seed in an airtight container, and try to fill the container full, without leaving excess air space. Add ash or baked rice, which help to keep seed dry. Put fresh, cool ash or baked rice in the bottom of the container. This absorbs water in the air, which helps to keep the seed dry. This can be placed on top of seed also (see drawing, page 4). Seed should be stored in a cool, dry, dark place. It is very important to protect seed from disease, insects and fungus. There are many local herbal remedies for doing this, for example mixing ash, powdered neem leaves, neem oil, powdered oil seed cake or wormwood. Another method is to store seeds of different sizes mixed together, such as wheat and mustard, or corn and millet, This is a traditional practice in many places.
tight fitting lid to stop air top layer of baked, cooled rice to fill the container
Glass or plastic jar
stored radish seed
Check the seed regularly for paper pest damage. From time to time take the seed out and dry in the sun, or add fresh herbs. paper
bottom layer of fresh, cooled ash
Page 15
Community Supported Agriculture

Community Supported Agriculture (CSA) is about taking responsibility for how our food is produced and how it gets to the table. It is a direct relationship between a farmer and the people who eat the food the farmer produces. The term Community Supported Agriculture was coined in America and encompasses a broad range of partnerships between consumers and producers. Each of these CSA arrangements is unique, tailored by the circumstances they develop out of. We define CSA as: A partnership between farmers and consumers where, at best, the responsibilities and rewards of farming are shared. As CSA farms are directly accountable to their consumer members they strive to provide fresh, high-quality food and typically use organic or biodynamic farming methods. Generally there are more people working on CSA farms than on conventional farms, and some CSAs encourage members to work on the farm in exchange for a portion of their membership costs. CSA is a shared commitment to building a more local and equitable agricultural system, one that allows farmers to focus on good farming practices and still maintain productive and profitable farms.
1. Models of CSA
CSAs reflect the culture of the communities they serve, the capabilities of the CSA land and the farmers who manage it. Therefore no two CSAs are likely to be the same and tend to be dynamic as the communitys needs change over time. In England alone there is a rich variety of initiatives such as: whole farm CSAs, customer supported box schemes, conservation based initiatives, intentional communities, rent or adopt schemes, urban food growing projects, community allotments and charitable projects. CSA therefore, does not describe an end product, CSA is more about how to develop a new local food system. However CSAs can be categorised according to who organises them or the motivation behind them. These are described below:
Farmer-driven
Organised by the farmer, to whom the members financially subscribe, with little other involvement, but this obviously varies between schemes. This kind of CSA is probably the most common in the United States. In the UK this is equivalent to a producer-run vegetable box scheme often with activities bringing customers to the farm.
Community/consumer-driven
Consumers participate in or may even run the scheme working closely with the farmer who produces what they want. The degree of consumer involvement is variable. It was this model of CSA that was first introduced into the USA. Stroud Community agriculture and Camel CSA are good examples.
Farmer co-operative
Farmer-driven CSA where two or more farms co-operate to supply its members with a greater variety of produce. This model allows individual farms to specialise in the most appropriate farming for that holding (larger farms may concentrate on field scale production, smaller farms on specialist crops and upland farms on rearing livestock). There are several examples of this in Japan and Germany.
Page 16
Farmer-consumer co-operative
As described above, farmers develop co-operative networks to access a variety of products but there is greater commitment by the consumers. Consumers may co-own land and other resources with the participating farmers and work together to produce and distribute food. Stroud Food Hub is a pioneering model where the co-op is jointly owned by both producer and consumer members.
2. Is it for you?
CSA is an opportunity to participate in the development of a special initiative supporting your local food economy. But first ask yourself why do you want to be involved in a CSA? Do you simply wish to produce or eat local food? In which case there are other options that might be more appropriate. Direct marketing methods such as box schemes, farm shops, and farmers markets require less of a commitment than CSA. Although these methods of distribution may also be employed by CSA, CSA is also an understanding of mutual support between the farmer and members. For example, consumer members may commit in advance, in cash or kind, to buying their food (or a farm product) directly from the farm. In return they have the opportunity to influence how the CSA is run. If you are a farmer you may have to commit to supplying produce to the CSA members for a full season. In short, CSA:
* Is a relationship of mutual support. * Requires commitment. * Can be hard work for the organisers. * Is about bringing local culture back into agriculture. 3. Farmers wanting to start a CSA
From a farmers point of view there are pros and cons to the CSA system: Advantages:
* * * * * CSA can provide a secure (but modest) income shared responsibility means that if theres crop failure, the consumers share the loss. community engagement can be a real boost to morale CSA farmers talk about how much direct positive feedback they get from the people who are eating the food the farmers are growing. having more people on the farm can make it more sociable and enjoyable.
Disadvantages
there is some loss of control when a community group starts to get involved in planning how the CSA will work. This disadvantage can be minimised by some careful planning in advance. * having more people on the farm can be frustrating for farmers, even dangerous. 4. Finding a CSA to join if you dont want to start one
It is possible that there are CSAs trying to establish themselves in your locality and looking for new members and growers. You can find out what is happening in your region on the Soil Association website.
Source: The Soil Association ~ excerpted from A Share in the Harvest Designed Visions ~ permaculture design course handouts www.designedvisions.com
Page 17
Natural Farming
Natural Farming is an approach established by Masanobu Fukuoka (19132008), a Japanese farmer and philosopher. The system is based on the recognition of the complexity of living organisms that shape an ecosystem and deliberately exploiting it. Fukuoka saw farming not just as a means of producing food but as an aesthetic or spiritual approach to life, the ultimate goal of which was the cultivation and perfection of human beings. He suggested that if farmers worked within such cycles, and paid close attention to local conditions, they could remarkably benefit from them. Its a closed system of farming, demanding no outside inputs, mimicking nature. Fukuokas ideas challenged many common agricultural conventions and eschewed dominant production values core to modern agro-industries, instead promoting an ethical and environment approach that differs from simple organic farming which he considered to be another modern technique used exclusively for human benefit. Rejecting mechanization, the system is a most radical departure possible from modern farming methods, however Fukuokas research suggests it prevents water contamination, biodiversity loss and soil erosion while still providing lots of food. The five principles of Natural Farming are that:
* * * * * human cultivation of soil, plowing or tilling are unnecessary, as is the use of powered machines prepared fertilizers are unnecessary, as is the process of preparing compost weeding, either by cultivation or by herbicides, is unnecessary. Instead only minimal weed suppression with minimal disturbance applications of pesticides or herbicides are unnecessary pruning of fruit trees is unnecessary
Principally, natural farming minimises human labour or disturbance and facilitates, as closely as practical, nature's reproduction of foods such as rice, barley, daikon or citrus mixed within biodiverse agricultural ecosystems. Without plowing, seeds germinate well on the surface if natural conditions for each site meet the needs of the seeds planted there. Considerable emphasis is put on sustaining diversity rather than destroying it. He said that spiders residing in his annual crop fields provided a key performance indicator of sustainability. In the system, the ground always remains covered by weeds, white clover, alfalfa, more herbaceous legumes, and sometimes additional deliberately sown herbaceous plants. This is seen as part of the ecosystem of the grain or vegetables crops and orchards. Chickens were also allow to run free through the orchards and ducks and carp used in rice fields. Periodically some ground layer plants including weeds may be cut low and allowed to lie on the surface so that the nutrients they contain are returned to the soil whilst shading and suppressing the growth of weeds. This also facilitates the option of sowing more seeds in the same area. In the summer-rice and winter-barley grain crops, ground cover naturally provides nitrogen fixation from the atmosphere. In addition, straw from the previous crop covers the topsoil as mulch. Each grain crop is sown before the previous one is harvested by broadcasting the seed among the standing crop. The result is a denser crop of smaller but highly productive and stronger plants. Fukuoka's practice and philosophy emphasises small scale farming and challenged the need of mechanised broad acre farming techniques for high productivity, efficiency and economies of scale. While his family's farm was larger than than the average Japanese farm area, he used one field of established grain crops as an example of small scale farming.
Source: Wikipaedia Designed Visions ~ permaculture design course handouts www.designedvisions.com
Page 18
The Land Institute

Why Perennial Grain Crops? The necessity and possibility of solving the 10,000-year-old problem of agriculture
The world's farms, heavily reliant on non-renewable resources, are turning out more food than ever in history. At the same time, agriculture unintentionally but tragically worsens the global ecological crisis. These two faces of agricultureproductivity and destructivenessdo not arise from the conscious decisions of fuel, fertilizer, or pesticide salespeople, or of farmers, government officials or grocery shoppers. They are inherent in the way humans have practiced agriculture for 10,000 years. Recently, chemicals and other non-renewable resources have only exacerbated the problem.
The problem of agriculture rather than problems in agriculture
Since its very first days, agriculture has rested on a foundation of annual plants grains and legumes supply over two-thirds of human food needs that are grown from seed every year and harvested for their seed. That requires disturbance of the soil resource, either by the ancient practice of tilling or by chemical treatment. Tillage can be done without causing great harm when it's on a very small scale. Nearly everywhere, civilizations that have practiced tillage beyond the level of the kitchen garden have suffered, often catastrophically, from soil erosion. Compounding the problem in recent decades is the widespread use of herbicides to supplement or replace tillage. As a result, these herbicides are found in the tissues of most of our nation's children. Today, satellite images of the planet make for grim viewing, with vast swaths of entire continents having been scoured of their deep-rooted, year-round perennial vegetation, leaving the soil uncovered for months at a time, susceptible to erosion from wind and water. Even during the growing season when the landscape is green, shallow-rooted annual crops fail to manage water and nutrients as did their perennial predecessors. The destruction of deep, massive perennial root systems through tillage has wrecked entire underground ecosystems, subtracting from the soil much of what makes it soil. It's a problem older than history. Agriculture has always depended largely on annual grass and legume species that were domesticated by humans between 5,000 and 10,000 years ago. Today, we have the scientific knowledge, data and techniques fruits of a civilization made possible by agriculturethat demonstrate not only the damage done by annual cropping systems but more importantly, the opportunity to correct the wrong turn our species took. We can't go back to the crossroads where our ancestors took that wrong turn, or to a Golden Age of folk agriculture that never existed. But through a wholly new way of farming, we can accomplish something never before done: to make conservation a consequence of, not an alternative to, food production. We can now envision an agriculture in which we bring the ecological processes embodied within wild biodiversity to the farm, rather than forcing agriculture to relentlessly nick away wild ecosystems.
Diverse perennial solutions
Since 1976, The Land Institute has been developing the big idea that humans can make conservation a consequence of productionin any region on the planetif we use as our standard the ecosystems that existed in that region before it was utilized by humans. In doing so, we need not sacrifice the ability to feed ourselves. Chris Field, National Academy of Sciences member, reported in Science (2001) that
Page 19
natural ecosystems (and on land, that almost always means mixtures of perennial species) do better than agriculture and other human-managed systems in converting sunlight into living tissue. The plants that anchor those ecosystems have extensive, long-lived root systems with diverse architectures; they have a longer growing season; and their species diversity protects against epidemics and the vagaries of weather. As a result, they can produce, year in and year out, more biomass per acre than agricultural systems without requiring a subsidy of fossil fuels and other inputs and without degrading soil and water. The goal of our research team is diverse perennial grain production systems that are as ecologically sound as former prairies. The Land Institute's mission doesn't end at the prairie boundaries of the Appalachians, the Rio Grande, or the Rockies. Food worldwide can, indeed must, come to be produced by ecosystems that have the efficiency and resilience of those natural ecosystems that were replaced by farms, forest plantations and fisheries. And The Land Institute's vision for agriculture extends far beyond the farm gate. Concern is growing that human activity as a whole has become insupportable, the entire planet having fallen into deficit spending, ecologically speaking. If our species is to find a road leading to sustainability, an ecologically sound agriculture can musttake the lead. Why agriculture? Until now, a feature of agriculture has been to subdue or ignore nature. Yet ecological processes have long track records of success in building and conserving soil, holding and filtering water and supporting wildlife diversity. An agriculture taking advantage of its roots in those tried-and-true ecological processes can function sustainably. Other spheres of human activity do not have that advantage. It is in agriculture that we can and must begin relying on the sciences of ecology and biology to help us produce food in properly functioning ecosystems. All visions of a sustainable society rely on renewable resources, and those reside in agriculture, broadly defined.
The annual reality and the perennial opportunity
Research in the Great Plains and the Midwest illustrates a worldwide reality. The Midwest contains the best top soils in the world, top land grant institutions and plenty of scientists. Yet a growing body of research demonstrates conclusively that the cultivation of annual crops in the Midwest and Great Plains of the United States is degrading soils, rendering water unfit to drink, rolling back biodiversity, spreading toxic chemicals, and even creating a hypoxic, or "dead" zone, hundreds of miles downstream in the Gulf of Mexico. Additional mountains of evidence show that re-establishing perennial vegetation across the region would solve these problems. But we humans obtain two-thirds of our total calories from grains and oilseed crops, none of them perennial. Existing perennial species can produce only a small fraction of the total calories required for direct consumption by a growing human population. Environmentally conscious researchers and farmers are using the only perennial plants available to them, attempting to put more hay and pasture on the landscape; plant more trees and grass along rivers and streams to soak up the contaminants that hemorrhage from cropland; and take more land out of grain production altogether, under the Conservation Reserve Program. In other words, we are forced to treat grain cropping not as a source of life but as a dangerous activity against which humans and nature must be protected. With no perennial grains on the roster of food plants, we have no choice.
Perennial grains research
When The Land Institute and our allies succeed, a farm will no longer have to be an ecological sacrifice zone; rather, it can provide food while at the same time it
Page 20
protects soils, water and biodiversity. We need the missing link: perennial grain crops. And as those new crops are being developed, plant breeders, agro-ecologists and farmers will be working out strategies for growing them in mixtures, to recapture the ecological soundness of pre-agricultural landscapes. The genetic raw material is out there, ready to be put to use. Plants now in field plots and on greenhouse benches at the Land Institute form the foundation of breeding programs that will, given decades of work, turn out perennial grain crops. Most of the current genetic and breeding effort is going into the following species and species hybrids: Wheat can be hybridized with several different perennial species to produce viable, fertile offspring. We have produced thousands of such plants. Many rounds of crossing, testing and selection will produce perennial wheat varieties for use on the farm. Intermediate wheatgrass (Thinopyrum intermedium) is one of those perennial relatives of wheat. It is also a potential grain crop on its own. We established genetically diverse populations and have begun selection for crop-like traits. Grain sorghum is a drought-hardy feed grain in North America and a staple human food in Asia and Africa, where it provides reliable harvests in places where hunger is always a threat. It can be hybridized with perennial species Sorghum halepense. We have produced large plant populations from hundreds of such hybrids. Illinois bundleflower (Desmanthus illinoiensis) is a native prairie legume that fixes atmospheric nitrogen and produces abundant protein-rich seed. It is one of our strongest candidates for domestication as a crop. We have assembled a large collection of seed from a wide geographical area and have initiated a breeding program. Sunflower is another annual crop we have hybridized with perennial species in its genus, including Helianthus maximiliani, H. rigidus and H. tuberosus (commonly known as Jerusalem artichoke). Breeding work is underway. There is potential for many more perennial grain species, including maize, Eastern gamagrass, rice, chickpea, millets, flax and a range of native plants. We are studying these and other species but do not currently have staff to initiate breeding programs.
Ecological research
We need not wait until perennial grain crops are fully developed to begin studying the ecological context in which they will grow. We have established long-term ecological plots of close analogs in which to compare methods of perennial crop management. These perennial-grain prototypes, including intermediate wheatgrass and bundleflower, are allowing us to initiate long-term ecological/ production research in these plots. Eventually, true perennial grain crops will succeed them. Additionally, ongoing studies of natural ecosystems, such as tallgrass prairie, provide insight into the functioning of natural plant communities.
The road ahead
The Land Institute's plan for a new agriculture is clearly a Big Idea, but it's not piein-the-sky. We have laid out a clearly defined route to follow in breeding perennial grains and developing the agro-ecosystems in which they will grow. That route is sketched out in our research agenda and charts (available on request). To foster research on perennial grains across the nation and planet, we will develop and freely distribute germplasmseed of perennials and hybrids that other plant breeders can use as parents in establishing or enhancing their own perennial grain programs, or for basic research to answer fundamental questions. At the same time, we will build a body of knowledge about perennial grain systems through publication in the scientific literature.
Source: The Land Institute Designed Visions ~ permaculture design course handouts www.designedvisions.com
Page 21
Holistic Management
" In the end, all the information we have amassed in the past decades will serve little purpose unless we make intelligent decisions about how it is to be used."
-Allan Savory
While the notion of thinking holistically has been around for a long time, Allan Savory is one of the first to develop a step by step process for holistic decisionmaking. His method can be used by individuals, families, communities, organizations, businesses, government agencies -- anyone or any group that needs to make a decision. This method first helps the decision-makers identify all the important people and resources relating to the issue at hand, especially those that are very often forgotten. The next step is to bring these elements together into a new "whole", represented by a short "statement of purpose". With this broad holistic goal in place, the group has a benchmark by which they can measure their future decisions. A subsequent testing phase reaches back to often ignored considerations to make sure that none are being forgotten.
Summary
The following is a very basic summary of what the holistic management process looks like.
Identify The Whole
1. A group of decision makers agree to use holistic management in their business, community, family, government agency, etc. 2. They identify anyone else whose decisions will affect the entity that they are managing and invite them to become part of the process. This includes owners, administrative assistants, volunteers, laborers, agency heads, elected officials, and so forth. 3. Next, they identify all the resources available to this group of decision-makers including physical resources and financial assets. They identify as a resource, anyone who will be affected by the decisions -- clients, suppliers, family members, community organizations, homeowners, farmers, etc.
Define The Goal
1. The group produces a quality of life statement. This takes into account individual needs as well as group considerations. It takes into account what constitutes economic well-being, what they want to achieve in relationships with others, how they will find challenge and growth, and what they see as their particular contribution to the community, family, workplace, etc. 2. They then create a list of what they will need to produce to meet each quality of life need. Allan Savory gives an example from his book, Holistic Management (p. 74), "If one of your desires was 'to enjoy what we do everyday,' that could be met in part by producing 'a balance between our work and personal lives','sufficient time for strategic planning', or a host of other things." 3. Finally, the group takes the future resource base into consideration. This includes the people, land, and community of the future which will sustain what you have to produce to meet your quality of life need. This step can be framed in terms of what you would like to be said about you in the future.
Page 22
The next step is to combine all of these elements into a short statement. Here is a sample statement of purpose from Holistic Management: "We want to be debt-free; we want to be excited and enthusiastic about what we are doing and have to do on a daily basis; we want to leave this world (when we are very, very old) with our family happy, knowing that we led productive, happy lives, left the land in a better condition than we found it, and be recognized for this achievement, we want Laurel and Jayson [their children] to be happy and productive, and we want to be able to help them reach their full potential."
Testing
Once the holistic goal is established, future decisions will be tested by whether they are in line with the holistic goal. These are some questions which can help with this step:
* * * * * * * Are we fixing the right problem? Are there other reasons why a problem might be occuring than the one we think we're fixing? Will the solution address the most vulnerable piece of the whole? Are we getting the biggest bang for the buck? Are we weighing expediture of time and energy against output of money -- which will best help us accomplish our holistic goal? Will the decision be beneficial to our resource base in the future? Will the decision help us meet the quality of life goals stated in our holistic goal?
Allan Savory has been primarily focusing this technique on land management and has developed a variety of complementary tools for land managers. However, a huge variety of groups have benefitted from this technique. Many of their stories are told in the "online library" on Savory's website, http://www.holisticmanagement.org.
Source: Debby Sugarman
Page 23
Keyline Planning
This technique lends itself to real cooperation between the farm and the landscape, and will free the farmer from economic pressure by lowering overhead costs. Unique aspects of Keyline include the soil development methods and the water conservation methods used. KEYLINE IS A METHOD OF LAND DEVELOPMENT AND IMPROVEMENT. When you are in the position of saving soil from erosion, you are already in retreat. Yeomans (developer of the keyline appraoch) sought enhancement of fertility, with soil and water conservation being natural products of that process. KEYLINE METHODS CAN TRIPLE FERTILITY AND DEPTH IN 3 TO 5 YEARS. KEYLINE IS A WAY OF SYSTEMATIC PLANNING FOR URBAN OR RURAL ENVIRONMENTS based on the Yeomans Scale of Permanence:
1.Climate, 2.Landform, 3.Water, 4.Roads, 5.Trees, 6.Buildings, 7.Subdivisional fences, 8.Soil
Planning in this order helps one to deal with the most permanent and least changeable aspects of the landscape in the most appropriate fashion before dealing with the changeable aspects. CLIMATE and LANDFORM are almost unchangeable aspects of landscape. WATER conservation is a major part of keyline. ROADS tend to divide the land into zones. TREES must be left in the right places for shade, windbreak, nutrient cycling, catching and filtering water, etc. (Yeomans 1971 book, The City Forest, discusses the uses of strips of forests in the right locations, as well as many other things). BUILDINGS should be sited to overview the farm for safety, joy, and planning. SUBDIVISION of the land (fences or otherwise) follows natural configurations. The SOIL is improved in each zone through keyline methods. The top of primary valleys are the steepest part of any landscape. Where short, steep slopes change to flatter, shallower slopes is the KEYPOINT. The KEYLINE is the contour line that runs through that point. This keyline is used to take water from the valleys out toward the ridges by digging a furrow slightly off contour from valley to ridge. The valleys are a small percentage of any landscape, while ridges are a large percentage of any landscape. Valleys tend to have adequate water, ridges tend to dry out, which reduces plant productivity. If we can make the ridges as moist as the valleys, we can make the larger percentage of land more productive. SIX TECHNIQUES TO INCREASE SOIL FERTILITY, DEPTH, AND WATER HOLDING CAPACITY: ABSORPTION FERTILITY: 1. PATTERN CULTIVATION 2. USE OF DEEP ROOTED LEGUMES 3. MANAGEMENT FOR SOIL CLIMAXES 4. STRIP FORESTS 5. LOW MAINT. / LONG TERM USE OF RUNOFF WATER FOR IRRIGATION 6. CROP ROTATION AND INTERCROPPING PATTERN CULTIVATION: Follow keyline with a special chisel plow (the Yeomans Plow, of course) 1/4 to 1/2 below existing topsoil level, then parallel lines to that above and below keyline to top and bottom of field. Chisel just before rains in autumn for three years, and each year the topsoil depth will increase. Deepening and loosening the soil makes it your biggest and cheapest water storage system, right where the plants need it. Seeding, if needed, is done right after plowing via broadcasting and letting rain wash seeds into chisel furrows. Drill planting would probably work without disturbing the chisel furrows too much.
Page 24
LEGUMES: Deep-rooted legumes help open up the soil as well as fixing atmospheric nitrogen and helping feed grasses. These deep roots then become food for soil climaxes (see below). SOIL CLIMAXES: Mulch under the ground by killing root structures. Just before flowering is when there is the maximum amount of roots structure under the ground. If the plants are harvested, either through mowing or quick and heavy grazing, a large percentage of the roots die, creating an explosion of microbial activity. As the plants recover and begin to grow, there is lots of food available for them to grow healthier and bigger and deeper-- and the topsoil does the same. The more soil climaxes (microbial growth explosions) you can create in a year, the faster the fertility increases. This is recommended to be done 3 years in a row, then skip two years, do it two years, and so on. CROP ROTATION The ususal, except that one takes the best field and crops it, and takes the worst field and puts it through the pattern cultivation method to improve fertility. WATER CONTROL The idea here is to build reservoirs to hold the excess rainwater which usually runs off the land and save it for irrigation. This irrigation water is released down keyline furrows at high volume flows so it flows fast and doesnt waterlog soils near the irrigation channels before the water even reaches the downslope areas. One must control the water over the whole area so that it is used effectively and large quantities of water are absorbed by the soil evenly across the area. The water should cover the land for only a short time, or microbes get killed by lack of oxygen. Ponds and dams are designed so that their total volume of storage is available for irrigation. 12-16 pipe is used at the outlet to allow > 1/2 million gallons per minute to flow out of the pond. Channels are structured a specific way to allow for flood flow irrigation down the slope by gravity. Irrigation allows more soil climaxes per season, thereby increasing the speed at which fertility can be increased, and heightening the level of fertility obtainable.
Distance between swales based on steepness of slope. Grade 2% 1:50 5% 1:20 8% 1:12 10% 1:10 14% 1:7 16% 1:6 20% 1:5 25% 1:4 30% 1:3 35% 1:3 40% 1:2 45% 1:2 Distance 30m 98ft 28m 92 24m 78 20m 65 18m 59 16m 52 14m 45 12m 40 10m 33 8m 26 5m 20 4m 13
STRIP FORESTS These allow for different microclimates in the landscape. Trees are important for maintaining fertility and rainfall. They are set on the keyline and on the steeper slopes above it. Yeomans recomends using the chisel plow down to 18-20, 2 -3 times before planting trees to reduce the need for irrigation. Trees should be spaced to allow pattern cultivation between strips and within strips until they are established. On steeper lands the cultivated strips between forest strips are narrower than on shallower slopes. There is a formula for determining this distance based on slope in Yeomans book Water For Every Farm.
Source: P.A.Yeomans ~ Water for Every Farm Designed Visions ~ permaculture design course handouts www.designedvisions.com
Chapter 8~ Energy, buildings and structures
Page 1
Energy, Buildings and Structures

Energy and Permaculture
The sustainability debate has shown a deep confusion about the processes and systems which support life and humanity. The lack of conceptual tools to incorporate previously ignored environmental "givens" into calculations used by economists and decisionmakers is painfully obvious. There are no simple answers to the complex question of costs, benefits, and sustainability. However, there is a natural currency we can use to measure our interdependence on our environment and assist us to make sensible decisions about current and future action. That currency is energy.
Energy Laws
The energy laws governing all natural proceses are well understood and have not been challenged by any of the revolutions in scientific thinking during the 20th century. These laws are called the first and second laws of thermodynamics. First Law: the law of conservation of energy. Energy is neither created or destroyed. The energy entering the system must be accounted for either as being stored there or as flowing out. Second Law: the law of degradation of energy. In all processes some of the energy loses its ability to do work and is degraded in quality. The tendency of potential energy to be used up and degraded is described as entropy, which is a measure of disorder which always increases in real processes. These laws are taught in every science course, but, in a manner typical of our fragmented society and culture, are completely ignored in the way we conduct our economic life and relationship to the natural world. The laws of thermodynamics are widely seen as true, but not very useful theoretical ideas. The second law has always represented a fundamental threat to the modern notion of progress. More traditional and tribal views of the world are in keeping with the second law. For example, the ancient Greek idea of the universe being used up by the passage of time is very pessimistic to the modern mind. Over the last 20 years work by ecologists and some economists has attempted to apply the energy laws in more practical ways to understand the global environmental crisis and develop useful conceptual tools for creating a more viable and durable basis for human life. The work of ecologist Howard Odum provided a theoretical framework and conceptual tool which was critical in the development of the permaculture concept. In the 1970's there was a flurry of research in this field but it declined along with oil prices in the 1980's. Odum was one of the leading ecologists who developed a systems approach to the study of human/environment interactions. He uses energy as a currency to compare and quantify the whole spectrum of natural and man-made elements and processes.
Odum's ecosystem approach: * analyses ecosystem elements and processes in terms of energy flows, storages. transformations. feedbacks, and sinks. * incorporates non-living and living elements of the natural environment. and * incorporates human systems and economies as an integral part of the natural world. Energy Quality And Embodied Energy
The second law of tbermodynamics is based on the concept of energy quality. Examination of tbe natural world from stellar processes through to living systems shows
Chapter 8 ~ Energy, buildings and structures
Page 2
differing forms of energy have varying potential to do work or drive processes. Since all forms of energy can be converted into heat, energy can be defined as:a quantity that flows through all processes, measured by the amount of heat it becomes (the calorie is the unirtof measure of heat energy). Dispersed heat is the most dilute form of energy; it is no longer capable of doing work. All real processes involve a net degradation in energy quality. However, a proportion of the total energy flow can be upgraded into more concentrated forms of energy capable of driving other processes. This creation of order produces remarkable results, most notably life, but includes such non-living phenomena as rare mineral ores and human-created systems such as the built environment, culture, and information. However this order is always at a cost of a net degradation of energy. The whole evolution of the Gaia (the living earth) is a small expression of order arising out of the massive energy degradation of the sun's thermonuclear process. There are thermodynamically fixed relationships between four forms of energy ranging from low- to high-quality. These and similar relationships between energies of differing qualities are fundamental to a correct understanding of the energy basis of nature and human existence. The efficiency of conversion of sunlight to wood (via the processes of photosynthesis) is 8:8000 or 0.1 percent. The apparent inefficiency of this process is due to the very low quality of dilute sunligbt falling on the earth's surface. However 3,800 million years of evolution have optimized this energy harvesting process and any technological "improvement" is highly improbable despite frequent claims to the contrary. Many kinds of high-quality energy are required for complex work. We tend to think of the energy requirements of a process only as fuel, ignoring human work and contribution of materials. These often involve more energy than the fuels. In running a motor car, the fuel is about 60% of the total energy consumed. Odum goes on to explain... "The energies involved in the long chain of converging works supporting processes such as educational activities is very large. The total energy required for a product is the embodied energy of that product... The embodied energy of a book is very large compared with the heat energy that would be obtained if the book were burned. For clarity in energy accounting, embodied energy should be expressed as calories of one type of energy such as solar equivalents or coal equivalents." Many energy studies done by apparently qualified persons and taken seriously by policymakers fail to take account of the simple fact that a calorie of low-quality energy cannot do the same work as a calorie of high quality energy. Consequently completely erroneous conclusions are frequently reached. Such problems have afflicted both high- and low-tech proposals. Nuclear power may be the greatest example of an energy "source" which actually uses and/or degrades more humanly usable energy than it produces. Solar, wind, and biofuel technologies, while appropriate for the use of already embodied energies will never sustain high-energy industrial culture without fossil fuel subsidy. Computer technologies may similarly be appropriate to make use of manufacturing and network capacity already in place but are in reality very energy expensive due to the very large embodied energy.
Significance Of Odum's Work
Energy Basis for Man and Nature is an accessible text on Odum's work written for high school and undergraduate students with only minimal matbs and science. It is a very important book which should be read and understood by all permaculturists. Without that understanding it is very easy to be misled into developing and proposing systems of land use, technology, and lifestyles which will consume rather than produce energy storages useful in providing for current and future human needs.
Page 3
It provides a way of integrating information about natural systems from the local and global scale, technology, environmental impact, and social and economic processes. The energy accounting and systems diagrams provide a unique tool for understanding and decisionmaking more in tune with the rules of the natural world. Odum's work shows exactly how and why it is impossible to avoid those rules in any case without the need to resort to moral injunctions. High-energy industrial society is revealed as a quite natural response to fossil fuel abundance but maladapted in every way to a low energy future.
Agriculture And Forestry
If there is a single most important insight for permaculture from Odum's work it is that solar energy and its derivatives are our only sustainable source of life. Forestry and agriculture are the primary (and potentially self-supporting) systems of solar energy harvesting available. Technological development will not change this basic fact. It should be possible to design land use systems which approach the solar energy harvesting capacities of natural systems while providing humanity with its needs. This was the originai premise of the permaculture concept. While available solar energy may represent some sort of ultimate limit to productivity it is other factors which primarily limit it.
Maximum Power Principle
Along with the two established laws of thermodynamics, Odum's work is based on a third principle, the Maximum power principle, which explains that the system that gets the most energy and uses it most effectively survives in competition with other systems. Odum states, 'those systems that survive in competition among alternative choices are those that develop more power (rate of energy flow) inflow and use it to meet the needs of survival." They do this by-1. developing storages of high-quality energy 2. feeding back work from the storages to increase inflows 3. recycling materials as needed 4. organizing control mechanisms that keep the system adapted and stable 5. setting up exchanges with other systems to supply special energy needs, and 6. contributing useful work to the surrounding environmental systems that helps maintain favorable conditions, e.g.. micro-organisms' contribution to global climate regulation or mountain forests' contribution to rainfall. The Maximum power principle is contentious and has led some to criticize Odum's work as biophysical determinism" with no room for human values. While this systems view is only one way of understanding the world, the last two characteristics of successful natural systems allow plenty of scope for co-operative approaches and higher human values. The predictive power of Odum's methodology in assessing the chaotic changes in the world over the last 20 years suggest that it is a very useful way of thinking. In permaculture we should use these points as a checklist for sustainable systems.
Mollison
Within the permaculture movement, Odum's work has not been widely recognized (and confused with the work of another American ecologist, Eugene Odum) even though it confirms permaculture's concern with sustainable use of natural systems as the foundation of any permanent culture.
Page 4
Mollison makes only passing reference to Odum in Permaculture: A Designers Manual and goes on to suggest "the concept of entropy does not necessarily apply to living, open earth systems with which we are involved and in which we are immersed" This could be wrongly interpreted as meaning we can design our way out of any problem and that natural systems can sustain the continuous free lunch the affluent world is used to. In the last few hundred years we have dug millions of years worth of sunlight (fossil fuels) out of the ground to create global industrial culture and economy. The most productive sustainable systems imaginable may be able to provide for the needs of five or even 10 billion people. However they would never sustain large-scale cities, a global economy, and Western material affluence even if all the conventional energy conservation strategies were to be adopted. This is a bitter pill to swallow for Westerners raised on the notion of material progress. This does not mean that the energy conservation strategies promoted for years by Lovins and other energy optimists, and progressively being adopted, are not incredibly important In fact they are essential to make best use of what we have. The transition from an unsustainable fossil fuel-based economy back to a solar-based (agriculture and forestry) economy will involve the application of the embodied energy that we inherit from industrial culture: This embodied energy is contained within a vast array of things, infrastructure, cultural processes and ideas, mostly inappropriately configured for the "solar" economy. It is the task of our age to take this great wealth, reconfigure and apply it to the development of sustainable systems. Mollison almost in passing points to three guidelines we should observe in this task.
* * * The systems we construct should last as long as possible and take least maintenance. These systems, fueled by the sun should produce not only for their own needs, but the needs of the people creating and controlling them. Thus they are sustainable as they sustain both themselves and those who construct them. We can use non-renewable energy to construct these systems providing that in their lifetime, they store or conserve more energy than we use to construct or maintain them.
These are very important points but how should be assess whether we are following them, particularly the thorny question of use of non-renewable energies, raw and embodied. I apply the following perspectives (derived from Odum) as a primary sustainability test to all land use systems before considering any more detailed aspects of costs and benefits. All terrestrial ecosystems must work to slow the inexorable effects of gravity in progressively degrading the physical and chemical energetic potential expressed in uplifted catchment landscapes. Eventually everything ends up in the oceans until the next uplift (with the few but important exceptions of onshore winds, migrating fish, and birds). Water and nutrients are the key forms of chemical energetic potential while the landform itself is the key expression of the physical energy potential. Soil humus and long-lived trees are the key energy storages which terrestrial ecosystems use in the never-ending fight with gravity.
Holmgren's Sustainability Test
Does the system work to catch and store water and nutrients for as long as possible and as high as possible within its catchment landscape?
Page 5
How does it compare with the performance of pristine natural systems as well as wild and naturally regenerated ones (weeds included)? It is possible for managed productive landscapes to collect and store energy more effectively than pristine systems by the careful use of external, often non-renewable energies. The use of bulldozers to build well-designed dams capable of lasting hundreds of years in well-managed landscapes is an excellent example of appropriate use of nonrenewable energies. Even structures and processes which do not meet this condition (possibly the windmills) can be justified because they save the use of greater quantity of non-renewable energies or because they make best use of already embodied energy in existing plant and equipment. Most of our managed rural landscapes, especially farms, fail miserably on the water and nutrients test. Erosion, salinity, acidification, and stream and groundwater nutrient pollution are some of the symptoms. In addition, use of non-renewable energy as an annual rather than development input is generally very high. (The embodied energy of artificial fertilizers is extremely high).
Wild Productivity
On the other hand consider the amazing productivity happening right before our eyes from with unmanaged systems. Many parts of rural Australia are supporting far more kangaroos than sheep with less damage to the land. These herds could provide a huge meat surplus even as they maintain healthy and wild populations. Forests are even more efficient at catching and storing water and nutrients than sustainable pastoral systems. In the high rainfall areas of coastal Australia regrowth forests of native and (in some places exotic) species are developing future timber resources at a greater rate than all the more deliberate efforts at reforestation combined. Simple practices of thinning could greatly improve the future resource value of these forests. Any systems which call improve soil and water values, and require little or no fossil fuel energy to develop and maintain, and provide resource yields largely by the application of human labor and skill. should be seen as our greatest assets.
Urban Landscapes
Urban systems are dearly massive net losses in terms of energy and soil and water values. In addition the bulk of the physical and information outputs of energy transformation processes in cities s further undermining the social and ecological basis of any sustainable future (e.g.. advertising and consumer culture). On the other hand, consider the vast suburban landscapes. much has been said about the inappropriateness of existing suburbs in an energy-conserving future. However, few urban planners have seriously considered how we might adapt cities to a low (solar) energy as opposed to simply energy conserving future. Despite all their disadvantages, the low-density nature of suburbs makes them incrementally adaptable to a low-energy future. Passive solar retrofit of buildings for residential/commercial enterprise is relatively easy, while intensive garden agriculture and urban forestry can make use of reticulated, runoff, and waste water to create our most productive systems.
The Limits To Productivity
Mollison claims very high productivity from permaculture systems which are neither labor- nor capital- (energy and materials) intensive. This productivity can be attributed to the information intensity of permaculture expressed through interactive design processes and incorporation of genetic resources from access the globe. The focus on human and biological information is in accord with a much wider mainstream recognition of the increasingly pivotal nature of information systems (even
Page 6
if the information in this case takes the form of a bioregional species collection and a designer/gardener with a basket and secateurs). Capital inputs to establish sustainable systems may be confined to a brief intense development phase. Human effort is required over much longer periods, possibly a lifetime before it declines (or more correctly evolves) into a careful and quiet stewardship. Much has been made by Mollison and others of the low labor requirements of permaculture. This may be true compared to the labor required by traditional sustainable systems (such as those in China) operating near the limits to human carrying capacity. However, permaculture systems will never be highly productive on very low levels of labor input (such as that required to maintain a well-designed ornamental garden of local native plants). The search for systems which continually reduce human effort is also a recipe for human alienation and the technological fix. Whether the significant gains from the application of design skills and genetic resources can continue to build productivity above that made possible by:
* * inputs of non-renewable energies during establishment and the use of appropriate traditional (agri)cultural skills remains to be seen.
Odum suggests that all information systems have a high embodied energy cost. We should assume that (at the material level at least) productivity of sustainable systems will not be vastly different from traditional examples from the past This may be a very uncomfortable realization for all of us raised on the mythology of material progress and human invincibility.
Energy Scenarios
If net energy availability were to increase (through some optimistic/horrific realization of biotechnological dreams or some other current technological fantasy) then She Maximum Power Principle suggests that nothing would stop humanity transforming itself beyond recognition. This would be necessary to absorb and use that energy while pushing back the environmental debt yet again as has been done on a much smaller scale in previous millennia. In such a case, permaculture would be buried in the debris of history, while most existing human culture and values would be swept aside by an avalanche of change. On the other hand, if net energy is declining, as more people have come to realize is the case, then attempts to maintain materialist culture based on growth economics are counterproductive, irrespective of any moral judgments. The permaculture strategy of using existing storages of energy (materials, technology, and information) to build cultivated ecosystems which efficiently harvest solar energy is precisely adaptive.
Conclusion
The critical issue of the last 20 years of environmentalism has been that of net energy availability to humanity. Permaculture has always been predicated on the assumption that net energy availability is declining after probably reaching a peak sometime in the 1960's. Misjudgment of the timing and precise nature of energy decline by Mollison and myself along with other environmentalists in the 1970's can be attributed to the enormous energy already embodied in industrial systems and culture. This embodied energy has fueled continuing rapid adaptation by industrial society to new emerging conditions. The apparent capacity to do more with less and other consequences of high embodied energy have lulled most observers into a belief that humanity is largely independent of energy constraints. The complexity and severity of environmental and economic crises make it more imperative than ever before that we have a common currency for understanding the changes around us and assessing the available options.
Page 7
To summarize... * Reduce, Reuse, Recycle (in that order). * Grow a garden and eat what it produces. * Avoid imported resources where possible. * Use labor and skill in preference to materials and technology. * Design, build, and purchase for durability and repairability. * Use resources for their greatest potential use (e.g. electricity for tools and lighting, food scraps for animal feed). * Use renewable resources wherever possible even if local environmental costs appear higher (e.g. wood rather than electricity for fuel and timber rather than steel for construction). * Use non-renewable and embodied energies primarily to establish sustainable systems (e.g. passive solar housing, food gardens, water storage, forests). * When using high technology (e.g. computers) avoid using state of the art equipment. * Avoid debt and long-distance commuting. * Reduce taxation by earning less. * Develop a home-based lifestyle, be domestically responsible.
Source: David Holmgren ~ originally published in Permaculture Activist April 1994
Four possible future scenarios
Page 8 Source: Wackernagel & Rees ~ Our Ecological Footprint www.designedvisions.com
Ecological Footprinting
Page 9
How to Save Energy in the Home
Source: from a lecture by Carolyne Haynes, Feb 1993, noted by Patrick Whitefield Designed Visions ~ permaculture design course handouts www.designedvisions.com
Page 10
Cool climate house design
Source: Bill Mollison ~ Permaculture: a Designers Manual Designed Visions ~ permaculture design course handouts www.designedvisions.com
Page 11
Appropriate Energy Technology

Energy cannot be lost or gained - so not a question of conservation of energy - it's the type of energy available for work - how to keep that quality Match sources and tasks and have less waste Need to use laws to ask right question - not asking those questions-e.g What is electricity good for ? What is quality of energy that gives its value (work )? 1/3rd of energy used is lost in transmition. Thermodynamics is about properties of systems, not only of isolated things. Link base of energy and tasks required for it to perform. e.g. electricity generation - space heating/cooling is inappropriate, better to provide circulation of warm/cool air. Estimated 6 years oil supply in USA left at present consumption 30-40 years left in world - more expensive as time goes on Need appropriate small scale systems Create, Conserve and only lastly consider Use Store, direct and conserve useful forms of energy. Divert harmful.
Appropriate Energy Conserving Technology

For further information, see "Energy Paper #1 " and "Energy Paper #2" by Bill Mollison, available from the Permaculture Institude (Australia). 1. Domestic
Conservation of domestic energy may be achieved by a set of strategies applied in combination and suited to specific sites and climates. Strategy sets are:
Behavioural: active time of day, best use of natural daylight, and choice of clothing for climate. * House design: house must be designed for climate, utilizing energy-conserving siting, use of plants, use of structures such as greenhouse, shadehouse, ponds, etc * Technological: energy generation and choice of appliances. Categories for technological strategies are : * Climate control : space heating * Washing and drying clothes * Cooking and cook-stoves * Refrigeration and cooling * Hot water supplies * Water conservation * Electricity and lighting A. Climate : space heating and cooling * Radiant heat (heat solid objects: massive stoves - slow to heat and cool: burn fuel at high temperatures: Use small sticks & short burning time) * Convective heat (cast-iron stoves) * Conducted heat (usually large under- floor systems using water pipes or electrical wires connected to waste heat) * Greenhouse; shadehouse * Trellis; air vents B. Cooking and cookstoves * Wood-fueled (with hot water supply) * Solar cookers * Haybox cooking (insulated container) * Bottled gas, kerosene
Page 12
C. Hot water supplies * Hose on roof * Bread -box collector * Solid collectors * Cylindrical collectors * Solar ponds * Trough collectors * Flat-plate collectors D. Electricity and lighting * Photovoltaics * Hydro-electric power * Wind power * Gas and kerosene lighting * Energy-conserving lights E. Washing and drying clothes * Hand-operated pressure washers * Coin-operated washing machines shared by community * Drying: airy and roofed (preferably fiberglass) area * Drying in insulated cupboard surrounding uninsulated hot water cylinder F. Refrigeration and cooling, food drying * Photovoltaics * Sun chimneys * Gas and kerosene * Fans G. Water conservation * Water tank off roof, ideally located uphill from house * Compost toilets * Dual-flush toilets * Hand-basin water to toilet 2. Hydraulic Systems * Pumps and waterlifts * Water turbines * Hydraulic rams and pumps * Hydro-pneumatics (air compression) * Water wheels * Harnessing tide or stream flow 3. Biothermal Systems * Woodlots * Gasification * Pyrolysis * Biogas * Compost heat (the Jean Pain system) * Metabolic heat (body heat) * Vegetable oils 4. Solar - Powered Devices * Photovoltaic cells * Swimming pools * Solar ponds * Solar chimneys 5. Wind - Powerse Devices * Fan mills * Wind kettles * Blade and propeller mills * Savonious rotors
Page 13
Appropriate Technology In Development

Aims:
Understanding of range of technologies & their part in the system. Understanding criteria for what is appropriate. What people can appropriate for themselves. What is relevent, culturally and real needs. Produce/ harvest surplus, not exploit a resource. Frugal and equitable use - diversity and self reliance. Right tools at right timescale in Agriculture 200 million farmers. Position of these farmers - poor, isolated etc. Nature of agriculture - change and flexibility.
Appropriate =
Essential Requirements For Successful Appropriate Technology Wide, flexible, appropriateable- self teach,
Crucial factors and enthusiasm 1 Work towards solving felt needs 2 People must believe it is possible - achieveable, e. g. solution simple, cheap and percieved
to be within. own means, own resources. People must believe programme personnel competent, genuine (i.e. are working for villagers' benefit) 4 People identify with programme success- and involved in planning 5 Participate in work so that feel they have achieved success. Simple solutions to start. Grow in ability to deal with other problems. 6 Freedom to set own goals 7 Freedom to be creative in their work 8 Working together in atmosphere of mutual support 9 Opportunity to keep learning about new subjects- especially solutions to felt needs. 10 Recognition, gratitude and positive feedback of villagers, leaders and staff. 11 Above all need EARLY RECOGNISABLE SUCCESS - readily observable, and desirable according to own culture value system
Increasing Participation- The Path Constructive participation - ensure respect local values - cheaper, appropriate
* * *
orientated to felt needs- if participate then committed to success through own experience learn to plan, solve problems, teach others and organise. sustainability developement is a process- people take charge of their own lives and solve their own problems. Paternalism opposite to developement. A gradual process - Instant democracies and participation rare. Early recogniseable success- Create enthusiasm Constant efforts to help people learn how to participate constructively. Start small and simple - Be careful with the role of outsiders Plan for the phase out of the outsiders and the programme itself Teach farmers to conduct small scale trials - Don't flaunt the moneybags Build a leadership pyramid with wide base Don't try and meet all the participation No prescription - a process
Improve quality of constructive participation by :* * * * * * * *
Page 14
Essentials
* Technology that is appropriate - responds to felt needs, success, tried by local farmers themselves * Necessary supplies and equipment available- plentiful, inexpensive * Local markets available - adequate and transport * Desire to improve - not outsiders enticing economic development.
Know The Area Well:

1. HUMAN (a) economic checklist
* * * * * * * * * * * * * Income -sources and levels, self consumption, Family needs- grains etc Poorest - where are they, special characteristics, needs How do people earn, save spend incomes- why Economic interest in village - exploitation- sources of conflict Economic pressures from outside, Respect for agricultural work Economic trend getting better or worse ? Marital and kin group patterns. Obligations and power relationships Castes and social classes, groups and committees, conflicts/co-operation Who are leaders - why ? What is their influence, what are they like What are obligations of a friend Seasonal migrations- why, where ? Political - national govt, policies and priorities Educational
(b) Social - family structure
2. PHYSICAL
The area - resources, topography etc, problems, situation agricultural - farm size and cropping pattern, animals, markets, limiting factors
3. COLLECTING INFORMATION
* * * * * Reading and observation Formal surveys Constant feedback from the villagers Living amongst the villagers * Conservation- open ended interviews * Meetings * Villagers as programme leaders
Choosing The Technology- The Criteria
Recognised by the poorest as being successful--- meets felt need financially advantageous (50- 150%) recogniseable success quickly fit local farming patterns total farm operation * Does it deal with limiting factors * Benefit the poor - Utilize resources have - few external inputs
Risk free - Culturally acceptable - Labour intensive not capital Understandable - by fairly broad groups of people. Use existing knowledge- New concepts biases to elites Foster dialogue mutual search resembles technology already use, crops or animals already know
Technology aimed at adequate market available to small farmers sufficiently stable for increased production price * Technology safe for area's ecology * Technology be communicated efficiently * Widely applicable - modifiable
Process good for small farmer- risk minimized Learning- also control so that improvements clearly seen Extensionist- more people can afford to try Simple to teach and verify - by people themselves
Chapter 9~ Invisible structures
Page 1
Invisible Structures
Bioregionalism
Bioregion = Life-region- a part of the earth with similar patterns of plant/animal
life, usually dictated by climate & land forms; Aims: * Knowing the land * Developing the Potential * Learning the lore * Liberating the self Bioregionalism is - simple because its components are already there; - complicated because its at odds with convention. restrictions/predators = greed + ignorance - fear Bioregionalism emphasizes a scale at which human potential can match ecological
reality Units of Scale:
Ecoregion (ER) > Georegion (GR) > Morphoregion (MR) Determining the BR boundaries (and how seriously to take them) is ultimately the task of the inhabitants of the area. Tribals were/are often good at doing this because they are living off the land, and their styles of living varied according to the styles of land, and they distributed themselves according to the carrying capacity of the BR. All biotic life is divided into communities (also can be seen as guilds), the single basic building block of the ecological world. [one acre of warm temp. forest contains: 50,000 vertebrates, 662,000 ants, 372000 spiders, 90,000 earthworms, 45,000 termites, 19000 snails, 89 million mites, 28 million collembola, 5000lbs of plant life over 2000 species]
1. Energy available. 2. Climatic factors & nutrient availability. Thus the community is the observable reality of a place. Plants & animals are not conscious of this, but their interaction and connectedness is real - its how they live.
Economy and Bioregionalism BR economy seeks 1st - to maintain its environment, to conserve natural resources and their connections (relationships); 2nd - to establish a stable means of produc-
Constraints/limits on size & numbers:
tion and exchange. * Thus the economy is based on ecology (Gr.oikos= household) - linked & compatible. * and is based on minimum number of goods and minimum environmental disruption, with maximum use of renewable resources and maximum use of human labour & ingenuity.
Components * Energy - solar, wind, biomass, water, thermal (Soft Energy Paths) * Transport - animal, energy efficient * Agriculture - sustainable, perennial etc. * Markets - producer/consumer involvement, barter etc * Industry - non polluting, durable, local crafts & artisans. Systems criteria 1. Based on practical resources (people, skill, appropriate technology, services,
biological products) essential to the functioning of a small region; 2. Assisting in the conservation of resources (to strengthen & enhance them) - especially the resource base feeding agriculture;
Chapter 9 ~ Invisible structures
Page 2
3. Regional cash flow - keep it small; keep it in the system; look at all (real) capital; recycling = re-investment BR economies are labour intensive rather than energy intensive, therefore more jobs. They produce durable goods to reduce waste (quality over quantity), reduce pollution and increase health, eliminate inflation Goal - a steady State Economy
Reasons why BRs can gain in economic health 1 Economically stable - risk is reduced; 2 Rich [ref: Entropy of Money] 3 Currency control (because of its small scale); 4 Healthier BRs emphasise cooperation. Permaculture designs the building blocks for coop-
eration to reduce work and pollution and to aid management. Goods are valued for utility and beauty rather than cost; exchanged more on the basis of need than of exchange value; labour is performed without constraint of wage return or individual benefit BR development builds strength from within - based on its own resources, skills, discoveries and learning. This begins with development that will satisfy basic needs, as it will create new ones in doing so. Thus BRs need a basic infrastructure - internal communication and transport to connect BRs and strengthen them. Thus large cities will lose their over burdening advantage, the economy can turn inward and discover new energies and innovations, and modernise from within. The key to the redistribution of wealth and the equalisation of opportunity will be found in the capacity of each region to create wealth
Kirkpatrick Sale
Questions for Communities * Site Analysis - What is the physical/architectural design of your community ? What is special/notable (use maps, drawings, diagram, photos) * Social Structures - How are decisions made, how are disputes handled ? How does leadership function ? How would you characterise the general social interaction -group? Often? * Biological Resources - How are plants and animals integrated into the culture/ agriculture ? Growing methods for food ? * Energy, water & waste - How do you handle energy, water & waste ? Which are the best and worst products, and why ? * Local Economy - Do you have any site businesses ? How are the land & buildings being paid for ? What happens when someone leaves the community ? Do you have an internal barter or monetary system, formal or informal ? * Value systems - What values, concepts or approaches have helped unify the community ? What ones have been a source of disagreement ? * Culture - For recreation and celebration what cultural activities and practices have you developed ? Music, dance, theatre, sports, etc.? * Glue - What brought the group together, what is the glue for the group ? Task - identify your bioregion and that of Crab Apple, and look at its resources on
a wider scale.
Page 3
Transition Culture
What exactly is a Transition Town?
A Transition Initiative (which could be a town, village, university or island etc) is a community-led response to the pressures of climate change, fossil fuel depletion and increasingly, economic contraction. There are thousands of initiatives around the world starting their journey to answer this crucial question: how can we make our community stronger and happier as we deal with the impacts of peak oil and economic contraction while at the same time urgently reducing CO2 emissions?
Heres how it all appears to be evolving...
It begins when a small group comes together with a shared concern: how can our community respond to the challenges and opportunities of peak oil, climate change and economic stagnation? They recognise that:
* * * * * * living with less energy - imperative because of climate change and inevitable because of fossil fuel depletion - is an opportunity if we plan for it, but a threat if we wait for it to happen to us we were very clever and creative while using increasingly large amounts of energy and well need to be just as clever and creative as we learn to live with decreasing levels our communities currently lack the resilience to withstand some of the disruptions thatll accompany climate change and unplanned energy descent we have to work together and we have to work now, rather than waiting for the government or someone else this transition has to happen at an inner personal level as well as a community level by unleashing the collective genius of the communities we live in, we can proactively design our own energy descent and build ways of living that are more connected, more enriching and that recognise the ecological limits of our biosphere
They begin by forming an initiating group and then adopt the Transition Model in order to engage a significant proportion of the people in their community to help find the answers to that the BIG question (above). They then:
* * * * * * start awareness raising around peak oil, climate change and the need to undertake a community lead process to rebuild resilience and reduce carbon connect with existing groups, including local government, in the community form groups to look at all the key areas of life (food, energy, transport, health, heart & soul, economics & livelihoods, etc) kick off practical projects aimed at building peoples understanding of resilience and carbon issues and community engagement engage in a community-wide visioning process to identify the future we want for ourselves rather than waiting for someone else to create a future that we wont like eventually launch a community defined, community implemented Energy Descent Action Plan over a 15 to 20 year timescale
This co-ordinated initiative strives both to rebuild the resilience weve lost as a result of cheap oil and also to drastically reduce the communitys carbon emissions.
Page 4
The different shapes of Transition
The transition model evolved in the UK, quickly moving to other english-speaking countries such as Australia, New Zealand and the US. We often wondered whether the model would be flexible enough for other cultures that face different challenges. It seems, from a couple of recent notes from Brazil, that it might be: In Brazil, climate change and peak oil arent issues with the same public appeal of that in Europe. Other Brazilians working with TT probably will also have other subjects of main concern, such as assuring education and health for all, protecting biodiversity and enhancing authonomy of traditional (indigenous or not) local communities. ... and another: Just a brief message to say that we have enriching Transition processes going on in Brazil right now. Some examples: in Sao Paulo, transition is happening in Granja Viana, Vila Mariana & Brasilandia; theres a strong group in Joao Pessoa and emerging initiatives in Salvador and Recife; Santa Teresa, Grajau in Rio. We debate peak oil in the context of presal [Brazilian off-shore oil deposits] and as you know Brazil has also been hit by climate change. Were working hard to ensure that the very broad range of groups experimenting with the transition model across the world are able to share successes and failures, adding strength and momentum to the whole movement.
The three phases (roughly)
The community self-organises to respond in three phases.

1 First, the small initiating group starts a programme of awareness raising and hooking up with existing groups. They articulate the rationale for adopting/adapting a transition approach and show the creative responses that the community might embark upon. 2 Second, as the group becomes larger, it self-organises in groups in all the key areas such as food, transport, energy, housing, education, textiles etc, and creates practical projects in response to that big question (such as community supported agriculture, car clubs, local currencies, neighbourhood carbon reduction clubs, urban orchards, reskilling classes). Most Transition Initiatives are in this phase. 3 Third, they begin to look at Energy Descent planning and the need to rebuild the local economic fabric by starting up local energy companies, social enterprises, complementary currency systems. There are a number of initiatives in this phase. Where it goes from here is a path as yet untrod. Cheerful disclaimer!
Just in case you were under the impression that Transition is a process defined by people who have all the answers, you need to be aware of a key fact. We truly dont know if this will work. Transition is a social experiment on a massive scale. What we are convinced of is this:
* * * if we wait for the governments, itll be too little, too late if we act as individuals, itll be too little but if we act as communities, it might just be enough, just in time.
Source: Transition Network website: www.transitionnetwork.org Designed Visions ~ permaculture design course handouts www.designedvisions.com
Page 5
Real Wealth and Wiser Money
Source Patsy Garrard & George Sobol Designed Visions ~ permaculture design course handouts www.designedvisions.com
Page 6
Support local producers and retailers and keep money in the local economy...
Source Patsy Garrard & George Sobol
Chapter 10~ People care
Page 1
People Care
If peoples needs are met in compassionate and simple ways, the environment surrounding them will prosper. The icon of the two people together, represents the need for companionship and collaborative efforts to affect change. Care for people starts with ourselves, but expands to include our families, neighbours, local and wider communities. The challenge is to grow up through self-reliance and personal responsibility. Self-reliance becomes more possible when we focus on non-material well-being, taking care of ourselves and others without producing or consuming unnecessary material resources. By accepting personal responsibility for our situation as far as possible, rather than blaming others, we empower ourselves. By recognising that the wisdom lies within the group, we can work with others to bring about the best outcomes for all involved. The permaculture approach is to focus on the positives, the opportunities that exist rather than the obstacles, even in the most desperate situations.
Source: David Holmgren
Permaculture in personal and societal change

There is the perception in both experienced practitioners and beginners in Permaculture that it is mainly about land-based design. However, we need to do more than just plant trees to address the problems surrounding us. If we are to truly turn them around we need to deepen our understanding of the potentials of Permaculture. How can we think and act deeply to change our own behaviours; embrace an abundance mentality; extend our connections with other people; strengthen our communities; widen the systems of society to be inclusive, nurturing and nonpolluting; and ultimately to challenge the paradigms of fear, greed and scarcity which currently govern the global situation? How can we grow as humans? These are the questions we must find answers to in order to survive and thrive. The principles of Permaculture are universal and can direct us to solutions: however, it takes thought and practice to translate them beyond the garden. Luckily there are limitless opportunities to apply them daily. Here are a few ideas to get you started.
* * * Whilst tidying we can identify 1 or 2 things we could move that would have the biggest impact on our quest for spacious, clutter-free homes minimum effort, maximum effect. Our projects will benefit when we harness our creative thoughts as they come catch and store energy. At work our job satisfaction can increase when we think beyond our pay check to other yields we can harvest, such as skill development, friends, exercise on the walk to work obtain a yield.
Our thinking will naturally expand to using Permaculture principles in our relationships and community, and our horizons will grow to take in the bigger picture and how this too can be transformed. Shifts in our thinking and behaviour will ripple out. Using Permaculture to improve our personal lives and affecting positive change in our relationships are all part of the peoplecare ethic. Peoplecare, Earthcare and Fair Shares are intertwined at the core of Permaculture to guide us to a sustainable and just future. We can go there if we travel together.
Source: Looby Macnamara Designed Visions ~ permaculture design course handouts www.designedvisions.com
Chapter 10 ~ People care
Page 2 Source Andy Goldring
Page 5
Meetings techniques
Successful techniques to use
Derived from work by Andy Langford
Think & Listen
Work in pairs for a Think and Listen. For half the time one person is the thinker and the other is the listener. The thinking turn is for the thinkers benefit. It is a time for the thinker to collect and develop their thoughts at their own pace, in their own way and using their own language if they choose. The listener makes no comments and asks no questions, but does make encouraging sounds and movements to indicate that their attention to the listener is active. Common time periods for a Think and listen are two to five minutes each. When the thinker speaks about and how their thinking develops is confidential. When you are the thinker remember: the time is for you and you do not need to appear bright or knowledgeable. When you are the listener remember: to look at your partener and be active in your listening, do not interupt or ask questions.
Go round
In a Go-round everyone gets to speak for a short, equal time, taking turns. In meetings the facilitator can offer topics or headings to guide contributions.
I statements
It is common for people in meetings to speak about themselves using "I Statements". That is they may say something like "People won't make changes like that" when they really mean "I would find it difficult to make changes like that myself" Watch out for participants talking generally about "other people" or "someone" or saying "you" or "one" instead of I.
Check-in
A facilitator will need to know how the participants at a meeting are doing. Is their energy level OK? Do people need a break? Can people keep going for another 10 minutes so we can finish this item before lunch? Are people warm / cool enough. Is there fresh air?
Contemplandas
Items in a meeting that are not presented for action or decision-making but rather are presented for people to think about. First thoughts or responses may be shared in the meeting with the understanding that the item requires more time for contemplation and will become an agenda at a later date.
Visible agendas
The agenda for a meeting should be visible at all times. For example, written up in Mind Map form on a flip chart, sheet or a blackboard. Alterations to the agenda can then be made in full view of all the participants.
Mind maps
Mind maps are freehand diagrams that start from a circle in the middle and have arms radiating out at all angles. Mind maps give a visual representation of the whole of a subject and allow the main points to be easily identified. They are a flexible way of presenting information that allow for alteration and making connections between topics much more easily than linear text.
Page 6
Open agendas
At the beginning of a meeting the facilitator draws up a mind map showing items that the participants want on the agenda. If a pre-prepared agenda was issued before a meeting it should be clearly marked as a draft to show that the agenda to be worked with will be generated at the meeting. A Think and Listen can be used to generate items. The facilitator guides the meeting to categorise each agenda as requiring long, medium or short amounts of attention. Given the time available for the meeting a rough calculation can be made that deduces for example that short is 5 mins, medium is 10 mins and long is 20 mins. The group is now ready to decide which order to take the items in. Covering short and easy items first in the meeting creates a sense of getting things done. During the meeting the facilitator will draw participants attention to progress against the plan. Adjustments can be made. For example an item that was allocated a medium amount of time but now appears to need longer may gain some time from items that have taken less than their allocated time or the group may decide to give it the amount of time proposed and then move it on to the agenda for the next meeting. Constructing an agenda at the meeting allows all participants to own the content, order and general management of the meeting. The method allows negotiations for time and space to be conducted in the open.
No one speaks twice until everyone has the opportunity to speak once
This method can be used to bring structure to discussions. It is particularly useful when there is the possibility of arguments developing between two people or where certain group members dominate the discussion. The facilitator is able to use this method to encourage quiet people to contribute. Note that the system does not mean that everyone has to speak on a certain point, but that they are offered the opportunity to do so before others speak for the second time.
Beginnings & endings
Begin and end meetings and events with a simple Go-rounds. Beginnings can be as short and simple as "say your name and one thing about yourself or as long and detailed as you put aside time for. Beginnings can also include a question about why participants have come to the meeting. Endings are useful places to get feedback about how the meeting or event has gone for participants; "say your name, something you have enjoyed about the meeting and anything that you would have done differently".
Parallel (six hat) thinking
Six Thinking Hats is a simple, effective parallel thinking process that helps people be more productive, focused, and mindfully involved. And once learned, the tools can be applied immediately. You and your team members can learn how to separate thinking into six clear functions and roles. Each thinking role is identified with a coloured symbolic thinking hat. By mentally wearing and switching hats, you can easily focus or redirect thoughts, the conversation, or the meeting.
Page 7
Groupwork
Source: Devin Ashwood Designed Visions ~ permaculture design course handouts www.designedvisions.com
Page 8
Listening Skills
A good listener tries to understand thoroughly what the other person is saying. In the end he may disagree sharply, but before he disagrees, he wants to know exactly what it is (Kenneth A. Wells) Listening is one of the most useful skills we can have. How well we listen has a major impact on how we do our job, and on the quality of our relationships. Active Listening intentionally focuses on who you are listening to, whether in a group or one-on-one. As the listener, you should then be able to repeat back in your own words what they have said to their satisfaction. This doesnt mean you agree with, but rather understand, what they are saying. It is a way of listening and responding to another person that improves mutual understanding. Often when people talk to each other, they dont listen attentively. They are often distracted, half listening, half thinking about something else. For example: When people are engaged in a conflict, they are often busy formulating a response to what is being said. They assume that they have heard what their opponent is saying many times before, so rather than paying attention; they focus on how they can respond to win the argument. Are you a good listener? Think about your relationships with the people in your life your boss, colleagues, subordinates, best friend, and spouse. If asked, what would they say about how well you listened? Do you often misunderstand assignments or only vaguely remember what people have said to you. If so, you may need to improve your listening skills. The first step is to understand how the listening process works.
Four Steps to Active Listening * Hearing. At this stage, you simply pay attention to make sure you hear the message. * Interpretation. If you fail to interpret a speakers word correctly it may lead to a misunderstanding. * Evaluation. Decide what to do with the information you have received. * Respond. This is a verbal or visual response that lets the speaker know whether you have gotten the message and what your reaction is. Active Listening Tips: * Dont talk-listen. People like to have a chance to get their own ideas or opinions across. A good listener lets them do it. * Dont jump to conclusions. Many people will tune out a speaker when they think they have the general idea of the conversation. * Ask questions. Its perfectly acceptable to say, Do you mean.? or Did I understand you to say.? * Overlook a speech problem, a twitch, or sexist language. Paying too much attention to these types of distractions can break your concentration. * Keep an open mind. The point of listening it to gain new information. * Listen to others points of view and ideas. It could turn out to be fascinating. * Provide feedback. Make eye contact, nod your head and if appropriate, interject a comment such as I see, etc. Source: Silicon Beach Training
Page 9
Vision support groups (aka action learning guilds)
Source: Graham Burnett Designed Visions ~ permaculture design course handouts www.designedvisions.com
Page 10
Parallel (six hat) thinking

The metaphor of 6 coloured hats is used to align the thinkers or members of the discussion so that they are all looking in the same direction at any one time. (De Bono, How to have a beautiful mind P91) Parallel thinking encourages everyone to think fully and objectively. The hats can be used in any order. Blue hat: blue for blue sky:
* * * * * * * * * Holds the overview The conductor of the orchestra Defines the focus What are we here for? What are we thinking about? What is our end goal? Facilitates the discussion Keeps people focussed on their hats
At the beginning
Throughout -
At the end Puts together outcome/ summary/ conclusion/ design What have we achieved? If nothing WHY? Lays out next steps e.g. ways to get more information, areas that need more thought. White hat: white for paper * Information * What facts do we know? * What do we need to know? * What information is missing? * What questions should we ask? * How might we get the information that we need? Red hat: red for fire * Deals with emotions, feelings and intuition * Can be expressed without having to justify or give reasons for your feelings * Intuition can be based on experience Yellow hat: yellow for sunshine * Think positively * Look for values, benefits and why something should work. * Every thinker is challenged to find value. Black hat: black for critical * Most common thinking used in normal behaviour * Critical thinking * Dangers, faults, problems and weaknesses * Does this fit our values, abilities, resources, strategies and objectives? * Leads to contingency planning Green hat: green for vegetation, growth and energy. * Green hat is the productive and creative hat. * Green hat asks for ideas, alternatives, possibilities and design
Source: Edward de Bono ~ How to have a Beautiful mind Designed Visions ~ permaculture design course handouts www.designedvisions.com
Page 11
Facilitation and Conflict Resolution

Problem
Building sustainable communities has many implications. One of them is that people need to be willing to set aside time to meet and to sort out issues without running away from each other when things appear to be difficult. In every area of life where people meet there is a need for good communication, for reaching agreement and taking viable decisions. The questions "who decides?" and "how will we decide?" are crucial. However, in reality where most groups, communities and their projects fail is on the human level of communication: Individuals get frustrated with endless, unproductive meetings. Emotional issues between group members create misunderstandings and sabotage the group process. Groups fall apart because their members lack essential skills which are, unfortunately, not generally taught in our societies, schools and families.
Solutions
1. Training for Conflict Resolution
This involves a set of skills, the main ones being

* Active Listening, also known as empathic listening. It means listening with the heart while putting our own thoughts, feelings and values on hold in order to give the speaker full attention. * Expressing Emotions in a clear and non-threatening way. This is particularly hard for most people because our culture has a long history of neglecting, avoiding and inhibiting expression of feelings - in public, but very often also in private. * Giving I-Messages. An example: I feel (state the emotion, not an opinion!) when you (state the other persons specific behaviour) because (state the effect the behaviour has on you), and I would like (state what you would like to have happen - something doable). I-messages are assertive, You-messages ("youre so irresponsible", " youre always doing that") tend to be aggressive, make demands, accuse, blame or judge. Marshall B. Rosenberg, the author of "Nonviolent Communication - a Language of Compassion" distinguishes between life-alienating and compassionate ways of interacting. For giving as well as receiving acts of communication he recommends to keep 4 elements separate: observation - feelings - needs - requests. For example, instead of saying "you make me angry", you would say something like: "when I see you using my tools without asking for advice I feel worried that you might hurt yourself or damage my tools because I am needing a sense of safety around me, so could you please ask me for instructions and permission to use them." * Giving Feedback in a Non-Judgemental Way is another important skill that requires considerable practice, because most of us have been brought up with judgements day in, day out in families, schools and workplaces. Even positive feedback ("you are so good") is potentially an unhelpful judgement if it isnt detailed enough to allow a real connection between the communicating partners. * Awareness of rank, roles and other factors of a group process. Arnold Mindell, the author of "Sitting in the Fire" and "The Leader as Martial Artist" describes a very comprehensive approach to conflict resolution through awareness of the process in which communication unfolds. His insights are a main source of inspiration for the workshops about communication, conflict resolution and group facilitation at The Hollies.
Page 12
Mediation is the skill of effective communication and problem solving with the help of a neutral third party. It is based on openness and honesty, attempting to equalise power between two parties. Mediators seek win-win solutions and are willing to deal with underlying issues and emotions. They maintain neutrality and confidentiality. In many native cultures across the globe people in conflict naturally resort to the help of a third person. 2. Effective Group Facilitation * A good facilitator can save a group 50% of its time. A poor one can cost it as much. Not using a facilitator is like trying to enter a harbour without a guide. * The facilitator is a servant-leader, serving the group by providing leadership regarding the groups decision-making process. * The boss, administrator or other person in a position of power is never in a good position of being an impartial facilitator. * In situations of conflict the facilitator is to the group what a mediator is to two individuals. * Ideally, the facilitator has an opportunity to become familiar with the aims of the group, some of its history and to see the venue of the meeting beforehand (sometimes the venue itself makes good communication and a successful meeting difficult). 3. Consensus Decision Making
Today more and more people are disillusioned with top-down structures in which a powerful few make decisions for everyone. Even the democratic ideal of majority rule is found wanting because it almost always results in a disempowered minority. The consensus process is based on values such as co-operation, trust, honesty, creativity, equality and respect. According to Beatrice Briggs, member of Facilitation and Consensus and resident of the ecovillage Huehuecoyotl/Mexico, the consensus process has 5 essential elements:
* * willingness to share power - participants must be willing to give up hierarchical roles and privileges and to function as equals. informed commitment to the consensus process - because consensus is radically different from the way most of us have been conditioned to function, the process needs to be carefully explained, and the fundamental principles reviewed from time to time. common purpose - without an overarching purpose to unify and focus its efforts, a group will spin its wheels endlessly, trapped in confusion, frustration and ego-battles. strong agendas - the lack of an agenda, an agenda controlled exclusively by one or two leaders, and poorly prepared agendas all undermine the consensus process. They waste peoples time erode their trust and diminish a groups effectiveness. In contrast, a group which designates a few people to plan the agenda, and which then collectively reviews the proposed agenda, revises it as necessary, and formally adopts it by consensus, and then honours this agenda contract, is a group committed to its own success. effective facilitation - see above. A facilitator is a guide, not a participant in the discussion. He or she does not give answers, but rather continuously asks questions intended to equalise participation (are we hearing from everyone?, are we ready to move on). To practise the art of facilitation, one needs patience, stamina, the ability to remain calm in the face of conflict, a good memory, a sense of humour and genuine love for the group which he or she is serving.
* *
Page 13
Procedure
In consensus process, no votes are taken. Ideas or proposals are introduced, discussed, and eventually arrive at the point of decision. In making a decision a participant has three options:
To block. This step prevents the decision from going forward, at least for the time being. Blocking is a serious matter, to be done only when one truly believes that the pending proposal, if adopted, would violate the morals, ethics or safety of the whole group. * To stand aside. An individual stands aside when he or she cannot personally support a proposal, but feels it would be all right for the rest of the group to adopt it. If there are more than a few stand asides on an issue, consensus has not yet been reached. * To give consent. When everyone in the group (except those standing aside) say yes to a proposal, consensus is achieved. To give ones consent does not necessarily mean that one loves every aspect of the proposal, but it does mean that one is willing to support the decision and stand in solidarity with the group, despite ones disagreements. Consensus decisions can only be changed by reaching another consensus. A group which makes decisions in this way is unequalled in its ability to be an effective agent of social transformation. False Consensus *
Like green and natural, consensus is becoming a buzz word, which means it is being co-opted by those who want to appear inclusive, but who have no real intention of giving up decision-making power. Look out for warning signs:
* Consensus building. This perversion of the consensus process occurs when policy makers and their hired hands hold meetings designed to sell people on a plan that has already been decided. Ask if the organisers are willing to put away their charts and graphs and listen. Participation without implementation. Beware of public hearings, staff retreats, volunteer meetings, etc., where much effort is made to get input without any commitment to implementation. Ask what is going to be done with the ideas and information generated. Inconvenient meeting times and locations. Ask whether those most affected by the decisions to be made realistically can attend the meetings. Winning at any cost. When one or more of the participants views consensus as a game to be won, rather than a process to be entered into, meetings will be the same old decision-making hard ball. Ask whether any proposals other than those of the leaders will receive fair consideration.
* *
Page 14
Passive-aggressive leadership. When leaders fail to provide information, clear direction or good process, whether out of fear of appearing too controlling or sheer incompetence, they sabotage consensus. Ask those in the know to share their wisdom and experience - and then get out of the way so that others might participate. Everyone decides everything. This unworkable and unnecessary strategy is a set up for failure. Ask that decision-making power be delegated to smaller working groups comprising those who will be most affected by the decisions. Ask that organisation wide and strategic decisions be open to review and challenge by all members. Anything goes. Groups that try to function without any structure, focus or clear process guidelines are doomed to fail. The opposite of hierarchical control is not undisciplined chaos. Ask that the group adopt some guidelines or basic agreements. Compromise. When opponents in a discussion settle for an agreement shich everyone can support but which no one really likes, it is not a consensus decision - it is a cop-out which will ultimately fail for lack of real commitment. Keep talking until you find a solution which satisfies the interests of all parties and generates enthusiasm, joy and a sense of solidarity.
Recommended reading: * "Nonviolent Communication - A Language of Compassion" by M. B. Rosenberg. * "The Giraffe Classroom" by Nancy Sokol Green. * "Sitting in the Fire", " The Leader as Martial Artist", "Working on yourself alone" by Arnold Mindell. * "Waging Peace in our Schools" by Linda Lantieri and Janet Patti . * "Conflict Resolution in the Middle School: A Curriculum and Teaching Guide" by William J. Kreidler. * "Making Choices about Conflict, Security, and Peacemaking" by Carol Miller Lieber. * "Introduction to Consensus" by Beatrice Briggs.
Page 15
Working with multiple clients or community groups

When working with multiple client groups it is also important to ensure that everyone involved feels heard. Ultimately, the success of a community project depends heavily upon the degree of ownership a group feels over the end product. Ive seen well-meant projects, such as community orchards, created with little or no consultation with the local residents. Inevitably those projects suffer vandalism, because those carrying out the damage have no connection to this thing that just landed in their neighbourhood. Heres a small selection of tools that have been developed to help groups successfully make decisions, any of which may prove useful in particular circumstances. If you plan to work with groups of more than just a few clients, then I recommend that you investigate at least one of the following methods in more detail than I have room for here. I provide just a brief overview of each below, but each is well documented either in books, on the Internet, or both. When working with groups in this way, you might be offering a set of questions for the group to go away and consider their answers to, or be stepping into the role of an outside facilitator in their process. If you are considering taking on the latter role, I would certainly suggest that you get some training first.
Small to medium size group processes

Open space technology (OST)
Created to enable groups to deal with complex issues in a short space of time, OST has been successfully used by thousands of organisations in 134 countries. It has been used to organise meetings for as little as 5 and up to 2,000 people. Having noticed that the coffee breaks were the most productive part of one conference, its originator Harrison Owen set out to recreate a whole process around this. The Open Space element is a large circle in which everything takes place. Participants can write up questions and post them on a bulletin board for everyone else to consider. These issues are then placed on a space / time matrix, becoming the agenda. There are four principles of OST; Whoever comes are the right people, Whatever happens is the only thing that could have, Whenever it starts is the right time, When its over its over. There is just one law; the Law of two feet, which means people can move from table to table if at any time they feel that they are no longer learning or contributing.
The World caf
Devised to host conversations that matter, the World Caf can be a useful process for finding out what matters most to a group of people. Ideal for small or larger communities, a space is laid out with caf style tables, each focussing on a particular question. The whole process is guided by seven core principles; Set the context, Create hospitable space, Explore questions that matter, Encourage everyone contribution, Connect diverse perspectives, Listen together for insights and Share collective discoveries. Similar to OST, people are free to move from table to table to share ideas and this is where valuable cross-pollination emerges. Unlike OST, the theme for the event is often chosen in advance rather than set by the group. Words, images and colour are used to capture participants ideas and expressions on large sheets of paper. These are posted on walls to enable all to see what is being discussed. This documentation also later serves as the groups memory and enables subsequent sharing with others.
Page 16
Wider community planning

Planning for real
This is a process for involving local people in developing their own area. It focuses around a table-sized model or plan, which is ideally created by members of the community. The model is then taken around to locations like shopping areas and community centres, and passers-by quizzed about their ideas and opinions. People consider their regular journeys, what they most like and use, and what things they think might improve the area. The information is gathered on to the model or plan as cards and flags, with options for others to agree or disagree with previous suggestions. Because everybody focuses on the model, it helps to avoid direct confrontation between individuals. Variables such as age group, gender and home locations of participants are taken to ensure equal involvement in the process. As this is a trademarked concept though, to use this method you will need to go on one of the Neighbourhood Initiatives Foundations training courses.
Participatory rural appraisal
Permaculture Association CEO Andy Goldring was invited to help facilitate a design process at a low-impact intentional community. One point of contention was the inability of the residents to agree on the size of the proposed village green. Andy took them outside and stood them in a circle, posing the question Is this big enough? Clearly nobody thought it was, so he gave them each a stick and asked them to walk outwards until they thought it right. After a certain amount of negotiation, the sticks were planted in the ground to define the boundary and an 18-month process swiftly brought to completion. Andy is a skilled facilitator, but tools like this, along with the confidence to take charge of the process can be a valuable, timesaving skill.
Case studies Community space agreement:
Office
This is an approach that has emerged from NGOs working in International development. It consists of a large toolbox of participatory techniques, seeking to enable people, especially the financially poor, to take back much more control over their lives. The techniques can be divided into four categories: those to assist group dynamics, those for gathering information, those based around discussion, and those more imagination-based. One of the key ideas is to avoid writing as far as possible. This is in order to prevent anyone being excluded. Instead, the use of pictures, symbols, and physical objects are encouraged. These are of course not the only ways we can gather useful information and sometimes there isnt time for an organised event anyway. The following case studies highlight some more informal methods that have also worked well in identifying the needs of larger groups.
redesign: permaculture designer Janey was put in charge of an office redesign where she worked. Few people were happy with the space as it was, but there was reluctance from staff to share their feelings in a formal way. By simply chatting to everyone during coffee breaks, Janey was able to learn about nearly everyones preferences and grievances. In such a relaxed and less public atmosphere, people are more likely to say what they feel. The redesign was a great success as she was able to meet most of her fellow workers individual needs.
Martial arts club:
Source: Aranya ~ excerpted from Permaculture Design: a step by step guide to the process
When learning Aikido a few years ago I set out to create a design to maximise my learning opportunities. It quickly became clear to me that in order to do this, I had to ensure that all my fellow students & Senseis (teachers) needs were well met too. Without anyone to teach me or to train with, I couldnt learn. Having made a list of questions for my fellow club members, I gathered opinions on a different subject each training evening (twice weekly), again in an informal way. Because we trained so often, I was able to ask my colleagues about a wide range of issues a little bit at a time, avoiding the need to pin everyone down to a long interview process.
Chapter 11~ Accelerated learning
Page 1
Accelerated Learning
Accelerated Learning unlocks much of our potential for learning that has been left largely untapped by most conventional learning methods. It does this by actively involving the whole person, using physical activity, creativity, music, images, colour, and other methods designed to get people deeply involved in their own learning. According to A.L., heres what people need for an optimal learning environment:
* * * * * A Positive Learning Environment. Total Learner Involvement. Collaboration Among Learners. Variety That Appeals To All Learning Styles. Contextual Learning.
The Guiding Principles of Accelerated Learning

1 Learning Involves the Whole Mind and Body. Learning is not all merely head learning (conscious, rational, left-brained, and verbal) but involves the whole body/mind with all its emotions, senses, and receptors. 2 Learning is Creation, Not Consumption. Knowledge is not something a learner absorbs, but something a learner creates. Learning happens when a learner integrates new knowledge and skill into his or her existing structure of self. Learning is literally a matter of creating new meanings, new neural networks, and new patterns of electro/ chemical interactions within ones total brain/body system. 3 Collaboration Aids Learning. All good learning has a social base. We often learn more by interacting with peers than we learn by any other means. Competition between learners slows learning. Cooperation among learners speeds it. A genuine learning community is always better for learning than a collection of isolated individuals. 4 Learning Takes Place on Many Levels Simultaneously. Learning is not a matter of absorbing one little thing at a time in linear fashion, but absorbing many things at once. Good learning engages people on many levels simultaneously (conscious and paraconscious, mental and physical) and uses all the receptors and senses and paths it can into a persons total brain/body system. The brain, after all, is not a sequential, but a parallel processor and thrives when it is challenged to do many things at once. 5 Learning Comes From Doing the Work Itself (With Feedback). People learn best in context. Things learned in isolation are hard to remember and quick to evaporate. We learn how to swim by swimming, how to manage by managing, how to sing by singing, how to sell by selling, and how to care for customers by caring for customers. The real and the concrete are far better teachers than the hypothetical and the abstract - provided there is time for total immersion, feedback, reflection, and reimmersion. 6 Positive Emotions Greatly Improve Learning. Feelings determine both the quality and quantity of ones learning. Negative feelings inhibit learning. Positive feelings accelerate it. Learning that is stressful, painful, and dreary cant hold a candle to learning that is joyful, relaxed, and engaging. 7 The Image Brain Absorbs Information Instantly and Automatically. The human nervous system is more of an image processor than a word processor. Concrete images are much easier to grasp and retain than are verbal abstractions. Translating verbal abstractions into concrete images of all kinds will make those verbal abstractions faster to learn and easier to remember.
Source: Dave Meier Designed Visions ~ permaculture design course handouts www.designedvisions.com
Chapter 11 ~ Accelerated learning
Page 2
Accelerated learning mindmaps
Source: Skye & Robin Clayfield ~ Teaching Permaculture Creatively Manual
Page 3
Source: Skye & Robin Clayfield ~ Teaching Permaculture Creatively Manual
Page 4
Competence cycle
Maslows hierarchy of needs
Maslows surce: Alan Chapman ~ www.businessballs.com
Page 5
Multiple Intelligences
The Multiple Intelligences concepts and VAK learning styles models offer relatively simple and accessible methods to understand and explain peoples preferred ways to learn and develop. Howard Gardners Multiple Intelligence Theory was first published in his book, Frames Of Mind (1983), and quickly became established as a classical model by which to understand and teach many aspects of human intelligence, learning style, personality and behaviour - in both education and industry. In the case of the Multiple Intelligences model, and arguably to greater extent VAK (because VAK is such a simple model), remember that these concepts and tools are aids to understanding overall personality, preferences and strengths - which will almost always be a mixture in each individual person.
Source: Looby Macnamara Designed Visions ~ permaculture design course handouts www.designedvisions.com
Page 6
intelligence type
description
typical roles
related tasks, activities or tests
preferred learning style clues
1 Linguistic
words and language, written and spoken; retention, interpretation and explanation of ideas and information via language, understands relationship between communication and meaning logical thinking, detecting patterns, scientific reasoning and deduction; analyse problems, perform mathematical calculations, understands relationship between cause and effect towards a tangible outcome or result musical ability, awareness, appreciation and use of sound; recognition of tonal and rhythmic patterns, understands relationship between sound and feeling body movement control, manual dexterity, physical agility and balance; eye and body coordination
writers, lawyers, journalists, speakers, trainers, copy-writers, english teachers, poets, editors, linguists, translators, PR consultants, media consultants, TV and radio presenters, voiceover artistes scientists, engineers, computer experts, accountants, statisticians, researchers, analysts, traders, bankers bookmakers, insurance brokers, negotiators, deal-makers, trouble-shooters, directors
write a set of instrucwords and tions; speak on a subject; language edit a written piece or work; write a speech; commentate on an event; apply positive or negative spin to a story perform a mental arithmetic calculation; create a process to measure something difficult; analyse how a machine works; create a process; devise a strategy to achieve an aim; assess the value of a business or a proposition perform a musical piece; sing a song; review a musical work; coach someone to play a musical instrument; specify mood music for telephone systems and receptions juggle; demonstrate a sports technique; flip a beer-mat; create a mime to explain something; toss a pancake; fly a kite; coach workplace posture, assess workstation ergonomics design a costume; interpret a painting; create a room layout; create a corporate logo; design a building; pack a suitcase or the boot of a car numbers and logic
2 LogicalMathematical
3 Musical
musicians, singers, composers, DJs, music producers, piano tuners, acoustic engineers, entertainers, party-planners, environment and noise advisors, voice coaches dancers, demonstrators, actors, athletes, divers, sports-people, soldiers, fire-fighters, PTIs, performance artistes; ergonomists, osteopaths, fishermen, drivers, crafts-people; gardeners, chefs, acupuncturists, healers, adventurers artists, designers, cartoonists, story-boarders, architects, photographers, sculptors, town-planners, visionaries, inventors, engineers, cosmetics and beauty consultants
music, sounds, rhythm
4 BodilyKinesthetic
physical experience and movement, touch and feel
5 SpatialVisual
visual and spatial perception; interpretation and creation of visual images; pictorial imagination and expression; understands relationship between images and meanings, and between space and effect perception of other peoples feelings; ability to relate to others; interpretation of behaviour and communications; understands the relationships between people and their situations, including other people self-awareness, personal cognisance, personal objectivity, the capability to understand oneself, ones relationship to others and the world, and ones own need for, and reaction to change
pictures, shapes, images, 3D space
Interpersonal
therapists, HR professionals, mediators, leaders, counsellors, politicians, eductors, salespeople, clergy, psychologists, teachers, doctors, healers, organisers, carers, advertising professionals, coaches and mentors; (there is clear association between this type of intelligence and what is now termed Emotional Intelligence or EQ) arguably anyone (see note below) who is self-aware and involved in the process of changing personal thoughts, beliefs and behaviour in relation to their situation, other people, their purpose and aims - in this respect there is a similarity to Maslows Self-Actualisation level, and again there is clear association between this type of intelligence and what is now termed Emotional Intelligence or EQ
interpret moods from facial expressions; demonstrate feelings through body language; affect the feelings of others in a planned way; coach or counsel another person
human contact, communications, cooperation, teamwork
Intrapersonal
consider and decide self-reflection, ones own aims and self-discovery personal changes required to achieve them (not necessarily reveal this to others); consider ones own Johari Window, and decide options for development; consider and decide ones own position in relation to the Emotional Intelligence model
Page 7
Learning Styles
Self-Assessment Questionnaire
Circle or tick the answer that most represents how you generally behave. (Its best to complete the questionnaire before reading the accompanying explanation.)
1. When I operate new equipment I generally: a) read the instructions first b) listen to an explanation from someone who has used it before c) go ahead and have a go, I can figure it out as I use it 2. When I need directions for travelling I usually: a) look at a map b) ask for spoken directions c) follow my nose and maybe use a compass 3. When I cook a new dish, I like to: a) follow a written recipe b) call a friend for an explanation c) follow my instincts, testing as I cook 4. If I am teaching someone something new, I tend to: a) write instructions down for them b) give them a verbal explanation c) demonstrate first and then let them have a go 5. When I am learning a new skill, I am most comfortable: a) watching what the teacher is doing b) talking through with the teacher exactly what Im supposed to do c) giving it a try myself and work it out as I go 6. If I am choosing food off a menu, I tend to: a) imagine what the food will look like b) talk through the options in my head or with my partner c) imagine what the food will taste like 7. When I listen to a band, I cant help: a) watching the band members and other people in the audience b) listening to the lyrics and the beats c) moving in time with the music 8. When I concentrate, I most often: a) focus on the words or the pictures in front of me b) discuss the problem and the possible solutions in my head c) move around a lot, fiddle with pens and pencils and touch things 9. When I am anxious, I: a) visualise the worst-case scenarios b) talk over in my head what worries me most c) cant sit still, fiddle and move around constantly 10. If I am explaining to someone I tend to: a) show them what I mean b) explain to them in different ways until they understand c) encourage them to try and talk them through my idea as they do it 11. I really love: a) watching films, photography, looking at art or people watching b) listening to music, the radio or talking to friends c) taking part in sporting activities, eating fine foods and wines or dancing 12. If I am angry, I tend to: a) keep replaying in my mind what it is that has upset me b) raise my voice and tell people how I feel c) stamp about, slam doors and physically demonstrate my anger
Chapter 11 ~ Accelerated learning Now add up how many As, Bs and Cs you selected. As = Bs = Cs =
Page 8
If you chose mostly As you have a VISUAL learning style. If you chose mostly Bs you have an AUDITORY learning style. If you chose mostly Cs you have a KINAESTHETIC learning style. Some people find that their learning style may be a blend of two or three styles, in this case read about the styles that apply to you in the explanation below. When you have identified your learning style(s), read the learning styles explanations and consider how this might help you to identify learning and development that best meets your preference(s).
VAK Learning Styles Explanation

The VAK learning styles model suggests that most people can be divided into one of three preferred styles of learning. These three styles are as follows, (and there is no right or wrong learning style): * Someone with a Visual learning style has a preference for seen or observed things, including pictures, diagrams, demonstrations, displays, handouts, films, flipchart, etc. These people will use phrases such as show me, lets have a look at that and will be best able to perform a new task after reading the instructions or watching someone else do it first. These are the people who will work from lists and written directions and instructions. * Someone with an Auditory learning style has a preference for the transfer of information through listening: to the spoken word, of self or others, of sounds and noises. These people will use phrases such as tell me, lets talk it over and will be best able to perform a new task after listening to instructions from an expert. These are the people who are happy being given spoken instructions over the telephone, and can remember all the words to songs that they hear! * Someone with a Kinaesthetic learning style has a preference for physical experience - touching, feeling, holding, doing, practical hands-on experiences. These people will use phrases such as let me try, how do you feel? and will be best able to perform a new task by going ahead and trying it out, learning as they go. These are the people who like to experiment, hands-on, and never look at the instructions first! People commonly have a main preferred learning style, but this will be part of a blend of all three. Some people have a very strong preference; other people have a more even mixture of two or less commonly, three styles. When you know your preferred learning style(s) you understand the type of learning that best suits you. This enables you to choose the types of learning that work best for you. There is no right or wrong learning style. The point is that there are types of learning that are right for your own preferred learning style. Please note that this is not a scientifically validated testing instrument it is a simple assessment tool designed to give a broad indication of preferred learning style(s). Source: Victoria Chislett ~ www.businessballs.com Designed Visions ~ permaculture design course handouts www.designedvisions.com
Page 9
Mind mapping
How to Make a Mind Map

1. Take a blank piece of paper, A4 or larger. Blank paper allows 360 of freedom to express the full range of your cortical skills, whereas pre-drawn lines restrict the natural flow of your thoughts. 2. Use the paper in landscape orientation. Words and images have more space in the direction we write, so they dont bump into margins as quickly. 3. Start in the centre. Thoughts start in the centre of our mental world. The Mind Map page reflects this! 4. Make a central image that represents the topic about which youre thinking:
* * * Use at least three colours. Keep the height and width of the central image to approx. 2 or 5 cm (for A4). Allow the image to create its own shape (do not use a frame).
A picture is worth a thousand words. It opens up associations, focuses the thoughts, is fun and results in better recall:
* * * Colours stimulate the right cortical activity of imagination as well as capturing and holding attention. This size gives plenty of space for the rest of your Mind Map, while making it large enough to be the clear focus of the topic. The unique shape makes it more memorable and enjoyable. A frame makes the centre a monotony of shape and disconnects the branches. Print this word in CAPITALS or draw an image. Place on a line of the same length The central lines are thick, curved and organic i.e. like your arm joining your body, or the branch of a tree to the trunk. Connect directly to the central image.
5. The main themes around the centre are like the chapter headings of a book:
* * * *
Page 10
The main themes, connected to the central image on the main branches, allow their relative importance to be seen. These are the Basic Ordering Ideas (BOIs) and aggregate and focus the rest of the Mind Map:
* Printing (versus cursive) allows the brain to photograph the image thus giving easier reading and more immediate recall. * Word length equals line length. An extra line disconnects thoughts, length accentuates the connection. * Curved lines give visual rhythm and variety are easier to remember, more pleasant to draw and less boring to look at. Thicker central lines show relative importance. * Connected to the image because the brain works by association not separated, disconnected lines.
6. Start to add a second level of thought. These words or images are linked to the main branch that triggered them. Remember:
* * Connecting lines are thinner. Words are still printed but may be lower case.
Your initial words and images stimulate associations. Attach whatever word or image is triggered. Allow the random movement of your thought; you do not have to finish one branch before moving on:
* * Connected lines create relationships and a structure. They also demonstrate the level of importance, as from a branch to a twig. The size and style of the letters provide additional data about the importance and meaning of the word/image. Use images as much as you can, instead of, or in addition to the words. Allow your thoughts to come freely, meaning you jump about the Mind Map as the links and associations occur to you.
7. Add a third or fourth level of data as thoughts come to you:

* *
Your brain is like a multi-handed thought-ball catcher. The Mind Map allows you to catch and keep whatever thought ball is thrown by your brain. 8. Add a new dimension to your Mind Map. Boxes add depth around the word or image. To make some important points stand out. 9. Sometimes enclose branches of a Mind Map with outlines in colour:
* * * * * * Enclose the shape of the branch and hug the shape tightly. Use different colours and styles. These provide immediate visual linking. They can also encourage follow-up and remind you of action you need to take. They also show connection between branches by using the same colour outline. BEAUTIFUL ~ ARTISTIC ~ COLOURFUL ~ IMAGINATIVE ~ DIMENSIONAL It will be easier to remember & more attractive to you (and to others as well).
The outlines will create unique shapes and will aid your memory:
10. Make each Mind Map a little more: Your eyes and brain will be attracted to your Mind Map: 11. Have fun! Add a little humour, exaggeration or absurdity wherever you can. Your brain will delight in getting the maximum use and enjoyment from this process and will therefore learn faster, recall more effectively and think more clearly.
Source: Illumine Training ~ Mind Map is a registered trademarks of The Buzan Organisation Designed Visions ~ permaculture design course handouts www.designedvisions.com
Page 11
Permaculture for Children
Page 12
Page 13
Source: Permaculture Magazine #32 p20-22 Designed Visions ~ permaculture design course handouts www.designedvisions.com
Page 14
Example childrens garden
Design: Alan Peacock & Julia Warin from Childrens gardening
Chapter 12~ Design process overview
Page 1
Design Process Overview

Design Activity ~ Hints on the Process
The main purpose of the design activity is to provide an opportunity for supported practice & to show that you have achieved and are able to implement an understanding of the permaculture principles and their application using the design process.
Step One: Survey

Site analysis: * Create a base map with existing boundaries, structures, land/vegetation types (pasture, trees, etc.), water bodies, access routes, etc. You can also make a site profile/transect to show slope/shape of land. * List information on climate, soil, plant species (esp. those indicating types of site), water/moisture, wind, microclimates, etc. Pay attention to those things that may act as limiting factors and/or resources, and potential hazards e.g. flooding, fires. Include historical information about the site. * List areas/types of erosion (leaks) i.e. where resources are being lost from the site e.g. soil, nutrients, water, money, skills, etc. Client Analysis: * Use client questionnaire handout as a basis for your client interview. * List goals of client - their vision for the land, what they want to achieve. * What is their timeframe for achieving these goals? * List the resources they have, e.g. time, skills, money, etc. * List their constraints/limiting factors, other relevant information.
Step Two: Analysis - Identify Functions/Areas of Production

* What functions are required to meet the needs of the client & land, prevent the resource leaks etc? e.g. livestock, irrigation, income generation, soil conservation, shelter, security, etc. Some of the "areas" can be sub-divided e.g. income generation into bees, vegetables, fruit, livestock, crafts, etc.
Step Three: Design

What systems are needed to fulfill the functions required? List these & examine linkages/beneficial relationships that exist between the systems. Examine the needs/outputs/characteristics of the different systems (systems' analysis). * Experiment with placement of systems (using a map) & examine if their productivity can be improved (or erosion reduced) by siting them in different places. * Select and place elements to fulfil the functions identified as needed in the different systems. Give an idea of species' composition of relevant systems e.g. windbreaks, orchard, kitchen garden, etc. * Integrate functions to satisfy needs with outputs i.e. allow the systems/elements to do the work to decrease effort (work) & waste (pollution). Feedback to client * *
Feedback the outcome so far & if the client has any changes/suggestions etc. Is the design helping to achieve their goals while meeting the needs of the land? Are new problems being created?
Chapter 12 ~ Design process overview
Page 2
Step Four: Implementation & Maintenance

* * * * * * * Detail the sequence of implementation - which systems/elements go in first (priority ranking). Give an idea of time needed to implement the different priorities. Give an idea of costs of implementation over time. Give an idea of outputs coming from the designed system, over time if possible. Detail how the design is maintained and/or added to over time (including the priorities, sequence and costs of doing this). Detail how the design involves and/or benefits the community/region as a whole. Make a detailed map with systems & placement. Feedback the design so far & if the client has any changes/suggestions etc. Is the design helping to achieve their goals while meeting the needs of the client & land? Are new problems being created? Is the design realistic/achievable? Are there any unnecessary costs? Modify as required.
Step Five: Evaluate
Step Six: Tweaking

*
Presentation
You will have 60 minutes for presentation of which approximately:
* * * * * * 5 mins on introduction, summarising step one. 40 mins to present the design, including all the items in step four. Include information on process - how you came to reach the decisions/selections you made, what other options had you considered? 5 minutes question/answers, clarification etc. 10 minutes feedback from client/tutors (dont allow feedback on this feedback!). Make sure all the group is involved in the presentation. You don't have to give details of every plant/animal in the design, but give representative samples e.g. structure of the windbreak, orchard, vegetable beds etc.
Source: Chris Evans
Page 3
SADIMET design process
Page 4
Simple Surveying Tools

A-frame
The A frame is a simple tool that acts as a support for either a spirit level, or in its simpler form, a plumb line. Its beauty lies in the fact that the latter can be made from easily gathered materials, such as coppice poles, some vine and a stone. An accurately measured frame and level crossbar however allows the use of a spirit level which has the advantage of not being vulnerable to the action of the wind, After initial calibration (a one-off process for a bolted together spirit level version), we can go to work. After deciding where we are starting (or finishing) from, we can walk the A frame across the landscape, marking points of equal altitude as we go. While a plumb-based A frame can also be calibrated for gradient, care has to be taken that each step is continuing in the intended direction (up or down hill) and not being reversed.
Bunyip water level

The water level, while requiring at least a minimal amount of clear plastic tubing, does have a couple of advantages over the A frame. In its simplest form it can be no more than a clear pipe containing a convenient amount of water. When each end is lifted up, the levels in each vertical section will always be the same (see diagram), so it can be used to determine relative levels of anything above ground level. For instance, Ive used it to ensure that I cut my house gutter downpipe at the right height to fit a rainwater diverter and fill a water butt 5 metres away. If you wish to use it to measure out a contour, then the pipe will need to be attached to a pair of poles, ideally each at least 2 metres high and marked out in centimetres. On my own Bunyip Ive made the one metre mark the point I always fill up to with water and use a small syringe to add the last few millilitres accurately. One thing to be aware of is that if you use very cold water (say straight from a tap) and then take it out on a warm day, it will expand, so check your levels against each other every now and then. Also, if you decided like me that adding a used tea bag to the water sounds like a good idea to make it easier to see the level, dont do as I did and forget to empty it out before it stains the inside of the tubing. Finally, back to those advantages... the water level isnt affected by the wind and you can even damp the movement of the water by putting a thumb almost completely over the end of the tube when you move it. It also goes around trees (something the A frame cant do) and you can measure points at any distance apart up to the length of the tubing between your poles. Its also well suited to measuring height differences up or down a slope, allowing you to determine where to mark out additional swales for instance. Just dont lie it down until youve finished with it.
Pacing
Its also worth mentioning that our own bodies are great for measuring things. In particular, once we become familiar with our pace lengths over different terrains and slopes, we can measure distance to between 90 and 95% accuracy - plenty good enough in most cases.
Source: Aranya
Page 5
Permaculture Designers Checklist

Name[s] of Client[s]; Address; Size of Property; Number of People on site and Relationship: Ages; Special Needs; Occupations / Skills; Lifestyle: Eating Habits; Level of Food Self-sufficiency Required; Clients Wants and Needs: Financial Situation: On-site Resources; Security of Tenure; Potential catastrophes; (e.g. fire, flood and frost); Plans and Drawings; Known Problems; Privacy; Priorities: Water Catchment: (Quality and Size); Water (General): Sewage & Waste: Soil (General); Erosion: Aspect: Sacred Sites: Archaeological Sites: Addresses of like-minded local people;
Environmental Analysis
Historical land use: Recent site history: County structure plans: Talk to locals, look at old maps, photos. Logging, cropping, spraying, crops, uses.
Page 6
Topography:
Contour maps and Field survey. Identify key areas. Mark volleys and ridges. Determine slope gradient. Aspect (direction of slopes). Sun Sectors (winter & summer sunrise to sunset). Wind (wind rose for the area prevailing wind direction, damaging winter winds). Geological maps. Types of soil and Analysis. Field Test Kits. Drainage and Absorption. Soil Depths, a and b levels. Stability of site. Flora - mix, identification, health. Forests - type, age, condition, value, density, exotic species, ground cover, poisonous plants. Grazing animals, waterfowl, native birds, introduced animals, creatures of pain and fear. Altitude. Frost. Hail - timing, frequency and directions. Storms - timing, frequency and directions. Average Rainfall. Minimum and maximum temperatures. Drainage patterns. Springs. Rivers and Streams.
Sector analysis:
Soils & geology:
Soil tests:
Vegetation:
Fauna: Climate:
Hydrology:
Farm roads: New roads required: Costs?
Page 7
Particular features:
Rock outcrops. Landslides. Waterfalls. Caves. Swimming holes. Suitable windmill / hydraulic ram sites. Views. Electricity. Gas. Mains water. Telephone. Mains Sewerage. Shops. Schools. Public transport. Hospitals. Fire brigade. Dump. Planning permission. Water extraction. Easements. What is happening upstream and over the fence? Sawmill. Factories. Free plant and seed sources. Biomass. Quarry. Livestock breeders. Local skills/producers. Rail, air, road, industry.
Local utilities:
Council constraints:
Macro landuse: Local resources:
Noise: Visual pollution: Smells:
Sewage works Tannery

Source: Patsy Garrard & George Sobol www.designedvisions.com
Page 8
Drawing Plans
Source: Steve Charter Designed Visions ~ permaculture design course handouts www.designedvisions.com
Chapter 13 ~ What next?
Page 1
What Next?
The Diploma in Applied Permaculture Design
An Introductory 3-page Overview:
What is the Diploma in Applied Permaculture Design? The Diploma in Applied Permaculture Design is internationally recognised as the next step for people who have done a Permaculture Design Course. In the UK, the accreditation of the Permaculture Diploma is managed and quality assured by the Permaculture Association and the Awarding body is a partnership between the Permaculture Association and the group of its members who hold a current Diploma in Applied Permaculture Design. The Diploma Tutors are all experienced Permaculture designers, who hold a Diploma in Applied Permaculture Design themselves, who have had additional tutor/mentor training and who commit to an on-going process of continuous professional development. The Diploma is not a taught course but a framework and support programme for you to gain accreditation for your own self-directed learning and practice of permaculture design. It is based around projects and activities that you set yourself. At the start of your Diploma you plan your own self-defined learning pathway. This learning pathway maps out what you want to do, and when you might do it. It can include tutorials, projects, design work, portfolio development, reviews and time for reflection and new learning. You then document your progress in achieving this learning plan, you reflect, review and revise this at strategic points throughout your Diploma showing what you learn from the process of directing your own learning as well as documenting and reflecting on your projects themselves. Either way you have to have been actively practicing applied permaculture design for a minimum of two years after completing your Permaculture Design Certificate course before you can be considered for accreditation for the Diploma. There are two possible Routes you can take to reach the point of applying for assessment and accreditation. The Supported Route: You can register for the Supported Route Diploma as soon as you have completed a Permaculture Design Certificate course or anytime afterwards. There is no upper limit to how long you can take to complete your Diploma, however there is a small annual fee to remain registered as an apprentice, and you need to remain a member of the Association. The Independent Route: This is for people who completed your Permaculture Design course some time ago and you have been practicing applied permaculture design since then. This route is a means for people to accredit prior work who have been practicing applied permaculture design for a minimum of two years since they completed their permaculture design course. The number of Designs required for a completed portfolio is not specified as projects vary enormously in time-span and scale. A single project may have many design opportunities within it. You need to have around ten completed designs in your portfolio by the time you apply for Accreditation. The main criteria is that you clearly demonstrate you have developed your proficiency in the Permaculture Design process through reflecting on, learning from and building on your own practice over time. You designs will be generated by the different projects and activities you get involved in.
Page 2
As examples, your designs might include:

* * * * * * * * * a design for your home a design for your garden (these two design projects are generally excellent places to start if you havent done them already) designs for your smallholding, farm or other land-based project applying permaculture to your transition town initiative or community group designing aspects of your business operation, or planning a new business using permaculture to transform your workplace applying permaculture to setting up and running local events or convergences working on projects suggested by the Permaculture Association to assist network development applying permaculture design to your own action learning pathway
Essentially you can do whatever you like whatever is needed, for people paying you to design for them, perhaps, or for your own family, friends and community.
The Accreditation Criteria
The assessment of the Diploma is based on a set of Accreditation Criteria, the main Essential Criteria for achieving the Diploma are:
* * * Demonstrating Design Skills Applying permaculture in your own life Applying permaculture to your work and projects
There are also complementary criteria and a broad range of areas of work that you can choose to focus on.
Fees and what you get:
Below are the fees and tutorials you get for both Supported and Independent Routes to the Diploma. For both Routes the fees also include a range of support available to all diploma apprentices including:
additional personal profile space for your Diploma activities on the Permaculture Association website * online facilities for networking within the diploma membership via the Permaculture Association website. * access to a developing library of website resources. * entitlement to attend National and Regional Diploma gatherings (these will cost extra but will be subsidised where possible). * administration, co-ordination, system development and quality assurance costs of the programme. Supported Route total fees 600: *
This is the supported programme in which you get the a personal tutor or tutors whom you meet at intervals throughout the duration of your Diploma studies. The fee includes the following tutorials:
* * * * * Induction event - 2hrs Interim Portfolio Assessment Tutorial - 2hrs 2 Portfolio Assessment Tutorials 2 hrs each 4 Personal tutorials 1hr each Presiding Diplomate - 2hrs
Page 3
Independent Route Fees: total fees 280:
This is the route for people who have been doing Permaculture design & practice independently and wish to gain accreditation of their existing work. The fee include the following tutorials:
* * 2 Portfolio Assessment Tutorials 2 hrs each Presiding Diplomate - 2hrs
These fees are set out to provide the minimum support necessary in order to make the Diploma affordable to people who wish to take the major responsibility for their own learning & development. However it is possible to purchase additional tutorials to suit you, and we do recommend at least a couple of additional tutorials for most people. The fees can be paid in a lump sum or by monthly instalments.
Quality assurance
The Diploma system has quality assurance and network development built into the structure. As an apprentice this means that you can expect a consistent experience from well trained tutors, within a well run system. This system is designed to ensure that portfolios that are recommended for Accreditation are all meeting a consistent level of achievement, whilst still allowing a very diverse range of work to be accredited.
National & Regional Diploma Gatherings
The Diploma has always been self-directed learning, and remains so. The National and Regional Diploma gatherings are multi-faceted events that will further support you with your Diploma. These events are an optional addition available to anyone currently on the Diploma or anyone who already has a Diploma (in the latter case they will serve as CPD (continuous professional development). So you want to know more? Please download the full Guidebook for the Diploma which is downloadable from the Permaculture Association website: http://www.permaculture.org.uk/education/diploma-applied-permaculture-design This guidebook explains in detail all aspects of the Diploma in Applied Permaculture Design. Please refer to the FAQ section for a more detailed summary and to each specific chapter for a full description.
Example accredited Diploma portfolios:
Aranya (2003) ~ http://www.aranyagardens.co.uk/diploma-portfolio.html Peter Cow (2007) ~ http://www.livingincircles.com/diploma/diploma-home.htm Klaudia Van Gool (2009) ~ http://www.klaudia.co.uk/ Ezio Gori (2010) ~ http://www.permaculture2012.co.za/site/default.asp Hedvig Murray (2011) ~ http://hedvigmurray.wordpress.com/ Pietro Zucchetti (2011) ~ http://www.therainbowtree.org/index.php
Source: Permaculture Association (Britain) ~ www.permaculture.org.uk Designed Visions ~ permaculture design course handouts www.designedvisions.com
Page 4
Gaia University
Integrative Ecosocial Design
This descriptive name, Integrative Ecosocial Design, arose from observations and understandings gleaned from years of work and action in the permaculture and ecovillage fields, and from around leading-edge developments appearing elsewhere. Through the work experience we understood that permaculture folk, for example, see most problems of human society stemming from destructive land use practices, such as industrial agriculture, and that switching to sustainable and regenerative horticulture, repairing ecosystems and living lifestyles based primarily on resources derived from biological processes would enable us to reconfigure human societies to function within the carrying capacity of Earth. Ecovillage-focused people often describe the primary problems as a lack of spiritual awareness, hierarchical decision making systems, poor housing and physical community design and tend to respond by establishing consensus-based, experimental intentional communities wherever they can find land and permission. While there is substantial value in both of these approaches neither of these views seemed complete, and each group, for quite a while, was actively antagonistic towards the other the one considering the other flimsy and new agey, the other seeing itself as spiritually superior to the grunts planting trees and digging swales. From our explorations of the dazzling array of leading-edge design developments, we considered Integral Theory, Social Ecology, Human Ecology and more. Theres much to commend in each of these ways of thinking, yet none manages to combine the practical, pragmatic, action-oriented, purposeful, leaderful, clear approach were seeking to engender through Gaia University. Here are some brief sketches... Intergal Theory has some powerful conceptual models, but tends towards extreme abstract conceptualization, attracts esoteric thinkers and seems to be liable to that tiresome academic dynamic of seeking to value and create elegant/obscure philosophically dense theory above grounded action. Social Ecology has great social analysis roots and capacities and a fine vision, and meanwhile generates impenetrable and lengthy arguments for change seemingly typical of the intellectual left-wing that places it beyond the patience of anyone without a good deal of time and a background in unpicking convoluted, verbose scholarly masterpieces. Human Ecology, which unlike the two above, has been generated from within the conventional academy, has a thorough academic pedigree and long history. Part of its problem, for our purposes, is that it is still embedded in the establishment, which curtails its ability to act for deep social change lest it bite the hand that feeds it. Thus at Gaia University we birthed the field of Integrative Ecosocial Design, which draws on the most practical elements of the above, but has its own character as an approachable, action-focused, practical/thoughtful practice of praxis.
Whats In a Name? * Integrative to emphasize a process and direction (rather than integrated, a claim too bold, or integral which is rather like a branding). * Ecosocial to indicate a balance between ecology, land-use and all social and economic aspects of human society. * Design to underline our primary goal of bringing as many people as possible to a place of empowerment from which they can notice that the behavior, structures and institutions of societies and the people within them are the products of human thinking and efforts. Thus all these aspects of culture are amenable to deconstruction and redesign. Source: www.gaiauniversity.org
Chapter 14 ~ Resources
Page 1
Resources
Recommended reading
A by no-means exhaustive list, these are just a few of our favourites...
Permaculture Design Introductory: Intermediate:
Beginners Guide to Permaculture ~ Graham Burnett Permaculture in a Nutshell ~ Patrick Whitefield An Introduction to Permaculture ~ Bill Mollison Permaculture One / Permaculture Two ~ Bill Mollison / David Holmgren The Permaculture Way ~ Graham Bell The Basics of Permaculture Design ~ Ross Mars Permaculture: A Designers Manual ~ Bill Mollison Permaculture: Principles & Pathways Beyond Sustainability ~ David Holmgren The Earth Care Manual ~ Patrick Whitefield Earth Users Guide to Permaculture ~ Rosemary Morrow Designing and Maintaining your Edible Landscape Naturally ~ Robert Kourik Gaias Garden ~ Toby Hemenway Permaculture ~ Sepp Holzer The Permaculture Garden ~ Graham Bell The Permaculture Home Garden ~ Linda Woodrow Smart Permaculture Design ~ Jenny Allen
Comprehensive:
Permaculture Gardens / Edible Landscaping
Systems and Patterns

A Beginners Guide to Constructing the Universe ~ Michael S.Schneider Heaven and Earth ~ Phaidon Hidden Nature ~ Alick Bartholomew Nature; the Mother of Invention ~ Felix Paturi Thinking in Systems ~ Donella H. Meadows
Soil and Water

Farming in Natures Image ~ Judith D. Soule & Jon K. Piper The Humanure Handbook ~ Joseph Jenkins Mycellium Running ~ Paul Stamets The One Straw Revolution / The Natural Way of Farming ~ Masanobu Fukuoka Rainwater Harvesting for Drylands and Beyond (volumes 1 & 2) ~ Brad Lancaster Teaming with Microbes ~ Jeff Lowenfels and Wayne Lewis The Water Book ~ Judith Thornton Water for Every Farm ~ P A. Yeomans .
Trees
Creating a Forest Garden ~ Martin Crawford Edible Forest Gardens (volumes 1 and 2) ~ Dave Jacke Forest Gardening ~ Robert Hart How to Make a Forest Garden ~ Patrick Whitefield Sowing the Seeds of Change ~ Treesponsibility The Woodland Way ~ Ben Law
Food
Local Food ~ Tamzin Pinkerton & Rob Hopkins Organic Gardening / Salads for All Seasons ~ Charles Dowding Perennial Vegetables ~ Eric Toensmeier Plants for a Future ~ Ken Fern The Winter Harvest Handbook ~ Elliot Coleman Designed Visions ~ permaculture design course handouts www.designedvisions.com
Chapter 14 ~ Resources
Page 2
Buildings
A Pattern Language ~ Christopher Alexander et al Shelter / Home Work ~ Lloyd Kahn Spirit and Place~ Christopher Day
Urban / Communities
The Abundance Handbook ~ Grow Sheffield The Grip of Death; a Study of Destructive Economics ~ Michael Rowbotham Toolbox for Sustainable City Living~ Scott Kellogg and Stacey Pettigrew The Transition Handbook ~ Rob Hopkins
Personal
Coming Back to Life ~ Joanna Macey The Earth Path ~ Starhawk Eat More Raw ~ Steve Charter Find Your Power ~ Chris Johnstone Barefoot Running ~ Michael Sandler with Jessica Lee The Egoscue Method of Health Through Motion ~ Pete Egoscue
Miscellaneous
Biomimicry ~ Janine Benyus The Buzz about Bees ~ Jrgen Tautz Left in the Dark ~ Tony Wright Natures Operating Instructions ~ Kenny Ausubel with J. P Harpignies .
Recommended viewing
Some key films that we have found inspiring...
In Grave Danger of Falling Food Global Gardener Greening the Desert Permaculture in Practice (Iota) Farming with Nature (Sepp Holzer) Eco-village Pioneers The Power of Community (Cuba) Forest Gardening (Iota) Agroforesterie (Agroof) Grand Designs Ben Law Money as Debt The Story of Stuff Transition Curriculum (Plan-it Earth)
Websites
Designed Visions
Some online Permaculture Diploma Portfolios:

Aranya
www.aranyagardens.co.uk/diploma-portfolio.html www.klaudia.co.uk
Klaudia Van Gool Peter Cow Ezio Gori

www.livingincircles.com/diploma/diploma-home.htm www.permaculture2012.co.za www.hedvigmurray.wordpress.com www.therainbowtree.org
Hedvig Murray
Pietro Zucchetti

PDC Handouts - Full Set July 11

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

PDC Handouts - Full Set July 11

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

PDC Handouts - Full Set July 11

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

What are some definitions of permaculture?

What are some definitions of permaculture?

What are some principles of permaculture design?

What are some principles of permaculture design?

Designed Visions

Permaculture Design Course

Some definitions of permaculture (pick your favourite):

Where You At?

Microclimate Energy Efficient Planning Elevation profile More design tools

Climate and Landform Soil

David Holmgrens Principles

Designing in non-native environments

Designed Visions ~ permaculture design course handouts

Designed Visions ~ permaculture design course handouts

Energy, Buildings and Structures

Support local producers and retailers

Multiple Intelligences Learning Styles Mind mapping Permaculture for Children

Example childrens garden

Design Process Overview

What Next? Resources

Designed Visions ~ permaculture design course handouts

Chapter 1~ Introduction to permaculture

Designed Visions ~ permaculture design course handouts

Chapter 1 ~ Introduction to permaculture

Designed Visions ~ permaculture design course handouts

Chapter 1~ Introduction to permaculture

Mind Maps of Permaculture

Chapter 1 ~ Introduction to permaculture

Ethics and Philosophies

Care of the Earth

Fair Shares Choose Limits to Consumption & Give Away Surplus

Take Responsibility (the prime directive of permaculture)

Co-Operation, Not Competition

Chapter 1~ Introduction to permaculture

Designed Visions ~ permaculture design course handouts

Chapter 1 ~ Introduction to permaculture

Chapter 1~ Introduction to permaculture

Problems and Spirals of Erosion

Chapter 1 ~ Introduction to permaculture

Some current spirals:

Chapter 1~ Introduction to permaculture

Permaculture and Sustainability

Chapter 1 ~ Introduction to permaculture

Some definitions of permaculture (pick your favourite):

Designed Visions ~ permaculture design course handouts

Chapter 1~ Introduction to permaculture

Pattern Understanding and Applications

Source: Aranya Designed Visions ~ permaculture design course handouts www.designedvisions.com

Chapter 1 ~ Introduction to permaculture

Page 12 Source: Permaculture Activist #39, p19

Designed Visions ~ permaculture design course handouts

Chapter 1~ Introduction to permaculture

Natures Food Webs

Source: Aranya Designed Visions ~ permaculture design course handouts www.designedvisions.com

Chapter 1 ~ Introduction to permaculture

Keeping an Observation Diary

Chapter 1~ Introduction to permaculture

Nine ways of observing

Chapter 1 ~ Introduction to permaculture

Page 16 Source: Patsy Garrard and George Sobol.