Networks Distributed Processing
Networks Distributed Processing
Networks Distributed Processing
ISO is an ISO standard for the computer-interpretable representation and exchange of product manufacturing information. Its official title is: Automation systems and integration Product data representation and exchange. It is known informally as "STEP", which stands for "Standard for the Exchange of Product model data". ISO 10303 can represent 3D objects. The International standard's objective is to provide a mechanism that is capable of describing product data throughout the life cycle of a product, independent from any particular system. The nature of this description makes it suitable not only for neutral file exchange, but also as a basis for implementing and sharing product databases and archiving. Typically STEP can be used to exchange data between CAD, Computer-aided manufacturing, Computer-aided engineering, Product Data Management/EDM and other CAx systems. STEP is addressing product data from mechanical and electrical design, Geometric dimensioning and tolerancing, analysis and manufacturing, with additional information specific to various industries such as automotive, aerospace, building construction, ship, oil and gas, process plants and others. STEP is developed and maintained by the ISO technical committee TC 184, Automation systems and integration, sub-committee SC 4, Industrial data. Like other ISO and IEC standards STEP is copyright by ISO and is not freely available. Other standards developed and maintained by ISO TC 184/SC 4 are:
ISO 13584 PLIB - Parts Library ISO 15531 MANDATE - Industrial manufacturing management data ISO 15926 Process Plants including Oil and Gas facilities Life-Cycle data ISO 18629 PSL- Process specification language ISO 18876 IIDEAS - Integration of industrial data for exchange, access, and sharing ISO 22745 Open technical dictionaries and their application to master data ISO 8000 Data quality
if a server had 10,000 clients, and it were given the task of calculating pi to 1,000,000,000 decimal places of precision, normally, all of the clients' requests would be put on hold, and their computers would sit idle, until the server reached an answer. Then, when it did reach an answer, it would have to process all the clients' requests that had backlogged. This causes a major bottleneck in the network. However, if the network were to use the MST, when the server received the request for pi, it could have divided that job into 10,000 applets (one for each client), then distributed them to be individually processed. Because the main job is now 10,000 times smaller, it can be easily processed by the clients' machines, and the server can be free to process the clients' other requests. When the clients' computers each finished with their portion of the answer, they would return it to the server where it would be compiled into the final answer. At this point, the server has kept up with the tasks assigned to it, the clients never noticed any performance decrease, and there is no bottleneck to deal with.
Distributed processing is a phrase used to refer to a variety of computer systems that use more than one computer (or processor) to run an application. This includes parallel processing in which a single computer uses more than one CPU to execute programs.
More often, however, distributed processing refers to local-area networks (LANs) designed so that a single program can run simultaneously at various sites. Most distributed processing systems contain sophisticated software that detects idle CPUs on the network and parcels out programs to utilize them. Another form of distributed processing involves distributed databases. This is databases in which the data is stored across two or more computer systems. The database system keeps track of where the data is so that the distributed nature of the database is not apparent to users.
telephone copper wires, resulting in potentially better voice quality than an analog phone can provide. It offers circuit-switched connections (for either voice or data), and packet-switched connections (for data), in increments of 64 kilobit/s. A major market application for ISDN in some countries is Internet access, where ISDN typically provides a maximum of 128 kbit/s in both upstream and downstream directions. Channel bonding can achieve a greater data rate; typically the ISDN B-channels of 3 or 4 BRIs (6 to 8 64 kbit/s channels) are bonded. ISDN should not be mistaken for its use with a specific protocol, such as Q.931 whereby ISDN is employed as the network, data-link and physical layers in the context of the OSI model. In a broad sense ISDN can be considered a suite of digital services existing on layers 1, 2, and 3 of the OSI model. ISDN is designed to provide access to voice and data services simultaneously. However, common use reduced ISDN to be limited to Q.931 and related protocols, which are a set of protocols for establishing and breaking circuit switched connections, and for advanced calling features for the user. They were introduced in 1986.[2] In a videoconference, ISDN provides simultaneous voice, video, and text transmission between individual desktop videoconferencing systems and group (room) videoconferencing systems. Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is a standard switching technique designed to unify telecommunication and computer networks. It uses asynchronous time-division multiplexing,[1][2] and it encodes data into small, fixed-sized cells. This differs from approaches such as the Internet Protocol or Ethernet that use variable sized packets or frames. ATM provides data link layer services that run over a wide range of OSI physical Layer links. ATM has functional similarity with both circuit switched networking and small packet switched networking. It was designed for a network that must handle both traditional high-throughput data traffic (e.g., file transfers), and real-time, low-latency content such as voice and video. ATM uses a connection-oriented model in which a virtual circuit must be established between two endpoints before the actual data exchange begins.[2] ATM is a core protocol used over the SONET/SDH backbone of the public switched telephone network (PSTN) and Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN), but its use is declining in favour of All IP.
A wireless local area network (WLAN) links two or more devices using some wireless
distribution method (typically spread-spectrum or OFDM radio), and usually providing a connection through an access point to the wider internet. This gives users the mobility to move around within a local coverage area and still be connected to the network. Most modern WLANs are based on IEEE 802.11 standards, marketed under the Wi-Fi brand name. Wireless LANs have become popular in the home due to ease of installation, and in commercial complexes offering wireless access to their customers; often for free. Large wireless network projects are being put up in many major cities: New York City, for instance, has begun a pilot program to provide city workers in all five boroughs of the city with wireless Internet access.[
Bluetooth is a proprietary open wireless technology standard for exchanging data over short
distances (using short-wavelength radio transmissions in the ISM band from 2400-2480 MHz) from fixed and mobile devices, creating personal area networks (PANs) with high levels of security. Created by telecoms vendor Ericsson in 1994,[1] it was originally conceived as a wireless alternative to RS-232 data cables. It can connect several devices, overcoming problems of synchronization. Bluetooth is managed by the Bluetooth Special Interest Group, which has more than 15,000 member companies in the areas of telecommunication, computing, networking, and consumer electronics.[2] The SIG oversees the development of the specification, manages the qualification program, and protects the trademarks.[3] To be marketed as a Bluetooth device, it must be qualified to standards defined by the SIG. A network of patents is required to implement the
technology[citation needed] and are only licensed to those qualifying devices; thus the protocol, whilst open, may be regarded as proprietar
A cellular network is a radio network distributed over land areas called cells, each served by at least one fixed-location transceiver known as a cell site or base station. When joined together these cells provide radio coverage over a wide geographic area. This enables a large number of portable transceivers (e.g., mobile phones, pagers, etc.) to communicate with each other and with fixed transceivers and telephones anywhere in the network, via base stations, even if some of the transceivers are moving through more than one cell during transmission. Cellular networks offer a number of advantages over alternative solutions:
increased capacity reduced power use larger coverage area reduced interference from other signals
An example of a simple non-telephone cellular system is an old taxi driver's radio system where the taxi company has several transmitters based around a city that can communicate directly with each taxi.
Fixed Telephone Networks Carries the traffic over fixed media such as fiber optic cables, Co-axial cables and copper cables and also uses microwave links and satellite links.
Public switched telephone network ( PSTN ) are virtually static. When a user changes region (place) all the (wired) connectivity from CO (central office) to Subscriber premises is need to be changed. Wireless networks critical medium is Electro-magnetic energy (Radio ),these are highly dynamic i.e network configuration need to be changed every time a user changes coverage region, this is to be done in fraction of seconds. Network capacity can be increase in Fixed networks by simply increasing the copper cables or Optical cables,where as in wireless networks to increase the capacity it needs to be done extensive RF Optimization. Dynamic network configuration in wireless networks can be done by handoffs, roaming procedures.
Transfer of information in the public switched telephone network (PSTN) takes place over landline trunked lines (called trunks) comprised of fiber optic cables, copper cables, microwave links, and satellite links. The network configurations in the PSTN are virtually static, since the network connections may only be changed when a subscriber changes residence and requires reprogramming at the local central office (CO) of the subscriber. Wireless networks, on the other hand, are highly dynamic, with the network configuration being rearranged every time a subscriber moves into the coverage region of a different base station or a new market. While fixed networks are difficult to change, wireless networks must reconfigure themselves for users within small intervals of time (on the order of seconds) to provide roaming and imperceptible handoffs between calls as a mobile moves about. The available channel bandwidth for fixed networks can be increased by installing high capacity cables (fiberoptic or coaxial cable), whereas wireless networks are constrained by the meager RF cellular bandwidth provided for each user.
interface concept
An interface is a collection of method declarations. An interface is a class-like concept. An interface has no variable declarations or method bodies. Describes a set of methods that a class can be forced to implement. An interface can be used to define a set of constant. An interface can be used as a type concept. Variable and parameter can be of interface types. Interfaces can be used to implement multiple inheritance like hierarchies.
Switching Techniques
In large networks there might be multiple paths linking sender and receiver. Information may be switched as it travels through various communication channels. There are three typical switching techniques available for digital traffic.
Circuit Switching
Circuit switching is a technique that directly connects the sender and the receiver in an unbroken path. Telephone switching equipment, for example, establishes a path that connects the caller's telephone to the receiver's telephone by making a physical connection. With this type of switching technique, once a connection is established, a dedicated path exists between both ends until the connection is terminated. Routing decisions must be made when the circuit is first established, but there are no decisions made after that time.
Circuit switching
Advantages: The communication channel (once established) is dedicated.
Disadvantages: Possible long wait to establish a connection, (10 seconds, more on long- distance or international calls.) during which no data can be transmitted. More expensive than any other switching techniques, because a dedicated path is required for each connection. Inefficient use of the communication channel, because the channel is not used when the connected systems are not using it.
Message Switching
With message switching there is no need to establish a dedicated path between two stations. When a station sends a message, the destination address is appended to the message. The message is then transmitted through the network, in its entirety, from node to node. Each node receives the entire message, stores it in its entirety on disk, and then transmits the message to the next node. This type of network is called a store-and-forward network.
Message Switching
A message-switching node is typically a general-purpose computer. The device needs sufficient secondary-storage capacity to store the incoming messages, which could be long. A time delay is introduced using this type of scheme due to store- and-forward time, plus the time required to find the next node in the transmission path.
Message Switching
Advantages: Channel efficiency can be greater compared to circuitswitched systems, because more devices are sharing the channel. Traffic congestion can be reduced, because messages may be temporarily stored in route. Message priorities can be established due to store-and-forward technique. Message broadcasting can be achieved with the use of broadcast address appended in the message.
Message Switching
Disadvantages Message switching is not compatible with interactive applications. Store-and-forward devices are expensive, because they must have large disks to hold potentially long messages.
Packet Switching
Packet switching can be seen as a solution that tries to combine the advantages of message and circuit switching and to minimize the disadvantages of both. There are two methods of packet switching: Datagram and virtual circuit.
Multiplexing
In telecommunications and computer networks, multiplexing (also known as muxing) is a method by which multiple analog message signals or digital data streams are combined into one signal over a shared medium. The aim is to share an expensive resource. For example, in telecommunications, several telephone calls may be carried using one wire. Multiplexing originated in telegraphy, and is now widely applied in communications. The multiplexed signal is transmitted over a communication channel, which may be a physical transmission medium. The multiplexing divides the capacity of the high-level communication channel into several low-level logical channels, one for each message signal or data stream to be transferred. A reverse process, known as demultiplexing, can extract the original channels on the receiver side. A device that performs the multiplexing is called a multiplexer (MUX), and a device that performs the reverse process is called a demultiplexer (DEMUX). Inverse multiplexing (IMUX) has the opposite aim as multiplexing, namely to break one data stream into several streams, transfer them simultaneously over several communication channels, and recreate the original data stream.
Frequency-division multiplexing Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM): The spectrums of each input signal are swifted in several distinct frequency ranges. Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) is inherently an analog technology. FDM achieves the combining of several digital signals into one medium by sending signals in several distinct frequency ranges over that medium. One of FDM's most common applications is cable television. Only one cable reaches a customer's home but the service provider can send multiple television channels or signals simultaneously over that cable to all subscribers. Receivers must tune to the appropriate frequency (channel) to access the desired signal.[1] A variant technology, called wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is used in optical communications. Time-division multiplexing Main article: Time-division multiplexing
Time-division multiplexing (TDM). Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a digital (or in rare cases, analog) technology. TDM involves sequencing groups of a few bits or bytes from each individual input stream, one after the other, and in such a way that they can be associated with the appropriate
receiver. If done sufficiently and quickly, the receiving devices will not detect that some of the circuit time was used to serve another logical communication path. Consider an application requiring four terminals at an airport to reach a central computer. Each terminal communicated at 2400 bit/s, so rather than acquire four individual circuits to carry such a low-speed transmission, the airline has installed a pair of multiplexers. A pair of 9600 bit/s modems and one dedicated analog communications circuit from the airport ticket desk back to the airline data center are also installed.[1] [edit] Code-division multiplexing Main articles: Spread spectrum and Code division multiplexing Code division multiplexing (CDM) or spread spectrum is a class of techniques where several channels simultaneously share the same frequency spectrum, and this spectral bandwidth is much higher than the bit rate or symbol rate. One form is frequency hopping, another is direct sequence spread spectrum. In the latter case, each channel transmits its bits as a coded channel-specific sequence of pulses called chips. Number of chips per bit, or chips per symbol, is the spreading factor. This coded transmission typically is accomplished by transmitting a unique time-dependent series of short pulses, which are placed within chip times within the larger bit time. All channels, each with a different code, can be transmitted on the same fiber or radio channel or other medium, and asynchronously demultiplexed. Advantages over conventional techniques are that variable bandwidth is possible (just as in statistical multiplexing), that the wide bandwidth allows poor signal-to-noise ratio according to Shannon-Heartly theorem, and that multipath propagation in wireless communication can be combated by rake receivers. Code Division Multiplex techniques are used as an channel access scheme, namely Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA), e.g. for mobile phone service and in wireless networks, with the advantage of spreading intercell interference among many users. Confusingly, the generic term Code Division Multiple access sometimes refers to a specific CDMA based cellular system defined by Qualcomm. Another important application of CDMA is the Global Positioning System (GPS).
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