COTS Assignment NEW'

The Creation of Sky (Celestial Sphere)
By: Saeed-ur-Rahman (M.Phil Scholar) Roll No: 10
Submitted To: Honorable Sir, Maulana Hafiz Salih-ud-DinHaqqani (Lecturer in Islamic Studies)
Department of Islamic Studies
Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan
Table of Contents
Topic/Sub-Topic
Title Page Bismillah Table of Contents Introduction The Universe Etymology or Origin of the word Universe Definitions Synonyms Cosmology Origin Definition Cosmogenesis Cosmogony Origin Definition Astronomy The Sky Celestial Sphere Origin Meaning Definition Origin/History of the Universe (Sky) The Big Bang Theory (or Big Bang model) A Universe is born The Big Bang: A Day without Yesterday: What happened? A long time coming No beginning, no end: The Steady State Theory
Page #
01 02 03 04 04 04 04 04 04 04 04 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 06 06 06 06 06 06
Formation of the Solar System Conclusion References
07 07 08
The Creation of Sky (Celestial Sphere)

Introduction
In the name of Almighty Allah, the Most Beneficent and the Most Merciful, the Creator, Generator, Sustainer, Operator and Destroyer of the whole universe. The main objective of this assignment is to describe The Process of Creation of Sky (Celestial Sphere) in scientific background. Obviously, Sky is a part of the universe and its creation is just connected with the creation of the universe so we shall focus our discussion on introduction to the Universe, Cosmology, Cosmogenesis, Cosmogony, Astronomy, Sky, Origin, History or Creation of the Universe and related theories.
The Universe
Etymology or Origin of the word Universe: The Middle English word Universe is derived from the Old French word Univers, which in turn derives from the Latin word universum.[1] The Latin word was used by Cicero and later Latin authors in many of the same senses as the Modern English word is used.[2] The Latin word derives from the poetic contraction Unvorsum first used by Lucretius in Book IV (line 262) of his De rerum natura (On the Nature of Things) which connects un, uni (the combining form of unus', or "one") with vorsum, versum (a noun made from the perfect passive participle of vertere, meaning "something rotated, rolled, changed").[2] Lucretius used the word in the sense "everything rolled into one, everything combined into one. Definitions: The Universe is commonly defined as the totality of everything that exists,[3] including all physical matter and energy, the planets, stars, galaxies, and the contents of intergalactic space.[4][5] Universe refers to Everything! The earth, moon, sun, all the planets and all the galaxies even those we havent discovered yet.[6] All the matter, energy, and space that exists.[7] All existing matter and space considered as a whole; the cosmos. [8] Synonyms: Cosmos: The universe seen as a well-ordered whole.[6] Nature: The phenomena of the physical world collectively.[6] World (philosophy): The earth with all its countries and peoples.[6], And Celestial Spheres: This is an imaginary dome where the sun, stars, planets, and the moon are seen to be traveling. The celestial sphere is divided into regions called constellations. [12] Belonging or relating to heaven.[6]
Cosmology
Origin: The word Cosmology consists of two Greek words: Kosmos means order or world[6]and Logos means study. Definition: Cosmology is the study of the universe as a whole - its structure, origin, development and evolution. Various theories concerning the origin and evolution of the universe exist.[6] The science of the origin and development of the universe The subject cosmology addresses are profound, both scientifically and theologically.
Cosmogenesis
The origin or evolution of the universe is known as Cosmogenesis.[6]
Cosmogony
Origin: The word Cosmogony is derived from Greek kosmogonia, from kosmos 'order or world' + -gonia '-begetting'.[6] Definition: The branch of science concerned with the origin of the universe, especially the solar system.[6]
Astronomy
The branch of science which deals with celestial objects, space, and the physical universe as a whole.[6]
The Sky
Sky literary means heaven, or heavenly power. The region of the atmosphere and outer space seen from the earth.[6] The sky is the part of the atmosphere or of outer space visible from the surface of any astronomical object. It is difficult to define precisely for several reasons. During daylight, the sky of Earth has the appearance of a deep blue surface because of the air's scattering of sunlight.[9][10][11] The sky is sometimes defined as the denser gaseous zone of a planet's atmosphere. At night the sky has the appearance of a black surface or region scattered with stars. During the day the Sun can be seen in the sky, unless obscured by clouds. In the night sky (and to some extent during the day) the moon, planets and stars are visible in the sky. Some of the natural phenomena seen in the sky are clouds, rainbows, and auroras. Lightning and precipitation can also be seen in the sky during storms. On Earth, birds, insects, aircraft, and kites are often considered to fly in the sky. As a result of human activities, smog during the day and light radiance during the night are often seen above large cities.
Celestial Sphere
Origin Celestial is Middle English Word: via Old French from Medieval Latin caelestialis, from Latin caelestis, from Caelum 'heaven'.[6] Meaning: Positioned in or relating to the sky or outer space.[6] Definition: In the field of astronomy, the sky is also called the Celestial Sphere. The imaginary sphere of innate radius within which celestial bodies appear to lie. The earth, and the observer, is visualized as being at the center of the sphere and the sphere as rotating once every sidereal day. The sphere is used to describe the position of celestial bodies with respect to the earth.
[12]
Origin/History of the Universe (Sky)

According to the prevailing scientific model/ view of the origin of the Universe i.e. the Big Bang, the Universe expanded from an extremely hot and dense phase called the Planck epoch, in which all the matter and energy of the observable universe was concentrated. Since the Planck epoch, the Universe has been expanding to its present form, possibly with a brief period (less than 1032 seconds) of cosmic inflation. and continues to expand today. A common analogy explains that space itself is expanding, carrying galaxies with it, like raisins in a rising loaf of bread. Several independent experimental measurements support this theoretical expansion and, more generally, the Big Bang theory.[7]
The Big Bang Theory (or Big Bang model)

This theory is the prevailing cosmological theory of the early development of the universe. The theory postulates that the Big Bang event took place at some finite time in the past: according to the best available measurements as of 2009, around 13.7 billion years ago. According to the Big Bang model, the universe, originally in an extremely hot and dense state that expanded rapidly, has since cooled by expanding to the present diluted state, and continues to expand today. The theory is the most comprehensive and accurate explanation supported by scientific evidence and observations.[3][4] A Universe is born: Georges Lemaitre first proposed what was later termed the Big Bang in 1931. Scientists believe it was the beginning of everything, but dont know what caused it to happen. Most scientists now believe that the Universe was born from a hot, dense spot more than 13 billion years ago. They call this event the Big Bang. As the Universe expands and cools, at 300,000 years, matter, as we know it starts to form. The Universe is a thousandth of its size today.[13] The Big Bang: A Day without Yesterday: What happened? Space and time were brought to life from a minute speck, which was unbelievably hot and heavy. The energy contained in this speck immediately began to spread out, in the form of an ever-expanding fireball.[13] A long time coming: Matter only began to form hundreds of thousands of years after the Big Bang long after the
fireball had cooled. The resulting gases would form the stars, planets, and galaxies that exist today.[13] No beginning, no end: The Steady State Theory: An alternative to the Big Bang, the Steady State Theory claimed there was no beginning or end for the Universe. Its just always been there. Few scientists now believe in the Steady State Theory.[13]
Formation of the Solar System

The formation and evolution of the Solar System is estimated to have begun 4.55 to 4.56 billion years ago with the gravitational collapse of a small part of a giant molecular cloud. Most of the collapsing mass collected in the center, forming the Sun, while the rest flattened into a protoplanetary disk out of which the planets, moons, asteroids, and other small Solar System bodies formed. This widely accepted model, known as the nebular hypothesis, was first developed in the 18th century by Emanuel Swedenborg, Immanuel Kant, and Pierre-Simon Laplace. Its subsequent development has interwoven a variety of scientific disciplines including astronomy, physics, geology, and planetary science. Since the dawn of the space age in the 1950s and the discovery of extra solar planets in the 1990s, the models have been both challenged and refined to account for new observations. The Solar System has evolved considerably since its initial formation. Many moons have formed from circling discs of gas and dust around their parent planets, while other moons are believed to have formed independently and later been captured by their planets. Still others, as the Earth's Moon, may be the result of giant collisions. Collisions between bodies have occurred continually up to the present day and have been central to the evolution of the solar system. The positions of the planets often shifted, and planets have switched places.[14] This planetary migration now is believed to have been responsible for much of the Solar System's early evolution.
Conclusion
The process of creation of the universe i.e. cosmogenesis involves the formation of Celestial Sphere (the sky) that include the Solar System i.e. Moons, Planets, Stars and other Heavenly Bodies. All these are explained in the Big Bang Theory and Nebula Hypothesis which are been thoroughly discussed over here.
References
1. The Compact Edition of the Oxford English Dictionary, volume II, Oxford University Press, New York, United States (1971). 2. Lewis and Short, A Latin Dictionary, Oxford University Press, New York, United States (1978). 3. Webster's New World College Dictionary. Wiley Publishing, Inc. (2010). http://www.yourdictionary.com/universe 4. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (4th ed.). Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company (2010). http://www.yourdictionary.com/universe 5. Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary. http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/british/universe 6. A Dictionary of Science, (Fifth edition), Section: V and U, Oxford University Press Inc., New York, United States (2005) 7. www.en.wikipedia.org/universe 8. Concise Oxford English Dictionary, (11th Edition), Oxford University Press, New York, United States (Interactive CD) 9. Tyndall, John "On the Blue Colour of the Sky, the Polarization of Skylight, and on the Polarization of Light by Cloudy Matter Generally", Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. 10. Rayleigh, Lord "On the scattering of light by small particles", Philosophical Magazine, London (1871). 11. Watson, JG (June 2002). "Visibility: Science and Regulation", J. Air and Waste Manage. Assoc (2007).http://scholar.google.com/scholar? hl=en&lr=&q=cache:aulPiqN6uTUJ:www.awma.org/journal/pdfs/2002/6/Crit_Revie w.pdf+. 12. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sky 13. Penny Smith, Lorrie Mack, Caroline Stamps and Lee Wilson, DK F.C Encyclopedia, Dorling Kindersley Limited, 80 Strand, London, Great Britain (2010).
14. R. Gomes, H. F. Levison, K. Tsiganis, A. Morbidelli (2005). "Origin of the cataclysmic Late Heavy Bombardment period of the terrestrial planets" (PDF). http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v435/n7041/pdf/nature03676.pdf.

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The Creation of Sky (Celestial Sphere)

By: Saeed-ur-Rahman (M.Phil Scholar) Roll No: 10

Department of Islamic Studies

Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan

Formation of the Solar System Conclusion References

The Creation of Sky (Celestial Sphere)

Origin/History of the Universe (Sky)

The Big Bang Theory (or Big Bang model)

Formation of the Solar System

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