Nanotechnology

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GGBD159FM GR3880/Mongillo Top Margin: 5/8in Gutter Margin: 3/4in September 25, 2007 16:1
Nanotechnology 101
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Recent Titles in the

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Nanotechnology 101
John Mongillo
Science 101
GREENWOOD PRESS
Westport, Connecticut r London
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Mongillo, John F.
Nanotechnology 101 / John Mongillo.
p. cm. – (Science 101, ISSN 1931-3950)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN–13: 978–0–313–33880–9 (alk. paper)
1. Nanotechnology–Popular works. I. Title.
T174.7.M66 2007
620 .5–dc22 2007029805
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data is available.

Copyright
C 2007 by John Mongillo
All rights reserved. No portion of this book may be

reproduced, by any process or technique, without the
express written consent of the publisher.
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 2007029805
ISBN-13: 978–0–313–33880–9
ISSN: 1931-3950
First published in 2007
Greenwood Press, 88 Post Road West, Westport, CT 06881
An imprint of Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc.
www.greenwood.com
Printed in the United States of America
The paper used in this book complies with the

Permanent Paper Standard issued by the National
Information Standards Organization (Z39.48–1984).
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
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Contents
Series Foreword xv
Preface xvii
Acknowledgments xxi
1. What Is Nanotechnology? 1
Introduction 1
What Is Nanotechnology? 1
Living with Nanoparticles 3
Nano, Nano, Nano 3
Nanotechnology, a Future Trillion Dollar Business 3
Nanotechnology Will Develop in Stages 4
Nanotechnology Products and Applications 4
Sporting Goods 4
Car Paint and Car Waxes 6
Antibacterial Cleansers 6
Medical Bandages 6
Apparel Industry 6
Sunscreens and Cosmetics 7
Organic Light-Emitting Displays or OLEDs 7
Future Applications of Nanotechnology 7
Environment 7
Solar Energy 7
Fuel Cells 8
Food and Agriculture 8
Automobiles and Aeronautics 8
Medical Applications 9
Lab-on-a-Chip 9
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vi Contents
The U.S. Government Invests in Nanotechnology Research 10

Other Countries Are Also Investing in Nanotechnology
Research 10
What Do Americans Think of Nanotechnology? 10
Will Nanotechnology Be Used to Help People in
Developing Countries? 11
The Nanotechnology Job Market 13
The Need for Workers 13
Universities Offer Nanotechnology Youth Programs 13
The Fields of Study That Influence Nanotechnology 16
Feature: Mechanical Engineering 17
Major Nanotechnology Career Areas 17
What Are the Risks of Nanotechnology? 19
NANOSAFE2 20
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
(NIOSH) 20
Nanotechnology Environmental and Health
Implications (NEHI) 20
National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI) 20
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) 21
Center for Biological and Environmental
Nanotechnology (CBEN) 21
The Center for Responsible Nanotechnology 21
Nano Interview: Professor Martin L. Culpepper, Ph.D.,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology 21
Nano Activity: Cutting It Down to Nano 26
2. The Science of Nanotechnology 29
What Is Matter? 29
Forms of Matter 29
Properties of Matter 30
Properties of Matter Change at the Nanoscale 31
Volume to Surface Area 33
Matter’s Smallest Particles: Matter Is Made Up of
Elements 33
The Periodic Table of Elements 33
Semiconductors 35
Smallest Part of An Element: The Atom 35
Inside the Atom: Subatomic Particles 36
Neutrons and Protons 36
Electrons 36
Isotopes 37
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Contents vii
Models of the Atoms 37

Early Atomic Theory by Empedocles and Democritus 38
Atomic Number and Atomic Mass 39
Atoms and Molecules 39
Molecules and Chemical Bonding 40
Ionic Bonding 40
Covalent Bonds and Monomers 40
A Monomer 41
From Monomers to Polymers 41
Polymers and Nanotechnology 42
Polymer-Based Nanosponges 42
Polymer Solar Cells 43
A Unique Class of Synthetic Polymers, Dendrimers 43
Dendrimers and Drug Delivery 43
Molecular Self-Assembly and Nanofabrication 44
Soap Bubbles Self-Assemble 45
Using the Self-Assembly Strategy to Make Products 45
Other Applications of Molecular Self-Assembly 46
Self-Assembly in Medicine 46
NanoSonic, Inc. 47
Nano Interview: Dr. Richard Claus, President of Nanosonic 48
Nano Activity: Nanotechnology Demonstration Kit from
Nanosonic 50
3. The Nanotechnology Tool Box 55
Optical Microscopes 55
Scanning Probe Microscopes 56
Surface Area to Volume at the Nanoscale 56
Scanning Tunneling Microscopes (STM) 57
How Does the STM Work? 57
Atomic Force Microscopes (AFM) 57
How Does the AFM Work? 58
The Advantages of AFM 60
AFM Tips 61
Magnetic Force Microscopes 61
Interview: Nathan Unterman 61
Electron Microscopes 63
A Scanning Electron Microscope 63
Ernst Abbe 63
The Transmission Electron Microscope 64
How Does the TEM Work? 64
Scanning Electron Microscope 65
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viii Contents
Hitachi Tabletop Microscope 66

Nanofabrication Cleanroom Facilities 66
Scanning Electron Microscopes and Photolithography 67
Nano-Imprint Lithography 68
Dip Pen Nanolithography 68
Thermal Dip Pen Nanolithography 69
NASA Virtual Lab 69
Nanomanipulators 70
Nanofabrication 70
Nano Interview: Associate Professor Dean Campbell,
Ph.D., Bradley University 71
Nano Activity: Modeling a Scanning Probe
Microscope 74
4. Carbon Nanotubes, Nanowires, and Nanocrystals 79
The Element Carbon 79
Products Made from Carbon 80
Some Uses of Carbon 80
Different Forms of Carbon 81
Diamond 82
Fullerenes and Nanotechnology 82
Buckyballs 83
Applications of Buckyballs 83
Carbon Nanotubes 83
Two Types of Nanotubes 85
How are Carbon Nanotubes Made? 86
Laser Ablation 86
Electric Arc Discharge 86
Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) 86
Applications of Carbon Nanotubes 86
Flat Panel Display Screens 88
Nanoscale Electronics and Carbon Nanotubes 88
AFM Probe Tips 90
Hydrogen Fuel Cells and Nanotubes 90
Actuators/Artificial Muscles 90
Nanotechnology in Chemical Sensors 91
Carbon Nanotubes and NASA 92
NASA Space Elevator 92
Not All Nanotubes are Carbon 92
Nanowires, Nanocrystals, and Quantum Dots 93
Nanowires 93
Production of Nanowires 93
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Contents ix
Nanocrystals 93
Quantum Dots 94
Quantum Dots and Cancer 95
Quantum Dots for Solar Cells 95
Nanoshells 96
Nano Interview: Professor Timothy Sands, Ph.D., Purdue
University 96
Nano Activity: Building Buckyballs, a NASA Explores Activity 100
5. Nanotechnology in Medicine and Health 103
Cardiovascular Diseases 103
What Causes Cardiovascular Diseases? 104
Nanoparticles Break Down Blood Clots 105
Heart Stents and Nanotechnology 105
Cancer Detection and Diagnosis 106
Cancer 106
Cancer and Nanoshells 107
Cancer and Gold Nanoparticles 107
Breast Cancer and Nanoparticles 108
Nano Interview Dr. Edith Perez 109
Cancer and Dendrimers 111
Cancer and Cantilevers 112
Cancer and Quantum Dots 112
Cervical Cancer and Quantum Dots 112
The Targeted Nano-TherapeuticsTM (TNTTM ) System 113
Diabetes and Nanotechnology 113
Nanorobots and Diabetes 114
Biosensors for Diabetes 114
Diabetes Research Continues 114
Tattoos for Diabetes 115
Implants and Prosthetics 115
Nanotechnology and Burn Victims 116
Diagnosis and Therapy 116
Molecular Imaging Diagnosis 117
Lab-on-a-Chip Diagnosis 117
Drug Delivery Using Nanoparticles 117
Advanced Drug Delivery Systems and Lab-on-a-Chip 118
Nanotechnology Fights Infections 119
Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology Research 119
Nano Interview: Matt Boyas and Sarah Perrone 120
6. The Business of Nanotechnology 125
Nanotechnologies in Businesses 125
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x Contents
Sporting Goods Equipment 125

Baseball Bats 126
Tennis Rackets 126
Nano Golf Balls 126
Skis and Nanofibers 126
Chewing Gum and Nanocrystals 127
Apparel Industry 128
Nanotechnology in Cleaner Clothes 128
Nanotechnology Socks 128
Cosmetics 129
Sunscreens and Skin Cancer 129
Appliances 130
Nano Silver Seal Refrigerator 130
Flat-Plane Display Screens 131
The Business of Air Purifiers 131
Electronics and Computers 131
Automobile/Vehicle Industry 132
Auto Catalytic Converters 132
Automobile Paint and Waxes 133
Aircraft Potential and Metal Rubber 134
Paint and Other Water Resistance Coatings 134
Paints and Anti-Graffiti Coating 134
Removing Windshield Fog 135
Self-Cleaning Glass 135
Antibacterial Cleansers 135
Medical Bandages 135
Solar Energy: Photovoltaic Cells 136
Battery Technology 137
Virus-Assembled Batteries 137
Long-Lasting Batteries 137
The Business of Building Atomic Force Microscopes 138
Nano Interview: Dr. Alyssa Wise and Dr. Patricia Schank
(NanoSense Team) and Dr. Brent Macqueen
(Nanoscientist) 139
Nano Activity: Sunscreens and Sunlight Animations,
Adapted from SRI International’s Nanosense Unit 142
7. Nanotechnology for Food, Agriculture, Livestock,
Aquaculture, and Forestry 147
United States Department of Agriculture 147
Food Packaging: A Major Goal Using Nanotechnology
Methods 148
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Contents xi
Nano Plastic Packaging 148

New Kinds of Bottles 149
Foodborne Diseases 149
Listeria Monocytogenes in Food 149
Salmonella Ilnesses from Food 149
Nanosensors for Foodborne Contamination 151
Using Food Packaging Sensors in Defense and Security
Applications 152
Other Kinds of Sensors: The Electronic Nose and The
Electronic Tongue 152
The Electronic Nose (e-nose) Technology 152
The Electronic Tongue Technology 153
Nano Bar Codes Detect Foodborne Diseases 153
Agriculture and Nanotechnology 154
Biosensor Detects Herbicides on the Farm 154
Nanoscale Herbicides 155
A Food Safety Issue 155
Atomic Force Microscopy and Food Research 156
Sustainable Watering of Crops 156
Livestock Diseases 157
Biochips for Disease Detection in Livestock 157
Biochips for Animal Breeding 158
Nanosensors to Track Livestock 158
Nanotechnology in Aquaculture and Fish Farming 158
Environmental Concern of Aquaculture 159
Cleaning Fish Ponds with Nanotechnology Devices 159
DNA Nanovaccines Using Nanocapsules and Ultrasound
Methods 159
Forest Product Industry and Nanotechnology 159
Ensuring Nanotechnologies in Food Production to Be Safe 160
Nano Interview: Professor Makarand (MAK) Paranjape,
Ph.D., Georgetown University 160
Nano Activity: Food Packaging 166
8. Nanotechnology for a Sustainable Environment 169
Water Pollution and Nanotechnology 169
Nanotechnology and Safer Drinking Water 170
Cleaning Up Arsenic 170
The Element Arsenic 170
Nanotechnology and Water Filters 171
Drinking Water from the Ocean 172
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xii Contents
Reverse Osmosis 172

A New Kind of Reverse Osmosis 172
Water Pollution: Using the Atomic Force Microscope to
Study Water Pollution 173
Groundwater Pollutants 173
Groundwater Cleanup 173
Iron Nanoparticles May Be Effective in Cleaning Up
Waste Sites 174
Cleaning Up Organic Pollutants Using Nanotechnology 175
TCE Cleanup with Gold Nanoparticles 175
Cleaning Up Nuclear Waste Sites 176
Air Pollution 176
Titanium Dioxide and Clean Air 177
What Is Titanium Dioxide? 177
Environmental Protection Agency and Department of
Energy 178
Environmental Protection Agency 178
Department of Energy 179
Nanotechnology and Energy Sources 179
Solar Photovoltaic Cell (PV) 179
Quantum Dots for Solar Cells 180
Hydrogen Fuel Cells 181
Fuel Cells and the Automobile Industry 181
The Problem with Fuel Cells 182
Emerging Nanotechnologies and Risks 183
Nano Interview: Professor Paul G. Tratnyek, Ph.D., Oregon
Health & Science University’s OGI School of Science
& Engineering 183
Nano Activity: Discovering the Properties of Ferrofluids
(Teacher Supervision Advised) 190
Materials You Need 190
Where to Buy Ferrofluids 190
9. Nanotechnology Projects and the United States
Government 193
National Nanotechnology Institute 193
The National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI) and
Federal Agencies 195
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) 195
Lab-on-a-Chip 195
Spacecraft 196
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Contents xiii
A Self-Repair Spacecraft 197

Spacecraft Recycling 197
Improvements in NASA Spacesuits 197
NASA Space Elevator 197
Carbon Nanotubes and the Space Elevator. 197
National Science Foundation 198
National Science Foundation Classroom Resources 199
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) 199
The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) 200
Department of Defense (DOD) 200
Department of Homeland Security 201
Underwater Sensor Networks 202
The Mapleseed: A Nano Air Vehicle for Surveillance 202
Safety in Nanotechnology: The National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) 202
Nano Interview: Laura Blasi, Ph.D., and NASA’s Virtual
Lab 203
Nano Activity: NASA Virtual Lab. Try It! 207
Animation of Atomic Force Microscopy Basics 208
10. Colleges and Schools and Nanotechnology 211
An Interview with Dr. Nancy Healy, Education Coordinator
of the National Nanotechnology Infrastructure
Network (NNIN) 212
National Science Teachers Association and ExploraVision 218
ExploraVision Project 219
ExploraVision Project: Appy-Bot, Norma L. Gentner 219
Other Toshiba/NSTA ExploraVision Winners 222
La Jolla, California 222
St. Louis, Missouri 222
Colleges Motivate Students in Nanotechnology 222
NanoDay at Northwestern 223
Northwestern University and Materials World Modules 223
Penn State Nanotech Camps 223
Rice University: The NanoKidsTM 224
University of California, Santa Barbara: Chip Camp 224
College of Nanoscale Science and Engineering (CNSE),
University of Albany 225
Cornell University 225
The University of Wisconsin-Madison 226
Arizona State University 226
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xiv Contents
North Carolina State University and the University of

North Carolina, Chapel Hill 226
SRI International: NanoSense 226
Nanotechnology in Museums and Traveling Exhibits 227
Making Things Smaller 227
It’s a Nano World and Too Small to See Exhibits 227
Lawrence Hall of Science 229
High School Programs in Nanotechnology 229
Nanotechnology Information and Sites for Teachers 230
Nano Interview: Ms. Renee DeWald, Toshiba/NSTA
ExploraVision, Fighting Cancer with Nano-Shells 230
Nano Activity: Nanotechnology Consumer Products 232
Appendix A: Bibliography 235

Appendix B: Companies in Nanotechnology Research and Development 238
Appendix C: Nanotechnology Web Sites 246
Appendix D: Nanotechnology Videos and Audios 250
Appendix E: Some Important Events in Nanotechnology History 257
Appendix F: National Science Education Standards, Content
Standards 259
Appendix G: Colleges and Museums 261
Glossary 265
Index 271
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Series Foreword
What should you know about science? Because science is so central to

life in the twenty-first century, science educators believe that it is essen-
tial that everyone understand the basic foundations of the most vital and
far-reaching scientific disciplines. Science 101 helps you reach that goal—
this series provides readers of all abilities with an accessible summary
of the ideas, people, and impacts of major fields of scientific research.
The volumes in the series provide readers—whether students new to the
science or just interested members of the lay public—with the essentials
of a science using a minimum of jargon and mathematics. In each vol-
ume, more complicated ideas build upon simpler ones, and concepts
are discussed in short, concise segments that make them more easily un-
derstood. In addition, each volume provides an easy-to-use glossary and
annotated references and resources of the most useful and accessible
print and electronic resources that are currently available.
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Preface
OVERVIEW
Nanotechnology: A 21st-Century Technology
Nanotechnology is the ability to observe, measure, manipulate, and
manufacture things at the nanometer scale, the size of atoms and
molecules.
The National Science Foundation predicts that the global market-

place for goods and services using nanotechnologies will be worth a
trillion dollars by 2015. In the same year, career opportunities in this
fast-paced technology will require 2–5 million semiskilled and skilled
employees worldwide. Nanotechnology has the potential to affect ev-
erything from the clothes we wear, to the energy we use, to the way we
detect and treat cancer and other diseases.
Nanotechnology 101 is a reference book and an excellent research tool
for developing a working knowledge of basic nanotechnology concepts
and topics. Besides the potential benefits of nanotechnology, the legal,
ethical, and social issues are also addressed.
In recent years, there have been several nanotechnology surveys that
have found that a majority of the adults know little or nothing about
nanotechnology. Therefore, in an effort to make the book more ac-
cessible and appealing to a broad range of readers, Nanotechnology 101
incorporates many features and enhancements that include:
r Current Nanotech Topics. This book provides all of the basic concepts
and topics of nanotechnology. In its comprehensive, easy-to-read format,
Nanotechnology 101 covers nanotechnology’s influence in medicine, engi-
neering, economics, electronics, communications, energy, environment,
transportation, space travel, and homeland security.
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xviii Preface
r Bibliography. An excellent listing of reading materials at the end of each

chapter and in the appendix is provided.
r Interviews. This book also features more than 15 interviews with people
who work and study in the nanotechnology field. The interviews include
a nanotechnology business owner, an electrical engineer, a physics pro-
fessor, an environmentalist, a chemistry teacher, and two high school
students who were winners of an NSTA nanotechnology project.
r Companies and Products. General information and Web sites for more
than 100 companies who are involved in cutting-edge nanotechnology
research and nanofabrication have been presented to the reader. Some of
these companies include IBM, Intel, Samsung, Eastman Kodak, Dupont,
and Hitachi High Technologies.
r Career Information. It encourages young people to explore the possibil-
ities of a career in the nanotechnology field by providing resources they
can contact to learn more about career opportunities in the field. As an
example, Penn State provides a free CD, Careers in Nanofabrication.
r Video Sources. To enhance the text, Nanotechnology 101 provides more
than 80 nanotechnology video Web sites. As an example, Is Nanotechnology
Going to be the Next Industrial Revolution? Conversations in Science, Madison
Metropolitan School District, UW-Madison Interdisciplinary Education
Group. If you would like to view the video go to: http://mrsec.wisc.edu/
Edetc/cineplex/MMSD/nano5.html
r Hands-on Activities and Suggested Projects. There are suggestions and
opportunities for students and teachers to explore nano activities. As an
example, students can make a nanometer ruler, construct a Buckyball
model, and build a LEGO R
model of an atomic force microscope. Want
to know how a scanning electron microscope works? Students can access
NASA’s electron microscope virtual lab Web site.
r Government and Nongovernment Resources. All of the major govern-
ment agencies that are conducting nanotechnology research and funding
are included. Familiar names include Department of Energy, Environ-
mental Protection Agency, and NASA. Many nongovernment groups are
listed as well. This list includes such organizations as, Foresight Institute,
Nanotech Institute, Nano Science and Technology Institute, NanoBusi-
ness Alliance, Institute of Technology, and Nanotech.
r Nanotechnology Timeline of Events. The timeline provides an opportu-
nity to trace some of the important events of the history of nanotechnol-
ogy.
r University and College Resources. Nanotechnology 101 includes nanotech
resource links and Web sites from more than 20 colleges and universities
that provide nanotechnology educational and outreach programs devoted
to middle school or high school students. By contacting these college sites,
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Preface xix
students and teachers can access interactive activities, lesson plans, online
exhibits, experiments, games, and video broadcasts.
r National Science Education Standards. The content in the book provides
a close alignment with the National Science Education Standards. Nanotech-
nology is not a traditional discipline, but rather a combination of dis-
ciplines involving physics, chemistry, biology, mathematics, engineering,
and technology. Nanotechnology 101 provides information in the appendix
that links nanotechnology concepts with those science education stan-
dards in each of the major science fields.
RICHARD E. SMALLEY (1943–2005)

To many people, Richard Smalley was the foremost leader in nan-
otechnology. He has often been noted as the “Father of Nanotechnol-
ogy.”
Richard Smalley was a Rice University professor who won a Nobel
Prize in chemistry in 1996. He is well known for his work with carbon
nanotubes (known as the “Buckyballs”).
In the spring of 1999, Professor Smalley addressed the Senate Subcom-
mittee on Science, Technology, and Space. Testifying at the meetings,
he had called for congressional support of a National Nanotechnology
Initiative (NNI) that could double U.S. Federal funding for nanoscale
research and development efforts over the next 3 years, to about $460
million.
In 1999, while Professor Richard Smalley was testifying before the
Congress, he had also been fighting leukemia for over a year. At one
meeting, he had the opportunity to speak about the medical applications
of nanotechnology. Here is an excerpt of what he had to say.
I sit before you today with very little hair on my head. It fell out a few weeks
ago as a result of the chemotherapy I’ve been undergoing to treat a type of
non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma. While I am very optimistic, this chemotherapy is a
very blunt tool. It consists of small molecules, which are toxic—they kill cells
in my body. Although they are meant to kill only the cancer cells, they kill hair
cells too, and cause all sorts of other havoc.
Now, I’m not complaining. Twenty years ago, without even this crude
chemotherapy, I would already be dead. But 20 years from now, I am confident
we will no longer have to use this blunt tool. By then, nanotechnology will
have given us specially engineered drugs, which are nanoscale cancer-seeking
missiles, a molecular technology that specifically targets just the mutant can-
cer cells in the human body and leaves everything else blissfully alone. . . .
I may not live to see it. But, with your help, I am confident it will happen.
Cancer—at least the type that I have—will be a thing of the past.
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xx Preface
Richard Smalley died of non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma on October 2005.

In 1999, the Rice University Center for Nanoscale Science and Tech-
nology (CNST) was renamed the Richard E. Smalley Institute for
Nanoscale Science and Technology in his honor.
Note: Non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma (NHL) is the nation’s sixth leading cause of cancer
death. The American Cancer Society predicted that there would be about 6,300 new
cases of NHL in this country in 2007. About 18,000 people die of this disease each
year.
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Acknowledgments
The author wishes to acknowledge and express the contribution of gov-

ernment and nongovernment organizations and companies. A special
thanks to the following people who provided resources, photos, and in-
formation: Dr. Laura Blasi at Saint Leo University, Florida; Mr. Paul Oc-
tavio Boubion, 8th grade physical science teacher at the Carl H. Lorbeer
Middle School in California; high school students, Matt Boyas and Sarah
Perrone who attend the Upper St. Clair School District in Pennsylva-
nia; Associate Professor Dean Campbell, Ph.D. at Bradley University
in Peoria, Illinois; Dr. Richard Claus, president of NanoSonic Inc. lo-
cated in Virginia; Dr. Martin L. Culpepper at Massachusetts Institute of
Technology in Massachusetts; Renee DeWald, chemistry teacher at the
Evanston Township High School in Illinois; Norma L. Gentner, Enrich-
ment Teacher at Heritage Heights Elementary in Amherst, New York;
Dr. Nancy Healy, Education Coordinator of the National Nanotechnol-
ogy Infrastructure Network (NNIN) in Georgia; Catherine Marcotte,
science teacher, ForwardVIEW Academy in Rhode Island; Patricia Palaz-
zolo, Gifted Education Coordinator, for the Upper St. Clair School Dis-
trict in Pennsylvania; Dr.Makarand Paranjape at Georgetown University
Washington, DC; Edith A., Perez, Medical Doctor and a Professor of
Medicine at the Mayo Medical School in Florida; Professor Timothy
D. Sands,Ph.D. at Purdue University; Professor Paul G. Tratnyek, Ph.D.
at Oregon Health & Science University’s OGI School of Science &
Engineering; Nathan A. Unterman, physics teacher at the Glenbrook
North High School in Illinois; Dr. Alyssa Wise and Dr. Patricia Schank
(NanoSense team) and Dr. Brent MacQueen at SRI International in
California.
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xxii Acknowledgments
Many thanks to Amy Mongillo and Dan Lanier who provided spe-
cial assistance in reviewing topics and offering suggestions. In ad-
dition, Cynthia Sequin of Purdue Public Relations, Catherine Mc-
Carthy, Grants Project Director of Sciencenter, Cornell University, IBM,
Konarka Technologies, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, and Hitachi
High-Technologies ( Japan) who provided technical assistance in ac-
quiring photos for the book.
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GGBD159C01 GR3880/Mongillo Top Margin: 5/8in Gutter Margin: 3/4in September 25, 2007 16:2
What Is
Nanotechnology?
INTRODUCTION
A patron at a local restaurant spills coffee on his trousers. The liquid
beads up and rolls off without leaving a spot on his clothing.
The U.S. Golf Association suggests that golfers can now use new golf
balls that fly straighter, with less wobble, than normal golf balls.
A woman is using a new variety of canola oil in preparing her meals.
The oil contains tiny particles that block cholesterol from entering her
bloodstream.
Walking down a street in London, England, a pedestrian suddenly
smells that the air is cleaner. The sidewalk is treated with a special
product that breaks down harmful pollutants in the air.
The air purifying pavement, the new golf balls, the nonstain pants, are
just some of the examples of products produced by nanotechnology, a
key technology for the 21st century. Nanotechnology offers cutting-edge
applications that will revolutionize the way we detect and treat disease,
monitor and protect the environment, produce and store energy, im-
prove crop production and food quality, and build complex structures
as small as an electronic circuit or as large as an airplane.
WHAT IS NANOTECHNOLOGY?
Nanotechnology is the ability to observe, measure, manipulate, and
manufacture things at the nanometer scale. A nanometer (nm) is an
SI (Système International d’Unités) unit of length 10−9 or a distance of
one-billionth of a meter. That’s very small. At this scale, you are talking
about the size of atoms and molecules.
To create a visual image of a nanometer, observe the nail on your
little finger. The width of your nail on this finger is about 10 million
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2 Nanotechnology 101
Table 1.1 Some Common Objects in Nanometers
How Many Nanometers? Approximately
The Width of an Atom 1 nanometer (nm)

The Width Across a DNA Molecule 2 nanometers
The Width of a Wire in a Computer 100 nanometers
The Wavelength of Ultraviolet Light 300 nanometers
The Width of a Dust Particle 800 nanometers
The Length of Some Bacteria 1,000 nanometers
The Width of a Red Blood Cell 10,000 nanometers
The Width of a Hair 75,000 to 100,000 nanometers
The Width Across a Head of a Pin 1,000,000 nanometers
The Width Across the Nail of a Little 10,000,000 nanometers
Finger
nanometers across. To get a sense of some other nano-scaled objects, a

strand of human hair is approximately 75,000 to 100,000 nanometers
in diameter. A head of a pin is about a million nanometers wide and it
would take about 10 hydrogen atoms end-to-end to span the length of
one nanometer.
The word “nanotechnology” was first introduced in the late 1970s.
While many definitions for nanotechnology exist, most groups use the
National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI) definition. The NNI calls
something “nanotechnology” only if it involves all of the following:
r Research and technology development at the atomic, molecular, or macro-

molecular levels, in the length scale of approximately 1 to 100-nanometer
range.
r Creating and using structures, devices, and systems that have novel
properties and functions because of their small and/or intermediate
size.
r Ability to control or manipulate on the atomic scale.
See Chapter 8 for more information about the National Nanotechnology

Initiative.
Please note that nanotechnology is not merely the study of small
things. Nanotechnology is the research and development of materi-
als, devices, and systems that exhibit physical, chemical, and biological
properties. These properties can be different from those found at larger
scales—those that are more than 100 nanometers.
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Living with Nanoparticles

You live with nanoparticles every day. In a normal room, there are
about 15,000 nanoparticles per cubic centimeter in the air. If you
are taking a walk in the forest, you will be in an environment where
there will be about 50,000 nanoparticles per cubic centimeter. In a
large city, there can be about 100,000 nanoparticles per cubic centi-
meter (cm3 ).
NANO, NANO, NANO

In this chapter as well as in the others, we will be using terms,
such as nanostructures, nanodevices, nanoparticles, nanoscale, nano-
medicine, nanowires, nanotubes, nanoengineering, and so forth.
The prefix, “nano,” is used
to indicate a tool, an enter-
prise, a particle, a pheno-
If you have time, you may want to watch
the video, What is Nanotechnology? Pro-
menon, a project, or a man- fessor Wendy Crone narrates the video.
ufactured item operating on http://www.sciencedaily.com/videos/2006-
or concerned with a scale at 06-11/
one billionth of a meter.
NANOTECHNOLOGY, A FUTURE TRILLION

DOLLAR BUSINESS
Making products at the nanometer scale is and will become a big
economy for many countries. By 2015, nanotechnology could be a
$1 trillion industry. Mean-
while, according to the Na- Did you know?
tional Nanotechnology Ini- Nano is derived from the Greek word meaning
tiative (NNI), scientists will “dwarf.”
create new ways of making
structural materials that will Did you know?
be used to build products Even though you cannot see nanometer-sized par-
and devices atom-by-atom ticles, you can smell some of them. As an example,
and molecule-by-molecule. the particles (molecules) in the air that float from a
These nanotechnology ma- cake baking in an oven are less than a nanometer in
terials are expected to bring size. They are suspended in the air because gravity
does not have much of an effect on them, owing to
about lighter, stronger,
their small size and mass. As the particles disperse
smarter, cheaper, cleaner,
around the room, they reach our noses and we can
and more durable products. smell them less than a nanometer away.
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NANOTECHNOLOGY WILL DEVELOP IN STAGES

Dr. Mihail Roco is a senior advisor on nanotechnology to the National
Science Foundation (NSF) and coordinator of the NNI. Dr. Roco be-
lieves that nanotechnology will have several phases of development. He
states that we are now in the second phase. The first one consisted of us-
ing nanostructures, simple nanoparticles, designed to perform one task.
The second phase started in 2005. In the second phase, researchers have
discovered ways to precisely construct nanoscale building blocks. The
blocks can be assembled into flat or curved structures such as bundles,
sheets, and tubes. These structures hold promise for new and power-
ful drug delivery systems, electronic circuits, catalysts, and light energy
sources.
By 2010, Dr. Roco says, the third phase will arrive, featuring nanosys-
tems with thousands of interacting components. A few years after that,
the first “molecular” nanodevices will appear. These devices will be com-
posed of systems within systems operating much like a human cell works.
One of the main reasons why there is a lot more activity in producing
nanotechnology products today than before is because there are now
many new kinds of tools. These new tools consisting of special scan-
ning electron microscopes and atomic force microscopes can measure,
see, and manipulate nanometer-sized particles. See Chapter 3 for more
information about nanotechnology tools.
NANOTECHNOLOGY PRODUCTS AND APPLICATIONS

What kinds of nanoproducts are available now?
More than $32 billion in products containing nanomaterials were
sold globally in 2005. As was stated earlier, the global marketplace for
goods and services using nanotechnologies will grow to $1 trillion by
2015. However, other financial experts predict that the marketplace for
nanoproducts will reach $2.6 trillion in manufactured goods by 2014.
Presently, there are more than 200 companies that market and sell
products using nanotechnology applications. Many of these companies
produce much of the 700 or so nanoproducts that are currently available
in the U.S. marketplace. Let’s review a few examples of nanoproducts
that are available today.
Sporting Goods
Special nanoparticles made of carbon are used to stiffen areas of the
racquet head and shaft. The particles are 100 times more rigid than steel
and 6 times lighter. The new composite hockey stick developed is more
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Figure 1.1 Scale of Things. (Courtesy of Jeff Dixon)

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durable than other sticks because of the carbon nanotube epoxy matrix.
Nano tennis balls coated internally with a nano-sized membrane, slow
pressure drain without adding weight.
Car Paint and Car Waxes

There are now new kinds of automobile paints, developed from nan-
otechnology, that have improved scratch-resistant qualities compared to
conventional car paint. Nano car waxes, made with nano-sized polishing
agents, provide a better shine due to its ability to fill-in tiny blemishes in
automotive paint finishes.
Antibacterial Cleansers
There are several antibacterial cleansers that use nanoemulsion tech-
nology to kill pathogens. The cleansers are able to kill tuberculosis and
bacteria while remaining nonflammable, noncorrosive, and nontoxic.
The good news is that there are no harmful effects when using these
products.
Medical Bandages
Silver’s antibiotic properties have made the metal a popular treat-
ment for wounds and burns. Special dressings for burns provide
antimicrobial barrier protec-
Did you know? tion using concentrations of
The cleansing power of silver was known in the days nano silver particles. These
of the Roman Empire, when silver coins were used medical bandages help skin
to purify water in jugs and containers for drinking to heal by preventing infec-
and cooking purposes. tions during treatment. The
silver-impregnated dressings
require fewer painful changings of dressings than previous silver
treatments.
Apparel Industry
Several clothing companies have marketed new brands of nonstain
nanotechnology fabrics. The fabric resists spills from many types of fibers
(cotton, synthetics, wool, silk, rayon, and polypropylene). The fabric
also repels a range of liquids including beverages and salad dressings.
These fabrics keep the body cool and comfortable and have an antistatic
treatment that reduces static cling from dog hair, lint, and dust. See
Chapter 6 for more information about nanotechnology fabrics.
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Sunscreens and Cosmetics

Several cosmetic companies have already marketed a number of prod-
ucts that include nanotechnology. The products include sunscreens, de-
odorants, and antiaging creams. One sunscreen product uses zinc oxide
nanoparticles that protects the skin but does not leave white marks on
the skin. However, more regulation of some of these products will be
needed because of the limited research that has been carried out in this
still new field. See Chapter 6 for more information about sunscreens.
Organic Light-Emitting Displays or OLEDs

The OLEDs are ultrathin displays manufactured by sandwiching ex-
tremely thin (often nano-sized) layers of organic polymer light-emitting
materials between electrodes. These images are bright and viewable at
wide angles. The displays are smaller and of lighter weight than tradi-
tional LCD (liquid crystal display) displays—meaning they are ideally
suited to mobile electronics, such as digital cameras, cellular phones,
and handheld computers.
FUTURE APPLICATIONS OF NANOTECHNOLOGY

What can we look for in future applications of nanotechnology?
Environment
Emerging nanotechnologies hold great promise for creating new
means of detecting air pollutants, and cleaning polluted waste streams
and groundwater. A research group is now testing the use of magnetic
nanoparticles that can absorb and trap organic contaminants in water. If
the testing continually succeeds, the process can also be very effective in
cleaning up contaminated Superfund sites—hazardous and toxic waste
sites—in the United States. See Chapter 8 for more information about
the environment.
Solar Energy
Researchers are making an effort to find a lower-cost source of house-
hold energy for the nation’s future. They are exploring the creation
of nanoscale devices on the molecular level that can convert sunlight
into electric current. Scientists have invented a plastic solar cell that
can turn the sun’s power into electrical energy, even on a cloudy day.
The plastic material uses nanotechnology and contains solar cells able
to harness the sun’s invisible, infrared rays. Like paint, the composite
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can be sprayed onto other materials and used as a portable source of

electricity. A sweater coated in the material could power a cell phone or
other wireless devices.
However, the idea of using nanostructures to convert sunlight into
electricity is still theoretical. The main concern is that the present cost
of electricity produced by solar cells is four times greater than electricity
produced by nuclear or fossil fuels. Many companies and government
agencies are funding much research in solar projects, which indicates
there is an increasing interest in this field by the scientific community
and corporations. See Chapter 8 for more information about solar cells.
Fuel Cells
Several companies are utilizing nanostructure technology to help de-
velop high performance fuel cells for use in automobiles, portable con-
sumer electronics such as laptop computers, cell phones, and digital
cameras. A fuel cell is an energy conversion device and alternative to
batteries that converts energy from a chemical reaction into electricity
and heat. Fuel cells combine fuels such as hydrogen or methanol along
with air and water to produce electrical power. Because their by-products
are heat and water, fuel cells are environmentally friendly. See Chap-
ter 8 for more information about fuel cells.
Food and Agriculture

The ability to use nanotechnology will allow food companies to de-
sign and provide food products that would be safer, cheaper, and
more sustainable than the foods today. Food companies will also use
less water and chemicals in the preparation and production of food
products.
One food company had developed nanosensors that would be embed-
ded in food packaging. A color change in the nanosensor would alert
the consumer if a food in the package had become contaminated or if it
had begun to spoil. Some companies are producing a plastic consisting
of clay nanoparticles. The nanoparticles in the plastic are able to block
out oxygen, carbon dioxide, and moisture from spoiling fresh meats
and other foods. See Chapter 7 for more information about food and
agriculture.
Automobiles and Aeronautics

Nanoscale powders and nanoparticles will be able to enhance the
physical properties of automobile, aircraft, watercraft, trains, and
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spacecraft. Planes, trains, and automobiles will be lighter, faster, and

more fuel-efficient and constructed of lighter, stronger materials. Some
of these lightweight materials will include aluminum bodies for automo-
biles, brake systems for high-speed trains, and quieter aircraft engines.
The stronger, lighter materials will help in energy efficiency and re-
ducing mass and weight of finished products. See Chapter 6 for more
information about automobiles and aircraft.
Medical Applications
Many medical procedures could be handled by nanomachines that
rebuild arteries, rebuild bones, and reinforce bones. In cancer nan-
otechnology research, scientists are testing and experimenting with new
ideas to diagnose, treat, and prevent cancer in the future.
One research medical team is using nanoshells to target cancer cells.
Nanoshells are hollow silica spheres covered with gold. In animal test-
ing, Naomi Halas’s research team at Rice University directed infrared
radiation through tissue and onto the shells, causing the gold to super-
heat and destroy tumor cells while leaving healthy ones intact. Human
clinical trials using gold nanoshells are slated to begin within a few
years.
Another cancer research team has shown that the targeted gold
nanoparticles combined with lasers can kill oral cancer cells. Oral can-
cer is any cancerous tissue growth located in the mouth. Smoking and
other tobacco use are associated with 70–80 percent of oral cancer cases.
Thirty thousand Americans will be diagnosed with oral or pharyngeal
cancer this year. See Chapter 5 for more information about the medical
field.
Lab-on-a-Chip
In other nano medical news, researchers are studying lab-on-a-chip
technology. Lab-on-a-chip technology consists of a portable handheld
device containing a simple computer chip that can diagnose and mon-
itor the medical conditions of a patient. As an example, a tiny sample
of blood placed on the device could diagnose if the patient is diabetic.
The lab-on-a-chip could be used for commercial, medical diagnostic ap-
plications, such as an in-office test for strep throat, or modern in-home
pregnancy tests.
NASA has customized lab-on-a-chip technology to protect future space
explorers. The lab-on-a-chip would be used to monitor the health of the
crew by detecting contaminants in the spacecraft.
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THE U.S. GOVERNMENT INVESTS IN NANOTECHNOLOGY

RESEARCH
Nanotechnology is expected to have large impact on many sectors of
the world’s economy. A strong nanotechnology economy can lead to new
products, new businesses, new jobs, and even new industries for many
countries. As a result, nanotechnology funding for research is growing
rapidly all over.
In 2001, President Clinton requested a major new initiative in the 2002
federal budget, called the National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI).
The budget included an increase of more than 200 million dollars for
the government’s investment in nanotechnology research and devel-
opment. In December 2003, President Bush signed the Nanotechnol-
ogy Research and Development Act, which authorized funding for nan-
otechnology research and development (R&D) over 4 years, starting in
FY 2005. This legislation puts into law programs and activities supported
by the National Nanotechnology Initiative.
The 2003 bill authorized nearly $3.7 billion for research and de-
velopment programs coordinated among several federal agencies. The
legislation also authorized public hearings and expert advisory panels,
as well as the American Nanotechnology Preparedness Center to study
the emerging technology’s potential societal and ethical effects.
Other Countries Are Also Investing in Nanotechnology Research

The United States is not the only country to recognize the tremen-
dous economic potential of nanotechnology. In 2007, the Russian gov-
ernment planned to take its export revenues from oil and gas sales and
invest it in nanotechnology research and development. During the next
3 years, Russia will invest more than $1 billion in nanotechnology so that
it can become less dependent on raw materials.
Brazil had a projected budget for nanoscience during 2004 to 2007
that included creating three institutions, four networks, and recruiting
300 scientists to work in nanotechnology research. Some of the Brazil-
ian researchers are interested in the use of magnetic nanoparticles to
remove oil from oil spills and then be able to recycle the nanoparticles
and the oil. Other countries pursuing nanotechnology include Thai-
land, Philippines, Chile, Israel, Mexico, Argentina, South Africa, Japan,
China, and Korea, as well as several European countries.
WHAT DO AMERICANS THINK OF NANOTECHNOLOGY?

So, what do Americans think about this technology? In 2004, North
Carolina State University researchers conducted a survey designed to
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find out about the public’s perceptions of nanotechnology. The tele-

phone survey polled a random sample of 1,536 adults in the continental
United States in the spring of 2004 as a part of a larger research project
studying public perceptions of nanotechnology. What follows are some
of their findings.
r More than 80 percent of the adults indicated they had heard “little” or
“nothing” about nanotechnology. Most of them could not correctly answer
factual questions about it. However, despite knowing very little about the
science, 40 percent of the respondents predicted nanotechnology would
produce more benefits than risks. Another 38 percent believed risks and
benefits of nanotechnology would be about equal, and only 22 percent
said the risks would outweigh the benefits.
r Approximately 70 percent of those surveyed said they were “somewhat”
or “very” hopeful about nanotechnology, while 80 percent said they were
not worried at all about the science. Only 5 percent said they felt angry
about the science.
r Respondents were also asked to choose the most important potential
benefit from nanotechnology. A majority (57 percent) cited “new and
better ways to detect and treat human diseases.” Sixteen percent selected
“new and better ways to clean up the environment”; 12 percent chose
“increased national security and defense capabilities”; and 11 percent
identified ways to “improve human physical and mental abilities” as the
most important benefit.
r In choosing which potential risk was the most important to avoid, most
respondents (32 percent) picked “losing personal privacy to tiny new
surveillance devices.” Others wanted to avoid “a nanotechnology inspired
arms race” (24 percent); “breathing nano-sized particles that accumulate
in your body” (19 percent); “economic disruption caused by the loss of
traditional jobs.”
For the full report, Study Shows Americans Encouraged by Prospects of

Nanotechnology, contact North Carolina State University.
WILL NANOTECHNOLOGY BE USED TO HELP PEOPLE

IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES?
The applications of nanotechnology will certainly benefit all the de-
veloped countries. But will this new technology help the developing
countries—those nations that have limited resources and whose people
live in poor conditions? To answer the question, the Canadian Program
on Genomics and Global Health (CPGGH) has a plan to assist those
developing countries.
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The GPGGH is a leading international group that studies nan-

otechnology applications. They advocate that nanotechnology appli-
cations will help people in developing countries tackle their most ur-
gent problems. Some of these problems include extreme poverty and
hunger, child mortality, environmental degradation, and diseases, such
as malaria and HIV/AIDS.
The goals of the CPGGH identified and ranked several nanotechnol-
ogy applications most likely to have an impact in the developing world.
The top five nanotechnology applications on the list included:
1. Energy storage, production, and conversion

2. Agricultural productivity enhancement
3. Water treatment and remediation—cleaning up waste sites
4. Disease diagnosis and screening
5. Drug delivery systems
The CPGGH group selected energy as the number one priority in nan-
otechnology applications to assist developing countries. They included
energy production, conversion and storage, along with creation of alter-
native fuels, as the energy areas where nanotechnology applications are
most likely to benefit developing countries.
Number two on the list is agriculture. They state that science can
be used to develop a range of inexpensive nanotech applications to
increase soil fertility and crop production, and help eliminate mal-
nutrition. Malnutrition is a contributor to more than half the deaths
of children under five in developing countries. Other agricultural
developments include nanosensors to monitor the health of crops
and farm animals and magnetic nanoparticles to remove soil conta-
minants.
Water treatment is third-ranked by the panel. One-sixth of the world’s
population lacks access to safe water supplies, according to their study
group. More than one-third of the population of rural areas in Africa,
Asia, and Latin America has no clean water. Two million children die
each year from water-related diseases, such as diarrhea, cholera, ty-
phoid, and schistosomiasis, which result from a lack of adequate water
sources and sanitation. Nanomembranes and nanoclays are inexpensive,
portable, and easily cleaned systems that purify, detoxify, and desalinate
water more efficiently than conventional bacterial and viral filters. These
water treatment processes could provide potable water for families and
communities.
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Disease diagnosis and screening was ranked fourth. Some of these

technologies include inexpensive, handheld diagnostic kits that detect
the presence of several pathogens at once and could be used for wide-
range screening in small clinics.
Drug delivery system was fifth on the list. Nanotechnology could im-
prove transportation costs by developing drugs to last longer in storage.
Most drugs today have a short shelf life because of changes in humidity
and temperature change in storage rooms.
THE NANOTECHNOLOGY JOB MARKET

The Need for Workers
Many jobs will be needed to fill in the vacancies for nanotechnol-
ogy. The National Science Foundation (“NSF”) projects that the nan-
otechnology job market in the United States will require over 2 mil-
lion nanotechnology-savvy workers by 2014. The NSF therefore is call-
ing for children between the ages of 10 and 17 to be educated now
about the field that will define their job market as adults. Of the
2 million nanotechnology-savvy workers required by 2014, 20 percent
are expected to be scientists, with the remaining 80 percent con-
sisting of highly skilled engineers, technicians, business leaders, and
economists.
Dr. Mihail Roco, mentioned earlier in this chapter, states that as nan-
otechnology moves into the mainstream, companies building products
at the atomic level eventually will face a serious shortage of talent—
far worse than what is already occurring. Dr. Roco estimated, about
2 million nanotech-trained workers will be needed to support growing
industries and the startups they spawn within the next 10 to 15 years,
He emphasized that the country needs to find ways to motivate students
about sciences and to make them aware of the career opportunities in
nanotechnology fields.
UNIVERSITIES OFFER NANOTECHNOLOGY YOUTH PROGRAMS

To motivate students to explore careers in nanotechnology, many col-
leges and universities have presented a variety of programs for middle
school and high school students. These schools offer nanotechnology
camps, school outreach programs, field trips, and nanotechnology ca-
reer days for students from city, suburban, and private schools. Some of
these universities and colleges include Georgia Institute of Technology,
Penn State, University of California, Santa Barbara, Cornell, University
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Students interact with the LEGO R

nanotechnology exhibit that is one of
several displays in the "Nanotechnology: The Science of Making Things
Smaller" project. The project is directed by Purdue University’s Department
of Physics and its School of Electrical and Computer Engineering in con-
junction with the Children’s Museum of Oak Ridge in Oak Ridge, Tennessee.
(Courtesy Purdue News Service photo/David Umberger)
of New Mexico, Stanford, Howard University, Michigan State, Univer-

sity of Pennsylvania, Drexel University, Harvard, and the University of
Albany.
Let’s look at one example of a university’s nanotechnology program
for young people. The mission at the Northwestern University-Nanoscale
Science and Engineering Center is to teach people of all ages about the
nanoworld. In one of their workshops, 37 fifth graders came to North-
western to participate in “NanoDay,” a half-day of activities designed to
spark student interest in nanoscience and technology.
Besides the universities, the National Nanotechnology Infrastructure
Network (NNIN) also provides a variety of school programs. Even mu-
seums such as the Exploratorium in San Francisco, the Lawrence Hall
of Science in California, and the Museum of Science in Boston have
had nanotechnology exhibits. Purdue University and Cornell University
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The National Nanotechnology Infrastructure Network provides a variety of

school programs. In one of their programs, students from an elementary
school are learning about self-assembly through an activity demonstrated
by Richard Kirk CEO of Claro Chemicals. (Courtesy National Nanotechnology
Infrastructure Network)
have sponsored on-the-road nanoexhibits to spark public interest in

nanotechnology.
Several high schools also have special nanotechnology programs. The
Future is NEAR (Nanotechnology Education and Research) program
at North Penn High School in Lansdale, Pennsylvania offers its stu-
dents an opportunity to gain 21st-century skills that will help prepare
them to become successful leaders in the new, technological global
society.
In Albany, New York, eligible students at the Albany High School will
have the opportunity to participate in nanotechnology education via
a pilot program with the University of Albany, College of Nanoscale
Science and Engineering. Under its pilot phase, NanoHigh will focus
on school-to-work activities designed to train AHS students in creative
nanoscience and nanoengineering concepts, and help equip them with
the skill set necessary to pursue advanced educational opportunities in
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the field that is “leading to the next industrial revolution.” See Chapter
10 to learn more about how schools, universities, colleges, and other or-
ganizations are encouraging young people to explore nanotechnology.
THE FIELDS OF STUDY THAT INFLUENCE NANOTECHNOLOGY

Anyone who explores a career in nanotechnology will learn that it is
a multidisciplinary field. Some of these fields include physics, mechani-
cal engineering, chemistry, biology, medicine, business and economics,
agricultural science, electronics, computer science, environmental sci-
ence, and law and ethics.
Chemistry, biology, and physics are the major science nanotechnology
fields of study. These fields can provide candidates with a solid founda-
tion for any of a broad range of nanotechnology careers.
Chemistry is the study of matter and the changes matter undergoes.
Nanotechnology uses chemistry extensively in the field of molecular
devices and molecular manipulation.
The chemistry in nanotechnology is a bit different from the tradi-
tional chemistry courses. The chemistry in nanotechnology deals with
the manipulation of atoms and molecules of chemicals. Synthesizing
a chemical with nanotechnology means building something atom by
atom. This process is quite different from traditional chemistry that
usually studies materials at the macro or larger scale—more than 100
nanometers.
The traditional biology courses involve the study of the molecular struc-
ture and function of living systems. These systems range from cells
and bacteria to spiders and humans. All of these organisms rely on
nanometer-sized proteins or molecular motors to do everything from
cell division to moving a leg. An application of nanotechnology in bi-
ology would be to isolate one of these molecular motors from a living
system and then design and use it to construct a nanoscale product such
as a nanorobot to search out and destroy tumors in the human body.
Physics is the study of the most fundamental interactions between
energy and matter and time and space. Physics also includes quantum
mechanics, the study of matter and radiation at an atomic scale.
Much of modern technology, such as the transistor, and integrated
circuits, which are at the heart of modern computers and electronics, is
the result of physics research.
To study science and technology, one must have an adequate back-
ground in mathematics. Basic calculus is essential, and differential equa-
tions and linear algebra are widely used.
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The field of engineering constitutes applied science or the use of

scientific principles to analyze and solve practical problems, and es-
pecially to design, build, operate, and maintain many types of construc-
tions. The principle fields of engineering are civil and environmen-
tal, chemical, electrical, and mechanical engineering. But many other
specialized types of engineering exist. All types of engineering involve
the application of physics and mathematics to designing or problem
solving.
Feature: Mechanical Engineering

Physics is the foundation for all types of engineering. One of the
fields is mechanical engineering, a discipline that involves the appli-
cation of principles of physics for analysis, design, manufacturing, and
maintenance of mechanical systems. Mechanical engineering requires
a solid understanding of key concepts including mechanics, kinematics,
thermodynamics, and energy.
Practitioners of mechanical engineering, known as mechanical engi-
neers, use these principles and others in the design and analysis of au-
tomobiles, aircraft, heating and cooling systems, buildings and bridges,
industrial equipment and machinery, and more. At the scale of molec-
ular technology, mechanical engineering develops molecular machines
and molecular machine components. See the Nano Interview at the end
of the chapter for more information about mechanical engineering and
its role in nanotechnology.
MAJOR NANOTECHNOLOGY CAREER AREAS

According to the National Nanotechnology Infrastructure Network,
opportunities for careers in these fields are expanding rapidly. A major
challenge for the field is the education and training of a new generation
of skilled workers.
Nanotechnology job projections are estimated to be nearly 2 million
workers worldwide by 2015. Most of the jobs will be in the United States,
Japan, and several European countries. In addition, nanotechnology
will create another 5 to 7 million jobs worldwide in support fields and
other industries.
The education levels of this workforce will include skilled workers
who have backgrounds in technical programs, have Associates degree
(2 years), Bachelors degree (4 years), Masters degree (6 years), and Doc-
torate (8 years). Note: Not everyone working in the field of nanotech-
nology will require a doctorate degree. The major career opportunities
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for these workers will exist in areas such as:
r Electronics/semiconductor industry
r Materials science including textiles, polymers, and packaging
r Automotive and aerospace industries
r Sports equipment
r Pharmaceuticals
r Biotechnology
r Medical fields
r Environmental monitoring and control
r Food science including quality control and packaging
r Forensics—applied sciences used for legal investigations
r University and federal lab research
r National security
However, the nanotechnology fields that will grow most rapidly in the
next decade will include:
r Medicine: diagnostics and therapeutics (e.g., drug delivery)

r Energy: fuel cells and batteries
r Robotics, many kinds
r Manufacturing: self-assembly
r Commerce: Radio Frequency Identification
r Space exploration
Ss
Richard Feynman (1918–1988)
Richard P. Feynman was an American physicist and one of the three
men who received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1965. Feynman, who was
a long-term professor at California Institute of Technology, is best known
as one of the people who worked on atomic weapons at Los Alamos dur-
ing World War II. He also discovered what caused the 1986 Challenger
explosion.
The idea of atom-by-atom construction was first put forth, in a scientific
manner, over 40 years ago by the Nobel Prize-winning physicist Richard
Feynman. In 1959, Feynman gave a lecture called “There’s Plenty of Room
at the Bottom.” In his speech, he predicted that an entire encyclopedia
would one day fit on the head of a pin and a library with all the world’s books
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would fit in three square yards! Feynman also predicted that microscopic
computers, atomic rearrangement, and nanomachines could float in veins.
Richard E. Smalley (1943–2005)

To many people, Richard Smalley was the foremost leader in nanotechnol-
ogy. He has often been noted as the “Father of Nanotechnology.” Richard
Smalley was a Rice University
professor who won the No-
Did you know?
bel Prize in chemistry in 1996.
Nanoengineered carbon is the most common ma-
Richard Smalley is mostly
terial used in the nano products followed by silver, a
known for his work with car-
metal, and silica, a compound composed of silicon
bon nanotubes, (known as
and oxygen.
the “Buckyballs”). Smalley was
hopeful that nanotechnology
could solve the global energy problem, which would ultimately solve other
worldwide problems such as hunger and water shortages. He believed the
potential for nanotechnology to benefit humanity was virtually limitless, and
he abided by the mantra: “Be a scientist; save the world.”
In 1999, the Rice University Center for Nanoscale Science and Technol-
ogy (CNST) was renamed the Richard E. Smalley Institute for Nanoscale
Science and Technology in his honor.
Ss
WHAT ARE THE RISKS OF NANOTECHNOLOGY?

The long-term benefits of nanotechnology will lead to new means
of reducing the production of wastes, cycling industrial contamination,
providing potable water, and improving the efficiency of energy pro-
duction and use. Good news for all. However, there are concerns that
the introduction of large quantities of nanostructured materials, such as
nanoparticles, into our everyday life may have ethical, legal, and societal
consequences.
Two independent studies released in 2003 included the risks of using
carbon nanotubes. Chiu-Wing Lam of NASA’s Johnson Space Center led
one of these studies and the other was led by David Warheit of Dupont.
Each study found that carbon nanotubes, when directly injected into
the lungs of mice, could damage lung tissue.
One overseas company that makes cleaning products using nano-
meter-scaled materials had to remove these products from stores because
several consumers were getting respiratory problems from using the
product.
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NANOSAFE2
Several organizations are developing programs to make sure there is
a check and balance procedure to insure safety in the nanotechnology
field. One European organization consisting of members from seven Eu-
ropean Union countries has formed an organization called NanoSafe2.
The overall aim of NANOSAFE2 is to develop risk assessment programs
and to establish ways to detect, track, and characterize nanoparticles.
These methods will be useful in determining any possible risks to hu-
mans and the environment. NANOSAFE2 will develop technologies to
cut down on exposure to nanoparticles and leaks to environment by
designing safe production equipment.
There are other organizations and associations engaged in nanotech
safety research. Some of these agencies include the National Science
Foundation (NSF), the National Toxicology Program of the Department
of Health and Human Services, the Department of Defense (DOD), the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the Department of Energy
(DOE), and the National Institutes of Health, the National Institutes
of Standards and Technology (NIST), and the National Institute of
Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH).
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)

NIOSH is conducting research on nanotechnology and occupational
health. Its mission is to help answer questions that are critical for sup-
porting the responsible development of nanotechnology.
Nanotechnology Environmental and Health Implications (NEHI)

The Nanotechnology Environmental and Health Implications
(NEHI) working group, composed of several U.S. government agencies,
has researched and reported on concerns about the safety of nanotech-
nology products. As of late 2006, one of the overriding concerns NEHI
identified was the difficulty and critical importance of reviewing the
safety of nanotechnology quickly enough to keep pace with the rapid
development and implementation of nanoproducts. Research and de-
velopment, known as “R and D,” can occur very rapidly in the field
of nanotechnology, but the study of potential risks of new products to
health and the environment can take considerable time to reach con-
clusions and make decisions about product safety.
National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI)

The National Nanotechnology Initiative coordinates where federal
nanotech research dollars go. About $106 million of the funding was
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earmarked for environment and health and safety research in nanotech-

nology.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

In late 2004, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency awarded
about $4 million to fund a dozen research studies at universities on
possible risks associated with nanotechnology. See Chapter 8 for more
information about the Environmental Protection Agency.
Center for Biological and Environmental Nanotechnology (CBEN)

One of the aims of Rice University’s Center for Biological and Environ-
mental Nanotechnology (CBEN) is to characterize the unintended con-
sequences of nanotechnology, particularly in the environmental arena.
As one of the six nanoscience and engineering centers funded by the
National Science Foundation, CBEN has a mandate to clear major road-
blocks to nanotechnology commercialization. As the only center funded
under the National Nanotechnology Initiative that focuses exclusively on
environmental and biological systems, they are developing ways to use
nanotechnology to clean our environment and improve public health.
The Center for Responsible Nanotechnology

The Center for Responsible Nanotechnology has identified several
separate and severe risks. Some of their concerns are:
r Economic disruption from an abundance of cheap products.

r Economic oppression from artificially inflated prices.
r Personal risk from criminal or terrorist use.
r Personal or social risk from abusive restrictions.
r Social disruption from new products/lifestyles.
r Unstable arms race.
r Collective environmental damage from unregulated products.
r Free-range self-replicators (grey goo).
r Black market in nanotech.
NANO INTERVIEW: PROFESSOR MARTIN L. CULPEPPER,

PH.D., MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Dr. Martin L. Culpepper is a mechanical engineer and Associate
Professor at Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge, Mas-
sachusetts. Dr. Culpepper talked with the author about his career in
mechanical engineering and his work in nanotechnology.
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What is mechanical engineering?

The classical definition of mechanical engineering is the discipline, the
science and technology that are required to create mechanical devices,
most often those that move themselves or other things. For instance,
mechanical engineers design and build mechanical systems that include
parts of airplanes, parts of automobiles, and even parts of satellites and
spacecraft.
My work, as a mechanical engineering researcher, is to generate the
knowledge that is required to build machines and their parts on a small
scale, that is, of a size that is approaching the molecular scale. I want
to be able to engineer these small-scale machines so that they may be
used to move other smaller parts around. For instance, we want to be
able to engineer nanomechanisms, nanoactuators and nanosensors; and
these machines will all depend upon some sort of nanoscale mechanical
device.
Most of mechanical engineering for the last 100 years or so, has dealt
with creating machines that were large enough so that we could handle
them with our hands. In the last 20 to 30 years engineers have started
building devices that are small enough so that one cannot use their
hands to handle or operate them, but yet the machines may still be ob-
served via a magnifying glass. When we discuss mechanical engineering
in a nanotechnology context we are talking about building machines
out of individual atoms, individual molecules, or groups of molecules.
The machines I am working on are so small that one cannot see them
with a high-powered optical microscope.
There is a great deal of research that must be done before one can
engineer nanoscale machines. For instance, we need to understand
how to put them together. Once you’ve made them, how do you take
measurements so that you know if they are the right size? How do you
measure their motions so that you know if they are moving in the right
way? Then, after that, how do you take what you have made and turn it
into products that people would use in their everyday lives? As engineers,
we do these things with large-scale machines every day and we don’t
think twice about how to do them. We know how to do this from past
experience. At the nanoscale, we struggle to conceive of methods we
could use to do the same types of things.
What college did you go to? What was your major?
For my undergraduate studies, I received a scholarship to go to Iowa
State University. I was born in Iowa and lived there my entire childhood.
While attending Iowa State I worked at John Deere in the summer
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and I worked in a research group on a project for NASA. From these

experiences I became interested in doing research on how to build new
machines that people had not been able to engineer before. At the time
I graduated from Iowa State, I was not interested in nanotechnology, as
it was not as well known then as it is today.
After I graduated, I applied to, and was accepted at, the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology (MIT) where I received a Master’s of Science de-
gree and then a Ph.D. in mechanical engineering. I am now an Associate
Professor and faculty member in Mechanical Engineering at MIT.
What interested you in seeking a career in mechanical engineering?

I became interested in mechanical systems and physics early on. While
attending high school, I had pulled apart an automobile carburetor
from my dad’s car. In those days, the automobile used a carburetor to
mix gasoline and air for the engine. Although I was not successful in
putting the pieces of the carburetor back together, I was fascinated by
the complexity of the parts in the carburetor and wondered how people
could design and make things that were so intricate.
Now as an Associate Professor of mechanical engineering at the Mas-
sachusetts Institute of Technology, I do research on building intricate,
small-scale machines out of atoms and molecules. This work requires an
understanding of mechanical engineering and the physics that govern
behavior at the molecular scale.
How did you get started in nanotechnology?

About 5 years ago, I was building machines at MIT that were macro-scale
in size. These machines were the size of a baseball or football. The macro
machines could move precisely and accurately enough so that they could
be a type of “construction equipment” for nanoscale machines. They
could interact with atoms and measure or help to make nanomachines.
Through making the larger machines, I gained knowledge of how one
could engineer smaller machines out of atoms and molecules. Now I am
designing, building, and testing nanoscale machines.
What is a nanomachine?
Nanoscale devices that can move and push upon other machines or
parts. Most biological systems, for instance you and I, are comprised of
billions of nanomachines. For instance, our muscle cells act in ways that
are similar to macro-scale machine behavior. Within our cells, molecules
perform a very intricate manipulation of atoms/other molecules that
help our cells replicate and/or heal. Even bacteria have nanoscale mo-
tors within them that they use to move around.
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The nanomachines that I am interested in building are at an early

stage of development. When you look at them, they would resemble the
simplest type of machines that you would find at the large scale. For
instance, the simpler types of pieces that are put together to build a
more complex machine such as bolts, nuts, springs, and structural com-
ponents. Something with a complex geometry, such as an automobile
engine or a robot, will take decades to build at the nanoscale.
There is ongoing work that aims to use carbon nanotubes (tubes that
are several atoms in diameter to hundreds of atoms in diameter) to make
small-scale machines. Researchers have discovered that these tubes may
be used to make bearings similar to those that enable a bicycle wheel
rotate. Bearings are one of the fundamental things that you need in
order to build machines that move and so engineers are trying to use
carbon nanotubes in this way. Scientists and engineers are just getting to
the point where they are starting to integrate these small-scale parts in
order to build simple nanoscale machines, such as a very small shifting
device on a bicycle. Most of these shifting devices rely primarily upon
the function of a mechanism, called a 4-bar linkage that shifts the chain
between sprockets. Building a shifting device at the nanoscale requires
5 to 10 years of research and trial and error. More complex nanoscale
machines, such as robotic grippers, will probably take 10 to 20 years or
more.
My group grows the carbon nanotubes and we use simulations to help
us understand how to use these tubes to engineer simple machines, for
instance the shifter as previously described.
What are some of the benefits of building nanomachines?
Speed and cost are two major benefits of nanomachines. With respect to
speed, there are physical laws that govern the speed at which machines
may move as a consequence of their mass and stiffness, both of which
are usually related to their size. In most cases, the smaller the machine,
the faster the machine can be run. If you can build mechanical devices
that can run at millions of motions per second, they might be used to
accomplish many tasks in a short time. With respect to cost, it becomes
inexpensive to build a nanomachine if one uses the right nanomanu-
facturing processes, because thousands or millions of machines may be
made simultaneously.
It is likely that future nanomachines will have an impact on many
devices including computers, sensors, and electromechanical devices. It
is hoped that nanomachines will increase the speed of store-bought
conventional products by a factor of 100 to 1,000. The costs for
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these new products would also be less than the cost of conventional
products.
In addition, smaller machine elements that are made of carbon nan-
otubes could be used as energy sources for products. The special prop-
erties of the nanotubes will allow engineers to build better batteries that
have huge energy densities. These batteries may be able to power auto-
mobiles, and possibly provide longer-lived portable power sources, for
example in an iPod.
Are there any environmental issues or risks in building nanomachines?
One of the things that people should keep in mind is that nanoparticles
are small compared to a human cell, roughly 10 – 1000 times smaller.
It has been proposed, and I stress the word proposed, that certain types
of nanoparticles might be get into cells and do harmful things. I am
not an expert in the biology, chemistry or toxicology but I know of
experts in these fields that have researched particles to see if they are
harmful. In my laboratory, we treat nanoparticles as though they are
harmful even though a lot of the evidence shows that they are not. For
instance, most people do not know that many cosmetics use certain
types of nanoparticles and they have been used for many years without
adverse effects.
You mentioned in an article, that potential young scientists needed to
learn the language of mathematics. You stated that mathematics is the
language of logical thought. Could you expand on that comment?
What I was trying to say is that mathematical expressions are a way to
express a logical idea. Many students forget this and then in their eyes,
math becomes something abstract that has little use in everyday life.
They don’t realize that when one thinks about problems, as an engineer
or everyday life, they use logic to solve those problems. An engineer or
scientist needs to be able to convert common sense and logical ideas
in a concise and universally understood form. Mathematics allows us to
do this and this helps us to solve engineering and everyday problems.
Knowing math is a powerful tool.
What other advice would you give young people who would like
a career in mechanical engineering?
My advice is to find somebody who has the same interests that you have,
and who seeks excellence in all that they do. Choose someone who can
pass those interests on to you and teach you the skills/discipline/fun
of doing things well. My parents and grandparents filled these roles for
me. They were passionate about the idea of “if you were going to do
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something, then do it right.” My grandfathers had a passion for working

on mechanical things and those skills they had were like magic to me.
I wanted to learn to do what they could do. They also did an excellent
job and by observing their habit of excellence, I came to expect a lot
from myself whenever I do something. Young people should also find
a mentor that can pass on to them an understanding of why things are
important and why they are relevant to everyday life. At the same time,
make sure you have fun doing what interests you. For instance, if you love
music or acting, you can learn mechanical engineering and/or physics
and then apply them to make better instruments or devices for sets. The
same thing applies to people that love cars, robots, airplanes, medicine,
woodworking, and sports. You can use mechanical engineering, math,
and physics to make useful contributions in these areas and have great
fun at the same time.
Would you want any of our readers (teachers/students) to contact you
at your lab or by e-mail?
My lab’s Web site is http://pcsl.mit.edu
E-mail (culpepper@mit.edu) is OK, but I can’t guarantee a response
due to the fact that I receive about 100–200 non-spam e-mails per day
that I have to respond to.
NANO ACTIVITY: CUTTING IT DOWN TO NANO

The activity, “Cutting It Down to Nano,” is adapted from the education
team at MRSEC (Materials Research Science and Engineering Center)
at the University of Wisconsin.
The challenge of the activity is to determine the number of times
you need to cut the strip of paper in half in order to make it
between 0 and 10 nanometers long. See the following Web site
for more information about the activity: mrsec.wisc.edu/Edetc/IPSE/
educators/activities/supplements/cuttingNano-Handout.pdf.
r For more activities to do from MRSEC, go to Web site: http://

mrsec.wisc.edu/Edetc/IPSE/educators/cuttingNano.html
READING MATERIAL
Brezina, Corona. Careers in Nanotechnology. New York: Rosen Publishing Group, 2007.
Fritz, Sandy. Understanding Nanotechnology: From the Editors of Scientific American. New
York: Warner Books, 2002.
Johnson, Rebecca, L. Nanotechnology (Cool Science). Minneapolis, MN: Lerner Publi-
cations, 2005.
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Poole, Charles P., and Frank J. Owens. Introduction to Nanotechnology. Hoboken, NJ:
John Wiley & Sons, Wiley-Interscience, 2003.
Ratner, Mark, and Daniel Ratner. Nanotechnology: A Gentle Introduction to the Next Big
Idea. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2003.
Shelley, Toby. Nanotechnology: New Promises, New Dangers (Global Issues). London: Zed
Books, 2006.
VIDEOS
What Is Nanotechnology? An engineer from University of Wisconsin-Madison,
Wendy Crone is on a mission. She and her interns are creating user-friendly exhibits
to teach the public about the nanoworld. http://www.sciencedaily.com/videos/
2006-06-11/
Work Force Preparation. Are We Prepared to Get into the Nanotechnology Work-
force? Professor Wendy Crone. Conversations in Science. Madison Metropolitan
School District. UW-Madison Interdisciplinary Education Group. http://mrsec.wisc.
edu/Edetc/cineplex/MMSD/prepared.html
When Things Get Small. Google Video. Describes how small is a nanometer? The
film shows how scientists layer atoms to form nanodots. http://video.google.com/
videoplay?docid=-215729295613330853
Careers in Nanotechnology Information Video. Penn State University. http://www.
cneu.psu.edu/nePublications.html
WEB SITES
The Foresight Institute: Nonprofit institute focused on nanotechnology, the coming
ability to build materials and products with atomic precision, and systems to aid
knowledge exchange and critical discussion, thus improving public and private
policy decisions. http://www.foresight.org/
National Nanotechnology Initiative: The National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI)
is a federal R&D program established to coordinate the multiagency efforts in
nanoscale science, engineering, and technology. http://www.nano.gov/
Scientific American: Nanotechnology articles, some free and some archived,
http://www.sciam.com/nanotech/
SOMETHING TO DO
Make a nanoruler to measure objects at the nanoscale. Go to the Lawrence Hall of
Science site for the instructions, http://www.nanozone.org/nanoruler print.htm
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The Science of
Nanotechnology
Nanotechnology is having the ability and the knowledge to manufacture

products at the nanoscale—one billionth of a meter. All materials that
are one-billionth of a meter are invisible to the human eye. The naked
eye can see to about 20 microns. A micron (10−6 ) is one-millionth of a
meter. Even using an optical microscope that uses light energy, we can
only see materials that are about 1 micron in size.
In Chapter 1 you read about a number of nanotechnology prod-
ucts that are sold today. These products included pants that are stain-
resistant, sunscreens that protect the skin against sun rays, medical dress-
ings that are used for burn victims and special nanoparticles used to
make tennis rackets and hockey sticks. So, how can you “see,” manipu-
late, and make products at the nanometer scale, the size of atoms and
molecules?
To understand how nanotechnology can be used to manufacture these
nanoproducts, you need to review the science of:
r matter and its forms,
r matter’s smallest particles—atoms and molecules,
r chemical bonding of atoms and molecules,
r molecular self-assembly, and
r how to manipulate matter at a scale of 1 to 100 nanometers.
WHAT IS MATTER?
Forms of Matter
Look around you. Everything around you is made up of matter. Matter
is the air you breathe, the water you drink, the food you eat, the clothes
you wear, and the home you live in.
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Table 2.1 International System of Measurement [Système International

d’Unités (SI Units)]
Scientific
Unit Abbreviation Description Notation
meter m approximately 3 feet 1m

centimeter cm 1/100 of a meter, about 10−2
1/ inch
2
millimeter mm 1/1000 of a meter 10−3
micrometer µm 1/1,000,000 of a meter, often 10−6
called a micron
nanometer nm 1/1,000,000,000, the size of a 10−9
single molecule
Matter is anything that has mass and volume. Mass is the amount of
matter in an object and volume is the amount of space occupied by an
object. Matter exists in three principal forms, called phases—gas, liquid,
and solid.
Gas, or vapor, is the most energetic phase of matter. In gases, the
particles (individual atoms or molecules) are far apart from each other
and can move about freely. Air neither holds its shape nor its volume
because particles move freely through open space. As a result, gases
expand to fill the shape of their container. A gas, such as oxygen, is
in constant motion and takes the shape of and completely fills any
container holding it.
In liquids, the particles are much closer together. So liquids are far
more difficult to compress. The particles that make up liquids move
about, enabling liquids to change shape easily. A liquid takes the shape
of the container holding it.
In solids, the forces between the particles are strong enough to hold
the particles together in specific positions causing solids to maintain
their shape. As an exam-
What is Matter?. If you have time, you may
want to watch the video, Go to: http://www.
ple, copper holds it shape
because the particles stay
wpsu.org/nano/lessonplan detail.php?lp bound together in a regular
id=21 pattern.
Properties of Matter
The different forms of matter have physical properties and chemi-
cal properties that are characteristic of individual substances. Physical
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The Science of Nanotechnology 31
properties of a substance include color, odor, hardness, density, and the

ability to conduct electricity and heat. We distinguish different types of
matter by the differences in such physical properties. As an example,
the formation of ice is a physical phase change, freezing of water. Each
substance has unique phase change properties, such as the tempera-
tures, at which freezing or boiling of the substance occurs, known as the
“freezing point” and “boiling point.”
Chemical properties describe the ability of a substance to change from
one kind of substance into a new and different brand-new substance.
The formation of iron oxide (rust) is a chemical change. The more
properties you can identify in a gas, liquid, or solid, the better you know
the nature of that substance.
PROPERTIES OF MATTER CHANGE AT THE NANOSCALE

The properties of matter depend in part on size. The physical, chemi-
cal, and biological properties of matter generally differ at the nanoscale
when compared to the larger quantities of the same material. This is
due, in part, to the difference in surface area per unit of volume at the
nanoscale.
Suppose we have a cube of salt. Its volume area is length times height
times depth. Let’s say that the block is 1 mm × 1 mm × 1 mm, which
is 1 cubic millimeter altogether. (We’re using millimeters (mm) instead
of nanometers for simplicity.)
The cube has 6 square sides, each of which is (1 mm × 1 mm) 1 square
mm in area, so the whole cube has an area of 6 square mm. The ratio of
the area (A) of the cube to the volume (V) of the cube is A divided by
V (written “A/V”) or a ratio of 6/1. Now, in contrast, suppose we have
a bigger cube of salt whose edges are 2 mm long instead of 1 mm, so
this cube has a volume (2 × 2 × 2) of 8 cubic mm. The area of each
side of this salt cube is 2 mm × 2 mm, or 4 square mm, and the area
of the cube’s entire surface then is 6 × 4 square mm, or 24 square mm.
So the area-to-volume ratio of the big block is 24 divided by 8, which
equals an A/V ratio of 3/1. So, the bigger cube has a smaller A/V ratio
than the smaller cube. This example demonstrates how smaller cubes
will have greater ratios of surface area to volume. Table 2.2 summarizes
this principle.
This table illustrates how as the sides of a cube get shorter, the volume
of a cube gets smaller more quickly than its surface area, so the ratio
A/V increases. The ratio A/V is twice as great for the cube of 1 mm as
for the cube of 2 mm, and three times as great as the cube of 3 mm. This
phenomenon happens on the nanoscale very significantly.
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Table 2.2 Surface Area Per Unit of Volume
Length of Side of Volume of Cube Surface Area of

Cube (V) Cube (A) Ratio of A/V
3 mm 27 54 2
2 mm 8 24 3
1 mm 1 6 6
Notice how the ratio of area to volume changes as the cube becomes smaller.
For a given substance, increasing the number of nanoscale particles

also increases the proportion of atoms on the surface compared with the
number of internal atoms. Atoms at the surface often behave differently
from those located in the interior. Atoms at the surface have a higher
energy state, which means they are more likely to react with particles
of neighboring substances. The result is that chemical reactions can
take place between atoms and molecules at surfaces acting as miniature
chemical reactors.
By modifying materials at the nanoscale other properties such as
magnetism, hardness, and electrical and heat conductivity can be
changed substantially. These changes arise from confining electrons
in nanometer-sized structures. As one example, electrons (subatomic
particles) do not flow in streams as they do in ordinary electrical wires.
At the nanoscale, electrons act like waves. When electrons act as waves,
they can pass through insulation that blocks flowing electrons.
Another example of changes at the nanoscale is that some nano sub-
stances that should not dissolve in a liquid actually do dissolve. Some
elements like gold also show change at the nanoscale. At the macro scale,
gold metal is shiny yellow as you noticed in jewelry. If you break up the
gold, to particle 100 nanometers wide, it still looks shiny yellow. But,
when you break down the particle of gold to 30 nanometers across, the
gold appears bright red. As the particle of gold gets even smaller than
30 nanometers, it looks purple and when it is a little bit smaller it will
appear brownish in color. Color can change in some other substances,
like gold, at the nanoscale. Physical properties including strength, crys-
tal shape, solubility, thermal and electrical conductivity, and magnetic
and electronic properties also change as the size decreases.
Let’s look at another example of how a physical property changes
at the nanometer scale. At the macro scale, a sheet of aluminum is
harmless. However, when the particles of aluminum are cut down in size
to 20 to 30 nanometers, the metal can explode.
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Volume to Surface Area

Nanomaterials have a large proportion of surface atoms, and the sur-
face of any material is where reactions happen. Because of nanoparticles’
huge surface area and thus
very high surface activity, Did you know?
nanotechnologists can po- Quantum mechanics is the study of matter and ra-
tentially use much less mate- diation at the atomic level.
rial. The amount of surface
area also allows a fast reaction with less time. Therefore, many pro-
perties can be altered at the nanoscale. That’s the power of nanotech-
nology.
MATTER’S SMALLEST PARTICLES: MATTER IS MADE UP

OF ELEMENTS
Nanotechnology’s raw materials are the chemical elements. Any sam-
ple of matter, whether it is a gas, liquid, or solid, is either an element
or is composed of several elements. Elements are known as the building
blocks of matter. An element consists purely of atoms of one kind. It is
a substance composed of pure chemicals that cannot be separated into
simpler substances. Therefore, an element is always an element, even at
the nanoscale.
Sulfur, copper, carbon, oxygen, iron are some common examples
of pure chemical elements. Just four of these—carbon (C), oxy-
gen (O), hydrogen (H), and nitrogen (N)—make up approximately
96 percent of the human body. Much of Earth, including the uni-
verse, consists of several elements, such as carbon, hydrogen, oxy-
gen, and nitrogen that are found in our bodies, too. Other com-
mon elements include iron, copper, calcium, nickel, potassium, and
mercury. Many of these elements are listed on the side of vitamin
bottles.
The Periodic Table of Elements

The chemical elements are arranged in a chart called the Periodic
Table of Elements. The table of elements represents the building blocks
of everything—both living and nonliving. About 90 elements have been
identified as occurring naturally on Earth. The Periodic Table of Ele-
ments is an important tool for scientists.
The table helps them understand the physical and chemical proper-
ties of individual elements.
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Table 2.3 The Major Elements Found in the Human Body
Element Symbol Approximate Percent by Mass in Human Body
Oxygen O 65,0
Carbon C 18.5
Hydrogen H 9.5
Nitrogen N 3.3
Calcium C 1.5
Phosphorus P 1.0
Potassium K 0.4
Sulfur S 0.3
Sodium Na 0.2
Chlorine Cl 0.2
Magnesium Mg 0.1
The Periodic Table can be divided into three basic groups of elements.
The groups include metals, nonmetals, and semimetals or metalloids.
Semi-metals have the properties of both metals and nonmetals. Chemists
use one or two letter symbols to represent elements. As an example, the
symbol for aluminum is Al. The symbol for oxygen is O.
r The metal elements make up the majority of the groups of elements—

more than 70 percent. Some of these metals include potassium, calcium,
sodium, barium, and the more familiar ones include such metals as tin,
lead, aluminum, copper, mercury, silver, and gold. Mercury is the only
metallic element that is liquid at room temperature. Gold and silver
nanoparticles are used in medical research and for treating burns and
wounds and in cancer research. Most metals are good conductors of elec-
tricity and heat and are malleable—easy to bend and shape. However,
electrical conductivity in metal decreases with increasing temperature,
whereas in semiconductors, electrical conductivity increases with increas-
ing temperature.
r Some of the nonmetals include chlorine, bromine, iodine, and fluorine.
The nonmetals are dull in color, usually brittle, and are poor conductors of
electricity and heat. You are not going to find too many of these elements
in nanofabrication.
r A few elements are classified as metalloids or semimetals because they
are between a metal and a nonmetal. The metalloids include silicon (S),
boron (B), germanium (Ge), arsenic (As), and tin (Sn). Metalloids have
properties of both metals and nonmetals.
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Some of the metalloids, such as silicon and germanium, are used as

semiconductors in transistors. Transistors are the fundamental building
blocks of a microchip and are built on a silicon base.
Semiconductors
A semiconductor is a common term used in the electronics and the
computer field. Semiconductors are generally made from certain ele-
ments such as silicon, germanium, and chemical compounds such as
lead sulfide.
Semiconductors have a special atomic structure that allows their con-
ductivity properties (both good and not so good) to be controlled by en-
ergy from electric currents, electromagnetic fields, or even light sources.
As an example, when you apply heat energy to a semiconductor you can
increase its conductivity of electricity. These semiconductor properties
make it possible to use them to make products such as transistors, inte-
grated circuits, and many other types of electronic devices.
These 10 elements make up most of the matter in the universe.
Element 1: Hydrogen
Element 2: Helium
Element 3: Lithium
Element 4: Beryllium
Element 5: Boron
Element 6: Carbon
Element 7: Nitrogen
Element 8: Oxygen
Element 9: Fluorine
Element 10: Neon
SMALLEST PART OF AN ELEMENT: THE ATOM

The smallest quantity of an element, which has all of the properties
of the element, is an atom. An atom is a microscopic structure found in
all ordinary matter around us.
Atoms are extremely small, on the order of one to several nanometers
wide. A nanoparticle would be a collection of tens to thousands of atoms
measuring about 1 to 100 nanometers in diameter. As an example, it
would take more than a million atoms to match the thickness of this
book page.
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Ss
Writing with Atoms
In 1989, scientists at the IBM Research Center in San Jose, California, con-
ducted an interesting activity using atoms. The scientists manipulated 35
atoms of the gas xenon (Xe),
Did you know? to write the letters, IBM. IBM
Xenon (Xe) is a gas most widely used in light- is the name of their company.
emitting devices called Xenon flash lamps, which The letters were 500,000 times
are used in photographic flashes, stroboscopic smaller than the type size of
lamps, to excite the active medium in lasers which letters used in printing this
then generate coherent light, in bactericidal lamps book. To place the atoms in
(rarely), and in certain dermatological uses. the form of the three letters,
the scientists used a special tip
on scanning tunneling microscope (STM) to push the atoms into place. The
bumps you see in the photo (p. 37) are individual atoms. They have been
moved precisely into position, in a row, one half nanometer from each
other.
Ss
See Chapter 3 for more information about nanotechnology micro-
scopes.
INSIDE THE ATOM: SUBATOMIC PARTICLES

The three basic kinds of subparticles that make up the atom consist
of neutrons, protons, and electrons.
Neutrons and Protons

Almost all the mass of an atom is in the nucleus. The nucleus lies at the
center of the atom. The nucleus consists of two types of particles, protons
and neutrons. These two particles are called nucleons, the building
blocks of the atomic nuclei.
The protons have a positive electric charge. Neutrons do not have
any electric charge; therefore they are an electrically neutral subatomic
particles of the nucleus. The strong nuclear force binds protons and
neutrons together to make the nucleus.
Electrons
Electrons exist outside the nucleus. Electrons carry a negative charge,
equal in magnitude and opposite to the charge of a proton. An electron
is 1/1836 the mass of a proton and is much smaller. Electrons carry elec-
trical current and the manipulation of these electrons allows electronic
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In 1989, scientists at the IBM Research Center in San Jose, California

conducted an interesting activity using atoms. The scientists manipulated
35 atoms of the gas, xenon (Xe), to write the letters, IBM. (Courtesy IBM)
devices to function. The electron is a subatomic particle that carries an

electric charge. When electrons are in motion, they produce an electric
current and a magnetic field. Since the nucleus (protons and neutrons)
and electrons have opposite charges, electrical forces hold the atom
together.
Isotopes
Isotopes of a particular element have the same number of protons, but
have a different number of neutrons. If you could change the number
of neutrons an atom has, you could make an isotope of that element.
MODELS OF THE ATOMS

Scientists use models to describe and represent the atom. There are
several models of the atom to form a concrete or mental picture of
what an atom looks like. One model developed by Niels Bohr in 1913
illustrates the atom as having a central nucleus with electrons orbiting
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Figure 2.1 Atom diagram. (Courtesy of Jeff Dixon)
around it. In the 1920s scientists improved on the model of the atom.
One theory is that the electrons move about in a cloud-like region
surrounding the nucleus. The electron cloud represents some probable
locations of where the electrons are likely to be at a set time.
These models should not be interpreted as any visual representation
of an atomic model or as a recreation of an actual atom. The best models
are those that are purely mathematical. However, the atomic model
images do help as a guide in understanding concepts in chemistry and
other sciences.
Early Atomic Theory by Empedocles and Democritus

Empedocles was a Greek philosopher and scientist who lived in Sicily
between 492 B.C. and 432 B.C. One of his theories was to describe things
around us. Empedocles proposed that all matter was composed of four
elements: fire, air, water, and Earth. As an example, stone was believed to
contain a higher amount of Earth than the other elements. The rabbit
was believed to contain a higher amount of both water and fire than the
other two elements.
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Another Greek philosopher, Democritus, who lived from 460 B.C.

to 370 B.C., developed another theory of matter. He believed that all
matter was made of tiny parts. He demonstrated his idea by stating if
someone continued to cut an object into smaller and smaller pieces, you
would reach the point where the piece was so tiny that it could no longer
be cut up and divided. Democritus called these small pieces of matter
atomos, meaning “indivisible.” He suggested that atomos, or atoms, were
eternal and could not be destroyed. During his time, Democritus did
not have the means that could prove or disprove his theory or even
test it.
Atomic Number and Atomic Mass

The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom determines an
element’s atomic number. In other words, each element has a unique
number that identifies how many protons are in one atom of that el-
ement. For example, all hydrogen atoms, and only hydrogen atoms,
contain one proton and have an atomic number of 1. All carbon atoms,
and only carbon atoms, contain six protons and have an atomic number
of 6. Oxygen atoms contain 8 protons and have an atomic number of 8.
The atomic number of an element never changes.
Atomic masses of elements, however, depend on the number of neu-
trons as well as protons in an atom and differ from their atomic numbers.
Atomic mass is indicated in the periodic table of elements as Atomic Mass
Units (AMU) and is a larger value than the atomic number.
ATOMS AND MOLECULES

Nanotechnology is all about the manipulation of atoms and
molecules. Atoms seldom exist in a solitary state. Occasionally, atoms
join together with their own
kind of element. Sometimes,
the atom joins together with
You may want to see the video, NanoMani-
pulator: Seeing and Touching Molecules. http://
other elements. When an www.nanotech-now.com/multimedia.htm
atom of one element chem-
ically combines with an atom of another kind of element, they form a
compound. For example, water (H2 0) is a compound made from two
elements, hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O). The smallest part of the com-
pound is a molecule, a combination of two or more atoms.
Molecules range in size from a few atoms to thousands of atoms. How
do atoms join together to form molecules?
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MOLECULES AND CHEMICAL BONDING

Knowing how molecules bond together is important in understanding
how nanostructures can be manufactured.
Molecules are combinations of atoms held together by chemical
bonds. A chemical bond is actually an electrostatic force between elec-
trons and protons and between atoms and molecules. One research
article stated the electrostatic force is quite strong. Electrostatic forces
are more than 1000 times as strong as gravitational forces. The chemical
and physical properties of matter result from the ability of atoms to form
bonds from electrostatic forces. There are two main types of chemical
bonds that hold those atoms together. They are called ionic bonds and
covalent bonds.
Ionic Bonding
Atoms can lose or gain electrons forming an ion, which has a net
electric charge. A negative charged ion, called an anion (pronounced
/AN-ion/), is formed when an atom or a special group of atoms gains
additional electrons. When an atom loses some electrons, a positive
charged ion is created called a cation (pronounced CAT-ion).
Ionic bonding takes place between two oppositely charged ions, an
anion and a cation. Ions may consist of a single atom or multiple atoms,
in which a group of atoms is called a “polyatomic ion.” Examples of
polyatomic anions include: carbonate ion, which is composed of carbon
and oxygen; and sulfate ion, which is composed of sulfur and oxygen.
An example of a polyatomic cation is ammonium ion, which consists of
nitrogen and hydrogen. Cations are usually metal atoms and anions are
either nonmetals or polyatomic ions (ions with more than one atom).
The attraction of the two charges holds the atoms or molecules together.
Electrostatic forces hold ionic bonds together. Many compounds made
up of an anion and cation will dissolve in water, so that the two ions
separate in the water and make an ionic solution. Ionic solutions are
used for treating and cleaning the eye.
Ionic bonding occurs between an element that is a metal and one that
is a nonmetal. The majority of geological materials, such as minerals and
rocks, feature ionic bonding, predominantly.
Covalent Bonds and Monomers

Covalent chemical bonds are different from ionic bonding. Covalent
bonding involves the sharing of a pair of electrons by two atoms. A
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molecule of water, written H2 0, is held together by covalent bonds. The

two elements, hydrogen and oxygen, share electrons.
Covalent bonding occurs between two elements that are nonmetals.
Much of the matter of substances in your everyday life, the solids, liquids,
and gases, are the results of covalent bonding. Covalent bonds occur
in all sorts of organic substances, including materials associated with
living things, such as plant or animal tissue, food, and the like. Covalent
bonding predominates in biological systems, although ions have very
important roles in these systems, too.
A Monomer
A small molecule that is held together by covalent bonding is called
a monomer (from Greek mono “one” and meros “part”). Examples of
monomers are hydrocarbons that consist only of the elements carbon
(C) and hydrogen (H). Hydrocarbons are combustible when they com-
bine with oxygen. They are the main components of fossil fuels, which
include petroleum, coal, and natural gas. When the covalent bonds of
these types of substances are broken they will release energy, which is
what occurs when fossil fuels burn.
From Monomers to Polymers

Monomers may become chemically bonded to several other similar
monomers to form a polymer. A polymer is a term used to describe a
very long molecule consisting of structural units and repeating units
connected by covalent chemical bonds. When monomers are linked
together to each other during a chemical reaction, it is called poly-
merization. Often polymerization occurs as a chain reaction, which will
continue until a large number of the monomers have combined (poly-
merized) with each other. The result of polymerization is a chain or
other network of linked monomers that can be formed into fibers,
sheets, fabrics, foams, or other structures, depending on the type of
polymer.
Polymers can occur naturally, mainly in living organisms, or synthet-
ically, through manufacturing. A few general examples of naturally oc-
curring polymers include proteins, starches, and cellulose. Starches are
polymers composed of sugars. Latex, from the sap of rubber trees, can
be made to polymerize into latex rubber. The genetic materials DNA and
RNA found in chromosomes and cells are also types of polymers. Several
natural fibers such as wool, silk, and spider web thread are polymers.
Scientists and engineers study the formation, structure, and properties
of such natural polymers as models for synthetic nanomaterials.
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Figure 2.2 Polymer. (Courtesy of Jeff Dixon)
Polymers and Nanotechnology

Polymerization is commonly used for making nanoscale materials
and other materials as well. Polymerization is used to create the plastic
materials found in thou-
sands of strong, flexible, and Did you know?
lightweight products in your DNA is another example of a polymer.
everyday life. Some familiar
examples of polymers include the common plastics, polystyrene, and
polyethylene. These kinds of polymers are used in everything from
food containers and packaging materials to cars, boats, and comput-
ers. Polyvinyl alcohol is a main ingredient in latex paints, hair sprays,
shampoos, and glues, and waxes and oils. Let’s look at some examples
of applications of polymerization in nanotechnology.
Polymer-Based Nanosponges
At the Los Alamos National Laboratory in Los Alamos, New Mexico,
scientists have developed a reusable polymer-based nanosponge. The
nanosponge has nanometer-sized pores that can absorb and trap or-
ganic contaminants in water. The Nanosponge polymer can be used
to clean up organic explosives and oil or organic chemical spills espe-
cially in water, while decreasing clean up costs associated with present
technologies. The nanosponge is made up of polymeric building blocks
that form cylindrical cages to trap organics. After the sponges are satu-
rated with contaminants, they can be rinsed with ethanol to remove the
contaminants and the nanosponge can then be reused.
The polymer sponge has multiple applications. For example, a poly-
mer designed as a membrane can be placed on a water faucet. The
membrane can be used to treat and purify the water for drinking and
cooking uses. One advantage of using polymers is that they are inex-
pensive to manufacture and can be used in a variety of water treatment
systems.
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Polymer Solar Cells

In the hope of making solar energy more useful and affordable, sev-
eral scientists have been working on creating organic photovoltaic cells.
Their goal is to replace the usual silicon (S) with readily available ma-
terials such as carbon (C). If they succeed, designers could one day
integrate solar cells into everyday gadgets like iPods and cell phones.
Even the energy absorbed by window tinting could be used to power a
laptop, for example.
One team of researchers at the University of California have devel-
oped an organic photovoltaic cell that uses a polymer, or plastic, material
in a unique way. Like other organic solar cells, the plastic material in
their prototype includes a polymer material. The material, composed of
common chemicals, is sandwiched between conductive electrodes. Pho-
tons in the sunlight “knock” electrons from the polymer onto one of
the electrodes. This causes an electrical imbalance where one electrode
becomes positively charged while the other is negatively charged. When
this happens an electrical current is created. See Chapter 8 for more
information about solar cells.
A Unique Class of Synthetic Polymers, Dendrimers

One unique class of polymers is dendrimers. Dendrimers play an
important role in nanotechnology. Dendrimers, which are synthesized
from monomers, are tree-
like highly branched poly- Did you know?
mer molecules that are Dendrimer comes from the Greek word dendra,
about 3 nanometers across. meaning tree. The term dendritic describes any-
Several different kinds of thing that has a branched, tree-like structure.
dendrimers have been syn-
thesized. They can be very useful in low-cost plastics such as radiator
hoses, weather stripping, and gasket seals. In biotechnology applica-
tions, dendrimers are useful for their antiviral properties.
Dendrimers and Drug Delivery

Nanotechnology has the potential to be very useful for improving drug
delivery in treating patients with illnesses and diseases. The delivery of
drugs into the body cannot be a hit or miss effort. The drug molecules
have to find the exact place in the body where they can be the most
effective. An anticancer drug needs to be delivered to a tumor where it
can do the most good. You do not want the anticancer drug delivered
to another organ in the body.
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Dendrimers have several advantages in drug delivery; Dendrimers

can hold a drug’s molecules in their structure and deliver the drug to
a particular part of the body such as a tumor. Dendrimers can enter
cells easily and release drugs on target and don’t trigger immune system
responses.
Dendrimers can also be used for chemical analysis and diagnosis of
the human body and to locate, diagnose, and then treat tumors or other
sick cells. However, more research in safety issues needs to be done.
Dendrimers are of particular interest for cancer applications. One
important factor is that it is easy to attach a large variety of other
molecules to the surface of
Did you know? a dendrimer. These mole-
The term dendrimer was first used and patented by cules could include tumor-
Donald Tomalia and others and Dow Chemical in targeting agents that can
the 1980s. pinpoint tumors, deliver an
anticancer drug to a tumor,
and may detect if the cancer drug is working.
MOLECULAR SELF-ASSEMBLY AND NANOFABRICATION

The term used for the manufacturing of nanoproducts and nanostruc-
tures is nanofabrication. One branch of nanofabrication is self-assembly.
Self-assembly is a strategy in which objects and devices, such as atoms
and molecules, can arrange themselves into an orderly structure or final
product without any outside assistance. Self-assembly could occur if you
could shake a box of separated puzzle pieces, then look inside the box
to see a finished puzzle. The puzzle pieces self-assembled. Materials that
self-assemble include snowflakes, salt crystals, and soap bubbles. Each
one arranges itself into a pattern.
In the human body, the self-assembly process is similar to the way your
bones grow. Individual molecules are formed layer by layer on a surface
of the bone. Self-assembly occurs spontaneously when the human body
converts food, water, and air into a variety of acids, sugars, and minerals.
From these materials cells, blood, tissues, and muscles are created. All
of these biological functions are due to the self-assembly of molecules
in the human body which continue to build and repair cells and store
energy all day long.
What is the advantage of using self-assembling in nanofabrication?
One major reason is that to design and assemble nanoparticles atom by
atom to make a lot of products is too slow and costly. Also, the atoms
are too small for anyone to direct, find, and place individually and
quickly.
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Self-Assembly. Many researchers are exploring self-assembly of molecules at

the nanoscale to produce structures. In this activity, middle school students
are modeling how self-assembly takes place. In this activity several LEGO R
blocks are placed peg-side down on water. In time, the bricks will interact
with the surface tension of the water and with each other to assemble into
a pattern. (Courtesy Dean Campbell)
SOAP BUBBLES SELF-ASSEMBLE

Soap molecules can self-assemble into bubbles when you blow air
through a soapy loop. The soap bubble molecules form two layers that
contain a layer of water in between. The soap forms a monolayer on
the inside and a monolayer on the outside of the water. Each layer of
soap is a self-assembled monolayer. The distance between the outer and
inner layers of the bubble is about 150 nanometers. But the soap layer
can become a bubble only when the conditions are just right. You need
mostly air and very little water.
USING THE SELF-ASSEMBLY STRATEGY TO MAKE PRODUCTS

About one-quarter of the 2,000 or so nanotechnology projects the Na-
tional Science Foundation now sponsors involve molecular self-assembly.
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Molecular self-assembly is the most important of the nanoscale fabrica-

tion techniques because it’s fast, inexpensive, and produces less waste.
Some of the major companies investing heavily in self-assembly in-
clude Merck, Pfizer, 3M, IBM, and Hewlett-Packard. About one-quarter
of the 2,000 or so nanotechnology projects the National Science Foun-
dation now sponsors involve self-assembly.
Many soft or fluid consumer products such as foods, paints, deter-
gents, personal care products, and cosmetics contain nanometer struc-
tures that are formed by the self-assembly of molecules.
OTHER APPLICATIONS OF MOLECULAR SELF-ASSEMBLY

Self-Assembly in Medicine
Using the self-assembly process in medicine applications could greatly
improve orthopedic implants. The average life of an implant today is
about 15 years, according to the American Academy of Orthopedic
Surgeons. When implants fail in the body, they often break or crack the
bone they are attached to. It is also very difficult to get bone to grow on
the implant, which is usually made of titanium or ceramics.
Researchers have developed a special coating comprising molecules
that self-assemble into a structure similar to that of bone. The research
shows that when such a coating is applied to an implant, bone cells adapt
to these structures and grow onto them.
In another research project, scientists have designed artificial
molecules that self-assemble to form structures that they think could be
used to create a piece of artificial spinal cord. The artificial spinal cord
could help paralyzed patients regain some mobility. The self-assembled
molecule structures would act as a scaffold in which spinal-cord tissue
or bone tissue could regenerate.
Self-assembly could change the nature of drug making too. A re-
search group in Rochester, New York, is working on molecules that can
self-assemble into drugs. The drugs would have the potential to sense
cells with a disease and target them with treatments. The self-assembled
molecules bind to specific genes that cause certain genetic diseases and
this process blocks the genes from functioning. Of course, self-assembly
in drug making still has to be proven nontoxic to humans. Human
clinical trials are necessary. There is also the lengthy federal approval
process to go through. Plus, scientists have yet to learn how to design
the right molecules and figure out how to force them to assemble in
certain ways.
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NanoSonic, Inc.
Several companies use molecular self-assembly to make products. One
of the companies, NanoSonic Inc., is located in Blacksburg, Virginia,
The company’s team of researchers is headed by the president, Dr.
Richard Claus, a professor at Virginia Tech. NanoSonic Inc. makes a
patented material called Metal RubberTM using a molecular layering
process, known as electrostatic self-assembly.
Metal RubberTM looks like brown plastic wrap, and has some amazing
properties, including elasticity. “We can stretch it to about 200 to 300
percent of its original length, and it relaxes back,” says Dr. Claus. “It’s
very tough. We can expose it to chemicals. We can put it in jet fuel. We
can hit it with acetone. We can boil it in water overnight, and it doesn’t
mechanically or chemically degrade. We can heat it up to about . . . 700
Fahrenheit. It won’t burn. We can drop it down to about . . . minus 167
degrees Fahrenheit, and it maintains its properties.”
To make Metal RubberTM , the scientists at Nanosonic built it molecule
by molecule. The nanotechnology process that is used is called electro-
static molecular self-assembly. “The Metal RubberTM virtually assembles
itself,” says Dr. Claus.
The scientists start with a plastic or glass substrate, or base, that they
have given an electric charge, either positive or negative. Then they
dip the substrate alternately into two water-based solutions. One so-
lution contains ionic molecules that have been given a positive elec-
trical charge (cations). The other solution contains ionic molecules
that have a negative charge. If the substrate has a positive charge,
it goes into the negative molecules first. The molecules cling to
the substrate, forming a layer only one molecule thick. After the
next dipping, into positive molecules, a second ultrathin layer forms.
Making Metal RubberTM , Dr. Claus explains, is like “making a layer
cake.”
Dr. Claus says that with Metal RubberTM , nanotechnology has pro-
duced a material with many potential uses. One of the most exciting is
to make what he calls “morphing aircraft structures. These are aircraft
that dynamically change the shape of their wings and their control sur-
faces during flight,” he explains. “Almost the way that a hawk might fly
along, see prey, and change its shape to dive down. For a plane, you
need a material that’s mechanically flexible. But you also need a mate-
rial with a surface that’s controlled by sensors and electrical conductors
that allow it to do that sensing and change shape accordingly.”
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NANO INTERVIEW: DR. RICHARD CLAUS, PRESIDENT

OF NANOSONIC
Dr. Richard Claus is president of NanoSonic, Inc., located in
Blacksburg, Virginia. Dr. Claus responded to questions from students
at the ForwardVIEW Academy in North Kingstown, Rhode Island.
The students under the guidance of their chemistry teacher, Ms.
Catherine Marcotte, were involved in doing many of the activities in
the NanoSonic Kit. The following are questions that they addressed to
Dr. Claus.
What made you (Dr. Claus) want to study nanotech?

I was teaching engineering at Virginia Tech and one of the students in
my group started a small project in the lab. That was in the early 1990s,
and I have been interested ever since.
What college did you go to?
Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore.
What was your major?
As an undergraduate, I majored in Arts and Sciences. As a graduate
student, I majored in Engineering.
How did you get started in Nanotechnology?
I was working on the faculty at Virginia Tech and doing work with
a number of students in the area of optical fibers. We had a project
with a company to put magnetic coatings onto a fiber, and the stu-
dent mentioned above tried a “nanotechnology” process to apply the
coating.
When did you get your first idea about starting NanoSonic?
Again, I was teaching at Virginia Tech, and another company came to
us and asked us to do a project with them. The university could not
approve the legal terms and conditions of the contract proposed by the
company, so we went off campus and started our own company to do
the work. Our objective was really just to support a graduate student and
not to start a company.
Who comes up with all the NanoSonic ideas?
We all do. We currently have 62 people at NanoSonic, and they are a very
interesting mix of individuals with very different technical backgrounds
and experiences. Most of our ideas are due to the combination of sug-
gestions from our chemists and engineers and production people. One
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of our key laboratory staff people has a background and education in

art, and we depend on her extensively for suggestions.
Does nanotechnology have any impact on your life?
Directly, no. But there are lots of parts of my life that relate to nanotech-
nology that seem more fun now, like why the sky is blue (really) and how
I can prevent the inside of my car windows from fogging.
What is the best thing you have ever done involving nanotechnology?
The best thing I have ever done has been hiring good people who know
a lot more about many different aspects of nanotechnology and practical
manufacturing than I do. They are the ones who do all of the work.
Has studying this field changed the way you look at some things?
Yes, as I mentioned earlier. One example is that nanoparticles are in a
number of normal household products, like suntan lotion. A few months
ago, a group of us went to the local drugstore and spent about an hour
looking at ingredients on the backs of suntan lotion products.
How did you start the company?
When Virginia Tech did not want to pursue the project with the company
I mentioned above, we started the company the following afternoon
online using a credit card. It took about 15 minutes.
Is your job fun?
Yes, very much.
Can you cut Metal RubberTM ?
Yes, with a pair of scissors or a knife. It has the consistency of a mouse
pad.
Could you send a small sample of Metal RubberTM to our school?
Let me see if the people down in the production area have anything we
can send.
Could you visit our school?
I would be glad to if I am up your way.
What led to your making Metal RubberTM ?
Several of us went to a large international conference and heard a talk
by a professor at a major research university. He said that no one would
ever make anything big and thick using self-assembly processing. The
person next to me, Dr. Jennifer Lalli, turned to me and whispered, “We
can do that!” Within a few weeks, Dr. Lalli and her group had made our
first Metal RubberTM materials.
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Are you taking the measures to protect the environment from the
pollution of the process (is there any?) of making Metal RubberTM
because it will stop a lot of problems in the future?
Yes, we are. The byproducts of the production process are not significant
pollutants, but we work closely with our town to properly handle and
treat all of the materials that we generate.
Where would you dispose of Metal RubberTM ?
In a landfill most probably. Again, it is pretty much like a mousepad.
Is it environmentally safe and biodegradable?
Safe, yes. Biodegradable, no. It is something like milk jug containers—
they are safe but will not degrade in a landfill for a long time.
Can you recycle it into something else?
Yes, we can. I was on the phone about this in particular about an hour
ago.
How did you hear about nanotech?
Meetings and conferences mostly, and technical journals. I was a profes-
sor at Virginia Tech for about 30 years, so I did a lot of reading about
science and engineering. I still do.
NANO ACTIVITY: NANOTECHNOLOGY DEMONSTRATION KIT

FROM NANOSONIC
You can learn more about self-assembly by doing some of the ex-
periments in a nanotechnology school kit produced by Dr. Claus and
the scientists at NanoSonic Inc. The Nanotechnology Demonstration
kit provides experiments that are designed for middle and high school
science classes. The kit contains all of the materials you need for 24
students. Instructions, worksheets, teacher aids, and a resource CD are
provided.
The purpose of the Nanotechnology Demonstration Kit is to allow
secondary school students to learn about nanotechnology and next
generation materials by making and testing nanostructured materials
by themselves using a minimum of laboratory supplies and ordinary tap
water.
The kit is divided into five units that will introduce students to the
following concepts.
r Nanotechnology and nanostructured materials

r Chemical bonding
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r Electrostatics
r Electrostatic self-assembly
r Fabrication of their own nanostructured film
To learn more about the kit, contact NanoSonic, www.nanosonic.com

Ms. Catherine Marcotte, a science teacher and her high school classes,
had the opportunity to use the Nanotechnology Demonstration Kit of
activities produced by Professor Richard Claus of NanoSonic, Inc, and
the manufacturer of Metal RubberTM . Her class interviewed Dr. Richard
Claus and asked him questions about his work. I asked Ms. Marcotte
to comment on her experiences as a science teacher and her thoughts
about the world at the nanoscale. Here are her comments.
“I am currently in my eleventh year teaching varied science topics to
small, mixed groups of secondary school students at an alternative pub-
lic school program called ForwardVIEW Academy in North Kingstown,
Rhode Island.
“Most often, each spring or summer, a science theme, such as energy,
water, or science, society, and technology as in this year, seems to be in
the air that becomes the core of my plans for the coming school year.
Other times, the course is chosen and serendipity works its magic. Basic
chemistry was the focus that year and, coincidentally, nanotechnology
seemed to be on the cover of every magazine.
“Then, I had the pleasure to meet the author Mr. John Mongillo,
who brought everything together with a lab kit for high school science
involving nanotechnology by NanoSonic, Inc., which he wanted to co-
teach with me in my classes. I was thrilled. It fit in perfectly and also
provided the perfect segue to this year’s technology theme.
“The kit gave students the opportunity to apply the concepts of nan-
otechnology, such as self-assembly, in making a film on a glass slide one
molecule layer at a time! In the unit, students were reminded of atomic
structure and learned of electrostatics, and were also made aware of the
many careers available in the growing field of nanotechnology.
“Later, through John, the students and I had a rewarding conversa-
tion with the President of NanoSonic, Inc., Dr. Richard Claus, by writing
questions for Dr. Claus to which he kindly responded by email. The
entire experience brought the classes’ imaginations far beyond the con-
fines of the classroom, from the uses for flexible Metal RubberTM to even
a lovely house in the misty, morning hills of Blacksburg, Virginia, and
the thoughtful musings of a scientist and company president in answer
to the question, “Why do you say your job is fun?”
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“There is a comfort available in studying nature at its unimaginably

small, and learning about the incredible advances in nanotechnology.
The rewards are wonder and amazement at the depth of order and
beauty in the physical world. While we thinking humans are capable of
appreciating this, we are also capable of that which can seem the antithe-
sis of order and beauty. Nature can seem more reliable. Learning more
about our world on the nanoscale and realizing our own membership
in it can, I think, provide a sense of reassuring continuity.”
READING MATERIAL
Gross, Michael. Travels to the Nanoworld: Miniature Machinery in Nature and Technology.
New York: Perseus Books Group, 2001.
Jones, R. L. Soft Machines: Nanotechnology and Life. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University
Press, 2004.
Krummenacker, Markus, and James J. Lewis. J. Prospects in Nanotechnology: Toward
Molecular Manufacturing. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1995.
Mulhall, Douglas. Our Molecular Future: How Nanotechnology, Robotics, Genetics, and
Artificial Intelligence will Transform Our World. Amherst, N.Y: Prometheus Books,
2002.
Sargent, Ted. The Dance of the Molecules: How Nanotechnology Is Changing Our Lives.
New York: Thunder’s Mouth Press, 2006.
Smalley, R.E. Carbon Nanotubes: Synthesis, Structure, Properties and Applications. New
York: Springer, 2001.
VIDEOS
(Please note that playing the videos will require different plug-in applications, which
means you may need to download the proper video player.)
What is Matter? http://www.wpsu.org/nano/lessonplan detail.php?lp id=21
What is a Molecule? http://www.wpsu.org/nano/media/Molecule.mov
Electrostatic Self-Assembly. NanoSonic. http://www.nanosonic.com/schoolkits/
schoolkitsFS.html
Nanoparticles—Chemistry, Structure and Function. Presented by: Karen L. Wooley,
PhD, Professor Washington University in Saint Louis, Department of Chemistry.
http://www.blueskybroadcast.com/Client/ARVO/
Dendritic Polymer Adhesives for Corneal Wound Repair, Presented by: Mark W.
Grinstaff, PhD, Associate Professor of Biomedical Engineering and Chemistry,
Metcalf Center for Science and Engineering. http://www.blueskybroadcast.com/
Client/ARVO/
Nanowires and Nanocrystals for Nanotechnology. Yi Cui is an Assistant Pro-
fessor in the Materials Science and Engineering Department at Stanford.
video.google.com/videoplay?docid=6571968052542741458
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WEB SITES
Big Picture on NanoScience: http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/node5954.html
Nanozine—This site is a Nanotechnology magazine with many definitions and links
to other nanoscience sites.
Foresight Nanotech Institute: http://www.foresight.org/
NASA and Self-Replicating Systems:http://www.zyvex.com/nanotech/selfRepNASA
.html
How Stuff Works: How Nanotechnology Will Work:
Animated narrative shows how nanotechnology has the potential to totally change
manufacturing, health care and many other areas.
http://www.howstuffworks.com/nanotechnology.htm
SOMETHING TO DO
Make soap bubbles to learn about self-assembly. Exploratorium.
http://www.exploratorium.edu/snacks/soap bubbles.html
Nanoscale Activity: NanoSugar. Introduces the idea of a nanometer and ties in the
surface area to volume concept, University of Wisconsin.
http://mrsec.wisc.edu/Edetc/IPSE/educators/nanoSugar.html
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The Nanotechnology
Tool Box
How do you “see” and manipulate matter at the nanoscale? What kinds
of tools do you need to observe what atoms and molecules look like, and
once you “see” them, how do
you pick them up and move
them around? Amazing Creatures with Nanoscale Features,
the video is an introduction to microscopy
This chapter will focus on
and applications of nanoscale properties.
some of the tools, such as http://www.cneu.psu.edu/edToolsActivities
the present state-of-the-art .html.
microscopes and how they
operate in the nanoworld.
When you have time, you can see a video of one of these state-of
the-art microscopes in action.
OPTICAL MICROSCOPES
Many of us have used an optical microscope at home or in the class-
room. Optical microscopes focus visible light through a combination
of lenses to produce a magnified image of an object, say a flea’s leg.
Scientists used glass lenses and mirrors to focus and magnify light on an
object. To increase the magnification of a microscope, more lenses are
added to the instrument.
Optical microscopy can distinguish objects in the micrometer range,
which is about 10−6 meters. However, the resolution power of these
instruments is limited to revealing objects down to about 200 nanome-
ters to 250 nanometers magnifications. The tiniest objects we could see
would include red blood cells and small bacteria.
Optical microscopes have technical limitations too. A bacterium can
be seen through a microscope that works with visible light because the
bacterium is larger than the wavelength of visible light. However, tinier
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objects such as atoms, molecules, and viruses are invisible because they
are smaller than the wavelength of visible light. Therefore, they do not
reflect the light of the image toward our eyes.
Although the optical microscope allows us to see many images, it
leaves a lot of objects that we cannot see, such as viruses, atoms,
molecules, and the DNA he-
Did you know? lix. To see these objects, we
The objects we can see with our eyes are light wave- need other kinds of nonop-
lengths in the 400 to 750 nanometers. tical microscopes, called na-
nomicroscopes.
SCANNING PROBE MICROSCOPES

Scanning probe microscopes (SPM) are nano instruments that are
used to study the surface of materials at the nanoscale. The two major
kinds are the scanning tunneling microscope (STM) and the atomic
force microscope (AFM). SPM enables resolution of features down to
about 1 nanometer in height, allowing imaging of single atoms under
ideal conditions.
Both scanning probe microscopes can provide pictures of atoms on
or in surfaces. The study of surfaces is an important part of physics, with
particular applications in semiconductor physics and microelectronics.
In chemistry, surface chemical reactions also play an important part,
for example, in the process of catalysis. A catalyst is a substance that
produces a change that is used to increase the rate of a chemical reaction
by creating conditions that make the reaction easier to proceed.
SURFACE AREA TO VOLUME AT THE NANOSCALE

Why is the microscope study of surfaces and surface areas so impor-
tant? Remember in Chapter 2, you read about the difference in surface
area per unit of volume at the nanoscale.
In the nanoworld, the relationship between surface area and volume
is important because the ratio of surface area to volume increases as
objects get smaller and smaller. See illustration and example in Chap-
ter 2. Therefore, since most chemical and physical changes happen on
surfaces, the more surface area the object has the more physical or
chemical changes that can take place. Confused? The next time you
break up one large sugar cube into smaller pieces, you are creating
more surface area in each sugar particles per volume. That is why the
particles will dissolve faster (a physical change) in a liquid than the one
large cube. The sugar particles have more surface area per volume than
the one large cube.
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The Nanotechnology Tool Box 57
Scanning Tunneling Microscopes (STM)

The first scanning probe instrument was the scanning tunneling mi-
croscope (STM). The scanning tunneling microscope (STM) can show
three-dimensional images of individual atoms at the surface.
Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer of IBM’s Zurich Laboratory in
Zurich, Switzerland invented this microscope in 1981. The two scientists
received a Nobel Prize in Physics in 1986 for their innovation of the STM.
How Does the STM Work?

Scanning tunneling microscope (STM) uses a probe (the tip) to move
over the surface of the material being studied.
The tip of the probe, usually composed of tungsten or platinum, is
extremely sharp. The tip, which consists of a single atom, is attached to
cantilever that looks like a toy diving board with a sharp tip under one
end of it.
The tip slowly scans across the surface at a distance of only an atom’s
diameter. The tip is raised and lowered in order to keep the signal con-
stant and maintain the distance. A small force measures the attraction or
repulsion between the tip and the surface of the sample during scanning.
These forces, causing an up and down movement of the cantilever, are
monitored by a laser beam reflecting off the cantilever surface. Record-
ing the up and down movement of the tip makes it possible to study
the structure of the surface sample. A profile of the wiggled surface is
created, and from that a computer-generated image is produced. The
final image is a contour map of the surface showing trenches and valleys.
The STM works best with conducting materials, but does not work well
with insulators such as rubber.
The STM has many uses and applications in nanotechnology. The
STM can image materials from DNA samples and other biological
molecules. Another exam-
ple is that STM has been Did you know?
used to study the surface The Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM) is very
of operating battery elec- sensitive to vibrations. Just someone sneezing in the
same room, can jam the microscope’s tip into the
trodes through which elec-
sample and damage the experiment.
tricity enters or leaves.
Atomic Force Microscopes (AFM)

The atomic force microscope is sometimes called a Scanning Force
Microscope. The AFM measures the interaction forces between probe
tip and sample.
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Figure 3.1 How an AFM works. (Courtesy of Jeff Dixon)
How Does the AFM Work?

AFM is part of a family of instruments called scanning probe micro-
scopes (SPM). AFM uses a probe moving across the sample’s surface to
identify its features. The probe is a sharp tip, usually made of silicon, at
the end of a cantilever that bends in response to the force between the
tip and the sample being viewed. Any deflection from the sample is mea-
sured and the AFM records the surface topography. The topography is
the projections (lumps), depressions (pits), and textures of a surface.
The tip never touches the sample surface because it could damage it.
AFMs are widely used to measure surface topography of many types of
samples.
The atomic force microscope can be operated under two different
conditions (in air or in a vacuum) and two operating modes (contact
or noncontact). Whatever the condition or mode, the basic operating
principles of the AFM remain the same. The AFM uses a probe that
has a tip mounted on a flexible cantilever. The tip is slowly scanned
across the surface of a material, just a few angstroms away from the
surface (noncontact mode) or in contact with it (contact mode). An
angstrom is one tenth (0.1) of a nanometer. The force between the
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Table 3.1 Some Samples of Objects That Can Be

Observed by an Atomic Force Microscope
Cells: Bacteria, Plants

Ceramics
Fiber: Hair, Nanotubes
Metals
Minerals
Molecules: Self-Assembled Monolayers, Proteins
Paper
Particles: Nanoparticles, Quantum Dots
Plant Surfaces: Leaves, Fruit
Polymers
Note: AFM can image objects that are solid and have a
surface.
atoms on the surface of the material and those on the tip cause the tip
to deflect. This deflection can be recorded in various ways, the most
common of which uses a laser focused on the top of the cantilever
and reflected onto photodetectors. A laser is a special type of ampli-
fied light beam and is an essential part of CD and DVD players and
recorders.
The photodetector signals are used to map the surface topography
of samples with resolutions down to the nanoscale. At the nanoscale,
the microscope is able to determine roughness, grain size, and features.
The number of applications for AFM has increased dramatically since
the technology was invented in 1986. Presently, the AFM microscopes
are used for a variety of
applications in industrial Did you know?
and scientific research that An angstrom is very small. An angstrom is a unit of
includes such areas as mi- length equal to one-hundredth millionth of a cen-
croelectronics, telecommu- timeter or 10−8 . Remember, a nanometer is 10−9 .
nications, biological, chem- Chemists and physicists measure the distances in
ical, automotive, aerospace, molecules or wavelengths of light in angstroms.
and energy industries. Re-
searchers also employ the AFM as a tool to investigate a wide range
of materials such as thin and thick film coatings, ceramics, composites,
glasses, synthetic and biological membranes, metals, polymers, and semi-
conductors. The continuing application of the AFM systems will lead to
advancements in such areas as drug discovery, life science, electrochem-
istry, polymer science, biophysics, and nano biotechnology.
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In this activity, students are constructing the cantilever section of a

LEGO R
model of a scanning probe microscope. LEGO R
models are built
to understand how a scanning probe microscope works. (Courtesy Dean
Campbell)
The Advantages of AFM

The difference between AFM and other microscopy techniques is
the quality and the measure of resolution. While electron and optical
microscopes provide a standard two-dimensional horizontal view of a
sample’s surface, AFM also provides a vertical view. The resulting images
show the topography of a sample’s surface. While electron microscopes
work in a vacuum, most AFM modes work in dry or liquid environments.
AFM does not require any special sample preparation that could damage
the sample or prevent its reuse.
AFM also can be used for imaging any conducting or nonconducting
surface properties of a substance, while the STM is limited to imaging
only conducting surfaces of a sample. The AFM is a major part of the
$1 billion nanotechnology measurement tools market that is expected
to continue to grow at about 20 percent a year.
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AFM Tips
AFM tips are generally made of silicon or silicon nitride. For most
applications, pyramid-shaped silicon nitride tips are used. They are rel-
atively durable and present a dry surface to the sample. Conical sili-
con tips are often used for biomolecular applications because they are
very sharp and present a wet surface. However, they are relatively less
durable.
Conventional silicon tips are good for measuring relatively flat sur-
faces, but they do not penetrate the crevices that often exist in small
devices and structures. The silicon tips also wear out quickly, reducing
image resolution.
Magnetic Force Microscopes

The magnetic force microscope (MFM) is another scanning probe
microscope. This microscope has a magnetic tip that is used to probe
the magnetic field above the surface of a sample. The magnetic tip,
mounted on a small cantilever, measures the magnetic interaction be-
tween a sample and a tip. The MFM was developed as an evaluation tool
for measuring the magnetism levels in products.
INTERVIEW: NATHAN UNTERMAN

Mr. Nathan A. Unterman is a physics teacher at the Glenbrook
North High School in Northbrook, Illinois. He teaches physics to high
school juniors and seniors. He and his students have built and used
LEGOR models of the atomic force microscope (AFM) and the mag-
netic force microscope (MFM). The author asked Mr. Unterman about
how his interests in nanotechnology and his work in building LEGOR
models.
How did you get interested nanotechnology?

I attended a Research Experience for Science Teachers program in the
Materials Science department at Northwestern University a few years
ago.
Describe some of your experience in developing Lego models of an
Atomic Force Microscope and a Magnetic Force Microscope.
I was looking for a physical model that could be used in the class-
room for scanning probe microscopes. I also wanted it to be something
where quantitative data could be measured. The University of Wiscon-
sin had a prototype for a LEGOR AFM. I then created a method for
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This is a completed LEGO R

model of a scanning probe microscope. Profes-
sor Dean Campbell and other researchers conceptualize the idea of build-
ing a model of a scanning probe microscope from LEGO R
building blocks.
To construct the model, refer to instructions at the end of this chapter.
(Courtesy Dean Campbell)
quantitative engagement. This engagement included the use of Excel

surface plotting.
How important is the field of nanotechnology in the subject you teach?
In science in general, it is important. In secondary physics, it has not yet
worked its way into the curriculum.
What advice would you give students who want to explore a career in
nanotechnology?
Learn as much science, math, and writing as you can, and make sure
you balance that with the fine and applied arts.
Please describe how the LEGO R
model of the atomic force
microscope works.
The probe is moved over a tray containing an array of balls that repre-
sents the atoms of a sample. The beam from a laser pen in the probe
is reflected off the cantilever of the probe as it scans points on the sur-
face under study. The position of the reflected beam is measured on
a wall-mounted grid and recorded. These positions are recorded in a
spreadsheet and analyzed using the surface plot-graphing tool.
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If a teacher or student wanted to construct the LEGO

R
model of the
scanning probe microscope, would you be able to assist them?
They can refer to the article published in the December 2006 Science
Teacher, or email me at: nunterman@newton.dep.anl.gov
ELECTRON MICROSCOPES
Several different types of electron microscopes exist. Two major
ones include the transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and the
scanning electron micro-
scopy (SEM). Electron mi-
croscopes use electron
Measuring Electrical Properties with an
Electron Force Microscope. Professor
beams instead of visible Wendy Crone, Madison Metropolitan
light, enabling resolution of School District. http://mrsec.wisc.edu/
features down to a few nano- Edetc/cineplex/MMSD/scanning3.html
meters.
Electron microscopes use a beam of high-energy electrons to probe
the sample. Electron microscopes are scientific instruments that use a
beam of highly energetic electrons to examine objects on a very fine
scale. High quality electron microscopes can cost from $250,000 to
$1,000,000. They are one of the most useful instruments in laboratories.
A Scanning Electron Microscope

A scanning electron microscope (SEM) can analyze materials for
information about topography, chemical composition, contamination,
grain size and thickness with far greater depth of field than is possible
with optical microscopy. The depth of field basically means how clear a
three-dimensional image looks.
The topography information analyzed by the SEM includes the sur-
face features of an object such as its texture and hardness. A microscope
operator can observe the shape and size of the grain particles making
up the object and notice if there is any contamination. The compo-
sition data includes the elements and compounds that the object is
composed of. How the atoms are arranged in the pattern of the object
can be detected by the crystallographic. The pattern in the crystal is
formed by the way the atoms in a solid material are connected to one
another.
ERNST ABBE
In the 1870s, a man named Ernst Abbe explained why the resolution
of a microscope is limited. He said that since the microscope uses visible
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light and visible light has a set range of wavelengths, the microscope
can’t produce the image of an object that is smaller than the length of
the light wave.
The Transmission Electron Microscope

The transmission electron Microscope (TEM) was the first type of
electron microscope to be developed. It was developed by Max Knoll and
Ernst Ruska in Germany in 1931. The transmission electron microscope
(TEM) operates on the same basic principles as the light microscope
but uses electrons instead of light. As mentioned earlier, what you can
see with a light microscope is limited by the wavelength of light. TEMs
use electrons as a “light source” and their much lower wavelength makes
it possible to get a resolution a thousand times better than with a light
microscope. The enlarged version of the image of the specimen appears
on a fluorescent screen or in a layer of photographic film.
You can see objects to the order of .2 nanometers. For example, you
can observe and study small details in the cell or other different materials
down to near atomic levels. The microscope’s high magnification range
and resolution has made the TEM a valuable tool in medical, biological,
and materials research.
Transmission electron microscopy has had an important impact on
the knowledge and understanding of viruses and bacteria. The improve-
ment in resolution provided by electron microscopy has allowed vi-
sualization of viruses as the causes of transmissible infectious disease.
Researchers are continuing the use of electron microscopy in the inves-
tigation of such pathogens as SARS and the human monkeypox virus.
SARS is a severe acute respiratory disease in humans which is caused by
the SARS virus. Monkeypox is a rare smallpox-like disease that is most
common in the rain forests of central and West Africa.
How Does the TEM Work?
A light source at the top of the microscope emits a beam of electrons
that travel through a vacuum in the column of the microscope. Instead
of glass lenses focusing the light source in the light microscope, the
TEM uses electromagnetic lenses to focus the electrons into a very thin
beam. The electron beam then travels through the specimen you want
to study. Depending on the density of the material present, some of the
electrons are scattered and disappear from the beam. At the bottom of
the microscope the rest of the electrons hit a fluorescent screen. The
screen shows a shadow-like image of the specimen that can be studied
directly by the operator or photographed with a camera.
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Scanning Electron Microscope

The first Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) debuted in the
1940s but the first commercial instruments were produced in the
1960s.
The SEM is a type of electron microscope capable of producing high-
resolution images of a sample surface. Due to the manner in which the
image is created, SEM images have a characteristic three-dimensional ap-
pearance and are useful for judging the surface structure of the sample.
This scanning electron microscope has a magnification range from15x
to 200, 000x and a resolution of 5 nanometers.
The SEM has the ability to image large areas of the specimen that
includes thin films and bulky materials as well. In general, SEM images
are much easier to interpret than TEM images.
Ss
Bugscope
The Bugscope project is an educational outreach program for K-12 class-
rooms. The project provides a resource to classrooms so that they may
remotely operate a scanning electron microscope to image “bugs” or “crea-
tures” at high magnification. The microscope is remotely controlled in real
time from a classroom computer over the Internet using a Web browser.
BugScope provides a state-of-the-art microscope resource for teachers that
can be readily integrated into classroom activities. Students can peek at ex-
treme close-up views of the insect world via their school computer labs and
for free.
The BugScope project was developed by the BugScope Project Team
and the Imaging Technology Group at the Beckman Institute for Advanced
Science and Technology at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
The scanning electron microscope costs about half a million dollars, and
its main function is for research done at the university by graduate and
postdoctoral students as well as industry.
The team at the institute sets up preset views of the “creatures” provided
by the school. The classroom teacher and students, from a computer station
at their own school, can operate the microscope for other views. Students
watch the images projected on a screen in the front of the computer lab,
and can use their own computer stations to ask questions from the scientists
at the center in Urbana.
The classroom has ownership of the project. The students design their
own experiments and provide their own bugs to be imaged in the micro-
scope. Bugscope provides resources pages with helpful links related to
electron microscopy and bugs. The BugScope Web site: http://bugscope.
beckman.uiuc.edu/
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Bugscope also offers a virtual microscope activity. They recently devel-

oped a Virtual Microscope that allows for Bugscope-type viewing (without
an Internet connection) from precaptured high-resolution image datasets.
They have built both a Virtual Scanning Electron Microscope (Virtual SEM
or VSEM) and a Virtual Light Microscope (VLM). Go to their Web site and
download the Virtual Microscope and give it a try for free!
Ss
HITACHI TABLETOP MICROSCOPE
Hitachi has developed its first tabletop electron microscope, the TM-
1000. The TM-1000 is designed for researchers who want to break
through the limits of the light microscopy and close up to sophisticated
magnifications up to 10,000.
The microscope is compact, easy to use, is ideal for a wide variety
of applications, and has superior resolution for higher magnification
than an optical microscope. The TM-1000 provides a real alternative
to optical microscopes, stereomicroscopes, and confocal laser scanning
microscopes. It has applications for many areas including life science,
food, cosmetics, health care, pharmaceutical, textiles, materials science,
semiconductor, and education.
NANOFABRICATION CLEANROOM FACILITIES

Scientists need a dust-free workspace to use electron microscopes
and other tools effectively to build small-scale circuits and machines.
The workspace facility is called a cleanroom and it is an important part
of nanotechnology research. In fact it is nearly impossible to conduct
nanoscale research without a cleanroom environment.
Why a cleanroom? On the scale of a nanometer, any particle that is
300 nanometers is huge and is capable of causing short circuits in a
nanoscale electronic circuit.
Cleanroom environments can cost approximately 3 million dollars
to install. Most cleanrooms consist of an air filtration system as well as
temperature and humidity control systems. The system constantly moves
the air down to the floor where it is sucked back into the return air system
and then cleaned and sent back into the room. Some cleanrooms have
yellow illumination that allows researchers to work with light sensitive
materials. The yellow illumination prevents light-sensitive material from
being exposed to ultraviolet light.
As researchers enter the cleanroom, special equipment removes dirt
and dust particles from their shoes. The researchers then put on safety
glasses, gloves, and coveralls over their street clothes, shoes, and hair.
All of the garments are made from lint-free fabrics that are antistatic. It
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The Scanning Electron Microscope (FE-SEM) Model S-5500 is produced

by Hitachi High-Technologies Corporation. The capabilities of the instru-
ment bridge many research fields that include pharmaceutical, biological,
and food industry research and nanomanipulation devices for advanced
carbon nanotube research. (Courtesy Hitachi High-Technologies Corporation
(Japan))
may take 40 steps or more to complete the steps needed to get dressed
before entering the cleanroom. Most of us get up in the morning using
between 6 and 9 steps to get dressed.
SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPES

AND PHOTOLITHOGRAPHY
Today the scanning electron microscope is mainly used for the study
of surfaces of materials as well as for the investigation of transpar-
ent specimens. Two major applications for the scanning electron mi-
croscope are for analyzing and inspecting objects and for photolitho-
graphy.
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Figure 3.2 Photolithography. (Courtesy of Jeff Dixon)
Photolithography is a process used to build components on a

micrometer-sized scale. The process uses light to transfer a pattern of say,
a microchip part, from a mask to a light-sensitive chemical photoresist
that forms an image of the pattern on a substrate. The method is like
using silk-screening to make pictures and images from pattern masks
on T-shirts. Photolithography has a broad range of industrial applica-
tions, including the manufacture of semiconductors, flat-panel displays,
micromachines, and disk heads.
NANO-IMPRINT LITHOGRAPHY
Today several companies are researching and experimenting with
different kinds of lithographic techniques using nanotechnology. Two
techniques include Dip Pen Nanolithography and Thermal Dip Pen
Nanolithography.
Dip Pen Nanolithography

Dip Pen Nanolithography (DPN) is a soft-lithography technique that
uses an AFM scanning probe tip to draw nanostructures. In the DPN
process, a probe tip is coated with liquid ink, which then flows onto the
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surface to make patterns wherever the tip makes contact. This direct-
write technique offers high-resolution patterning capabilities for a num-
ber of molecular and biomolecular “inks” on a variety of substrates.
Substrates are the base material that the images are printed on.
Some of the applications of the DPN technique include sol gel tem-
plates that are used to prepare nanotubes and nanowires, and protein
nanoarrays to detect the amount of proteins in biological samples such
as blood.
Thermal Dip Pen Nanolithography

Researchers from the Georgia Institute of Technology and the Naval
Research Laboratory (NRL) have developed another method for writing
nanometer-scale patterns onto a variety of surfaces.
Their writing method is called thermal dip pen nanolithography,
which is an extension for dip pen nanolithography. The tDPN method
uses easily melted solid inks
and special AFM probes. Did you know?
The probes have built-in The use of low-temperature, scanning electron mi-
heaters that allow writing to croscopy can be used by ski-run operators to deter-
be turned on and off at will. mine how effective their artificial snow operations
The tDPN could be used to are in lengthening the ski season because of the
produce features too small contrast between artificial and natural snow crys-
to be formed by light-based tals.
lithography. Other applica-
tions of the tDPN include using the process as a soldering iron for
repairing circuitry on semiconductor chips. The thermal materials also
provide sharper features because they do not spread out like liquid inks.
NASA VIRTUAL LAB

How would you like to learn how to use an electron microscope in a
virtual lab? Besides the BugScope project, NASA provides a virtual lab
online of an electron microscope for schools, pupils, and teachers. The
free JAVA program allows users a good sense of what the instrument can
do. By downloading the free JAVA program for both PC and Mac, users
can pan, zoom, and even use a built-in ruler to measure such items as a
beetle’s leg, crystals from a human kidney stone, and other objects.
Virtual Lab completely emulates a scanning electron microscope and
allows any user to zoom and focus into a variety of built-in microscopic
samples. It also comes with a set of educational materials such as a demo
on how a SEM works and movies of the real thing in action.
The Virtual Microscope, which includes free downloading, is available
on Sourceforge, http://virtual.itg.uiuc.edu/training/
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See Chapter 9 for more information about the NASA Virtual Micro-
scope Web site.
NANOMANIPULATORS
One of the major goals in the future is to manufacture products at
the nanoscale. In order to achieve that goal, researchers will need to use
tools that can grab, pickup, push, pull, turnover, tap down, stack, and
move atoms and molecules. To develop the tools needed to do this kind
of work will take more research time.
For now, nanotechnololgists are using and are continuing to develop
new nanomanipulators—tools to manipulate objects in nanometers.
Nanomanipulators are and will be important tools in nanotechnology
research and development,
Presently, scanning probe microscopy, such as the atomic force mi-
croscope and the scanning tunneling microscope, is one method to
manipulate objects in nanometers. As an example, the AFM have been
used to move atoms, carbon nanotubes, and to test electronic circuit
boards and integrated circuits.
A few companies are providing add-ons or interfaces to scanning
probe microscopes such as scanning tunneling microscopes (STM) and
atomic force microscopes (AFM). Medical researchers have used a spe-
cial kind of nanomanipulator to study fibrin fibers, the major com-
ponents of blood clots. The researchers hope to gain insight into the
healing process by observing the strength and mechanical properties of
blood clots under a variety of conditions.
One company has a kind of nanomanipulator that offers several po-
sitions that grasp, move, and test nanoscale samples. This action allows
simultaneous manipulation, imaging, and testing of samples.
NANOFABRICATION
Nanomanipulation will play a big role in nanofabrication. Nanofab-
rication is the design and manufacture of devices with dimensions
measured in nanometers.
Nanofabrication is of in- Did you know?
terest to computer engi- The microprocessor or microchip starts up and
neers who are interested in goes to work when the computer is turned on. It
performs arithmetic and logic operations that re-
researching and building su-
spond to and process basic instructions that drive
per high-density micropro-
the computer.
cessors that can be used in
large computer mainframes, microcomputers, and in handheld com-
puters. The goal is to be able to get each data bit stored in a single atom.
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If it can be done, a single atom might even be able to represent a byte

or word of data.
Nanofabrication has also caught the attention of the medical industry,
the military, and the aerospace industry. Nanofabrication methods in the
lines of miniaturization (top-down) and self-assembly (bottom-up) are
essential for the development of nanotechnology.
Top-down fabrication can be likened to making a baseball bat from a
block of wood. The original block of wood is cut down until the desired
shape of the bat is achieved. That is, you start at the beginning or the
top and slowly work your way down removing any wood in the shaping
of the bat that is not needed.
The most common top-down approach to fabrication involves litho-
graphic patterning techniques mentioned earlier in this chapter. The
lithographic process uses short-wavelength light sources.
A major advantage of the top-down approach is that the parts are both
patterned and built in place, so that no assembly step is needed.
Bottom-up nanofabrication is the opposite of top-down nanofabrica-
tion. The bottom-up nanofabrication is to build nanostructures atom
by atom using either self-assembly techniques or manipulating atoms by
employing scanning probing microscopy.
Now many industries are adapting nanofabrication technology and
will use it even more in the future. Some of the companies include those
that produce fiber-optic communications, pharmaceuticals, and micro-
electronics. According to the Federal Government, the unprecedented
spread of nanofabrication and nanotechnology is likely to change the
way almost everything is manufactured—from vaccines to computers to
automobile tires to objects not yet discovered.
NANO INTERVIEW: ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR DEAN CAMPBELL,

Ph.D., BRADLEY UNIVERSITY
Dean Campbell, Ph.D., is an associate professor of chemistry at
Bradley University in Peoria, Illinois. Dr. Campbell talked with the au-
thor of Nanotechnology 101 about the booklet, Exploring the Nanoworld
with LEGOR Bricks, scanning probe microscopy, and ideas for building a
LEGOR model of a scanning probe microscope.
What college did you attend and what was your major field?
I earned my bachelor’s degree in chemistry from the University of
Wisconsin-Green Bay and my Ph.D. in chemistry from Northwestern
University.
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How did you get interested

in nanotechnology?
When I was an undergraduate, I was
involved in a project studying the sur-
face chemistry of coal ash particles,
and I was intrigued by how the chem-
istry of surfaces could be so differ-
ent from bulk material. In graduate
school I worked with surfaces of a dif-
ferent sort, self-assembled monolay-
ers. These types of monolayers are a
rather simple form of nanotechnol-
ogy, as they tend to have nanoscale
thicknesses.
What were your favorite subjects
Dean Campbell, Ph.D., teaches chemistry in high school?
at Bradley University in Peoria, Illinois. I liked a lot of the sciences, be-
(Courtesy Duane Zehr)
cause I like to understand how things
work. Ironically, because I was slow in
chemistry lab, I thought in high school that I would go into any sci-
ence field EXCEPT chemistry. I changed my mind as an undergraduate
because the field was so interesting and employable.
What is scanning probe microscopy (SPM)?
Scanning probe microscopy (SPM) is a method for mapping surface
forces of materials on the atomic scale. By mapping these forces, much
can be learned about the surfaces of materials, where many interesting
and complex phenomena occur. For example, many chemical reactions
involving solids are dependent on the nature of their surfaces. Scanning
probe microscopy includes the methods of atomic force microscopy
(AFM), magnetic force microscopy (MFM), and lateral force microscopy
(LFM). Most force microscopy techniques are variations of the same
basic principle. Forces between the surface and a cantilever tip cause
the tip to deflect up and down or sometimes side to side. Deflection of
the cantilever shifts the position of a laser beam that reflects off the top
of the cantilever onto a photodiode array. The movement of the beam
between the photodiodes is used to calculate the cantilever deflection.
How is a scanning probe microscope useful in nanotechnology
research and in nanofabrication?
The technique is primarily used to map surface forces at the nanoscale,
but the SPM probes have sometimes been used to move objects such as
atoms or “write” with molecular “ink.”
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How is the scanning probe microscope different from an atomic force

microscope?
An atomic force microscope can be considered one type of scanning
probe microscopy. Several other types of SPM exist (see: http://en.
wikipedia.org/wiki/Scanning probe microscopy)
How did you and other researchers conceptualize the idea of building
a model of a Scanning Probe Microscope from LEGO R
building
blocks? Did you try other building materials as well?
A number of people have used different materials to demonstrate SPM,
including wooden sticks, hacksaw blades, and flexible sheet refrigerator
magnets. We opted to use LEGOR bricks for a number of reasons.
First, many people are familiar with LEGOR bricks, and most models
can be built with a level of mechanical sophistication that does not in-
timidate or frustrate the user. Second, LEGOR bricks typically have many
connection points, allowing tremendous flexibility in the structures that
can be built. A set of bricks can be used to model structures of matter
and the techniques used to study them.
You have taught students how to build a scanning probe microscope

model from LEGO R
blocks. How old were the students who built the

R
LEGO model and how long did it take them to build it? Were there
any problems in building the model?
Eighth graders as well as graduate students have built various creations
of models. The simplest models can be built within a half hour. More
complicated models take longer to build. The most challenging part of
building the model appears to be mounting the laser pointer.
If a teacher or student wanted to construct the LEGOR model of the

scanning probe microscope, whom should they contact for directions
and for a list of materials?
Most of the directions for making the model are in the online book,
“Exploring the Nanoworld with LEGOR Bricks,” which can be accessed
from http://mrsec.wisc.edu/Edetc/LEGO/index.html.
My contact information given on the site is:
Dr. Dean Campbell, Department of Chemistry, Bradley University,
1501 West Bradley University, Peoria, IL 61625. Phone: (309) 677-3029.
E-mail: campbell@bradley.edu
What would your advice be to young people who would be interested in

a career in nanotechnology? What are some of the opportunities in this
field?
Nanotechnology is a hot field now and will likely remain so for some
time. Nanotechnology is also a very interdisciplinary field. Successful
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individuals will need to have a breadth of knowledge in mathematics,

physical sciences and biology, as well as the ability to communicate
effectively with others.
What are some of the benefits of nanotechnology and what would be
some of the risks?
Many technologies stand to benefit from nanotechnology, ranging from
computers to medicine to sunscreen. There are some concerns that
nanoscale chemicals will have different properties and therefore differ-
ent toxicities than bulk materials. Therefore, nanostructures must be
carefully assessed for potential unexpected hazards.
NANO ACTIVITY: MODELING A SCANNING PROBE MICROSCOPE

In this activity, Professor Campbell provides background information
about Scanning Probe Microscopy (SPM) and ideas on how to build a
LEGOR model of it.
Background Information. Scanning Probe Microscopy

You are likely familiar with microscopes that use light, but many
objects like atoms are too small to be seen using light. Other micro-
scopes use electrons to view even smaller objects, but these also have
difficulty visualizing objects as small as atoms.
Scanning probe microscopy (SPM) is a method for mapping sur-
faces of materials on the atomic scale. It is useful to study the locations
of atoms on surfaces because many chemical reactions, such as corro-
sion and catalysis, take place at solid surfaces. Most SPM techniques
are variations of the same basic principles, illustrated in the picture.
At the heart of the microscope is a probe called a cantilever. The
cantilever is fixed at one end and can flex up and down at the other
end like a diving board. A laser beam is shined onto the tip of the can-
tilever. The light bounces off the top of the cantilever onto a pattern
of light sensors called a photodiode array.
To run the SPM, the cantilever is brought very close to a surface.
The surface is moved back and forth under the cantilever, so the
cantilever more or less scans the surface. Forces between the surface
and a cantilever tip cause the tip to deflect up and down. Deflection
of the cantilever shifts the position of the laser beam that reflects off
the top of the cantilever onto a photodiode array. The movement of
the beam between the photodiodes is used to measure the amount
of cantilever deflection. A computer combines the information
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about the cantilever deflection with information about the back and
forth movement about the surface to produce a three-dimensional
map of the surface. This SPM technique is so sensitive that in-
dividual atoms can deflect the cantilever probe and therefore be
detected!
Directions for Building the Model
Most of the directions for making the model can be accessed
at our Web site “Exploring the Nanoworld with LEGOR Bricks,”
http://mrsec.wisc.edu/Edetc/LEGO/index.html.
To get an idea of how your model will look when finished, observe
the triangular LEGOR model in the photo. This model contains a
laser pointer and a cantilever with a triangular LEGOR probe on its
underside and a mirror atop it. In this model, the cantilever tip is
in physical contact with a LEGOR surface. The LEGOR pegs on the
surface deflect the cantilever. Light from the pocket laser reflects
from the mirror on the cantilever and shines onto a wall.
After you build your model, have someone attach small bricks to
the LEGO surface and then place the SPM behind a screen. Using
the laser beam spot movement and horizontal surface movement, try
to map the locations of the small bricks on the surface. Sketch your
map of the surface on a sheet of paper.
Placing 1x1 bricks on a flat plate “substrate” makes raised bumps to
push the cantilever (and the laser beam spot) up and down. A “han-
dle” can be attached to this substrate and used to map to positions of
the bumps. Place the SPM and substrate on a sheet of paper. Move the
substrate back and forth (with the handle always pointing in the same
direction). When a bump pushes the beam spot up, make a mark on
the paper at the end of the handle. Note that the map produced will
be rotated 180O from the actual bump positions.
Questions to Explore
1. Will a bump on a flat surface move the laser spot up or down?
2. How does the distance the SPM is positioned from the wall affect how
much the laser beam spot shifts?
READING MATERIALS
Drexler, Eric K. Nanosystems: Molecular Machinery, Manufacturing, and Computation.
New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1992.
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Hall, J. Storrs. Nanofuture: What’s Next For Nanotechnology. Amherst, NY: Prometheus
Books, 2005.
Newton, David E. Recent Advances and Issues in Molecular Nanotechnology. Westport,
CT: Greenwood Press, 2002.
Scientific American (authors). Key Technologies for the 21st Century: Scientific American:
A Special Issue. New York: W.H. Freeman & Co, 1996.
VIDEOS
Try the Simulator. To see a simulation of a scanning tunnel microscope go to:
http://nobelprize.org/educational games/physics/microscopes/scanning/
Videos from the Hitachi Corporation, http://www.hitachi.com/about/corporate/
movie/ What’s Next in Nanotechnology?
Penn State University. Amazing Creatures with Nanoscale Features: This animation is an
introduction to microscopy, scale, and applications of nanoscale properties. This
activity is available for use via the Center Web site at http://www.cneu.psu.edu/
edToolsActivities.html
Electron-Beam Lithography. Nanopolis Online Multimedia Library. Electron-beam
lithography is a technique for creating extremely fine patterns required for modern
electronic circuits. http://online.nanopolis.net/viewer.php?subject id=139
NanoManipulator: Seeing and Touching Molecules. http://www.nanotech-now.
com/multimedia.htm
Video Zyvex. Nanomanipulator, Zyvex S100 DVD Preview. http://www.zyvex.com/
Research/SEM manip/Manip.html
WEB SITES
Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM): Describes the STM’s development.
http://physics.nist.gov/GenInt/STM/stm.html
Scanning Probe Methods Group, University of Hamburg: Academic research group
using scanning probe methods (SPM), emphasis on investigating the relationship
between nanostructure and nanophysical properties. http://www.nanoscience.de/
IBM Almaden STM Molecular Art: Some of the famous images of atoms and
molecules made with IBM’s scanning tunneling microscope. http://www.almaden.
ibm.com/vis/stm/lobby.html
NanoManipulator: University of North Carolina—The NanoManipulator provides
an improved, natural interface to SPMs (STMs and ATMs). http://www.cs.unc.edu/
Research/nano/index.html
Exploring the Nanoworld. http://mrsec.wisc.edu/edetc.
The Incredible Shrunken Kids. http://www.sciencenewsforkids.org/articles/
20040609/Feature1.asp
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SOMETHING TO DO
You can create an edible, layered cookie (nanosmore) that will represent
the process of photolithography by creating a patterned silicon wafer us-
ing a substrate and a photoresist with simple foods. www.nbtc.cornell.edu/
mainstreetscience/nanosmores and photolithography.pdf
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Carbon Nanotubes,
Nanowires, and
Nanocrystals
Carbon is one of the most abundant elements in living things and ma-
terials derived from living things. By volume, carbon is about the fourth
most abundant element in the universe.
As you learned in Chapter 2, elements are types of atoms that make up
all the things around us. Carbon plays an important role in nanotech-
nology research and for potential nanotechnology applications. Before
we discuss the role of carbon as nanoparticles, let’s review some general
information about the chemical and physical properties of carbon in
the macro-world.
THE ELEMENT CARBON

The chemical element carbon (C), is found in many different com-
pounds. It is in the food we eat, the clothes we wear, the cosmetics
we use, and the gasoline that fuels our cars. Carbon plays a domi-
nant role in the chemistry of life and without carbon we could not
exist.
Carbon is a naturally occurring nonmetallic element that is present
in the cells of all organisms. Carbon has an atomic number of 6
and an atomic weight of 12. The carbon atom contains six neutrons
and six protons and combines with other elements forming a vari-
ety of compounds that include carbon dioxide and carbon mono-
xide.
Carbon makes up about 19 percent of the mass of the human body and
is an essential component of proteins, carbohydrates, fats, and nucleic
acids. All fossil fuels, coal, petroleum, oil shale, and natural gas, contain
carbon as a principal element and combined with hydrogen form a
category of hydrocarbons.
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Figure 4.1 Carbon Atom. (Courtesy of Jeff Dixon)
Products Made from Carbon

As noted, carbon can combine with other elements as well as with
itself. This ability allows carbon to form many different compounds of
varying size, strengths, and shape. Carbon is used in synthetic mate-
rials called composites that contain both carbon fiber and fiberglass
reinforcement.
Light yet strong, carbon composites have many applications in
aerospace and automotive fields, as well as in sailboats, and notably
in modern bicycles. Carbon is also becoming increasingly common in
small consumer goods as well, such as laptop computers, tripods, fishing
rods, tennis racket frames, stringed instrument bodies, classical guitar
strings, and even drum shells.
Some Uses of Carbon

Graphite combines with clays to form the “lead” used in pencils.
A diamond is used for decorative purposes, and also as drill bits.
Carbon is added to iron to make steel.
Carbon in the form of graphite is used for control rods in nuclear reactors.
Graphite carbon in a powdered cake form is used as charcoal for cooking,
artwork, and other uses.
Charcoal (carbon)is a constituent of gunpowder.
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Carbon Nanotubes, Nanowires, and Nanocrystals 81
Charcoal pills are used in medicine in pill or powder form to adsorb toxins
or poisons from the digestive system.
Different Forms of Carbon

There are several different allotropes or forms of carbon. Each form
has a different molecular structure. The forms include amorphous,
graphite, diamond, and fullerene.
The term amorphous means lacking a definite form or having no spe-
cific shape. In chemistry, the term amorphous means that the substance
is lacking a crystalline form. For example, soot is an amorphous carbon
that is a dark powdery deposit of unburned fuel residues. Glass, amber,
wax, rubber, and plastics are other examples of amorphous substances.
Amorphous carbon has been found in comets.
However, the other forms of carbon—diamonds, graphites, and
fullerenes—have definite crystalline forms. Graphite is a very soft min-
eral consisting of loosely bond atoms arranged in a two-dimensional
crystalline form that looks like a thin flat plane. This property makes
graphite a good natural lubricant because it’s flat, planar structure al-
lows the nanoscale sheets of graphite to slide past one another eas-
ily. Although the mineral is soft, graphite’s strength and its ability
to conduct electricity makes the mineral especially useful in nano-
technology.
There are two main classifications of graphite, natural and synthetic.
Graphite minerals can be found naturally in the Earth’s crust. Synthetic
graphite is made from petroleum coke.
Besides pencil production, graphite is also used to manufacture cru-
cibles, ladles, and moulds for containing molten metals. Graphite is
mainly used as electrical material in the manufacturing of carbon
brushes in electric motors. Highly pure graphite is used in large amounts
for the production of moderator rods and other components in nuclear
reactors. The moderator in the nuclear reactor is used to slow down
the neutrons so that the right speed is maintained for a steady fission
rate.
Some other uses of graphite include:
r Aerospace applications
r Batteries
r Carbon brushes
r Graphite electrodes for electric arc furnaces for metallurgical processing.
r Graphite lubricants
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Diamond
The hardest known natural mineral is diamond. The diamond con-
tains carbon atoms that are stacked or arranged in a three-dimensional
form or array. This structure makes the diamond super hard for the
cutting and grinding of metals and other materials. Unlike graphite, a
diamond is not a good conductor of electricity but the mineral is an
excellent thermal conductor.
Applications of diamonds are used in a variety of products that in-
clude laser diodes and small microwave power device, integrated circuit
substrates, and printed circuit boards. Diamond is starting to be used
in optical components, particularly as a protective coating for infrared
optics in harsh environments.
Diamond provides an impressive combination of chemical, physical,
and mechanical properties: Some of these properties include:
r Low coefficient of friction

r High thermal conductivity
r High electrical resistance
r Low thermal expansion coefficient
FULLERENES AND NANOTECHNOLOGY

Fullerenes are the third allotropic form of carbon material (after
graphite and diamond). Fullerenes are large molecules of carbon that
are arranged in a form that
Did you know? looks much different from
Another allotrope of carbon is a spongy solid the shapes of graphite or
that is extremely lightweight and, unusually, at- diamond. Fullerenes are ar-
tracted to magnets. The inventors of this new form ranged in a form that is
of carbon—a magnetic carbon nanofoam—say it spherical, ellipsoid, or cylin-
could someday find medical applications. drical. Fullerenes are about
1 nanometer in diameter.
This compares to 0.16 nanometer for a water molecule.
Fullerenes were discovered during laser spectroscopy experiments at
Rice University in September 1985. The 1996 Nobel Prize in Chem-
istry was awarded to Professors Robert F. Curl, Jr., Richard E. Smalley,
and Sir Harold W. Kroto for their discovery. Fullerenes were named
after Richard Buckminster Fuller, an architect known for the design of
geodesic domes, which resemble spherical fullerenes in appearance.
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BUCKYBALLS
By far the most common and best-known fullerene is the buckmin-
sterfullerene, buckyball, or C60 . It has a soccer-ball-shaped structure
that includes 20 hexagons
and 12 pentagons. Scientists
have now discovered other
To watch and listen to Sir Harold Kroto
explain why he named the carbon cluster
buckyballs as well. They in- that he discovered, buckminsterfullerene,
clude C70 , C76 , and C84 . go to: http://online.nanopolis.net/viewer.
php?subject id=268]
Applications of Buckyballs
The fullerene family of carbon molecules possesses a range of unique
properties. A fullerene nanotube has tensile strength about 20 times
that of high-strength steel
alloys, and a density half Did you know?
that of aluminum. So it Rice University scientists had constructed the
is stronger than steel and world’s smallest car—a single molecule “nanocar”
lighter than aluminum. that contained a chassis, axles, and four buckyball
Since the discovery of full- wheels. The entire car measured just 3–4 nanome-
erenes, scientists have dis- ters across, making it slightly wider than a strand of
covered some possible uses DNA.
for these molecules. Some of
these potential applications include being used in making computers,
fuel cells, and sensors.
Major pharmaceutical companies are exploring the use of fullerenes
in drugs to control the neurological damage of such diseases as
Alzheimer’s disease and Lou Gehrig’s disease (ALS). Companies are
also testing the use of fullerenes in drugs for atherosclerosis and for use
in antiviral agents.
A group of medical researchers believe that fullerenes could be used
in tiny special sponges that would soak up dangerous chemicals from
any tissues in the brain that have been injured. The sponges would im-
mobilize the dangerous chemicals that would, if left untreated, destroy
the nerve cells.
CARBON NANOTUBES
Scientists discovered that if you can make buckyballs big enough, they
could become carbon cylinders called carbon nanotubes. Carbon nan-
otubes are long, thin cylinders of carbon molecules. A carbon nanotube
is a completely different material from either diamond or graphite.
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Figure 4.2 Carbon Forms. (Courtesy of Jeff Dixon)
Sumio Iijima, of NEC Corporation came upon carbon nanotubes in

1991 in Tsukuba, Japan, while researching buckyballs using an electron
microscope. The carbon nanotubes he discovered can be visualized as
a two-dimensional sheet of graphite. The arrangement of carbon atoms
into a hexagonal lattice is called “graphene,” because it has the form
of a graphite sheet rolled into a cylinder. The nanotube looks like a
rolled-up piece of chicken wire.
Carbon nanotubes have unique properties that make them poten-
tially useful in a wide variety of applications such as in nanoelectronics,
optics, and materials applications. They exhibit extraordinary strength
and unique electrical properties, and are efficient conductors of
heat.
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Two Types of Nanotubes

There are two main types of nanotubes: single-walled nanotubes
(SWNTs) and multiwalled nanotubes (MWNTs).
Most SWNTs have a diameter of close to 1 nanometer, with a tube
length that can be many thousands of times longer. In fact, SWNTs
can reach the length of centimeters. The structure of a SWNT can be
conceptualized by wrapping a one-atom-thick layer of graphite called
graphene into a cylinder. A graphene is a two-dimensional single sheet
of carbon-bonded atoms.
A single-walled nanotube is commonly called a buckytube and con-
sists of one single shell. The nanotube is cylindrical, with at least one
end typically capped with a hemisphere of the buckyball structure. The
diameter of a nanotube is only a few nanometers wide and can extend
up to 50 microns in length.
Nanotubes have the following physical, chemical, and mechanical
properties that make them such an outstanding material:
r Electrical conductivity: Depending on their precise structure, car-

bon nanotubes can be either metallic conductors or semiconductors.
The electrons in nanotubes can travel much faster than in metals
such as copper, and they do not dissipate or scatter. The electri-
cal conductivity of the nanotubes could be useful in absorbing static
noise, storing energy, or in replacing silicon circuits in computer
chips.
r Thermal conductivity: The thermal conductivity of nanotubes is superior
to that of a diamond. In some tests, nanotubes have been shown to have a
thermal conductivity at least twice that of diamond. The nanotubes could
be potentially handy for cooling off confined spaces inside computers and
other nanoelectronics.
r Mechanical: Nanotubes are the stiffest, strongest, and toughest fiber
known. For their small size, nanotubes are six times lighter than steel
but more than 500 times stronger. They could be used to replace copper
wires or to create superstrong plastics.
MWNTs are multiwalled nanotubes which may have 7–20 concentric

grapheme cylinders. Double-walled carbon nanotubes have higher ther-
mal and chemical stability than single-walled carbon nanotubes. MWNT
can be applied to gas sensors, nanoelectronic devices, and nanocompos-
ites.
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HOW ARE CARBON NANOTUBES MADE?

There are several basic methods by which carbon nanotubes are made.
Scientists can make modifications to each technique to suit their specific
research purpose.
Laser Ablation
A high-power laser is used to vaporize carbon from a graphite target
at high temperature. The resulting “soot” is collected by a water-cooled
collector. This method is used to form single-walled nanotubes.
Electric Arc Discharge

In the electric arc discharge method, an electric current flows be-
tween two graphite rods. One graphite rod acts as an anode (a negative
terminal from which elec-
Did you know? trons flow) and the other
In physics, plasma is another state of matter. It is rod acts as a cathode (a pos-
an ionized gas. This means the gas is heated or itive terminal to which elec-
electrically charged to the point that it gives off tron flow).
light, as in a fluorescent light tube or bulb. Plasma
During the discharge, a
screen televisions use this principle; they contain
hot, bright arc of electric-
gas that emits light when charged. Essentially, the
sun, like most stars, is a great big ball of plasma. In
ity vaporizes carbon from the
life science, a different substance called plasma is a anode and produces plasma
part of blood. of carbon. The carbon con-
denses on the cathode to
form nanotubes. This method produces mostly multi-walled nano-
tubes.
Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD)

In this method of making carbon nanotubes, metal catalyst particles
are placed on a surface, such as a silicon wafer, and heated to high tem-
peratures in a hydrocarbon gas. The high temperature and the catalyst
particles break apart the hydrogen and the carbon atoms in the gas. A
nanotube grows out from the catalyst and grows longer and longer as
more carbon atoms are released from the gas. This method produces
both multiwalled and single-walled nanotubes depending on the tem-
perature.
APPLICATIONS OF CARBON NANOTUBES

Carbon nanotubes are the driving force for current advances in nan-
otechnology; they have excellent mechanical and electronic properties,
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Table 4.1 Some Potential Applications for

Nanotubes
Actuators/Artificial Muscles
Atomic Force Microscope Probe Tips
Batteries
Chemical Sensors
Collision-Protection Materials
Controlled Drug Delivery
Data Storage
Dialysis Filters
Flat Panel Display Screens
Flywheels
Hydrogen Storage
Microelectromechanical (MEMS) Devices
Microelectronics/Semiconductors
Nanoelectronics
Nanogears
Nanolithography
Nanothermometers
Nanotweezers
Reinforcement of Armor
Solar Storage
Super capacitors
Thermal Protection
Waste Recycling
the latter making them extremely attractive for electronics. Being only
a few times wider than atoms, the carbon nanotubes offer exceptionally
high material properties, such as electrical and thermal conductivity,
stiffness, toughness, and remarkable strength.
Sheets of carbon nanotubes have the following features:
r The sheets are transparent and stronger than steel or high-strength plas-
tics and can be heated to emit light.
r A square mile of the thinnest sheets, about 2-millionths-of-an-inch thick,
would weigh only about 170 pounds.
r In lab tests, the sheets demonstrated solar cell capabilities for using sun-
light to produce electricity.
Other potential applications of carbon nanotubes include the follow-

ing.
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Flat Panel Display Screens

When a nanotube is put into an electric field, it will emit electrons
from the end of the nanotube like water being pushed through a high-
powered water hose. If the electrons bombard a phosphor screen, then
an image can be created. Several companies are researching how to
use this nanotube technology to replace the bulky electron guns of
conventional TV sets with smaller carbon nanotube electron guns.
Nanoscale Electronics and Carbon Nanotubes

Many nanoelectronic companies are interested in developing new
methods to manufacture transistors. Transistors are the key component
of the electrical circuit that is used in the operation of computers, cellu-
lar phones, and other electronic devices. In fact transistors are used in
nearly every piece of electronic equipment today.
The transistors are a key building block of electronic systems—they
act as bridges inside the computer chip that carry data from one place
to another. The more transistors on a chip, the faster the processing
speed.
To manufacture more transistors on a chip, several companies are now
experimenting on how to make the channel length in the transistors
smaller and smaller. The
To see a carbon nanotube form a channel,
go to: http://online.nanopolis.net/viewer.
channel in the transistor is
the path where data travels
php?subject id=268] from one place to another in-
side chips. Some success in
this area has already happened. One company has successfully used
carbon nanotubes to make smaller channels in the production of their
transistors.
The achievement of making smaller channels in the production of
transistors is an important step in finding materials, such as carbon nano-
tubes, to be used to man-
Did you know? ufacture computer chips.
Moore’s Law was a statement by George E. Moore, Moore’s Law states that the
cofounder of Intel. Moore stated that the complex- number of transistors that
ity of these circuits would double every 2 years. can be packed on a chip dou-
bles every 18 months. But
many scientists expect that within 10–20 years the present computer
chip made with silicon will reach its physical limits. The ability to pack
more transistors on the chip will no longer be feasible. So the applica-
tion of carbon nanotubes in transistors may help increase the storage
problem on a chip.
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Sciencenter of Ithaca, New York has a traveling nanotech exhibit called It’s
a Nano World and another called Too Small To See. Attending the exhibits,
school-aged children can learn about tiny things by walking through and
playing with very large and colorful things in a traveling science museum ex-
hibition. In this photo, a group of students are building a carbon nanotube.
(Courtesy Gary Hodges and the Sciencenter, Ithaca, NY)
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AFM PROBE TIPS

Single-walled carbon nanotubes have been attached to the tip of an
AFM probe to make the tip “sharper.” This allows much higher resolu-
tion imaging of the surface under investigation; a single atom has been
imaged on a surface using nanotube-enhanced AFM probes. Also, the
flexibility of the nanotube prevents damage to the sample surface and
the probe tip if by accident the probe tip slams into the surface.
Hydrogen Fuel Cells and Nanotubes

There is a global effort today to develop renewable energy sources. A
great deal of research is being devoted to the production of hydrogen
fuel cells. A fuel cell is an electrochemical energy-conversion device.
Most fuel cells in use today use hydrogen and oxygen as the chemicals.
When oxygen and hydrogen react in a fuel cell electricity is produced
and water is formed as a by-product.
To use a hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell to generate electricity, scientists
and engineers must find a safe way to store hydrogen gas in the fuel tank.
Hydrogen gas takes up a lot of volume. Carbon nanotube materials built
into the inside of the tank may be an excellent option.
Carbon nanotubes are extremely porous. So, acting like a sponge,
the carbon nanotubes in the tank would absorb large capacities of
hydrogen gas being pumped
Did you know? into the tank. By absorbing
Hydrogen (Atomic Number 1) is the lightest ele- large quantities of hydrogen
ment. It is by far the most abundant element in gas, the carbon nanotubes
the universe and makes up about 90 percent of the
would allow more hydrogen
universe by weight. Hydrogen as water (H2 O) is
gas to be stored in a tank. In
absolutely essential to life and it is present in all
organic compounds.
this way, you get a fuller tank
of hydrogen gas than if you
pumped the same amount of hydrogen gas into a noncarbon nanotube
tank.
While nanotube-based hydrogen cells for automobiles look promis-
ing, it may be awhile before any large numbers of hydrogen fuel cell
automobiles are on the road.
Actuators/Artificial Muscles
An actuator is a device that can provide motion. In a carbon nanotube
actuator, electrical energy is converted to mechanical energy causing the
nanotubes to move.
Here is how it works. Two pieces of paper made from carbon nan-
otubes are placed on either sides of a piece of tape that is attached to an
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electrode. An electrode is a conductor through which electric current

is passed.
When electric current is applied the electrons are pumped into one
piece of the paper. The nanotubes on that side of the paper expand
causing the tape to curl in one direction. This curling movement is
similar to the way an artificial muscle works. The nanotube actuator can
produce 50 to 100 times the force of a human muscle the same size.
Researchers see the possible applications of the nanotube actuator for
robotics and prosthetics.
Nanotechnology in Chemical Sensors

Sensors are used in our everyday life even though they seem to be out
of our sight. There are motion sensors, acoustic sensors, electrical power
sensors, distance sensors, mechanical sensors, and chemical sensors.
Sensors are used in automobiles, machines, aircraft, medicine, industry,
and robotics.
Nanotechnology researchers are now developing and improving upon
chemical sensors, using nanoparticles. Chemical sensors detect the pres-
ence of very small amounts of specific chemical vapors or classes of
chemicals.
You are probably familiar with a carbon monoxide detector. A car-
bon monoxide detector is a chemical sensor often used in the home.
These detectors continually sample the air in the rooms and will sound
an alarm if the invisible and odorless carbon monoxide levels become
dangerous in the home and workplace.
Researchers now want to develop small, inexpensive sensors that can
sniff out chemicals just as dogs do when they are used in airports to
smell the vapors given off by explosives or drugs hidden in packages
or in other containers. These small and inexpensive sensors can be
placed throughout an airport, shopping mall, or building where security
measures are needed, to check for vapors given off by explosive devices.
These sensors can also be useful in industrial plants that use chemicals
in manufacturing to detect the release of chemical vapors.
Using a chemical sensor to detect a chemical vapor is fine, but you
want to be able to identify and analyze the gas vapor quickly. You want to
know what it is. Is it OK
to breathe? Is it dangerous? Did you know?
In 2005, researchers at the Chemical sensors are used to improve quality con-
Naval Research Laboratory trol in the processing of various molten metals, in-
were able to detect minute cluding steel, aluminum, and zinc.
amounts of sarin gas in un-
der 4 seconds using a prototype nanotube gas sensor. Previous sensors
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took over a minute to detect the same amount. If you are unfamiliar
with sarin, it is known by its NATO designation of GB (O-Isopropyl
methylphosphonofluoridate), an extremely toxic substance whose only
application is as a nerve agent. As a chemical weapon, it is classified as a
weapon of mass destruction by the United Nations. In 1995, there was a
sarin gas attack on a Tokyo, Japan, subway that killed several people and
injured many others.
In the future, nanotube chemical sensors can play an important role
in security and environmental applications.
Carbon Nanotubes and NASA

Carbon nanotubes may offer the possibility of detecting harmful ion-
izing radiation during interplanetary space missions. Radiation damages
DNA in living cells, leading to health problems such as nausea, cataracts,
and cancer.
Radiation hazards in space travel come in the form of trapped ra-
diation, galactic cosmic rays, and solar particle events. To detect and
monitor the radiation, NASA is developing a carbon nanotube dosime-
ter. A dosimeter is any device used to measure an individual’s dose to a
hazardous environment. The carbon nanotube dosimeter would detect
and measure the radiation by monitoring changes in the conductivity of
a nanotube sensor. Studies have shown that nanotube conductivity levels
in the dosimeter increase with radiation and then decrease after that.
An increase in radiation doses in a spacecraft would warn the astronauts
to take action.
NASA Space Elevator

NASA is also planning a space elevator that would be attached to a
cable that would orbit Earth at a height of 36,000 kilometers. Scientists
believe that the cable could be made from carbon nanotubes that are
100 times stronger than steel. See Chapter 8 for more information about
NASA’s plans for the space elevator.
NOT ALL NANOTUBES ARE CARBON

One company has found a way to make commercial quantities of natu-
rally occurring nanotubes that are not carbon. The halloysite nanotubes,
containing the elements aluminum, silicon, hydrogen, and oxygen, are
found in halloysite clay found in the soil in certain areas in the coun-
try. Halloysite clay has historically been used to make fine china and
ceramics.
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The company, NaturalNano, is developing methods of processing the

halloysite clay into nanotubes for use in commercial applications. The
halloysite nanotubes can be used in such products as additives in poly-
mers and plastics, electronic components, cosmetics, and absorbents.
NANOWIRES, NANOCRYSTALS, AND QUANTUM DOTS

Nanowires
A nanometer-scale wire is made of metal atoms, silicon, or other
materials that conduct electricity. Nanowires are built atom by atom on
a solid surface.
A nanowire is a very small wire that is composed of either metals or
semiconductors. It is also known as a nanorod or quantum wire since
the dimensions of the nanowire are in the order of a nanometer (10−9
meters). The nanowires have the potential to be used as components to
create electrical circuits.
Production of Nanowires
The fabrication of a nanowire can be done either with vapor deposi-
tion using specialty gases, or with a laser aimed at a target material to
produce a specific vapor. The gases eventually condense on a substrate
material, like silicon, forming a nanowire.
The tiny nanowires have the potential to be used in medical applica-
tions. A tiny nanowire sensor used in medical diagnostic tests is 1,000
times more sensitive than conventional tests. The nanosensor is capable
of producing test results in minutes rather than in days or weeks. This
feature could pave the way for faster and more accurate medical diag-
nostic tests that would allow earlier disease detection and intervention.
Several companies are developing nanowire devices. These devices
will be used for chemical sensing, lasers and light-emitting diodes, and,
in the future, nanoelectronics.
Nanocrystals
Nanocrystals are grown from inorganic materials, including metals
and semiconductors. Some researchers have made nanocrystals of silver,
gold, platinum, palladium, ruthenium, rhodium, and iridium. Nanocrys-
tals are approximately 10 nanometers in diameter.
Some of the potential applications will include using nanocrystals
as building blocks for producing strong metals and composites. The
technology is also applicable to lighting, high-resolution imaging, and
semiconductor materials. Since nanocrystals emit colored light, they
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will have a big impact on how everything from large-screen televisions

to portable electronics are manufactured.
In fact, nanocrystals could be the next generation of photovoltaics.
The major problems of solar cells are that they have low specific power
of efficiency and they cost a
Did you know? lot. The nano-engineered so-
Nanocrystals made with zeolite are used as a filter lar cells have the potential
to turn crude oil into diesel fuel at a major oil to solve these issues. Using
refinery in Louisiana, a method cheaper than using nanocrystals may be able to
the conventional way. produce very low cost solar
cells that generate energy at
an installed photovoltaic system cost (capital cost of system) of less than
under a dollar per watt. This would mean having a 5-KW system for less
than $5,000, which would be competitive with fossil fuel prices.
Quantum Dots
A quantum dot is a semiconductor nanocrystal that is about 1 to 6
nanometers in diameter. It has a spherical or cubic-like shape consisting
of thousands of atoms,
A quantum dot is made of cadmium selenide (CdSe), cadmium sulfide
(CdS), or cadmium telluride (CdTe) and then coated with a polymer.
The coating is used to prevent these toxic chemicals from leaking.
The CdS is used for UV-blue, the CdSe for the bulk of the visible
spectrum, and the CdTe for the far red and near infrared. The particle’s
size determines the exact color of a given quantum dot.
A wide range of colors can be emitted from a single material simply by
changing the dot’s size and makeup. A larger dot emits the red end of the
spectrum and the smaller ones emit blue or ultraviolet. As an example,
a cadmium selenide (CdSe)
Did you know? quantum dot more than
The human eye can see radiation as colors ranging 6 nanometers in diameter
from red wavelengths of about 700 nanometers to emits red light, while one
violet wavelengths of about 400 nanometers. less than 3 nanometers wide
glows green.
Quantum dots could help scientists image the behavior of cells and
organs to a level of detail never before seen. Conventional fluorescent
dyes used in the life sciences to help researchers monitor how cells
and organs grow and develop normally lose their ability to emit light
within seconds. On the other side, quantum dots emit light far longer,
helping scientists monitor cells and organs in diseased and healthy
conditions.
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The wide range of colors that can be produced by quantum dots

makes them well suited for a variety of applications. As an example,
they have great potential in security. Quantum dots could, for example,
be embedded in banknotes or credit cards, producing a unique visible
image when exposed to ultraviolet light. The image would identify the
rightful owner of the credit card or banknote. Quantum dots could also
be used in electronics applications such as data storage, light-emitting
diodes, photovoltaic devices, flat-panel displays, and in medical ap-
lications.
Quantum Dots and Cancer

Emory University scientists have used luminescent quantum dot
nanoparticles in living animals to simultaneously target and image can-
cerous tumors. The quantum dots were first coated with a protective
shell covering. Then special antibodies were attached to the surface
of the quantum dots. After the quantum dots were injected into the
body, they were guided to the prostate tumor of the living mice. Us-
ing a mercury lamp, the scientists were able to see the surface of the
tumor illuminated by the accumulation of quantum dots on the cell.
The scientists believe the ability to both target and image cells in vivo
(in the body) represents a significant step in the quest to eventually
use nanotechnology to target, image, and treat cancer, cardiovascular
plaques, and neurodegenerative disease in humans. See Chapter 5 for
more information about nanotechnology and nanomedicine.
Quantum Dots for Solar Cells

Scientists have been doing a lot of research with quantum dots to
make photovoltaic cells more efficient. Presently, much of the solar
energy striking photovoltaic cells is wasted. Here is why. When solar
photons, fundamental light particles, strike a solar cell, they release
electrons in the semiconductor to produce an electric current. However,
when an electron is set free by the photon, it collides often with a
nearby atom. The collision makes it less likely to set another electron
free. So even though solar photons carry enough energy to release
several electrons, producing more electricity, they are limited to one
electron per solar photon, according to solar experts. As a result, most
conventional solar cells operate at 15 to 20 percent efficiency using solar
energy.
Researchers at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL)
and the Los Alamos National Laboratory have been experimenting with
quantum dots as a semiconductor in a solar cell. They have discovered
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that the use of the quantum dots allows solar energy to release multiple
electrons, not just one. This research has the potential to make ma-
jor improvements in the manufacturing of photovoltaic cells. The two
research teams have calculated that a maximum efficiency of solar con-
version at 42 percent efficiency is possible from the conversion of solar
energy to electricity. So, more efficient solar cells are in the development
stage.
NANOSHELLS
Nanoshells are a new type of nanoparticle composed of a substance
such as a silica core that is coated with an ultrathin metallic such as a
gold layer. Nanoshells are about 1/20th the size of a red blood cell and
are about the size of a virus or about 100 nanometers wide. They are
ball-shaped and consist of a core of nonconducting glass that is covered
by a metallic shell, typically either gold or silver.
Nanoshells are currently being investigated as a treatment for can-
cer similar to chemotherapy but without the toxic side effects. These
nanoshells can be injected safely into the body as demonstrated in ani-
mal tests. Once in the body, the nanoshells are illuminated with a laser
beam that gives off intense heat that destroys the tumor cells.
In preliminary testing, one research medical team is using nanoshells
combined with lasers to kill oral cancer cells. Oral cancer is a cancer-
ous tissue growth located in the mouth. Smoking and other tobacco
use are associated with 70 percent to 80 percent of oral cancer cases.
Approximately 30,000 Americans will be diagnosed with oral or pha-
ryngeal cancer each year. Human clinical trials using applications of
nanoshells for cancer treatment will begin within a few years. However,
nanoshells are already being developed for other applications. They in-
clude drug delivery and testing for proteins associated with Alzheimer’s
disease.
NANO INTERVIEW: PROFESSOR TIMOTHY SANDS, PH.D.,

PURDUE UNIVERSITY
Professor Timothy D. Sands is the Director of the Birck Nanotech-
nology Center in Purdue University’s Discovery Park, located in West
Lafayette, Indiana. He is also the Basil S. Turner Professor of Mate-
rials Engineering and Electrical & Computer Engineering at Purdue.
Dr. Sands received his B.S., M.S., and Ph.D. degrees at UC Berkeley. Pro-
fessor Sands and his research group investigate nanowires, nanotubes,
and superlattice materials for energy conversion devices and nanoelec-
tronics.
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Where did you grow up and what were some of your favorite activities
and subjects as a teenager?
I grew up and went to schools in northern California near San Francisco.
As a young person, I enjoyed the outdoors and nature. I was interested
in collecting insects, bird watching, and I was very active in the Audubon
Society, as well. I hiked and explored the wetlands and hills in the San
Francisco Bay Area.
What colleges did you attend and what was your major?
After I graduated from high school, I attended the University of
California, Berkeley where I received all of my degrees including my
Ph.D. degree in Materials Science.
What subjects do you teach at Purdue University?
I teach materials engineering, electrical engineering, and nanotechnol-
ogy to undergraduates and graduate students.
What is materials engineering?
Materials engineering is the study of the relationships between com-
position, processing, microstructure, and properties of materials with
the aim of improving the performance of materials that are used for
everything from bridges to biochips.
What are your duties as the Director, Birck Nanotechnology Center?
My principal duty as the director is to facilitate the research projects at
the Center. We have 45 resident faculty members and 200 resident grad-
uate students. Since all of them come from a broad range of disciplines,
as many as 30 disciplines, they need to learn how to work together. As an
example, in our research projects, a biologist would be working with an
engineer. So, my duties at the center are to facilitate the interdisciplinary
work of the group projects.
What is your science background and how did you get interested in the
field of carbon nanotubes and nanotechnology?
While at Berkeley as a student, I was able to take 50 percent of my classes
in engineering and the other 50 percent in science courses. The science
courses were mostly in the field of physics.
I was always interested in small things such as atoms in crystals and
molecular structures. I did not get interested in carbon nanotubes until
I ran into a colleague at Purdue. His name is Timothy Fisher, and he is
a mechanical engineer and professor at Purdue University.
Tim is an expert in carbon nanotubes and one day we started talking
about our interests. I was working on nanoporous materials and he was
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working on nanotubes. So, we decided to combine our interests and lab

experiences to see if we could grow the carbon nanotubes inside a porous
material. This experience got me interested in carbon nanotubes. While
working as a team, we both also learned more about each other’s fields
of study.
When we use the term, nanoelectronics, what are we talking about?
Nanoelectronics to me really talks about bridging bottom-up nanofab-
rication with top-down nanofabrication to manufacture electronic sys-
tems. I think we are at the point where top-down nanofabrication is
slowing down (running out of gas) and it is getting very expensive to
use this method for manufacturing nanoelectronic circuits. So, now we
need to learn ways to use the bottom-up nanofabrication approach in
concert with top-down nanofabrication to make things at the nanoscale.
This, of course, is a big challenge. The big opportunity is that carbon
nanotubes have properties that are extraordinary, and if you can harness
these properties, you would indeed be able to make higher performing
nano devices and a higher performance chip.
How important are carbon nanotubes in the field of nanoelectronics?
Carbon nanotubes stand out because they may offer the biggest poten-
tial for nanotechnology breakthroughs. One reason is that the carbon
nanotubes have high thermal conductivity, the highest of any known ma-
terial. A major problem or bottleneck today in electronics is the removal
of excessive heat in the active region of the chip. Single-walled carbon
nanotubes could solve this problem because they would not overheat.
Electrons also move readily in carbon nanotubes, which makes devices
switch faster.
How did you and Professor Fisher develop a technique to grow
individual carbon nanotubes vertically on top of a silicon wafer?
Growing nanotubes vertically allows us to stack more transistor circuits
and other components in a computer chip, while keeping the same
footprint as a conventional chip. This would be the electronic equivalent
of a skyscraper.
We grow individual nanotubes vertically out of tiny cavities on top of
a silicon wafer. This “vertically oriented” technique of growing carbon
nanotubes on top of a silicon wafer might be an important step towards
new kinds of computer chips with nanoelectronic devices, including
wireless equipment and sensors.
Growing carbon nanotubes vertically on a silicon wafer may be a new
way of constructing future microchips that are much faster to make and
more energy efficient than conventional chips. Stacking the components
on top of each other also cuts the distance and the time an electrical
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Students Vijay Rawat and David Ewoldt and Professor Sands are using a
special laser machine to deposit different types of multilayered nitride films
with thickness precision at the nanoscale. The team plans to use the nitride
films for thermoelectric applications. (Photo credit: Birck Nanotechnology Center,
Discovery Park, Purdue University)
signal needs to travel in a microchip. But more research work needs to

be conducted using this technique.
How do you grow the nanotubes?
We start with a porous material that is easy to make. The porous mate-
rial is formed directly on the surface of a silicon wafer. In the process of
making the porous material, we embedded a catalyst inside the pores.
The catalyst particles are used to nucleate the nanotubes in a specific lo-
cation. The wafer is placed in a plasma-enhanced deposition system that
creates a carbon vapor that, when in contact with the catalyst particles,
starts the growth of a carbon nanotube. The nanotubes self assemble
and only one carbon nanotube forms per pore. There is no way a second
nanotube will form in the same pore. The nanotubes grow vertically and
eventually project out of the pores.
What tools and equipment did you use in growing the nanotubes? Did
you need to work in a cleanroom environment?
We use all the state-of-the-art tools and equipment we can get to do
our work. Students building the vertical carbon nanotubes use scanning
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probe microscopes to measure the properties of the tubes. They use

scanning electron microscopes to observe what they are doing because
you cannot see these nanomaterials with a light optical microscope.
Other techniques include using advanced lithography, a form of print-
ing, to make patterns in a cleanroom environment. Students use an elec-
tron beam patterning system to write very fine lines, as narrow as about
10 nanometers, or about 50 atoms across. Lasers are used to measure
properties of individual nanotubes to determine their semiconducting
or metallic properties.
Does Purdue University collaborate with major computer companies?
There is much informal collaboration that goes on between universities
and major computer chip corporations.
What advice would you give young people who would be interested in a
career in nanotechnology?
Certainly, anyone thinking about nanotechnology should take the basic
classes in biology, chemistry, physics, and mathematics. If students and
teachers are interested in learning more about nanotechnology, I would
recommend that they visit, nanoHUB.org., the Web site of the Network for
Computational Nanotechnology (NCN). The NCN, led by Purdue, is a large
network of many colleges and universities throughout the country and
is funded by the National Science Foundation.
The original idea of the network was to put up simulation tools for
researchers, but it turns out that the most popular section of the Web site
is the tutorial section, attracting all levels of viewers, from high school
students to those taking college courses.
The categories on the nanoHUB include Simulate, Research, Teach and
Learn, and Contribute. The Teach and Learn site is a good place to start
for someone who wants an introduction to nanotechnology. The top-
ics include: Nano 101, Nanocurriculum, Learning Modules, and Teaching
Materials for K-12 and Undergraduates.
NANO ACTIVITY: BUILDING BUCKYBALLS, A NASA

EXPLORES ACTIVITY
Fullerenes, such as buckyballs, are being researched for several uses,
including propellants, superconductors, lubricants, and optical equip-
ment. In fact, Science magazine even elected the buckyball “molecule of
the year” in 1991.
You can build a buckyball model by going to the NASAexplores Web
site.
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Here you will find a pattern and instructions on a PDF file for students
and teachers.
The PDF file: http://www.nasaexplores.com/search.php
Procedure: Photocopy and then print out the buckyball figure
1. Cut around the perimeter of the buckyball template.

2. Cut along each dotted line to the star.
3. Cut out the shaded areas.
4. Beginning with the space labeled G in the upper right, place a drop of
glue on the printed side. Slide this ring under the adjacent ring, making
a five-sided hole surrounded by six-sided shapes.
5. Repeat step 4 until the sphere is formed.
Good luck.
READING MATERIAL
Books, 2005.
Krummenacker, Markus, and James J. Lewis. Prospects in Nanotechnology: Toward Molec-
ular Manufacturing. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1995.
John Wiley & Sons, Wiley-Interscience. 2003.
Regis, Edward. Nano! The True Story of Nanotechnology—the Astonishing New Science That
Will Transform the World. United Kingdom, LONDON: Transworld Publishers
Ltd., 1997.
VIDEOS
Nanoscale. Professor Wendy Crone What is a Nanoscale? Discusses Quantum Effects
and Quantum Dots and Surface to Volume Ratio. Conversations in Science. Madi-
son Metropolitan School District. UW-Madison Interdisciplinary Education Group.
http://mrsec.wisc.edu/Edetc/cineplex/MMSD/index.html
Carbon Nanotube Transistors. Nanopolis Online Multimedia Library. The carbon
nanotubes are ideal building blocks for molecular electronics, such as transistors.
http://online.nanopolis.net/viewer.php?subject id=268
Nanowires and Nanocrystals for Nanotechnology. Yi Cui is an assistant pro-
fessor in the Materials Science and Engineering Department at Stanford.
www.google.com/videoplay?docid=6571968052542741458
What is a buckminsterfullerene. Sir Harold Kroto. The Nobel Laureate explains why
he named the carbon cluster that he discovered as a buckminsterfullerene.
http://www.invention.smithsonian.org/video/ and http://invention.smithsonian.
org/centerpieces/ilives/kroto/kroto.html
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Forming Carbon Nanotubes. University of Cambridge.

Two videos show how nickel reacts in a process called catalytic chemical vapor
deposition. This film demonstrates one of several methods of producing nanotubes.
Text accompanies the video for better understanding of the process. http://www.
admin.cam.ac.uk/news/special/20070301/?
WEB SITES
National Science Foundation, Nanoscale Science and Engineering: http://www.nsf.
gov/home/crssprgm/nano/start.htm
Nanodot: News and Discussion of Coming Technologies. http://nanodot.org/
The Nanotube Site: Michigan State University’s Library of Links for the Nanotube
Research Community. http://www.pa.msu.edu/cmp/csc/NTSite/nanopage.html
Evident Technologies: Manufacturer of quantum dot nanoparticles for use as a color-
enhancing additive in optical devices and visual materials. http://www.evidenttech.
com
NanoVantage Inc.: Portal offering monthly reports on new developments in nan-
otechnology. Emphasis on nanoparticles and nanocrystal materials. http://www.
nanovantage.com/
SOMETHING TO DO
Make a paper model of a nanotube. www.stanford.edu/group/cpima/education/
nanotube lesson.pdf
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Nanotechnology in
Medicine and Health
One of the most promising applications of nanotechnology is nano-

medicine. Nanomedicine is defined as the application and develop-
ment of nanoscale tools and machines designed to monitor health care,
deliver drugs, cure diseases, and repair damaged tissues. Nanomedical
research will be an essential tool to diagnose, treat, and to do follow-up
care in major diseases such as cardiovascular diseases, cancer, diabetes,
and other diseases.
CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES
Cardiovascular diseases are the most frequent cause of death in the
United States, Europe, and the world, according to the World Health
Organization. In the United States, cardiovascular disease accounts for
twice as many deaths as all cancers in the country. Over 13 million people
in the United States have coronary heart disease (CHD). Americans
suffer approximately 1.5 million heart attacks annually and about half
of them prove fatal, according to medical researchers.
To help diagnose and treat heart patients, one group, The National
Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI) and the National Institutes
of Health (NIH) have awarded researchers from Georgia Institute of
Technology and Emory University $11.5 million to establish a new re-
search program focused on creating advanced nanotechnologies to an-
alyze plaque formation on the molecular level and to detect plaque at
its early stages. Plaques, containing cholesterol and lipids, may build
up during the life of blood vessels. When these plaques become unsta-
ble and rupture they can block the vessels, leading to heart attack and
stroke.
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The NHLBI researcher’s programs will focus mostly on detecting

plaque and pinpointing its genetic causes. The scientists will use three
types of nanostructured
Did you know? probes. They include mole-
Biologists categorize the molecules of living organ- cular beacons, semicon-
isms into lipids, carbohydrates, proteins, and nu-
ductor quantum dots, and
cleic acids.
magnetic nanoparticles.
A molecular beacon is a biosensor. A biosensor is an analytical instru-
ment capable of detecting biological molecules. The molecular beacon,
only 4 to 5 nanometers in size, will seek out and detect specific target
genes in the cells. Each cell in the human body contains about 25,000
to 35,000 genes that determine your traits. Scientists are studying genes
to determine what illnesses genes cause.
The light emitted from the beacon will create a glowing marker if
the cell has a detectable level of a gene that is known to contribute to
cardiovascular disease.
The second type of probe is the semiconductor quantum dots. This
is also used to study the molecules of cardiovascular disease. Quantum
dot-based probes can be used to study interactions in live cells or to
detect diseased cells. These ultrasensitive probes may help cardiologists
understand the formation of early stage plaques and dramatically im-
prove detection sensitivity.
The last probe in their research will include the nanostructured
probe—magnetic nanoparticles. This probe will detect early-stage
plaques in patients. The magnetic nanoparticles will target the surface
of cells in a plaque and provide an image of the plaque formation. This
technique could become a powerful tool for better disease diagnosis.
What Causes Cardiovascular Diseases?

One of the major causes of cardiovascular disease in most cases is the
formation of plaque in the blood vessels. The plaque can lead to the
clogging of the blood vessels causing death, disability, or strokes. Strokes
are caused by ruptured blood vessels leaking blood into the brain.
Here are some symptoms of stroke:
r Sudden numbness or weakness of the face, arm or leg, particularly if it is

on one side of the body
r Sudden confusion, trouble speaking or understanding. Sudden difficulty
with walking, dizziness, loss of balance or coordination
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Nanotechnology in Medicine and Health 105
r Sudden trouble seeing from one or both eyes

r Sudden severe headache with no known cause.
Nanoparticles Break Down Blood Clots

Strokes and other kinds of heart attacks are also caused by the forma-
tion of blood clots in the circulatory system. Blood clots can lead to a
range of serious medical conditions, including heart attacks, pulmonary
embolisms, and strokes. The main component of a clot is the insoluble
fibrin. Fibrin is a blood-clotting protein and has a role in normal and
abnormal clot formation (coagulation) in the body.
One research group is experimenting with different ways of treating
fibrin. One test involves the use of nanoparticle drugs that dissolve and
break up the fibrin. Preventing blood clots reduces the risk of stroke,
heart attack, and pulmonary embolism.
Another research team is experimenting with a cardiovascular
method that employs specially made molecules called “nanolipoblock-
ers.” The nanolipoblockers
prevent cholesterol from
causing inflammation and New Technology Helps Diagnose Heart Dis-
ease. Grouper. Go to: http://grouper.com/
plaque buildup at specific
video/MediaDetails.aspx?id=1869316
blood vessel areas in the
body.
In preliminary tests, these molecules show good results against harm-
ful cholesterol.
Heart Stents and Nanotechnology

Doctors have used special stents for heart patients to open arteries
that have become too narrow due to atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis
is the cholesterol plaque that builds up on the inner walls of arteries.
As noted earlier, the plague prevents the blood vessels from carrying
oxygen-rich blood throughout the body. The blockage of the blood flow
can lead to a stroke or heart attack.
During or after heart surgery, a stent is inserted permanently into an
artery. The stent, the size of a small metal tube, keeps the artery open,
which improves blood flow, and helps prevent buildup of plague. The
stent also enables the arteries to grow new tissue after the vessel-clogging
plaque deposits have been removed.
However, some problems can occur with stents. The stent placement
in the body can cause infection, blood clots, or bleeding. One major
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problem is that the body’s immune system can reject the metal stents.
When this happens, the immune system can cause the creation of scar
tissue. In some cases, the scar tissue can build up inside blood vessels
and interfere with blood flow.
Now, nanoresearchers are using a variety of methods to find new ma-
terials that cause the cells to attach better to these stents without creating
as much dangerous scar tis-
sue. One research company
Stroke Stopper. Neuroradiologists Treat
Brain Strokes with New Kind of Stent,
is testing a nano-thin coating
application that is designed
Science Daily Video. Go to: http://www.
to protect surrounding tissue
sciencedaily.com/videos/2006-04-07/
from any potentially harmful
interactions with metal stents.
CANCER DETECTION AND DIAGNOSIS

Cancer is currently the second leading cause of death in the United
States and Europe. Detection of cancer at an early stage is a critical step
in improving cancer treatment. Currently, detection and diagnosis of
cancer usually depend on changes in cells and tissues that are detected
by a doctor’s physical exam or by laboratory-generated images on film.
Scientists would like to make it possible to detect cancer at the earliest
changes in cells or tissues before a physical exam.
Cancer
To detect cancer at its earliest stages, the National Cancer Institute
(NCI) has invested 144 million dollars to develop and apply nanotech-
nology to cancer. The NCI envisions that within the next 5 years nan-
otechnology will result in significant advances in early detection, molec-
ular imaging, assessment of therapeutic methods, and prevention and
control of cancer. Cancer is an abnormal growth of cells anywhere in
the body. It occurs when the genes in a cell allow it to split (make new
cells) without control. There are many kinds of cancer, because there
are many kinds of cells in the body. Some cancers form growths called
tumors, while others, like cancers of the blood (leukemias), travel all
over the body. Cancers may harm the body in two ways. They may re-
place normal cells with cells that do not work properly and they may kill
normal cells.
Nanotechnology offers a wealth of tools that are providing cancer
researchers with new and innovative ways to diagnose and treat cancer.
Already, nanotechnology has been used to create new and improved ways
to find small tumors through imaging. Nanoscale drug delivery devices
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are being developed to deliver anticancer therapeutics specifically to

tumors.
Nanotechnology provides opportunities to prevent cancer progres-
sion. For example, nanoscale systems, because of their small dimensions,
could be applied to stop progression of certain types of breast cancers.
Examples of nanotechnology in cancer research today include the
following:
r Nanoscale cantilevers and nanowire sensors that can detect a cancer from
a single cell.
r Nanoparticles can aid in imaging malignant lesions, so surgeons know
where the cancer is, and how to remove it.
r Nanoshells can kill tumor cells selectively, so patients do not suffer terrible
side effects from healthy cells being destroyed.
r Dendrimers can sequester drugs to reduce side effects and deliver multi-
ple drugs to maximize therapeutic impact.
Cancer and Nanoshells

Nanoshells are hollow silica spheres covered with gold. Scientists can
attach antibodies to their surfaces, enabling the shells to target cer-
tain cells, such as cancer cells. In mouse tests, Professor Naomi Halas’s
research team at Rice University directed infrared radiation through
tissue and onto the shells, causing the gold to superheat and destroy
tumor cells while leaving healthy ones intact. Technicians can control
the amount of heat with the thickness of the gold and the kind of laser.
Nanoshells could one day also be filled with drug-containing polymers.
Heating them would cause the polymers to release a controlled amount
of the drug. Human trials using gold nanoshells are slated to begin in a
couple of years.
Cancer and Gold Nanoparticles

Oral cancer is any cancerous tissue growth located in the mouth.
Smoking and other tobacco use are associated with 70 percent to 80 per-
cent of oral cancer cases. Thirty thousand Americans will be diagnosed
with oral or pharyngeal cancer this year. It will cause over 8,000 deaths,
killing roughly 1 person per hour, 24 hours per day.
One oral cancer research group has demonstrated that gold nanopar-
ticles can be bond to malignant cells making cancer easier to diag-
nose and treat. In laboratory demonstrations, the researchers targeted
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Table 5.1 Some Potential Medical Activities Using Nanotechnology during

the Next 1 to 5 Years
Infectious
Cancer Cardiac Diseases Diabetes Diseases
r Smart probes r Noninvasive r In vivo r Identification

with reduced and minimal diagnostic of diagnostic
toxicity for invasive 3-D tools to check markers and
drug targeting imaging glucose easy screening
r Identification techniques for metabolism of changes in
of biomarkers blood flow r Minimal infected cells.
for early in the invasive r Integrated
screening in cardiovascular glucose sensor diagnostic test
body fluids system and insulin for rapid and
r Minimal r Robotics for delivery early diagnosis
invasive heart systems for of viral and
endoscope diagnostic and daily home bacterial
and catheter therapy care infections
for diagnostic r Telemedicine r Whole body
and therapy for heart imaging of fat
r Implantable monitoring distribution
mobile using
systems for implantable
detection of devices
cancer cells
malignant cells in the body with gold nanoparticles. Then they use a
laser to heat the particles that destroy the malignant cells.
Breast Cancer and Nanoparticles

Breast cancer is the most common malignancy in women in the United
States, with approximately 180,000 new cases diagnosed in this country
annually. Breast cancer is the third most common cause of cancer death
(after lung cancer and colon cancer) in the United States.
Statistics show that a woman has a one in eight chance of developing
breast cancer during her life. In 2007, breast cancer is expected to cause
approximately 40,000 deaths.
Faster Results for Breast Cancer. Pathologists
Use Digital Imaging to Speed up Cancer Di-
Some of the treatment
of breast cancer includes
agnosis. Science Daily. Go to: http://www.
surgery, hormone therapy,
chemotherapy, and radiation
therapy. Now scientists are experimenting with nanoparticles to treat
breast cancer.
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One preliminary plan includes using probes that inject special mag-
netic iron nanoparticles into a tumor and then heating the nano-
particles. The nanoparticles
destroy the cancer cells. In Did you know?
this probe, the magnetic A small percentage of men can also get breast
iron nanoparticles, contain- cancer.
ing antibodies, are con-
cealed in polymers. The polymers make the antibodies nearly invisible
to the body’s immune system.
The reason for the polymer coating is that you do not want the an-
tibodies to be attacked by the immune system. Inside the bloodstream,
the antibodies go to work and attach themselves onto the surface of
tumor cells. Then, outside the body, laboratory technicians apply a heat
source to the magnetic particles in the tumor region of the body. By
applying just the right amount of heat to the tumor region, the heated
magnetic particles weaken and destroy the cancer cells.
Please note the use of magnetic particles as a heat treatment to kill
breast cancer cells in humans is still conducted only in laboratories at
the preclinical and developmental stage. Preclinical tests for humans
are still in the future, maybe 5 to 10 years from now.
NANO INTERVIEW: DR. EDITH PEREZ

To learn more about breast cancer, the author was able to contact
Edith A., Perez, who is a Medical Doctor and a Professor of Medicine at
the Mayo Medical School in Jacksonville, Florida. She is also the Director
of Clinical Investigations and the Director of the Breast Cancer Program.
Dr. Perez took time out to discuss her professional background and her
medical work in breast cancer.
Where did you grow up and what colleges did you attend?
I grew up in Puerto Rico and attended the University of Puerto Rico,
the University of Puerto Rico Medical School, and the Loma Linda
University for my residency. I also attended the University of California,
Davis on a Hematology/Oncology fellowship.
What were some of your favorite activities and subjects in high school?
I enjoyed reading and my two favorite subjects were algebra and chem-
istry.
What interested you in seeking a career as a medical doctor?
I became interested in medicine after the sudden death of one of my
relatives and this added to my goal of getting involved in making a
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Dr. Edith A., Perez is a Medical Doctor and a Professor of Medicine at the
Mayo Medical School in Jacksonville, Florida. She is also the Director of
Clinical Investigations and the Director of the Breast Cancer Program.
(Courtesy Dr. Edith Perez)
difference for people, more than just dealing with mathematics and
numbers.
How did you get involved in breast cancer research?
I identified that there was a significant need for improvements in patient
care, which added to my interest in learning, made it a logical career
choice. I thought that I could also make a difference in people’s lives.
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One of your research projects is to continue to collect and evaluate

data to demonstrate that adding an anti-HER2 agent (Herceptin) to
chemotherapy patients with HER2 positive breast cancer can help
prevent recurrence of breast cancer in patients.
What is HER2?
HER2 is a protein found on the membrane (with a portion in the sur-
face) of cells that helps regulate cell growth. However, when the amount
and type of HER2 protein are altered, this leads to increased cell growth
and possibility of cancer spread, as a result of increased breast cancer
aggressiveness.
How does the anti-HER2 agent (Herceptin) treatment work?
Herceptin is a monoclonal antibody that targets the extracellular do-
main of the HER2 protein. This treatment is used for metastatic breast
cancer, but also to diminish the risk of tumor reappearance (and im-
prove survival) after breast cancer surgery. Metastatic, describes a cancer
that has spread to distant organs from the original tumor site. Metastatic
breast cancer is the most advanced stage of breast cancer. Herceptin
slows the growth and spread of tumors that have an overabundance of
HER2.
What advice would you give young people who want to explore a career
in the medical field and in cancer research?
The medical field, and specifically cancer research, is a great career.
There are a lot of facets to be involved with including case and clinical
research, patient care, and education. Additionally, the strength of the
science and the advances being made and in the horizon makes it an
important career for helping society. It is truly an engaging and fulfilling
career, both intellectually and on a personal level.
To learn more about Herceptin and Metastatic Breast Cancer Treat-

ment, go to http://www.herceptin.com/herceptin/patient/resources/
index.jsp
Cancer and Dendrimers

As you learned in Chapter 2, a dendrimer is a tree-like highly branched
polymer molecule. Dendrimers are of particular interest for cancer ap-
plications because of their defined and reproducible size, but more
importantly, because it is easy to attach a variety of other molecules
to the surface of a dendrimer. Such molecules could include antibod-
ies, imaging agents to pinpoint tumors, drug molecules for delivery
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to a tumor, and molecules that might detect if an anticancer drug is

working.
Cancer and Cantilevers

In Chapter 3, you read about the cantilevers attached to the scan-
ning probe microscopes. The cantilever is one tool with potential to aid
in cancer diagnosis. Nanoscale cantilevers, tiny bars anchored at one
end, can be engineered to bind to molecules associated with cancer.
They may bind to altered DNA sequences or proteins that are present in
certain types of cancer. When the cancer-associated molecules bind to
the cantilevers, there are changes in surface tension that cause the can-
tilevers to bend. By monitoring whether or not the cantilevers are bent,
scientists can tell whether the cancer molecules are present. Scientists
hope this bending will be evident even when the altered molecules are
present in very low concentrations. This will be useful in detecting early
molecular events in the development of cancer.
Cancer and Quantum Dots

Quantum dots also show promises of a new means of diagnosing
and combating cancer. Quantum dots, also known as nanocrystals, are
miniscule particles, or “dots” made of semiconducting materials. When
the dots are stimulated by ultraviolet light, they glow in very intense,
bright neon colors.
Emory University scientists have used luminescent quantum dot nano-
particles in living animals to target and image cancerous tumors. The
quantum dots were first coated with a protective shell covering. Then
special antibodies were attached to the surface of the quantum dots.
After the quantum dots were injected into the body, they were guided to
a prostate tumor of living mice. Using a mercury lamp, the scientists were
able to see the surface of the tumor. It was illuminated by the accumula-
tion of quantum dots on the cell. The scientists believe the ability to both
target and image cells in vivo (in the body) represents an important step
in the goal to eventually use nanotechnology to target, image, and treat
cancer, cardiovascular plaques, and other diseases in humans.
Cervical Cancer and Quantum Dots

Each year, some 10,000 women are diagnosed with cervical cancer,
and over 35 percent will die because their cancer was detected too
late for treatment to be successful. Easier methods of routinely screen-
ing women for precancerous lesions could favor a better survival rate.
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Research published in a gynecology journal suggests that the applica-

tion of quantum dots with other tools, could provide a method for early
detection of cervical cancer.
The Targeted Nano-TherapeuticsTM (TNTTM ) System

The TNTTM System is a noninvasive product that kills cancer using
localized lethal heat with negligible damage to healthy tissues. The prod-
uct is being developed by the Triton Biosystems company and has be-
gun human clinical trials. A component referred to as T-probes are
dispensed into the body in serum form by an infusion into the patient’s
blood stream. Once the T-probes are attached to cancer cells, a focused
magnetic field selectively activates the magnetic spheres.
The magnetic energy in the spheres is converted to lethal heat which
causes a rapid temperature increase at the surface of the cancer cells,
killing them with negligible damage to surrounding healthy tissues.
Over a couple of weeks following the infusion, the T-probes completely
degrade within the body with no trace or toxicity. The Company believes
the TNTTM System will eliminate many of the side effects currently
associated with conventional therapies.
DIABETES AND NANOTECHNOLOGY

Glucose is the primary source of energy in the human body. This
simple sugar comes from digesting carbohydrates into a chemical that
the human body can easily convert to energy. But, when glucose levels
in the bloodstream are not properly regulated, a person can develop
a serious condition known as diabetes. What happens is that the sugar
(glucose) builds up in the blood instead of going to the cells.
The American Diabetes Association estimates that 17 million people
in the United States have diabetes, but that one-third are unaware they
have the disease. “Diabetes,” says the American Diabetes Association, “is
a chronic disease that has no cure.”
People with diabetes must
check their blood sugar lev- What are the Symptoms of Diabetes? Who
is at Risk? How is Diabetes Confirmed?
els several times a day to help
Diabetes Clinic. IrishHealth. (56K/Dialup.
keep their diabetes under
http://www.irishhealth.com/clin/diabetes/
control. For many of the mil-
video.html#
lion people diagnosed with
diabetes, their daily orders are to watch what they eat and then test their
blood glucose levels.
To control their glucose levels, patients with diabetes must take small
blood samples many times a day. Such procedures are uncomfortable
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and extremely inconvenient. Then, if their glucose level is low, the pa-
tient can inject insulin, a hormone that regulates the level of glucose.
This is done everyday, with no days off.
Many scientists and researchers are working on ways to solve the
diabetes riddle. So a cure, perhaps, is on the way.
Nanorobots and Diabetes

One research group is developing the potential of using nanorobots
for treating diabetes. The nanorobots use embedded nanobiosensors in
the body to monitor blood glucose levels. The special sensors provide
signals to mobile phones carried with the patient. If the glucose level
is too low, the nanorobots activate a programmed tune in the cellular
phone. The tune alerts the patient to take any necessary action regard-
ing the diabetes. This potential use of the nanorobots may be more
convenient and safe for data collection and patient monitoring.
Biosensors for Diabetes

Monitoring blood glucose levels can be tiresome, even with today’s
improved monitoring devices. Drs. Makarand Paranjape and John Cur-
rie, researchers in the Georgetown Advanced Electronics Laboratory
(GAEL), are working to take the process to a whole new level.
For the past few years, the team has been developing and testing a
new biosensor device for blood glucose monitoring. The biosensor, the
size of a small band-aid is de-
When you have time, see the video of
this biosensor device at: http://college.
signed to be worn anywhere
on the body. The biosensor
georgetown.edu/research/molecules/14887 samples tiny amounts of flu-
.html ids that lie just beneath the
skin. The device is small and
convenient, and makes measuring glucose levels pain-free and noninva-
sive. Professor Paranjape and researchers at Georgetown University also
have a video showing the procedure called Monitoring Blood Glucose
without Pain or Blood.
See Chapter 7 to read an interview with Professor Paranjape discussing
biosensors.
Diabetes Research Continues

Other groups are also developing new tools to treat diabetes. In
one study, researchers were able to bond insulin molecules and sugar-
sensitive proteins to a biodegradable polymer. The polymer nanopar-
ticles are injected into a repository under the skin. The nanoparticles
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can detect a diabetic’s glucose levels and release appropriate amounts

of insulin to keep blood sugar levels steady. The research indicates that
diabetics could administer the treatment with only one daily injection,
rather than the several pinprick glucose tests and then followed up with
insulin shots. An injection a day is all that will be needed. No blood
testing. No multiple injections.
Tattoos for Diabetes

Scientists are developing a smart tattoo that could tell diabetics when
their glucose levels are dangerously low. Once perfected, the tattoo will
allow glucose levels to be monitored around the clock, and could warn
the patient if their glucose levels are too low.
The tattoo has been designed by Professors Gerard Cote, of Texas
A&M University, and Michael Pishko, of the chemical engineering de-
partment at Penn State University. The tattoo is made of polyethylene
glycol beads that are coated with fluorescent molecules. The polymer
molecules are injected underneath the skin using a needle. Under a
light source from a laser
or a light-emitting diode, Did you know?
the beads would glow. The Most animal cells are 10,000 to 20,000 nanome-
amount of fluorescence that ters in diameter. This means that nanoscale de-
is emitted is due to any vices, having at least one dimension less than 100
changes in the concentra- nanometers, can enter cells and the organelles in-
tion of glucose in the blood- side them to interact with DNA and proteins.
stream.
In other words, the fluorescence levels change according to the
amount of glucose present. As an example, a low glucose level would
emit a different fluorescent light than a satisfactory glucose level. The
fluorescence levels could be measured using a device, such as a watch-
like monitor.
IMPLANTS AND PROSTHETICS

In the coming years, patients may receive hip implants and other
bone implants that employ nanotechnology. As an example, one
research group has created a microsensor for patients recovering from
hip replacement and other joint related surgery.
The nanotechnology sensor is permanently implanted with the joint
implant. The self-powered wireless microsensor monitors the bone heal-
ing process after surgery. During the healing process, the device mea-
sures and compares how the bone grows and attaches to the pores on
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the surface of the implant. It records how the patient is healing and
when the patient can resume normal activities.
This technology will not only monitor bone healing at the time of
surgery but also can determine when implants are worn out and need to
be replaced. The average lifetime of implants is about 15 years. There-
fore the microsensor will be valuable throughout the patient’s lifetime
for observing and maintaining the health of the implant.
NANOTECHNOLOGY AND BURN VICTIMS

Each year, some 45,000 people are hospitalized with burns in the
United States. Researchers in the College of Textiles at NC State are
creating unconventional “textile” products, such as skin grafts, by har-
nessing the power of nanotechnology. Russell Gorga, assistant professor
in Textile Engineering, Chemistry, and Science at North Carolina State,
has been using nanofibers to build a synthetic copy of the body’s connec-
tive tissue that surrounds and supports cells. The nanofiber skin grafts
can be used to regrow the skin of burn or laceration victims. The skin
graft provides a porous support structure where cells can attach and
nutrients can flow into the cell while waste flows away.
The antibiotic properties of silver have made the metal a popular
treatment for wounds and burns. Silver helps skin to heal by prevent-
ing infections. In recent years several companies have revolutionized
wound care with silver-impregnated dressings that require fewer painful
changings.
Another research team has modified using old model inkjet printers
to develop a way to make sheets of human skin to be used on burn vic-
tims. The printer cartridges are filled with living cells. The printer sprays
cell materials, rather than ink, onto a gauze material, creating a sheet
of living tissue. The researchers hope that this “skin-printing” method
will minimize rejections by the body. This could be a life-saving tech-
nology for the 20 percent of burn patients who have the most extensive
burns.
DIAGNOSIS AND THERAPY

The main advantage of nanomedicine is to get earlier diagnosis of
a disease. Diagnosing a disease early leads to less severe and costly
therapeutic demands and an improved clinical care. But the human
body is a dark place to observe. So, you need special instruments that
can cut through the darkness and provide a window into the body.
These kinds of instruments are called imaging tools and you may
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be familiar with some of them. They include ultrasound, Magnetic

Resonance Imaging (MRI), and Positron emission tomography (PET).
These instruments allow scientists to see more on everything from ob-
servation of individual molecules and their movement within cells.
Molecular Imaging Diagnosis

Nanotechnology can help in designing the next generation of molec-
ular imaging instruments for use in early diagnosis of a disease. The
instruments can make it possible to track the effectiveness of pharma-
ceuticals, treat disease, and monitor the response to therapies. Not only
can molecular imaging be used to find, diagnose, and treat disease in-
side the body, but will also have the ability to show how well a particular
treatment is working. As an example, molecular imaging has the po-
tential to suggest how quickly a cancer is growing by determining how
rapidly cancer cells are growing and how many are or are not dying.
Once this assessment is made, physicians can compile data to deter-
mine how best to treat patients with cancers growing at specific rates.
Molecular imaging may someday allow discovery of a predisease state in
patients.
Lab-on-a-Chip Diagnosis
Laboratory-on-a-chip technology for earlier and quicker diagnosis of
a disease is being developed. Lab-on-a-chip has become possible because
nanotechnology lets scientists manipulate extremely small materials, on
the scale of atoms and molecules. The lab-on-a-chip is a miniaturized,
portable version of a blood-count machine. The lab-on-a- chip can be
designed for many applications. One example is that it could be a diag-
nostic tool for cancer detection by searching in blood plasma for certain
molecules that could be early indicators of the disease. The handheld
device also has advantages since it requires only a little sample of blood
to analyze the blood chemistry of a patient. Analyzing the composition of
blood is how doctors test for infections and deficiencies in the immune
system.
DRUG DELIVERY USING NANOPARTICLES

Researchers believe that the potential benefits of nanotechnology will
be to provide vast improvements in drug delivery and drug targeting
techniques. These new strategies are often called drug delivery systems
(DDS). The goal of a drug delivery system is to deliver the medications
to a specific part of the body and to control the time-release rate of the
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Lab-on-a-chip. Samir Iqbal, a doctoral student in the School of Electrical and

Computer Engineering, works under a laboratory hood to transfer a small
amount of DNA solution to electronic chips. DNA attaches to gold molecules
on such "biochips" in a technology that offers promise for creating devices
for detecting bacteria and other substances by combining proteins, DNA,
and other biological molecules with electronic components. Such chips
might be used to detect cancer cells and cancer-related proteins. (Courtesy
Purdue News Service photo/David Umberger)
medication. The drug delivery systems will minimize drug degradation

and loss and prevent harmful side effects by delivering therapeutic drugs
to the desired site of the body. Drug delivery systems will have potential
for many applications, including antitumor therapy, gene therapy, AIDS
therapy, and the delivery of antibiotics and vaccines.
Advanced Drug Delivery Systems and Lab-on-a-Chip

Some researchers have discussed the possibility of combining the
laboratory-on-a-chip and the drug delivery system. A small device would
be implanted into the body, which would continuously monitor the
various biochemicals in the bloodstream and in response to an injury
or disease would release appropriate drugs. For example, an insulin-
dependent diabetic could use such a device to continuously monitor his
glucose levels and release insulin into the bloodstream, if needed.
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NANOTECHNOLOGY FIGHTS INFECTIONS

Several companies are researching and experimenting with silver
nanoparticles that may prevent infections by killing organisms such as
Staphylococcus aureus, E. coli, and other kinds of infectious bacteria and
viruses. In their research laboratories, the companies are using silver
(colloidal or ionic silver) or silver in solution as a potent antibacterial
product.
Silver is used as an enhancement in making bandages, dressings,
and other health-care products. The silver nanoparticles or nanocrys-
tals kill bacteria, viruses, and germs. The technicians break down silver
into nanoparticles that are much smaller than naturally occurring par-
ticles. This process creates greater solubility and an improved ability
for the silver atoms to migrate through a germ’s cell walls to kill the
organism.
The antibacterial and antiviral properties of silver are found in the
products of other industries as well. One shoe manufacturer is using
silver fiber built into shoes to prevent foot fungus and bacteria from
growing. This is important to diabetics, as they are prone to serious foot
infections such as gangrene, which can result in amputation of the foot
or limb if infection is allowed to set in.
Several manufacturers of outdoor equipment are also using silver
fiber in their products to prevent bacteria and fungi from growing in
their sleeping bags, cold-weather jackets, hiking clothes, and cycling
jerseys.
PHARMACEUTICAL NANOTECHNOLOGY RESEARCH

The National Science Foundation (NSF) expects nanotechnology to
account for around half of all drugs made and sold by 2010. Demand for
nanotechnology health-care products in the United States is projected
to increase nearly 50 percent per year to $6.5 billion in 2009. There
will be the potential of introducing new, improved cancer and central
nervous system therapies. Diagnostic tests, based on quantum dots and
imaging agents based on iron oxide nanoparticles will also show strong
growth, according to pharmaceutical economists. By 2020, demand
for nanotechnology health-care products is projected to exceed $100
billion.
The need for new or improved medicines in several therapeutic areas
will lead to the increasing use of nanotechnology in pharmaceutical
applications. These areas include protein-based compounds for cancer,
diabetes, and for infectious diseases. Experts also predict that over the
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Sarah Perrone and Matt Boyas are high school students who attend
Upper St. Clair High School in Upper St. Clair, Pennsylvania. Matt and
Sarah entered the ExploraVision Contest in 2006. Their project was called
NAI: Nanotech Active Immunization. (Courtesy Elise Boyas)
long term, pharmaceutical applications for nanotechnology will extend

into mostly therapeutic areas and in drug delivery systems.
NANO INTERVIEW: MATT BOYAS AND SARAH PERRONE

This chapter documents an interview with two students, Matt Boyas
and Sarah Perrone. They received a 2006 NSTA/Toshiba ExploraVision
award for their project entitled NAI: Nanotech Active Immunization which
used nanotechnology. The NSTA/Toshiba ExploraVision competition is
held annually and encourages students to think of possible future uses
of technology. Matt and Sarah attend the Upper St. Clair School District,
located outside of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
Their teacher, sponsor, and coach is Ms. Patricia Palazzolo. She is
the Gifted Education Coordinator, grades 7–12, for the Upper St. Clair
School District in Upper St. Clair, Pennsylvania. In addition to find-
ing hands-on “real world” learning opportunities for her students,
Ms. Palazzolo also coaches Future Problem Solving teams and teaches
a special course on the impact of technology on every aspect of society.
(The Future Problem Solving program’s Web site is www.fpsp.org)
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What is the Toshiba/NSTA ExploraVision Awards Program?

Before we proceed to the interview, Patricia Palazzolo was kind enough
to fill me in on the steps that are needed to submit a project for the
Toshiba/NSTA ExploraVision Awards Program. These are her words:
“The students are asked to produce an 11-page paper and a 5-page
design for a related Web site based on their ideas for the future of
any current technology or technological item. They do a tremendous
amount of research to learn about the beginnings and cutting-edge of
the technological item. They then use their creative and critical think-
ing skills to imagine what that item might be like 20 years from now,
what breakthroughs would be necessary to turn their futuristic idea into
reality, and what the ramifications—both positive and negative—would
be if their idea were to become reality. There are no three-dimensional
models required for the initial submission, although students reach-
ing the higher levels of the competition are required to create a visual
representation of a prototype of their invention.”
See Chapter 10 for more information about the Toshiba/NSTA Ex-
ploraVision Awards Program. The Web site is www.exploravision.org
Nano Interview. Matt Boyas and Sarah Perrone, NAI: Nanotech Active
Immunization
“Using millions of nanobots, NAI seeks to create a world in which people never
get a virus.”
Entered in the Toshiba ExploraVision Contest in 2006, NAI is the
work of Matt Boyas and Sarah Perrone, students at Upper St. Clair High
School in Upper St. Clair, Pennsylvania, a Pittsburgh suburb. We had a
chance to sit down with Matt and Sarah and ask them a few questions.
What was the inspiration for NAI?
Matt: At the time we were beginning the project, bird flu was a concern
for many people of the world. We decided to try and come up with a way
to eliminate the fear of the virus.
Sarah: However, we did not want to make our invention limited to a
certain time period or a certain ailment. We then broadened our look
and came up with NAI.
Before you could invent NAI, you had to research current
immunization methods. What are some?
Sarah: The main precursor to NAI is the vaccine. The traditional shot-
based vaccine is the main method of immunization in our world today,
but scientists are coming up with new methods including mist and cream
vaccines.
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What exactly is NAI?

Matt: NAI: Nanotech Active Immunization is a plan to successfully im-
munize the masses without the dangerous side effects of needle-based
vaccinations. NAI uses nanotech robots called GNATs (Gargantuan Nan-
otech Antigen-removal Team) to enter the body and destroy the viral
genetic material using enzymes.
How are the GNAT robots structured?
Sarah: The GNAT robot is a tiny, self-controlled robot. The robots are
airborne, and are inhaled into the body. These robots float around in the
bloodstream until a virus is detected, whereupon the robots are activated
and destroy the virus. Each GNAT robot is powered by thousands of
muscle cells growing on the silicon chips. The cells are very much alive,
and produce ATP during aerobic respiration, which powers them.
How do the GNAT robots eliminate viral infection?
Matt: Each GNAT robot has sensors that detect the protein capsid, a
component of all viruses. Once detected, the robot rushes to the virus,
where it inserts a long needle into the nuclear matrix. DNase and RNase
enzymes, made by pancreatic cells on the robot, travel through the
needle and break down the genetic material in the virus. Without any
genetic material, the virus cannot infect the person. White blood cells
destroy the “empty” virus, and the robot goes into StandBy mode until
another virus is detected.
What are some anticipated benefits or risks to using NAI?
Sarah: Well, the benefits of NAI are obvious. No one would get infected
by viruses anymore. This would remove the threats of thousands of
different viruses, from the common cold to HIV.
Matt: However, NAI, as with all medications, may have its risks. Since
we haven’t really made it, we can’t say what risks it may have, but we can
put out some guesses. Since the GNAT robots are located in the air, the
robots may affect children or animals differently than adults. Also, there
is always the possibility of a technology malfunction.
Are there any institutions that are currently using nanotechnology in a
similar way that you propose to use it in NAI?
Sarah: NAI is a completely theoretical project, but modern science is
well on its way to making it a reality. A needle-free, nanotechnology-
based vaccine has been developed for anthrax. In addition, simi-
lar nanotechnology-based vaccines have been developed for bubonic
plague, staph, and ricin for the U.S. Army, as well as one for malaria for
the U.S. Navy.
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READING MATERIALS
Freitas, Jr., Robert A. Nanomedicine: Basic Capabilities, Vol. 1. Austin, TX: Landes
Bioscience, 1999.
Goodsell, D.S. BioNanotechnology: Lessons from Nature. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Liss, Inc.,
2004.
Jones, R. L. Soft Machines: Nanotechnology and Life. Oxford, UK: Oxford University
Press, 2004.
Rietman, Edward A. Molecular Engineering of Nanosystems Series: Biological and Medical
Physics, Biomedical Engineering. New York: Springer, 2001.
Scientific American (author). Understanding Nanotechnology. New York: Grand Cen-
tral Publishing, 2002.
VIDEOS AND AUDIOS
Nanobumps Improve Joint Replacements. Museum of Science, Boston

Research from Brown University shows that adding nanoscale texture to the
surface of orthopedic implants not only helps prevent infection, but it also
helps the implant join to a patient’s natural bone. http://www.mos.org/events
activities/videocasts&d=1185
Bones that Grow Back Video: http://www.sciencentral.com/
Dendritic Polymer Adhesives for Corneal Wound Repair
Presented by: Mark W. Grinstaff, PhD., Metcalf Center for Science and Engineering:
http://www.blueskybroadcast.com/Client/ARVO/
National Cancer Institute: Video Journey into Nanotechnology: http://nano.cancer.
gov/resource center/video journey qt-low.asp
Audios
Voyage of the Nano-Surgeons. NASA-funded scientists are crafting microscopic ves-
sels that can venture into the human body and repair problems—one cell at a time.
http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2002/15jan nano.htm
Next Generation of Drug Delivery. The Bourne Report.
There are all sorts of ways to get medicine into the body; here are a few examples
of how MEMS and Nanotech-based approaches are making a difference. Marlene
Bourne. http://bournereport.podomatic.com/entry/2006-12-10T13 46 12-08 00
WEB SITES
Foresight Insitute, Nanomedicine: Nanomedicine may be defined as the monitor-
ing, repair, construction and control of human biological systems at the molecular
level, using engineered nanodevices and nanostructures. http://www.foresight.org/
Nanomedicine
National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute: http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/index.htm
National Cancer Institute: http://www.cancer.gov/
Scientific American: http://www.sciam.com/nanotech/
Nano Science & Technology Institute: http://nsti.org
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The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health: http://www.cdc.gov/

niosh/homepage.html
SOMETHING TO DO
Cancer Microscope Slide Activity. You may be interested in viewing human cancers
and normal human tissues prepared on special microscope slides. The VWR Inter-
national, a large distributor of science supplies for classrooms, offers several sets of
cancer slides. One set is called, Array 1: Top 4 Human Cancers and 4 Normal Human
Tissues. If interested, you can contact them at www.vwr.com You can also check other
school science suppliers and your school science department to find if they have
these kinds of slides.
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The Business of
Nanotechnology
NANOTECHNOLOGIES IN BUSINESSES
The National Science Foundation predicts that the global marketplace
for goods and services using nanotechnologies will grow to $1 trillion
by 2015. The United States invests approximately $3 billion annually
in nanotechnology research and development. This dollar figure ac-
counts for approximately one-third of the total public and private sector
investments worldwide.
The range of possibilities of nanotechnology-manufactured
products—from electronics to communications, aerospace, medicine,
energy, construction, and consumer goods—is almost limitless. More
than one-half of the major corporations that are in the stock market
are in the nanotechnology business now or will be in the future. See
the Appendix for a listing of companies that are in the nanotechnology
field.
Last year, more than $32 billion in products with nanotech materials
were sold worldwide. By 2014, some $2.6 trillion in manufactured goods
could contain nanotechnologies, according to a research group that
tracks the industry.
The researchers also estimated that about a little over 1,000 companies
have claimed to be working in a field that is related in some way to
nanotechnology. In addition, the researchers also indicated that there
are 1,500 companies that are exploring nanotechnology options.
SPORTING GOODS EQUIPMENT

The sporting goods companies have been adapting nanotechnology
for several years. In fact, they may have been the earliest of commer-
cial companies to use nanotechnology applications. As an example,
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some hockey equipment manufacturers have developed carbon nan-

otube composite hockey sticks that are more durable and have better
impact resistance than traditional sticks.
Baseball Bats
One sports manufacturer has created a special bat they call the CNT.
The “CNT” stands for carbon nanotube technology. In their traditional
carbon fiber bats, the spaces inside contain only resin. Over time the
resin can weaken the bat’s power. The company solved the problem by
applying a special carbon nanotube solution into the resin. The result
is that the bat gives hitters more power through the hitting zone. These
new bats can cost about $175 and up.
Tennis Rackets
New kinds of nanotech tennis rackets are now in sporting goods retail
stores around the world. One of the latest tennis racket features a small
proportion of nanotubes that are located in the yoke of the racket. This
is the part of the racket that tends to bend slightly with the impact of a
hard-hitting tennis ball. According to tests, the nano tennis rackets bend
less during ball impact than the traditional rackets. The rackets, which
weigh 245 to 255 grams cost about $230.
Nano Golf Balls

Wilson announced it was the first golf equipment manufacturer to
strategically use nanotechnology. The application of the cutting-edge
technology has allowed Wilson Sporting Goods Company to develop
stronger and lighter materials that optimize the performance of their
lineup of sporting goods equipment.
Not to be left out, other golf equipment companies have also figured
out how to alter the materials in a golf ball at the molecular level so the
weight inside shifts less as the
Golf Gear Improving Your Score with Nanotech-
nology. AOL Video. http://video.aol.com/
ball spins. This means that
even a badly hit ball goes
video-search/Golf-GearImproving-your- straighter than other kinds,
score-with-technology/id/3305225634 according to the manufac-
turer.
Skis and Nanofibers

Every skier wants to improve his or her performance on the slopes.
Ordinary skis may have tiny voids that create stress points that weaken
the ski. One company now injects nanoparticle crystals into these voids.
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The Business of Nanotechnology 127
Table 6.1 Some Examples of Nanotechnology Products
Consumer Medical
Products Supplies Components Equipment
Sports Burn and Automobile Lithography

Equipment Wound and Aircraft Equipment
Dressings Parts
Video Games Scanning Electron
Drugs Catalytic Microscopes
Stain-Free
Converters
Clothing Diagnostic Atomic Force
Tools Fuel Cells Microscopes
Cameras
Medical Solar Cells Nanotweezers
Sunscreens
Imaging
and Cosmetics Flat Screens Biosensors
Equipment
Paints Transistors Cantilevers
Artificial
Food Muscles Batteries Computer Aid Design
Packaging
Dialysis Filters Toxic Wastes Air Purifiers
Products
Cleanup
Super Capacitors
Equipment
Water Filtration
Systems
The result is that the skis offer a low swing weight, easy turning, and
durability.
Nanotechnology applications will continue to make better-
performing sporting goods equipment. Part of the potential nano list of
equipment includes yacht racing masts, vaulting poles, softball bats, golf
clubs, and making lighter racing bikes and Indianapolis racing sport
cars.
CHEWING GUM AND NANOCRYSTALS

Did you ever wonder why there is no chocolate chewing gum? One
reason is that the cocoa butter in the chocolate could not mix well with
the polymers, the chemicals that give gum its elasticity. In fact, the fats
found in chocolate will cause chewing gum to fall apart. A Chicago-based
company, called O’Lala’s, developed a solution incorporating nanoscale
crystals. The crystals give its gum a creamier texture and chocolate flavor.
A pack of 12 pieces will cost you about $1.25.
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APPAREL INDUSTRY
Several clothing companies have come out with a new brand of non-
stain fabric for pants that uses nanotechnology. The fabric resists spills
from many types of fibers such as cotton, synthetics, wool, silk, rayon,
and polypropylene. The nanomade fabric also repels a range of liquids
including beverages and salad dressings. The fabric keeps the body cool
and comfortable and has an antistatic treatment that reduces static cling
from dog hair, lint, and dust.
Nanotechnology in Cleaner Clothes

David Soane, a chemical engineer, started a company called Nano-
Tex. He uses the principles of nanotechnology to improve the strength
and durability of natural fibers like cotton. He created tiny structures
that he calls “nanowhiskers,” which are tiny hairs that make liquid spills
bead up and roll right off various fabrics.
Soane discovered his idea for nanowhiskers by washing a peach, a
fuzzy kind of fruit. “When you wash a peach, very often the water
rolls right off,” explains
Cleaner Kids Clothes. A Nanotechnol-
ogy Fabric. ScienCentralNews. http://www.
Soane. “That’s because on the
fruit’s surface, there are all
sciencentral.com/articles/view.php3?article these little pointed whiskers.”
id=218392126&language=english The nanowhiskers can repel
stains because they form a
cushion of air around each cotton fiber. When something is spilled
on the surface of the fabric, “the miniature whiskers actually prop up
the liquid drops, allowing the liquid drops to roll off,” says Soane, who
calls his stainproofing process, Nano-Care.
Each of Soane’s synthetic nanowhiskers is only 10 nanometers long,
made of only a few atoms of carbon. “They repel a range of fluids,” says
Soane, “including coffee, tea, salad oil, ketchup, soy sauce, cranberry
juice.”
Nanotechnology Socks
Another nano-improved apparel application that is selling in United
States Military Stores, stateside and abroad, are specially-made polyester
socks. The company ARC Outdoors uses a special process that allows
nanometer silver particles to bond within the fibers of the sock. The
silver has antimicrobial properties that provide protection against odor
and fungus in socks.
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COSMETICS
Several cosmetic companies have already marketed a number of prod-
ucts that include nanotechnology applications. These products include:
deodorants, antiaging creams, and sunscreens.
Sunscreens and Skin Cancer

Skin cancers are caused by abnormal cell changes in the outer layer
of skin called the epidermis. Skin cancer is the most common cancer in
the world. Most cases of skin cancer can be cured, but the disease is a
major health problem because it affects so many people.
Excessive exposure to sunlight is the main cause of skin cancer. Sun-
light contains ultraviolet (UV) rays that can alter the genetic material in
skin cells causing mutations.
Doctors believe that if you are at risk for skin cancer, you should
follow certain precautions that include avoiding intense sun exposure
from late morning through early afternoon. While outdoors, wear a hat,
long sleeves, trousers, and sunglasses that block UV radiation. Another
precaution tip is to use a sunscreen, a sun blocker, with a sun protection
factor of 15 or higher whenever you are outside.
Zinc is one of the most effective sun blockers used in sunscreens
because they can absorb much of the harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays that
can damage human skin.
However, because of the Did you know?
large particles of zinc, the Ultraviolet rays can cause skin cancer. According
sunscreen looks thick and to medical reports, the number of people suscep-
leaves white marks on the tible to skin cancer is predictably higher in places
skin. The large particles of with intense sunshine, such as Arizona and Hawaii.
zinc both absorb and scat- Skin cancer is most common in Australia, which
ter light, which is why zinc was settled largely by fair-skinned people of Irish
cream looks white. But if you and English descent.
make the zinc particles small
enough, the sunscreen will appear transparent because it will let visible
light pass through.
So, researchers at the cosmetic companies went to work to reduce
the large zinc particles into ultrafine nanoparticles. Their reduction of
the size of the zinc particles is impressive. The large zinc oxide particles
were reduced from about 250 nanometers to as tiny as 10 nanometers.
These ultra fine nanoparticles are especially effective in absorbing
light in the damaging ultraviolet range, below 400 nanometers wave-
length. The evidence so far is that a sunscreen containing an equivalent
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A student in the NanoSense project is testing the UV-blocking ability of a

sunscreen. She is observing and recording what happens to the skin when
the UV light reaches it. To learn more about this activity, refer to the in-
structions at the end of this chapter for more information. (Courtesy Patricia
Shank)
amount of ultrafine particles could be about twice as protective against

UV radiation as a normal sunscreen. However, regulation of these new
kinds of sunscreen products
Nano Sunscreens. To see how nano sun-
screens work go to: http://online.nanopolis
will be needed because of
the limited research that has
.net/viewer.php?subject id=274 been carried out in this field.
APPLIANCES
Nano Silver Seal Refrigerator
One major kitchen appliance company has offered a new line of
refrigerators and washing machines that uses nanocoatings to prevent
germs and molds from growing inside the appliances. Silver, as small as
1 nanometer across, is used to coat surfaces. These nanoparticles are
so electrically active that they inhibit the growth of harmful bacteria
and fungus. In a refrigerator, one company used the nanosilver in the
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deodorizer unit and in the water dispenser to sanitize the air and water
that passes over them.
[Note. The Environmental Protection Agency is investigating to find if
silver particles can be harmful when they are applied in the manufac-
turing of some appliances.]
Flat-Plane Display Screens

Since 2003 several large electronic companies began producing the
latest flat-screen display technology for laptops, cell phones, digital cam-
eras, and other uses that are made of nanostructured polymer films.
These special displays are known as OLEDs, or organic light-emitting
diodes.
These ultrathin displays are manufactured by sandwiching extremely
thin (often nano-sized) layers of organic polymer light-emitting mate-
rials between electrodes. The images are bright and viewable at wide-
angles. The displays are smaller and lighter-weight than traditional LCD
displays—meaning they are ideally suited to mobile electronics, such
as digital cameras, cellular phones, and handheld computers. Among
OLED screen advantages are brighter images, lighter weight, less power
consumption, and wider viewing angles.
The Business of Air Purifiers

Everyone wants clean air indoors. In fact, indoor pollution may be
more of a problem in many areas than outdoor air pollution. So compa-
nies are building better indoor air purifiers. One company, NanoTwin
Technologies, has patented NanoTube as the active component behind
their NanoBreeze Air Purifier. The tube is wrapped in a fiberglass mesh
coated by a layer of titanium dioxide crystals that measure 40 nanome-
ters in size. When switched on, the NanoTube radiates UV light that
charges the crystals to create powerful oxidizing agents that destroy
airborne germs and pollutants circulating over the tube’s surface.
ELECTRONICS AND COMPUTERS

The best computer chips used presently can hold around 40 mil-
lion transistors, each measuring around a micrometer (one-thousandth
of a millimeter) or less. This is electronics on a microscale, and it
is done using what is called a top-down approach. It involves taking
material, usually silicon, and slicing it up into many wafers. Patterns
(circuits consisting of many transistors) are drawn on light-sensitive
films on the surface of each wafer. Using a light source, the unwanted
material between the circuits is etched away with acid. The result is
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a finished product. This manufacturing approach is called top down

because you start with something large, and then cut it down to a
product you want. Most traditional chip manufacturers use top-down
processes.
However, nanotechnology researchers are also looking at another
completely new way of manufacturing transistors. The new way requires
a bottom-up approach. In this process, molecules are created on the
surface of a chip allowing the molecules to self-assemble into larger
structures used to make transistors.
AUTOMOBILE/VEHICLE INDUSTRY
Nanomaterials could make future automobiles and airplanes lighter
and stronger and most of all improve fuel efficiency. Nanotechnology
promises to make everything from new coatings that are scratch-resistant
and self-cleaning to batteries that last longer for hybrid vehicles. In the
longer term, nanotechnology applications will most likely make hydro-
gen easier to produce and safer to store as a renewable energy source for
vehicles. Most experts agree that nanotechnology will play an important
role in advancing hydrogen fuel cell technology. See Chapter 8 for more
information about hydrogen fuel cells.
Auto Catalytic Converters

Automakers are developing new ways to improve on their catalytic
converters that are used to control automobile emissions.
Today conventional technologies utilize precious group metals called
PGMs. The PGMs, such as platinum, palladium, and rhodium, are the
main catalysts used in catalytic converters to control automobile emis-
sions. However, the PGM demand has resulted in higher platinum
prices. Also, the need for more PGMs is expected to continue to rise
with
r an increase of more diesel cars in Europe,

r higher emission standards for trucks in North America and Japan, and
r an increase of vehicle production and higher emission standards in China
and India.
Several nanofabrication companies are now developing nanocom-

posites catalysts that will use much lower levels of PGMs in catalytic
converters.
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Table 6.2 Nanotechnology and the Automobile
Auto Frames Exhaust System Engine Paint and Tires
Carbon Nanoscale Nanocatalysts Nanopowders and

nanotube alloys metal oxide and membrane special coatings
will be used to catalysts will technology will will increase the
provide reduce harmful play a major durability of paint
lightweight emissions. role in using coatings.
materials that fuel cells that
Nanocomposites
will provide will be more
will be used to
both strength economical and
build tires that
and lightweight cleaner than
will improve skid
materials for the present
resistance and
frames, car internal
abrasion.
doors, combustion
bumpers, engine.
mirrors, and
windshields.
Automobile Paint and Waxes

A new type of finish for automobile bodies offers improved scratch
resistance compared to conventional paint finishes. The nanoparticle
clear coat lacquer fills in and conceals scratches, which provides a nice
glossy coat to the look of the car or truck.
Several nano car waxes are now on the market and they are made
with nano-sized polishing agents. The new waxes provide a better
shine due to its ability to fill-in tiny blemishes in automotive paint
finishes.
The automobile companies are also spending money on nanotechnol-
ogy to manufacture better-built vehicles to make them lighter, stronger,
safer, and more fuel-efficient. For strength and safety, they are using
nanocomposites in the frames, doors, engines, seats, tires, and in other
auto parts as well. They are experimenting and testing hydrogen fuel
cells to power their vehicles, making them less dependent on petroleum-
based fuels and better for the environment.
Aeronautic companies are researching ways to use nanosensors that
could be built directly into the body of an aircraft and used to identify
mechanical, structural, and electrical problems before they ever arise.
Among the more innovative things nanotechnologists envision are self-
healing materials and shape-shifting wings.
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AIRCRAFT POTENTIAL AND METAL RUBBER

In Chapter 2, you read about Dr. Claus, the President of NanoSonic
Inc. that makes Metal RubberTM . As you recall, Metal RubberTM looks
like brown plastic wrap and has some amazing properties, including
elasticity and it is very tough. Dr. Claus said that one of the most excit-
ing applications of Metal RubberTM is to use it for “morphing aircraft
structures. These are aircraft that dynamically change the shape of their
wings and their control surfaces during flight,” he explains. Almost the
way that a hawk might fly along, see prey, and change its shape to dive
down. The hawk changes the shape of its body, and when it does that, it
needs to be able to sense what the outside forces and pressures are so it
knows how to fly. For a plane, you need a material that’s mechanically
flexible. But you also need a material with a surface that’s controlled
by sensors and electrical conductors that allow it to do that sensing
and change shape accordingly. Metal RubberTM might allow sensors
that can be flexed. Now NanoSonic is working in partnership with an
aircraft company to explore Metal RubberTM potential in aerospace.
PAINT AND OTHER WATER RESISTANCE COATINGS

Another example of rapid growth in nanotechnology applications is in
the field of wear-resistant paints and other kinds of coatings. Beginning
in 1996, the Department of Defense (DOD) supported funding for
developing processes to manufacture coatings for use in the marine
environment.
Then in 2000, the first nanostructured coating was qualified for use
on gears of air-conditioning units for U.S. Navy ships. DOD estimates
that use of the coatings on this equipment will result in a $20 million
reduction in maintenance costs over 10 years. The development of wear-
resistant coatings by the DOD will lead to commercial applications that
can extend the lifetime of moving parts in everything from personal cars
to heavy industrial machinery.
Paints and Anti-Graffiti Coating

Graffiti is an expensive social concern for many major cities. Two
examples illustrate the scale of the problem: the subway system or the
tube in London spends over 15 million dollars per year for cleaning
up graffiti and the City of Los Angeles spends even more millions for
cleanup work.
Several companies have used nanotechnology to create paints and
coatings to help solve the graffiti problem. Some of the products, so
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far being developed, provide a permanent clear coating that does not
allow paint, permanent markers, stickers, graffiti, or any other markings
to bond to the coating. The clear coating forms a barrier between the
surface of, say, a wall and any graffiti paint that might be applied.
REMOVING WINDSHIELD FOG

Fog conditions can be a major concern for drivers in many parts of the
world. Many vehicle accidents have occurred due to fogging conditions
that have occurred rapidly. One company may have an answer to keep
the fog particles from forming on the windshields of cars and trucks.
They are developing a way to heat up a windshield without the use
of costly copper heating elements. The group has designed a special
coating, consisting of a transparent coat of carbon nanotubes (CNT),
to cover the surface of a windshield. When electricity is supplied to the
windshield, it becomes a heater that can clear the surface of a windshield
in a short period of time.
SELF-CLEANING GLASS
Tired of cleaning windows? After years of development, Pilkington
ActivTM is the world’s first self-cleaning glass to use a microscopic coating
with a unique dual action. The coating on the glass reacts with ultraviolet
light given off by the sun. This reaction on the surface breaks down and
loosens the organic dirt. Then, when it rains, the coating causes rain
water to “sheet” off the surface of the glass, which not only washes
away the loosened particles of dirt, but also prevents the formulation of
droplets, which cause streaks and make windows look dirty.
ANTIBACTERIAL CLEANSERS
There are several antibacterial cleansers that use nanoemulsion tech-
nology to kill pathogens. These cleansers are able to kill tuberculosis
and bacteria while remaining nonflammable, noncorrosive, and non-
toxic. The good news is that there are no harmful effects when using
these products.
MEDICAL BANDAGES
Silver’s antibiotic properties have made the metal a popular treatment
for wounds and burns. Special dressings for burns offer antimicrobial
barrier protection using concentrations of silver with nanocrystalline
technology. It helps skin to heal by preventing infections during treat-
ment. The silver-impregnated dressings require fewer painful changings
than previous silver treatments.
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SOLAR ENERGY: PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS

In this century, the use of solar cells is a major goal for supplying
energy needs for the United States as well as the world. As of 2005,
the world market for solar cells was about 3 to 4 billion dollars. Of
this amount Japan had a 20 percent share, according to economic
experts. Germany had the greatest number of solar installations, ac-
counting for 57 percent. The United States accounts for 7 percent
and Europe accounts for 6 percent. The rest of the world accounts for
10 percent.
Many companies are focusing on the technology in the production
of solar cells. However, the technology still remains expensive when
compared to the costs of fossil fuels. Presently solar cells have two major
problems: they cost too much to make (in the form of energy), and they
are not very efficient. Typical efficiencies for solar cells range from 10
to 15 percent.
Scientists have been doing a lot of research and experiments with
quantum dots to make photovoltaic cells more efficient. A new quantum-
dot-based solar cell has recently been prototyped with 30 percent effi-
ciency.
One company, Nanosolar, has developed a low-cost technology to
make solar cells based on the economics of printing. Their technology
is like printing solar film on
Did you know?
paper. To make the thin-
CIGS are made up of four elements. Copper (Cu) film solar cells, Nanosolar
is a reddish metal that is used mostly for electrical prints CIGS (copper-indi-
equipment. Indium (In) is a soft, metallic metal um-gallium-selenium) onto
that is used as a protective plate for bearings and a thin polymer using ma-
other metal surfaces. Gallium (Ga) is a soft blue- chines that look like printing
gray metal. As gallium arsendite (GaAs), it is used presses. There is no costly sil-
in light-emitting diodes (LEDs). Selenium (Se) is a icon involved in the process.
nonmetallic chemical element used extensively in According to the company,
electronics, such as in photocells. a solar cell from Nanosolar
will cost about one-fifth to
one-tenth the cost of a standard silicon solar cell.
The technology of producing thin-film solar cells has the potential
to achieve mass production at low costs. One economic researcher esti-
mates that the market for thin-film solar cells will increase in the next
few years, and then reach $1.5 billion in sales in 2012. See Chapter 8 for
more information about photovoltaic cells.
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BATTERY TECHNOLOGY
Lithium-ion batteries, commonly used in laptops and cell phones,
have a relatively short life span because they use a graphite anode,
which wears out quickly with normal usage. Altair Nanotechnologies
has developed nanomaterials that resulted in safer, more powerful
batteries.
The Altair team substituted the carbon anode with lithium titanate
(LiTiO) nanocrystals, which makes the battery last longer. Lithium
Titanate or Lithium Tita-
nium Oxide nanocrystals Did you know?
are typically 10 to 100 nano- Lithium (Li) is the lightest metal and a thin layer
meters. of it can float on water. It is a strong alloy used in
Using the lithium titanate building aircraft and space vehicles.
nanocrystals also length-
ened the life of a lithium-ion battery from 750 recharges to between
10,000 and 15,000 recharges. The nanocrystals also made the battery
safer.
Virus-Assembled Batteries
Professor Angela Belcher, a biomolecular materials chemist at MIT, is
trying to use biological methods, such as viruses, to assemble batteries.
“The goal is to have biology make things in an environmentally friendly
way,” says Professor Belcher.
Professor Belcher’s virus-assembled batteries are thin, transparent
sheets that look like plastic wrap. They could be used to create smart
credit cards or lightweight hearing-aid batteries. Eventually, Professor
Belcher hopes to weave battery cells into textile fibers to create battery-
powered fabrics for clothing. As an example, soldiers might plug night-
vision goggles into their uniforms, instead of using traditional batteries
for energy.
Long-Lasting Batteries
The company mPhase Technologies and Bell Labs, research and de-
velopment part of Lucent Technologies, have teamed up to develop a
type of nanobattery. The nanobattery can store and generate electric
current that could be used for many years after it is bought.
In traditional batteries, all the chemicals are mixed together in the
battery. This causes traditional batteries to degrade even when not in
use. Therefore, traditional batteries have a certain shelf life before they
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expire. In the new nanobattery, the chemicals are not mixed together,
until you activate it. In other words, no power is used until the device,
such as a tool, is turned on. So, the battery does not dissipate any of its
chemical energy when not in use. This feature provides a very, very long
shelf life that regular batteries don’t have.
THE BUSINESS OF BUILDING ATOMIC FORCE MICROSCOPES

Several companies such as Asylum Research, Veeco, Agilent, Novascan
specialize in sales and services of Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM). The
AFM is a high-resolution imaging and measurement tool that allows
researchers to directly view single atoms or molecules that are only a few
nanometers in size. Then it produces a three-dimensional map of the
sample’s surface.
Atomic force microscopes are a significant portion of the $1 billion
market for nanotechnology measurement tools. The price of an AFM
can cost up to $500,000.
Atomic force microscopy (AFM) is the principal technology that scien-
tists and researchers use to view and manipulate samples at the nanome-
ter scale, which is why it’s called the “eyes of nanotechnology.”
The AFMs are employed in the semiconductor industry, the materials
science field, and the biotechnology industry. AFM life science applica-
tions include the imaging of live cells, proteins, and DNA under phys-
iological conditions; single molecule recognition; and the detection of
single biomolecular binding interactions.
The AFM has several advantages over other technologies, which
makes it a favorite with researchers. The chief difference between AFM
and other microscopy techniques is the measure of resolution. While
electron and optical microscopes provide a standard two-dimensional
horizontal view of a sample’s surface, AFM also provides a vertical
view. The resulting images show the topography of a sample’s surface.
While electron microscopes work in a vacuum, most AFM modes work
in ambient or liquid environments. AFM does not require any spe-
cial sample preparation that could damage the sample or prevent its
reuse.
The number of applications for AFM has increased since the tech-
nology of this kind of microscope was invented in the 1980s and
now spans many areas of nanoscience and nanotechnology. AFM pro-
vides the ability to view and understand events as they occur at the
molecular level. This will increase knowledge of how systems work and
lead to advancements in such areas as drug discovery, life science,
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The SRI International NanoSense Project team includes (left to right): An-
ders Rosenquist, Patricia Schank, Alyssa Wise, Tina Stanford. The team de-
signs activities so high school students can understand the science concepts
that account for the nanoscale phenomena. (Courtesy Larry Woolf )
materials science, electrochemistry, polymer science, biophysics, and

biotechnology.
NANO INTERVIEW: DR. ALYSSA WISE AND DR. PATRICIA SCHANK

(NANOSENSE TEAM) AND DR. BRENT MACQUEEN
(NANOSCIENTIST)
A team of educators and scientists at SRI International in Menlo Park,
California, have designed and implemented a project called NanoSense.
NanoSense introduces high school students and teachers to nanoscale
science concepts and skills. The instructional materials in the program
include hands-on activities, student worksheets, lesson plans, visualiza-
tions, and student readings. Hundreds of high school students have used
NanoSense materials.
[Note: At the end of this chapter you will have the opportunity to
do a nano activity, Sunscreens and Sunlight Animation, from one of the
NanoSense units.]
I invited the team at SRI International to reply to questions about
nanoscience and nanotechnology asked by the high school students
who participated in the NanoSense program. The following are a few of
these questions.
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Where does most nanoscience research take place?

Nanotechnology is a big business. More than $8.6 billion was invested by
governments, companies and venture capitalists worldwide in 2004 and
$60 billion to $70 billion worth of products that incorporate nanotech-
nology are sold annually in the United States. The National Nanotech-
nology Initiative (NNI) estimates that more than two million people will
be working in nanotechnology within the next 10 years.
The United States is the leader in nanotechnology research, but not
by much. Nanotechnology is the largest federally funded science initia-
tive in the country, receiving over $1 billion in federal funds annually,
and private companies invest at least another $1 billion. Initially, gov-
ernments made the largest investments in nanotechnology, but this has
changed in recent years, with industry contributing larger and larger
amounts.
Japan has been involved in nanotechnology since the very early stages
and is very close to the United States in its level of development; the
Japanese government invested around $750 million in nanotechnology
in 2004. The Europeans have recently recognized the importance of
nanotechnology and are starting to put a lot of money into nanotech-
nology projects as well. Finally, countries that are beginning to get into
nanotechnology include India, China, South Africa, and Brazil.
How are nanosized particles made?
Typically we start from the bottom and build up the particles. You begin
by reacting the molecules to form a mixture in which solid particles are
suspended in a liquid. Then you pour this mixture into a mold, where
it becomes a soft, jelly-like material. Finally, you carefully apply heat
and drying treatments to produce the nanoparticles. This technique
is great because it produces a very even distribution of nanoparticle
sizes.
It’s very difficult to take bulk materials and just grind them up to
make nanoparticles; this method usually creates a broad particle size
distribution of both nanoparticles and larger particles. One can isolate
the nanosized particles by setting up a fluid flow in which the small
particles get carried along and the larger ones fall out due to gravity, but
it’s a very tedious and slow process.
Why are gold nanoparticles used in so many medical applications?
Gold nanoparticles are used for three main reasons: first, it’s very easy
to make small, stable nanoparticles of gold; second, nanogold has been
around for hundreds of years and has been used in medicine since the
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1800s, so we have a lot of experience working with it; and third, gold is
generally inert, which means that instead of reacting with it or dissolving
it, the body will leave it alone to do what we want it to do.
How close are scientists to making nanorobots that go inside the body?
It depends on what you think of as nanorobots. There is a lot of hype
about miniature versions of metal robots running around in the body or
wreaking havoc on the world, but this is not the reality. But if you think
of a “robot” as a functionalized nanoparticle that goes to a specific place
in the body to do a specific thing, then nanorobots already exist; one
example is drugs that are inserted into nanoparticles of clay because
clay seems to go straight into the cells where the drug by itself wouldn’t.
Could we feel nanorobots inside of us?
No, the particles don’t have enough mass for us to feel them. Just as
they are too small to see, they are too small to feel. In terms of what we
would feel, they are not different from the other chemical substances
we currently put into our bodies.
Are there any possible problems with using nanoparticles
in sunscreens?
Although no adverse effects of nanoparticle sunscreens on humans have
yet been found, there is concern that there may be undiscovered health
issues for nanosized particles. The chemical industries have assumed
that if large particles of a substance are safe, nanosized ones will be
too, and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (which must approve
all active ingredients used in sunscreens sold the United States) bases
its approval process on the identity and concentration of a chemical
substance, not the size of the particle.
A growing body of evidence, however, suggests that the safety of
nanoparticles can’t be taken for granted just because larger particles
of the same substance have been proven to be safe. Nanoparticles are
useful precisely because they don’t always act in the same ways as their
larger counterparts. With sunscreens, the concern is that the nanoparti-
cles could penetrate the protective layers of the skin and cause reactions
with ultraviolet light that cause damage to DNA in cells. In 2003 the
European Scientific Committee on Cosmetic and Non-Food Products
(SCCNFP) concluded that titanium dioxide nanoparticles are safe for
cosmetic use, but suggested the need for more tests on the safety of zinc
oxide nanoparticles.
In response to this issue, many researchers are calling for full exami-
nation and safety testing of nanoparticles as if they were completely new
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chemicals, as well as clear identification of nanoparticles in ingredients

lists of consumer products.
For more information about the NanoSense program, see www.
nanosense.org
NANO ACTIVITY: SUNSCREENS AND SUNLIGHT ANIMATIONS,

ADAPTED FROM SRI INTERNATIONAL’S NANOSENSE UNIT
Student Instructions & Worksheet

This animation worksheet is best used as an in-class activity with
small groups so that students can discuss the different things they
notice in the animations.
Important: These models are meant to provoke questions and stim-
ulate a discussion about how the scattering mechanism works and how
a real-world phenomenon can be represented with a model. As with
all models, they are imperfect representations and are not meant to
be shown to students simply as an example of “what happens.”
Introduction
There are many factors that people take into account when choos-
ing which sunscreen to use. Two of the most important factors that
people consider are the ability to block UV light and how the sun-
screen appears on the skin (due to the interaction with visible light).
You are about to see three animations that are models of what hap-
pens when sunlight (UV and visible rays) shines on:
r Skin without any sunscreen

r Skin protected by 200 nm ZnO particle sunscreen
r Skin protected by 30 nm ZnO particle sunscreen
Viewing the Animations Online:

To view the animations, have your students navigate to the Clear
Sunscreen Animation Web page at http://nanosense.org/activities/
clearsunscreen/sunscreenanimation.html
Downloading the Animations:
If you have a slow Internet connection or want to have a copy of
the animation on your computers for offline viewing, go to the Clear
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Sunscreen Materials Web page at http://nanosense.org/activities/

clearsunscreen/ and download the files “sunscreenanimation.html”
and “sunscreenanimation.swf” to the same folder. To view the ani-
mation, simply open the file “sunscreenanimation.html” in your Web
browser.
Questions
1. Select the UVA and UVB wavelengths of light with no sunscreen and
click the play button.
a. What happens to the skin when the UV light reaches it?
The skin is damaged.
b. How is the damage caused by the UVA rays different from the dam-
age caused by the UVB rays? (You may want to play the animation
with just UVA or UVB selected to answer this question.)
In the animation, UVB light causes a burn on the skin’s surface and
UVA light causes the breakdown in skin fibers deeper in the skin that
leads to premature aging.
c. Based on what you know about the different energies of UVA and
UVB light, why do you think this might happen?
The UVB light causes more immediate damage to the first cells it en-
counters because it is high energy. The UVA light is lower in energy
and can penetrate deeper into the skin before it does damage. Both
UVB and UVA light also can lead to DNA mutations that cause cancer,
which is not shown in the animation.
2. Now leave UVA and UVB light selected and try playing the animation
first with the 30 nm ZnO sunscreen and then with the 200 nm ZnO
sunscreen.
a. What kind of sunscreen ingredient is shown in each animation?
The 30 nm ZnO is a nanosized inorganic ingredient.
The 200 nm ZnO sunscreen is a traditional inorganic ingredient.
b. What happens to the UV light in the animation of 30 nm ZnO
particle sunscreen?
The UV light is completely blocked via absorption.
c. What happens to the UV light in the animation of 200 nm ZnO
particle sunscreen?
The UV light is completely blocked via absorption.
d. Is there any difference in how the UV light interacts with the 30
nm ZnO particles versus the 200 nm ZnO particles? Explain why
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this is so, based on your understanding of how the sunscreens work

to block UV light.
There is no difference in how the 30 nm and 200 nm ZnO particles
interact with the UV light. This is because absorption depends on the
energy levels in the substance, which are primarily determined by the
substance’s chemical identity, not the size of the particle.
e. Is there any difference in how the two kinds of UV light interact with
the sunscreens? Explain why this is so, based on your understanding
of how the sunscreens work to block UV light.
Both UVA and UVB light are fully absorbed because ZnO absorbs
strongly for all wavelengths less than ∼380 nm.
Students may point out that wavelengths of 380–400 nm are UVA light
that might not be absorbed. This is true and can be discussed with the
final question, which addresses the limitations of using models.
3. Select the visible light option and play the animation for each of
the sunscreen conditions. What happens to the visible light in each
animation, and what does the observer see?
a. Skin without any sunscreen
The photons of light pass through the air to the skin. At the skin’s
surface, most of the blue-green (∼400–550 nm) wavelengths of light are
absorbed by pigments in the skin, while the red-orange-yellow (∼550–
700 nm) wavelengths of light are reflected and reach the observer’s
eye. The observer sees the surface of the skin. (Different skin colors are
caused by different amounts and types of the skin pigment melanin).
b. Skin with 200 nm ZnO particles sunscreen
The photons of light pass through the air and are refracted (bent) as
they enter the sunscreen. They are then scattered by the ZnO particles
multiple times until they emerge from the sunscreen and are again
refracted (bent). Since large particles of ZnO scatter all wavelengths
of light equally, all of the different photon wavelengths reach the ob-
server, who sees an opaque white surface. (Note that even though the
animation shows the different colored photons reaching the observer at
different times, in reality there are many photons of each color reaching
the observer at the same time.)
c. Skin with 30 nm ZnO particle sunscreen
The photons of light pass through the air and are refracted (bent)
as they enter the sunscreen. They pass through ZnO particles with-
out being scattered, and at the skin’s surface, most of the blue-green
(∼400–550 nm) wavelengths of light are absorbed by pigments in the
skin, while the red-orange-yellow (∼550–700 nm) wavelengths of light
are reflected. They then pass through the sunscreen again, and are
refracted (bent) when they pass to the air, before they reach the
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observer’s eye. The observer sees the surface of the skin and we say
that the sunscreen is “clear.”
4. When we make a model (such as one of these animations), we make
tradeoffs between depicting the phenomenon as accurately as possible
and simplifying it to show the key principles involved. What are some
other ways these animations have simplified the model of the real-
world situation they describe?
Example Simplifications:
r The UVA and UVB light are each shown as two identical photons when in
reality there are many more photons involved.
r The wavelengths of the two photons used to represent UVA and UVB light
are shown to be the same when in reality each consists of a range of wave-
lengths.
r The ZnO particles are shown as “solid” balls when in reality they are clusters
of ions.
r All of the ZnO particles are shown to be the same size, but in reality, there
is a distribution of particle sizes.
r The damage of the UV rays to the skin doesn’t show the DNA mutations
that lead to cancer because of the size and timescale involved.
r The sunscreen solvent is a pale yellow, but it should be clear since it does not
scatter (or absorb) light. How else could this be shown in the animations?
For the full version of this activity with all ten questions, please go
to http://www.nanosense.org/activities/clearsunscreen/index.html
and download the Teacher Materials for Lesson 4: How Sunscreens
Appear: Scattering.
READING MATERIAL
Atkinson, William Illsey. Nanocosm: Nanotechnology and the Big Changes Coming from the
Inconceivably Small. New York: AMACOM/American Management Association,
2003.
New York: John Wiley & Sons. 1992.
Fishbine, Glenn. The Investor’s Guide to Nanotechnology & Micromachines. New York:
John Wiley & Sons, 2001.
Hamakawa, Yoshihiro. Thin-Film Solar Cells. New York: Springer-Verlag, 2004.
Luryi, Serge, and Jimmy Xu. Future Trends in Microelectronics: Reflections on the Road to
Nanotechnology. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1996.
Uldrich, Jack, and Deb Newberry. Next Big Thing Is Really Small: How Nanotechnology
Will Change the Future of Your Business. New York: Crown Publishing Group, 2003.
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VIDEOS
Exploring the Nanoworld, movies of nano-structured materials including ferroflu-
ids, memory metals, LEDs, self-assembly, and Lego models. National Science
Foundation supported Materials Research Science and Engineering Center on
Nanostructured Materials and Interfaces at the University of Wisconsin-Madison.
http://mrsec.wisc.edu/edetc
G Living.The Phoenix Electric Nano Battery SUV. http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=w-Zv5RFgmWY&NR
Electron-Beam Lithography. Nanopolis Online Multimedia Library. Electron-
beam lithography is a technique for creating extremely fine patterns required
for modern electronic circuits. http://online.nanopolis.net/viewer.php?subject
id=139
Cosmetics. Nanopolis Online Multimedia Library. The cosmetics industry was one
of the first industries to employ nanotechnology for cosmetics that include creams,
moisturizers, and sunscreens. http://online.nanopolis.net/viewer.php?subject
id=274
WEB SITES
Nano Science and Technology Institute: http://www.nsti.org/
NanoBusiness Alliance: www.nanobusiness.org/
Center for Responsible Nanotechnology Newsletter:
http://responsiblenontechnology.org/newletter.htm
Nanomagazine (founded 2001, many interviews with leading figures): http://www.
nanomagazine.com
Nano Technology Magazine: http://nanozine.com
Small Times: Daily articles covering MEMS, nanotechnology, and microsystems, with
a business angle. http://www.smalltimes.com
NanoInk, Inc.: Creator of Dip Pen Nanolithography (DPN) tools for fabricating
MEMS and other nanoscale devices. Chicago. http://www.nanoink.net
NanotechNews: News for nanotechnologists and investors: regular updates, many
links to other nanotechnology Web sites, archives, search function, newswire.
http://news.nanoapex.com/
SOMETHING TO DO
Self-cleaning glass is a nanotechnology consumer product that is available today.
But, what is self-cleaning glass and how does it work? For an activity to help
you learn more about the product, go to the NNIN Nanotechnology Web site:
http://www.nnin.org/nnin edu.html
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Nanotechnology for
Food, Agriculture,
Livestock,
Aquaculture,
and Forestry
Nanotechnology has the potential to provide the tools and the re-
search to change the future of food technology. Applying the prin-
ciples of nanotechnology,
researchers can produce Did you know?
more nutritious food and Due to food shortages, millions of people through-
beverages; improve food out the world suffer from malnutrition. In fact, mal-
packaging, and develop nutrition is a contributor to more than half the
special biosensors. These deaths of children under five in developing coun-
biosensors can monitor tries. One of the goals of the United States Depart-
food safety and the health ment of Agriculture is to reduce hunger in America
of crops, forest areas, fish and the world.
ponds, and livestock.
According to one report, more than 200 companies worldwide are
engaged in nanotech research and development related to food. The
United States is the leader followed by Japan and China. All these coun-
tries and others will take part in a nanofood market that will surge from
$2.6 billion today to $20.4 billion in 2010.
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Nanotechnology is one of the U.S. government’s top research prior-
ities. The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) is one of
the leading agencies in supporting nanotechnology applications. The
Department of Agriculture’s multifaceted mission is to: ensure a safe
food supply; care for agricultural lands, forests, and rangelands; support
sound development of rural communities; provide economic opportuni-
ties for farm and rural residents; expand global markets for agricultural
and forest products and services; and work to reduce hunger in America
and the world.
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The USDA investment in nanotechnology research has the potential

to have a major impact on agriculture and food processing. One of their
goals is to develop “smart” food packaging with built-in nanosensors to
detect pathogens or contaminants in the product.
FOOD PACKAGING: A MAJOR GOAL USING

NANOTECHNOLOGY METHODS
Today, food packaging and safety are the major goals of food-related
nanotech research and development or R&D. Food companies are work-
ing on developing packaging that incorporates lighter and stronger
packages with embedded sensors that can alert a consumer to contami-
nation and or presence of pathogens.
According to industry analysts, the current U.S. market for the nan-
otechnology of packaging of foods and beverages is an estimated $38
billion, and will grow to $54 billion before 2010. The following includes
a few examples that show nanoscale applications for food and beverage
packaging.
Nano Plastic Packaging

Several chemical companies are producing a nanotechnology trans-
parent plastic film for packaging containing nanoparticles of clay. The
nanoparticles are integrated throughout the plastic and are able to
block oxygen, carbon dioxide, and moisture from reaching fresh meats
or other foods. The nanoclay particles also make the plastic lighter,
stronger, and more heat-resistant.
One company that makes camera film used nanotech to develop
antimicrobial packaging for food products. The company is also
developing other “active
packaging” that absorbs oxy-
Did you know?
gen. If oxygen gets into pack-
Some food companies use oxygen absorbents to
prevent the growth of aerobic pathogens and or-
aged food products, such as
ganisms that may spoil food or allow them to be- cheese or meat, it can reduce
come unsafe. the freshness of the food,
so it may no longer be safe
to eat.
Another manufacturer of plastics has developed a nano-composite
plastic barrier for food that prevents the flow of oxygen and carbon
dioxide from entering a package. The nanoplastic package keeps all
kinds of products fresher longer. The plastics also block out smells. The
plastic barrier is so strong that it can be useful in making boil-bag food
products and microwavable packaging.
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Nanotechnology for Food, Agriculture, Livestock, Aquaculture, and Forestry 149
New Kinds of Bottles

Packaging companies are also interested in developing bottles that
are as hard as glass but will not shatter if mishandled. The plastic bottles
contain clay nanoparticles that are as hard as glass but far stronger,
so the bottles are less likely to shatter. The layout of the nanoparticles
is keeping the liquid from spoilage and flavor problems and giving
it up to a six-month shelf life. By embedding nanocrystals in plastic,
researchers have created a molecular barrier that helps prevent the
escape of oxygen. Nanocor and Southern Clay Products are now working
on plastic beverage bottles that may increase shelf life to 18 months.
Foodborne Diseases
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimates 76
million people suffer from foodborne illnesses each year in the United
States, accounting for 325,000 hospitalizations and more than 5,000
deaths. Foodborne disease is extremely costly. Health experts estimate
that the yearly cost of all foodborne diseases in this country is 5 to 6
billion dollars in medical expenses and lost productivity.
There are more than 250 known foodborne diseases. They can be
caused by bacteria, viruses, or parasites. Some of the foodborne diseases
include botulism, E. coli, salmonellosis, and listeria monocytogenes.
Listeria Monocytogenes in Food

Listeria monocytogenes has recently been recognized as an impor-
tant public health problem in the United States. Listeriosis is a serious
infection caused by eating food contaminated with the bacterium.
Listeria monocytogenes is found in soil and water. Vegetables can
become contaminated from the soil or from manure used as fertilizer.
The bacterium has been
found in a variety of raw
foods, such as uncooked
E. coli Handheld Sensor Detecting Bac-
teria with Electromechanical Cantilevers.
meats and vegetables, as well Chemical engineers have developed a
as in processed foods that sensor that can almost instantly detect
became contaminated even the presence of E. coli. Science Daily.
after processing, such as soft http://www.sciencedaily.com/videos/2006-
11-09/
cheeses and cold cuts.
Salmonella Ilnesses from Food

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention has estimated that
salmonella infections are responsible for nearly 1.5 million illnesses
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Escherichia coli is another foodborne pathogen that can cause human ill-
nesses characterized by severe cramping (abdominal pain) and diarrhea. In
this photo, Escherichia coli, being cultured in an agar plate, is the most com-
mon bacteria found in the large intestines of healthy individuals. (Courtesy
Centers for Disease Control)
annually. Salmonella bacteria are often present in polluted water, on

kitchen surfaces, in soil, within the bodies of insects or other animals,
and on factory surfaces. Some of the most common vectors of Salmonella
food poisoning are raw or undercooked meats, raw or undercooked
poultry, eggs, milk and dairy products, fish, shrimp, yeast, coconut, and
egg- or dairy-based sauces and salad dressings.
Infection with Salmonella bacteria is called salmonellosis. It is esti-
mated that from 2 to 4 million cases of salmonellosis infection occur
in the United States annually. This has resulted in more than 16,000
hospitalizations and nearly 600 deaths. The incidence of salmonellosis
appears to be rising both in the United States and in other developed
nations. Billions of dollars are lost in job productivity due to this disease.
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Salmonella is a foodborne pathogen that can appear in such foods as pork.

The disease causes fever, abdominal cramps. The scanning electron micro-
graph shows two rod-shaped salmonella bacteria. (Courtesy Centers for Disease
Control)
NANOSENSORS FOR FOODBORNE CONTAMINATION

Nanotechnology will provide safer and better quality foods for con-
sumers by rapid detecting of pathogens in foods by using systems that
use biosensors. By using biosensors, researchers and food processors can
identify even tiny amounts of pathogens in food before products leave
the food processing plants.
Professor Mohamed Ahmedna is a food scientist at North Carolina
A&T State University. He and his research team are working on ways to
detect contamination, such
as salmonella, early so that Did you know?
the public can avoid food- Today sensors provide information about tempera-
borne illness. ture and weather data, chemical contaminants, and
Dr. Ahmedna describes even control the deceleration for release of airbags
the biosensor as, basically, a in automobiles.
device that detects biologi-
cal organisms such as salmonella or any other bacteria. The biosensors
have the speed that you do not have with traditional methods. Speed is
an issue as also are portability and cost.
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This instrumentation may look simple, but tests to date have shown
that it can rapidly detect salmonella. Currently, industry methods for
food-borne bacteria detection can take several days. This biosensor unit,
once refined, may deliver results in just a few hours.
USING FOOD PACKAGING SENSORS IN DEFENSE AND SECURITY

APPLICATIONS
In the view of the U.S. military, it is a national security priority to
detect foodborne pathogens. With the present technologies, testing for
microbial food contamination takes 2 to 7 days for the results. The
sensors that have been developed to date are too big to be transported
easily. In the immediate future, small, portable sensors that can detect
and measure pathogens in food products are needed.
Several groups of researchers in the United States are developing
biosensors that can detect pathogens quickly and easily. These sensors
can play a critical role in the
Detecting Deadly Chemicals. A sampler gun
that can now be used to detect harmful or
event of a terrorist attack on
the food supply. With United
dangerous diseases essuch as anthrax. Sci- States Department of Agricul-
enceDaily. http://www.sciencedaily.com/ ture (USDA) and National
videos/2006-12-10/ Science Foundation (NSF)
funding, researchers at Pur-
due University are developing a handheld sensor capable of detecting a
specific bacteria instantaneously from any sample.
OTHER KINDS OF SENSORS: THE ELECTRONIC NOSE AND THE

ELECTRONIC TONGUE
Two sensors, called the electronic nose and the electronic tongue,
can detect food pathogens. Both these sensors have been used in labo-
ratories, including NASA, to detect trace chemicals. Now, the electronic
nose and the electronic tongue will be applied to the food industry,
since both sensors are especially effective in recognizing contaminants
and analyzing the overall quality of foods.
The Electronic Nose (e-nose) Technology

An electronic nose (e-nose) is a device that identifies the specific
components of an odor and analyzes its chemical makeup to identify it.
In a sense it mimics the human nose, but it has far greater sensitivity to
smell and can trace scents at the nanoparticle level.
Electronic noses are not new. They have been around for several years.
Electronic noses were originally used for quality control applications in
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the food, beverage, and cosmetics industries. However, the e-nose is

large and expensive to manufacture.
Current research is focused on making the e-nose smaller, less expen-
sive, and more sensitive. The new and improved e-nose could be used
to detect odors specific to diseases for medical diagnosis, the detection
of pollutants, and gas leaks for environmental protection.
The Electronic Tongue Technology

Similar to the e-nose technology, the electronic tongue, or e-tongue,
mimics the human tongue, but it is more sensitive to flavors in foods.
The e-tongue sensors can detect substances in parts per trillion and
could be used in packaging to trigger a color change that would alert
the consumer if a food had become contaminated or if it had begun to
spoil.
Food researchers believe the electronic tongue is going to be vital to
food studies. As an example, a meat package with a built-in tongue can
taste the first signs of spoilage and activate a color change as a warning
to the consumer.
The electronic tongue is made from a silicon chip that has microbeads
arrayed on it. Each of the beads responds to different analytes. The
different analytes of the e-tongue are similar to the taste buds on the
human tongue. The e-tongue responds to sweet, sour, salty, and bitter
tastes in a similar fashion as the taste buds on your tongue do.
The food and beverage industries may see the potential to use the
e-tongue to develop a digital library of tastes. The collected data would
include tastes that have been proven to be popular with consumers. The
e-tongue could also monitor the flavors of existing products. Probably
more importantly, the e-tongue could be used for brand security and
tracking the supply chain of foods that normally cannot be tagged with
traditional bar codes.
NANO BAR CODES DETECT FOODBORNE DISEASES

Another kind of sensor technology is the nano bar code. Nano bar
codes are similar to the traditional bar codes that are found on many
packaged food products today. However, the nano bar codes, containing
metal nanoparticles, could be used to detect pathogens. The nanopar-
ticles have specific, recognizable chemical fingerprints that can be read
by a machine, an ultraviolet lamp, or an optical microscope. Using
these kinds of bar codes, a supermarket checkout computer can iden-
tify thousands of different items by scanning the tiny bar code printed
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on the package. The scanning of the barcode could reveal spoilage or

pathogens within the food package.
A research group headed by Dan Luo, Cornell assistant professor of
biological engineering, has created “nanobarcodes.” The nanobarcodes
fluoresce under ultraviolet light in a combination of colors that can
be read by a computer scanner or observed with a fluorescent light
microscope.
Summarizing, nanosensors such as electronic tongues and electronic
noses plus the use of nanobarcodes have the potential to provide safe
food products and packaging. The embedded sensors in food packaging
will respond to the release of particular chemicals when a certain food
begins to spoil. So, as soon as the food starts to go bad, the packaging
will change color to warn the shopper. This system could also provide a
more accurate and safer method than the present “sell by dates” marked
on food products.
AGRICULTURE AND NANOTECHNOLOGY

The application of pesticides has become a controversial topic due to
claims that some products can damage the environment and even get
into the food chain. As an example, it has been estimated that about
2.5 million tons of pesticides are used on crops each year. The worldwide
damage caused by pesticides reaches $100 billion annually. One of the
reasons for the damage is the high toxicity and nonbiodegradability of
pesticides. Pesticides that are applied directly to the soil may be washed
off the land into nearby bodies of surface water or may percolate through
the soil to lower soil layers and groundwater. When this happens, the
pesticide becomes a pollution hazard and is highly toxic to humans and
other organisms.
BIOSENSOR DETECTS HERBICIDES ON THE FARM

Researchers are hoping a new biosensor may help farmers and regula-
tory officials detect herbicides in soil and water samples. Herbicides are
used to control unwanted plants such as weeds. However, heavy appli-
cations of herbicides can leave environmentally unsafe residues in soil
and water.
The new biosensor is made of a chlorophyll-like chemical that can
measure oxygen levels. This chemical produces oxygen in the presence
of certain chemicals and light.
In testing for a herbicide, a liquid sample is passed through the biosen-
sor. If the sample contains a herbicide, it will react with the biosensor’s
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Table 7.1 Pesticide Persistence in Soil
Moderate
Low (half-life 30–100 High
(half-life < 30 days) days) (half-life > 100 days)
Aldicarb Aldrin Bromacil

Captan Atrazine Chlordane
Calapon Carbaryl Lindane
Dicamba Carbofuran Paraquat
Malathion Diazinon Picloram
Methyl-parathion Endrin TCA
Oxamyl Heptachlor Trifluralin
proteins and inhibit oxygen production. The electrode in the biosensor

detects oxygen levels and sends the information to a computer that dis-
plays the data in graph form. Reading the oxygen levels from the data a
scientist can determine if too much or too little of herbicides has been
applied to the soil. The biosensor can also identify traces of chemical
residues in a matter of minutes.
Nanoscale Herbicides
Other researchers are focusing on ways to reduce the use of herbicides
all together. Their research includes using nanoparticles to attack the
seed coating of weeds, which will prevent them from germinating.
The researchers report that this approach will destroy the weed even
when it is buried in soil, and will prevent them from growing even
under the most favorable
conditions. They believe this Did you know?
Two other major groups of pesticides, besides her-
method is more preferable
bicides, include insecticides that are used to con-
to tilling and manual pick-
trol insect damage and fungicides that are applied
ing of weeds because of to kill fungi and other parasites.
the costs incurred with such
high-maintenance methods. Using small proportions of nanoscale her-
bicides, the nanoparticles can easily blend with soil and attack weeds
that are buried below the reach of tillers and conventional herbicides.
More research has to be conducted to make sure the nanoparticles can
be used safely in the soil.
A FOOD SAFETY ISSUE
The issue of food safety has also been heightened by the possibili-
ties of bioterrorism. Global businesses, government agencies, and other
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organizations are now looking at a variety of technologies, as well as

nanotechnologies that can trace food distribution from the farms, the
food-processing companies, to the stores and supermarkets.
ATOMIC FORCE MICROSCOPY AND FOOD RESEARCH

An estimated 25–81 million cases of foodborne illness and an esti-
mated 9,000 deaths are associated with consumption of contaminated
foods each year. Therefore, the presence of microbial and chemical
pathogens at any stage of food production, processing, and distribution
must be quickly determined in order to allow proper treatments before
food consumption by the general public. To help achieve these goals,
the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) and other agen-
cies use the Atomic Force Microscope (AFM). The AFM is implemented
in food science research to observe the nanoscale structure of foods and
other biomaterials and for investigating diseases, such as E. coli cells
and salmonella.
SUSTAINABLE WATERING OF CROPS

Agricultural scientists are exploring different ways to use water in a
more sustainable way for irrigation. Presently, the main disadvantage of
using irrigation is that it requires a lot of water, much of which is lost
to evaporation. In some farm areas, more than 50 percent of water may
be lost to evaporation. The high evaporation rate may also decrease soil
fertility through salinization.
Nanotechnology researchers would like to come up with a way to apply
water slowly into the ground with a minimum of runoff and evaporation.
One idea is to use the mineral zeolites to do the job.
Zeolites are microporous crystalline minerals that contain silicon,
aluminium, and oxygen. Zeolites are used in petroleum refineries and
for water softening and purification products.
The researchers are interested in using zeolites in water irrigation
systems because the mineral can absorb about half its own volume of
water. The zeolites would
Did you know? act as water moderators
More than 500,000 tons of zeolites were used in the whereby they will absorb up
clean up after the nuclear power plant disaster at to 50 percent of their weight
Chernobyl. in water and slowly release it
to plants.
Using zeolites in a water irrigation system has several advantages over
other conventional irrigation methods. First, the zeolites could reduce
the total amount of water needed to irrigate crops, making this kind of
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irrigation method useful in regions with limited water supplies. Second,

little water is lost to the air through evaporation or to the soil via per-
colation because water is released slowly and over a small area. At the
same time, fewer salts are deposited in the soil, helping to preserve soil
quality.
LIVESTOCK DISEASES
The worldwide livestock industry is interested in measures that would
guarantee the safety of the food supply provided by livestock. Outbreaks
of livestock disease have resulted in export bans and collapsed markets.
As one example, in the United Kingdom, the Mad Cow Disease crisis in
the late 1990s led to a 40 per cent domestic decline in beef sales and the
complete loss of many export markets.
Mad cow disease is the commonly used name for Bovine Spongiform
Encephalopathy (BSE). The disease is a slowly progressive, degenerative,
fatal disease affecting the central nervous system of adult cattle. The
exact cause of BSE is not known.
Scientists are now exploring nanotechnology applications such as the
use of small drug delivery devices. The devices could be implanted into
cattle to avoid diseases such as BSE from entering the animals’ central
nervous system.
BIOCHIPS FOR DISEASE DETECTION IN LIVESTOCK

Scientists at the Kopelman Laboratory at the University of Michigan
are developing noninvasive nanosensors to test livestock diseases. One
of these nanosensors could perhaps be placed in, say, a cow’s saliva gland
in order to detect single virus particles long before the virus has had a
chance to multiply and long before disease symptoms are evident.
Researchers at the University of Pretoria, for example, are developing
biochips that will detect common diseases borne by ticks. A biochip (or
microarray) is a device typ-
ically made of hundreds or
Did you know?
thousands of short strands
Avian influenza, or “bird flu,” is a contagious dis-
of artificial DNA deposited
ease of animals caused by viruses that normally in-
precisely on a silicon circuit. fect only birds and, less commonly, pigs.
Chips can be used for early
disease detection in animals.
Biochips can also be used to trace the source of food and feeds. For
example, a biochip tests livestock feed to detect the presence of animal
products from forty different species as a means to locate the source of
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pathogens—a response to public health threats such as avian flu and

mad cow disease.
Biochips for Animal Breeding

One goal is to functionalize biochips for breeding purposes. With
the mapping of the human genome behind them, geneticists are now
rapidly sequencing the genomes of cattle, sheep, poultry, pig, and other
livestock hoping to identify gene sequences that relate to commercially
valuable traits, such as disease resistance, and leanness of meat. By in-
cluding probes for these traits on biochips, breeders will be able to
identify champion breeders and screen out genetic diseases.
NANOSENSORS TO TRACK LIVESTOCK

Livestock tracking has been a problem for farmers. The USDA envi-
sions the rise of “smartherds”—cows, sheep, and pigs fitted with sensors
and locators relaying data about their health and geographical location
to a central computer.
Implanting tracking devices in animals has been initiated for pets,
valuable farm animals, or for animal wildlife conservation. Injectable
microchips are already used in a variety of ways with the aim of improving
animal welfare and safety to
r study animal behavior in the wild,

r track meat products back to their source, and
r reunite strays with their human owners.
NANOTECHNOLOGY IN AQUACULTURE AND FISH FARMING

Aquaculture is the cultivation of fish, shellfish, or aquatic plants in nat-
ural or controlled marine or freshwater environments. Estimates report
that about 20 percent of all commercial fish are raised in an aquacul-
ture environment, and that this industry will continue to grow in the
21st century.
Today, aquaculture is a multimillion dollar business. Much of the
trout, catfish, and shellfish consumed in the United States are prod-
ucts of aquaculture. Global demand for seafood is projected to in-
crease by 70 percent in the next 30 years. In fact, the world’s fastest
growing area of animal production is the farming of fish, crustaceans,
and mollusks, particularly in Asia. A consensus is growing that a dra-
matic increase in aquaculture is needed to supply future aquatic food
needs.
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Environmental Concern of Aquaculture

However, there are problems with some of the fish farms, particu-
larly shrimp-raising farms. Disease outbreaks, chemical pollution, and
the environmental destruction of marshes and mangroves have been
linked with fish farm activities. Environmentalists believe more sustain-
able practices are needed to control the potential for pollution and the
damage of natural resources. There is also concern about the accidental
releasing of cultivated fish into natural populations and what effects that
might have.
Cleaning Fish Ponds with Nanotechnology Devices

Researchers believe that nanotechnology may have the potential to
provide fishponds that are safe from disease and pollution. One com-
pany, Altair Nanotechnologies, makes a water-cleaning product for fish-
ponds called NanoCheck. It uses 40-nanometer particles of a lanthanum-
based compound that absorbs phosphates from the water and prevents
algae growth.
Altair sees a potentially large demand for NanoCheck for use in thou-
sands of commercial fish farms worldwide where algae removal and
prevention is costly at present. According to Altair, the company plans
to expand its tests to confirm that its nanoparticles will not harm fish.
DNA Nanovaccines Using Nanocapsules and Ultrasound Methods

The USDA is completing trials on a system for mass vaccination of fish
in fishponds using ultrasound. Nanocapsules containing short strands
of DNA are added to a fishpond where they are absorbed into the cells of
the fish. Ultrasound is then used to rupture the capsules, releasing the
DNA and eliciting an immune response from the fish. This technology
has so far been tested on rainbow trout by Clear Springs Foods (Idaho,
US)—a major aquaculture company that produces about one-third of
all U.S. farmed trout.
FOREST PRODUCT INDUSTRY AND NANOTECHNOLOGY

According to recent research, the future of the U.S. forest products
industries, which employ some 1.1 million Americans and contribute
more than $240 billion annually to the nation’s economy, could de-
pend on how well those industries embrace the emerging science of
nanotechnology.
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The hundred-page report, titled “Nanotechnology for the Forest

Products Industry—Vision and Technology Roadmap,” is based on pre-
sentations and discussion by some 110 researchers from North America
and Europe, with an interest in wood, paper, or other forest products,
to explore the possible role of nanotechnology in the forest products
industries.
The “Roadmap,” so called because it is intended to show where the
forest products industry needs to go and how to get there, describes the
U.S. forest products industry as a mature, somewhat stagnant energy-
intensive industry that is facing new global competition. The report,
which is the first comprehensive look at nanotechnology for the U.S.
forest products industry, suggests that the infusion of nanotechnology
could lead to new and improved products. It also could lead to improved
and more efficient manufacturing processes.
“Nanotechnology represents a major opportunity to generate new
products and industries in the coming decades,” the Roadmap says.
Potential uses of nanotechnology in forest products, as identified
in the Roadmap, include development of intelligent wood- and paper-
based products that could incorporate built-in nanosensors to measure
forces, loads, moisture levels, temperatures, or pressures, or detect the
presence of wood-decay fungi or termites. According to the Roadmap,
nanotechnology can have an even greater impact by providing benefits
that extend well beyond food products but into the areas of sustainable
energy production, storage, and utilization.
ENSURING NANOTECHNOLOGIES IN FOOD PRODUCTION

TO BE SAFE
Many groups are concerned about the potential effects on human
health and the environment of manufactured nanoparticles in foods
and food preparation. To
Did you know? establish appropriate safety
Synthetic zeolites are widely used as catalysts in the tests and clear labeling,
petrochemical industry. more research is needed to
ensure that nanotechnolo-
gies are developed in a safe and socially acceptable way.
NANO INTERVIEW: PROFESSOR MAKARAND (MAK) PARANJAPE,

Ph.D., GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY
As you learned in earlier chapters and in this one, biosensors have
the potential to be used in several fields including human health and
food preparation. In this interview, Dr. Paranjape discusses his work
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Professor Paranjape’s Micro and NanoSystems Group. From left to right:

Jonathan Hesson (researcher), Jianyun Zhou (Ph.D. candidate), Vincent
Spinella-Mamo (Ph.D. candidate), Yogesh Kashte (researcher), Sean Flynn
(undergraduate sophomore student), Mak Paranjape (group leader). Miss-
ing from picture: Andrew Monica (Ph.D. candidate), Megan Giger (under-
graduate junior student) and Rajeev Samtani (high school senior). (Courtesy
Russel Ross)
in developing a biosensor that detects glucose levels in patients with

diabetes.
Dr. Paranjape is an Associate Professor in the Department of Physics
at Georgetown University (Washington, DC), where he joined the fac-
ulty in 1998. He received his Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from the
University of Alberta (Edmonton) in 1993, and held postdoctoral re-
searcher positions at Concordia University (Montreal), Simon Fraser
University (Vancouver), and the University of California (Berkeley). In
1995, through a collaborative project with U.C. Berkeley, Dr. Paranjape
joined the Istituto per la Ricerca Scientifica e Tecnologica (IRST) in
Trento, Italy, as a research consultant.
Dr. Paranjape and a team at Georgetown University and Science Appli-
cations International Corporation (SAIC) have developed a biosensor
micro-device that has the potential to be used by people who have dia-
betes. The biosensor is in the form of a small adhesive patch to be worn
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on the skin and is very convenient to use and makes measuring glucose
levels completely pain-free and in a minimally invasive manner. The mul-
tidisciplinary project was funded for over 3 years with technical expertise
coming from several scientific backgrounds: one other physics profes-
sor, one professor in pharmacology, two senior researchers from SAIC
(biochemistry and engineering), six postdoctoral researchers (chem-
istry, materials engineering, biochemistry, microfabrication specialists,
and two electrical engineers), and several undergraduate and graduate
students in the physics program.
Where did you grow up and what were some of your favorite activities
and subjects as a teenager?
I was born in England but I grew up in Canada and lived as a teenager in
a small town called Thunder Bay, which is right on Lake Superior, almost
30 miles from the United States border north of Minnesota. I enjoyed
racquet sports, skiing, and playing hockey—my favorite position was
playing goal.
What colleges did you attend and what was your major?
I completed my undergraduate and graduate degrees, including my
Ph.D., all in electrical engineering, at the University of Alberta in Ed-
monton, Canada. It was during this time when Wayne Gretzky, one of my
hockey idols, was playing for the Edmonton Oilers, a National Hockey
League team that won several back-to-back Stanley Cups while I was in
school.
Presently, what subjects do you teach at Georgetown University?
I have an electrical engineering degree, so I teach related subjects such
as electricity and magnetism, and electronics to both physics undergrad-
uates and graduate students.
What interested you to become a physics professor, and how did you
cross over and get interested in the field of diabetes and in being on a
team that developed a new biosensor device for glucose monitoring?
My early interests were to follow in my dad’s footsteps. He is a physicist
by training. I also thought about medicine, as well. I liked math a lot and
enjoyed hands-on work, but my high school biology skills were not that
great. So I wanted to go into physics, but my dad said there are not that
many jobs (or money) in this field. He thought that since I was math-
oriented and a hands-on type person, I should consider engineering. So
that is how I ended up in electrical engineering.
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How did you get involved in biosensors?

The last time I took a biology course was in the 12th grade and I have
not taken any biology courses since then.
After I finished my Ph. D., I started to dabble in biology and biosen-
sors during a time when I was employed as a postdoctoral researcher
at Simon Fraser University. During this time, while I was involved in a
project to accurately measure the mass of individual cells, such as baby
hamster kidney cells, using a relatively new emerging technology called
biological microelectromechanical systems (or bio-MEMS), I became
very interested in fabricating devices using microtechnologies, whether
they are sensors or “machines” that could interact with biological cells.
This work was very intriguing to me. Anyway, this is how I got into biosen-
sors. I got involved with the glucose-monitoring project soon after arriv-
ing at Georgetown University in 1998. Our research team was already
involved in fabricating noninvasive microdevices for health applications,
and after winning a U.S. Defense Department contract for monitoring
glucose and lactate in a soldier, the minimally-invasive glucose patch was
developed.
What is the conventional way a person living with diabetes uses to
measure and monitor his or her glucose level? Approximately, how
many times a day does a person have to do this routine?
Typically a person with diabetes, and depending on the severity of the
disease, should sample his or her glucose level at least twice a day. And
that is the minimum. Typically it is done 3 to 5 times a day—once
when you get up, once after breakfast, once after lunch, and once after
dinner, and finally once before bedtime. The more often you monitor
your readings, the better control you have on the disease. However, the
more you monitor, the more painful the process can be for many people
with diabetes. Remember you are sticking a needle in your finger to draw
blood and there is always going to be pain associated with this approach.
And one of the big issues related to diabetes control is that many people,
because of the pain, will not sample themselves the number of times they
should in order to control their diabetes. Then after getting a blood
sample, and depending on the glucose reading, a person would inject
insulin, if needed. And this can occur after each glucose reading.
How does the new biosensor device work without puncturing the skin
and what are the benefits of the device for patients?
For the past few years, the team has been developing and testing a new
biosensor device for glucose monitoring. The size of a small band-aid,
it is designed to be worn anywhere on the body, where the biosensor
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samples tiny amounts of fluids that lie just beneath the top layer of
skin.
The device is small and convenient, and makes measuring glucose
levels pain-free and minimally invasive.
The biosensor device works to painlessly remove the outer dermis,
or dead-skin layer, by using a “micro-hotplate.” The hotplate temper-
ature is carefully controlled to apply a small amount of power. The
“hotplate” is turned on to a temperature of 130o C. This sounds hot,
but in such a small spot the size of a hair follicle, and for such a
short time, a person cannot even detect the heat, or feel any pain,
as it is applied to the very outer layers of skin. The biosensor then
determines the glucose levels from the sample of fluid, which rises to
the skin surface through the micro-pores created by the hotplate, us-
ing tiny micro-electrodes that have been coated with a substance that
reacts specifically to the glucose. The fluid being sampled is intersti-
tial fluid and not blood, which is commonly used to monitor glucose
levels.
Can young people who are 12 years old or younger use the biosensor
device? Are there any age limits?
Any age group can use the biosensor. The ultimate goal of the device
is not just to monitor the glucose level but eventually, to take steps
to actually inject insulin. The biosensor will form a complete closed
loop system so the device will effectively monitor glucose levels and
deliver any insulin if needed. In a sense the envisioned device would
perform as both biosensor and drug delivery system for the person with
diabetes.
How long does the present biosensor patch last on the body?
The present patch contains several sensing sites and each of these sites
provides a one-time glucose reading. When you are out of sensing sites,
then the patch is removed. And this depends on how many times you
are sensing your glucose level. The patch, when marketed, could last for
about two weeks depending on the person who will test their glucose
levels say 2 to 3 times a day. However, if you were able to add more and
more sensing sites, then a patch could last much longer.
Is the biosensor device still being tested, and if so, when do you think
the device would be available people with diabetes?
Usually there is a long process needed for FDA approval of any new drug
or new medical devices. However, the patch has some advantages in that
it is a minimally invasive patch because you do not need to implant it
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and you do not need to have to collect blood. Typically these kinds of
devices are fast-tracked through FDA approval. Once the devices have
been fully tested using animals, and then after performing clinical trials
on human subjects, you can apply for FDA approval. It will take about
2 years more for testing on humans. And then the fast track will take
about 1 to 2 years for FDA approval.
What are some other possible applications for the biosensor device?
Let me start by saying this project was sponsored by the Department of
Defense, DARPA (Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency). They
were interested in using a patch technology, similar to our designed
biosensor patch. The patch would be for the war fighter on the battle-
field who could succumb to trauma due to huge losses of blood. Blood
lost is critical so you need to minimize the blood lost as quickly as you can
to have a chance of saving the injured trooper. In this application, troops
would be sent onto a battlefield, fitted with a biosensor patch placed on
their arms. The patch would not hinder them from continuing their
duties.
If injured, the patch would record data about the severity of the
trooper’s wounds based on their glucose and lactate levels (and any other
readily available bio-molecule that can be sampled with our patch). The
data would be sent by short-range telemetry to a medic’s palm pilot,
for example. The palm pilot would show the location of the injured
trooper. The severity of the injury would also be ascertained. If the
medic observed dangerous changes in a soldier’s body biochemistry,
that soldier would be assisted first, and then removed from the field
for medical care. So in our continued research, we incorporated the
military application with the civilian application kept in mind—that is,
detecting glucose in people with diabetes.
Do you see other uses of this kind of biosensor?

There is a whole list of applications. One other area of interest is
to detect, in newborns, the potential of jaundice before its onset.
The new mother and baby would leave the hospital and a biosensor
patch would be placed on the child’s arm. If any signs of jaundice
would appear when the child is at home, the patch, which monitors
a biomolecule called bilirubin, would signal an alert. In this way, you
would catch the jaundice earlier and then proceed with medical care.
The patch would perform the sensing without pain, unlike current meth-
ods that involve inserting a heel stick to draw blood from the newborn’s
heel.
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What advice would you give young people who would like a career in
biomedical research developing biosensors and other microdevices for
diagnostics?
In high school, there is not much overlapping of subjects between the
various science disciplines. However, at the college level, and in the
real world, there is a lot of interaction and collaboration that takes
place between people who have various backgrounds in physics, chem-
istry, biology, mathematics, and engineering. You do not need to be
an expert in everything. You can have your own expertise in one sub-
ject but always consult others in different fields to see what else can be
done.
You can watch a short film of Prof. Paranjape and the GAEL lab where
the biosensor device is produced. The film is called, Monitoring Blood
Glucose Without Pain or Blood. The Web site is: http://college.georgetown.
edu/research/molecules/14887.html
NANO ACTIVITY: FOOD PACKAGING

Since nanotechnology will be applied to the manufacturing of food
packages you may be interested in learning more about food packag-
ing by doing activities from The NSF-funded Materials World Modules
MWM) Program. One of the interdisciplinary modules is called Food
Packaging. In the Food Packaging module, you can learn about the many
functions of food packaging and how these materials affect the environ-
ment. You can design your own environmentally friendly package for
delivering a hot baked potato and its topping.
See the video of one teacher’s experience in using the modules at
http://www.materialsworldmodules.org/videocenter/MWMinterview
kh.htm
For more information, contact: Materials World Modules, Northwest-
ern University, 2220 Campus Drive, Cook Hall, Room 2078, Evanston,
IL 60208 or mwm@northwestern.edu
READING MATERIALS
2004.
Artificial Intelligence will Transform Our World. Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books,
2002.
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National Research Council. Frontiers in Agricultural Research: Food, Health, Environment

and Communities, Committee on Opportunities in Agriculture, Washington, DC:
National Academies Press, 2003.
Schnoor, J.L. (Editor). Fate of Pesticides and Chemicals in the Environment (Environ-
mental Science and Technology), New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1991.
The United States Department of Agriculture. National Planning Workshop.
Nanoscale Science and Engineering for Agriculture and Food Systems. Washington,
DC: 2003.
VIDEOS
Monitoring Blood Glucose without Pain or Blood. Go to: http://college.georgetown.edu/

research/molecules/14887.html
Detecting Deadly Chemicals. Science Daily. Investigators on a crime scene can now
use a new tool for collecting chemical or biological samples. The sampler gun collects
samples on a cotton pad—eliminating direct contact with anything harmful, as well
as risk of contaminating evidence—a GPS system to record the samples’ location,
a camera that snaps pictures for evidence, and a digital voice recorder and writing
pad for taking notes. http://www.sciencedaily.com/videos/2006-12-10/
Detecting Toxics. A new portable lab that detects deadly chemicals in the air. Sci-
enceDaily. http://www.sciencedaily.com/videos/2006-02-09/
Materials World Modules. Northwestern University. The NSF-funded Materials
World Modules MWM) Program has produced a series of interdisciplinary mod-
ules based on topics in materials science, including Composites, Ceramics, Concrete,
Biosensors, Biodegradable Materials, Smart Sensors, Polymers, Food Packaging, and
Sports Materials. The following video describes the experiences of one teacher who
used the Materials World Modules. Inside MWM: An Interview with Lake Forest Sci-
ence Teacher Kate Heroux. In this interview with science teacher Kate Heroux, Pro-
fessor Robert Chang, the developer of MWM, discusses the successes and challenges
of implementing the Materials World Modules in high school. To see the video go
to: http://www.materialsworldmodules.org/videocenter/MWMinterview kh.htm
WEB SITES
Task Force on Building a Science Roadmap for Agriculture, National Association
of State Universities and Land-Grant Colleges (NASULGC), Experiment Station
Committee on Organization and Policy (ESCOP), “A Science Roadmap for the
Future.” November 2001. www.nasulgc.org/comm food.htm
Nanotechnology for the Forest Products Industry—Vision and Technology
Roadmap. www.fpl.fs.fed.us/highlighted-
National Science and Technology Council. The National Nanotechnology Initiative:
Leading to the Next Industrial Revolution, Committee on Technology (Interagency
Working Group on Nanoscience, Engineering and Technology, Washington, DC:
2000. www.ostp.gov/NSTC/html/iwgn/iwgn.fy01budsuppl/toc.htm
United States Department of Agriculture: http://www.usda.gov
U.S. Forest Service: http://www.fs.fed.us
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SOMETHING TO DO
Soil Uses
Each state in the United States has selected a state soil, 20 of which have been
legislatively established. Soils, because of their chemical and physical properties
determine land use purposes, such as farming, mining, and ranching and even
housing. For a science report, you may want to research and write about your state’s
soil and how the land is used for agriculture and other uses. You can write about
topics that include soil quality, soil risks and hazards, and soil salinity and plant
tolerance and how nanotechnology can impact these soil issues. To get information
about your state soil go to: http://soils.usda.gov/gallery/state soils/
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Nanotechnology for
a Sustainable
Environment
We have learned from the previous chapters that applications of nan-

otechnology have the potential to change and improve everything from
medical care and food safety to consumer products and electronics.
In addition to these benefits, nanotechnology may help build a more
sustainable environment by providing clean drinking water, better air
quality, new sources of energies, and a reduction in hazardous and toxic
wastes.
WATER POLLUTION AND NANOTECHNOLOGY

By 2015, approximately 3 billion people will live in countries where
it will be difficult to get enough water for basic needs. More than
1 billion people will lack ac-
cess to clean drinking wa-
ter, while others will die
Safer Water Worldwide. Industrial toxicolo-
gists developed a water purifier which sep-
from contaminated water. arates particles and organisms from wa-
The Environmental Protec- ter and can be used to detect pesticides
tion Agency (EPA) estimates in water. Go to Web site. http://www.
that at least 500,000 cases of sciencedaily.com/videos/2006-12-06/
illnesses annually can be at-
tributed to contaminated drinking water in the United States.
Water can be polluted by excessive amounts of chemicals such as:
heavy metals, organic chem-
icals, disease-causing micro- Did you know?
organisms, sediments, heat Heavy metals include metallic elements such as
mercury, lead, and arsenic that are hazardous and
or thermal pollution and
toxic and are a health risk for humans and other
others. These sources of pol-
living organisms.
lutants come from homes,
mining activities, municipal sewage plants, industry and manufacturing
plants, ranching, and agricultural operations.
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NANOTECHNOLOGY AND SAFER DRINKING WATER

Arsenic contamination, both naturally occurring and resulting from
human activities, in drinking water is a global problem. For one example,
in India, millions of people suffer from arsenic poisoning found in
drinking water.
Cleaning Up Arsenic
Scientists are now developing strategies to clean up the arsenic, a
carcinogen, in the water. Scientists at Rice University’s Center for Bi-
ological and Environmental Nanotechnology (CBEN) have developed
a low-cost technology for cleaning arsenic from drinking water. The
technology holds promise for millions of people not only in India
but also in Bangladesh and in other developing countries where thou-
sands of cases of arsenic poisoning are linked to poisoned wells each
year.
The scientists discovered that nanoparticles of iron oxide (rust) could
be used to remove arsenic in water by using a magnetic field. Arsenic
adheres to rust, according to
Did you know? the scientists. Rust is essen-
The following analogy will illustrate how little of tially iron oxide, a combi-
Earth’s freshwater is available: If all of Earth’s water nation of iron and oxygen,
could fill a 4 liter (about 1 gallon) container, the and tends to be magnetic.
amount of available fresh water would fill less than
The arsenic particles that
a tablespoon out of the 4 liters. As you can see,
stick onto the iron oxide can
only a small percentage of freshwater on Earth is
available for human use.
be removed from the water
by using a low-powered mag-
net that attracts the particles. Once the particles are extracted, the water
becomes safe to drink.
The Element Arsenic

The element arsenic is a steel grey metal-like material. Arsenic is
a natural part of our environment and widely distributed in Earth’s
crust. So living organisms are often exposed to some amount of it.
Very low levels of it are always present in soil, water, food, and air.
Most arsenic compounds have no smell or special taste, even when
present in drinking water. Arsenic has been used in pesticides, poi-
sons, chicken-feed supplements, and wood preservatives. However, the
naturally occurring arsenic in the soil can make the water toxic to
humans.
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Nanotechnology for a Sustainable Environment 171
Table 8.1 Water Pollutants
Total
Dissolved
Point Sources Bacteria Nutrients Ammonia Solids Acids Toxics
Municipal • • • •
sewage
treatment
plants
Industrial • •
facilities
Combined • • • •
sewer
overflows
Nonpoint
Sources
Agricultural • • • •
runoff
Urban runoff • • • •
Construction • •
runoff
Mining • • •
runoff
Septic • • •
systems
Landfill spills •
Forestry • •
runoff
Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Nanotechnology and Water Filters

Several companies are developing nanotechnology-based filters that
will clean polluted water. The filters in the treatment system can sift out
bacteria, viruses, heavy metals, and organic material.
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One filter product consists of spiral-wound layers of fiberglass sheets.

The sheets create a permeable surface of nano-sized pores—a bit-like a
nanoscale strainer. When pressure is exerted, the water pushes through
the pores keeping out viruses and bacteria that are too large to go
through the pores.
In Australia, one company has patented a water treatment technology
that uses nanoparticles for water purification. The product called Meso-
Lite has been tested in several countries. The treatment can be used to
remove ammonia from contaminated wastewaters. Once the ammonia
has been extracted in the treatment stage, the leftover ammonia can be
recycled and used as a commercial fertilizer. The MesoLite process can
also be used as a backup system to support large wastewater treatment
plants.
DRINKING WATER FROM THE OCEAN

The need for a sustainable, affordable supply of clean water is a key
priority for the United States’ future and especially for states that have
few freshwater sources and a fast-growing population. One source of
providing more fresh water to ocean-side states is to transform unusable
water from the ocean into valuable freshwater. Desalination is the pro-
cess that is used for removing dissolved salts from seawater and brackish
water.
Reverse Osmosis
In a water desalination treatment system, reverse osmosis is a separa-
tion process that uses pressure to force a solvent, such as water, through
a membrane that retains the solute, such as salt ions, on one side and
allows pure water to pass to the other side. However, reverse osmosis
treatment units use a lot of water and energy and therefore can be
costly to operate. As an example, some reverse osmosis treatment plants
recover only 5 to 15 percent of pure water entering the system. The
remainder is discharged as wastewater. One nanotechnology group may
have a way to reduce costs of conventional desalination treatments by
using carbon nanotubes.
A New Kind of Reverse Osmosis

Researchers at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL) are
developing a water desalination system using carbon nanotube-based
membranes. The use of the carbon nanotubes in the membranes could
reduce the cost of desalination by 75 percent, compared to reverse
osmosis methods used today.
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The carbon nanotubes used by the researchers are sheets of carbon

atoms rolled so tightly that only seven water molecules can fit across
their diameter. Their small size makes them a good source for separating
molecules. The nanopores also reduce the amount of pressure needed
to force water through the membrane As a result, there are savings
in energy costs when compared to reverse osmosis using conventional
membranes.
Water Pollution: Using the Atomic Force Microscope to

Study Water Pollution
Virginia Tech researchers are using an atomic force microscopy
(AFM) to observe how a bacterium adheres to the silica surfaces of
soil. This sticking efficiency of bacteria has not been previously mea-
sured experimentally using the AFM. The researchers believe if they
can learn how bacteria can adhere or stick on to various soil surfaces,
then they can use the information to predict how bacteria in the soil
particles can be removed and transported in the groundwater.
GROUNDWATER POLLUTANTS
In the United States, approximately 50 percent of the people depend
on underground water naturally stored in aquifers. Surface water pro-
vides the other source of fresh water. In fact, many of the rural areas of
the United States depend almost entirely on groundwater. But some of
the nation’s groundwater is contaminated, say scientists, and clean up
could cost hundreds of billions of dollars as well as several decades to
complete.
Groundwater occurs beneath Earth’s surface at depths of a few cen-
timeters to more than 300 meters (900 feet). The water that is available
for human use by pumping operations is within the zone of saturation.
The zone of saturation is where the spaces between particles of soil or
spaces within fractures of rock that compose the aquifer are entirely
filled with groundwater. Groundwater concerns include the leaching of
pollutants such as arsenic and MTBE (a gasoline additive, now banned)
into the water making it unfit for human consumption. The leaching
of buried toxic and hazardous wastes can also pollute groundwater re-
sources.
GROUNDWATER CLEANUP
Scientists are developing different technologies for cleaning up pol-
lutants in groundwater.
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Figure 8.1 Contaminant remediation using permeable reactive barriers.

The Permeable Reactive Barriers (PRBs), commonly called “iron walls,” is
another approach to remediate contaminated groundwater. In this process,
macro-sized iron particles are placed into the ground forming a perme-
able iron barrier or wall that dissolves the pollutants in the groundwater.
(Courtesy of Jeff Dixon. Redrawn with permission from Robert M. Powell, Horizon
Environmental Corporation)
Iron Nanoparticles May Be Effective in Cleaning Up Waste Sites

Professor Zhang of Lehigh University has been working for sev-
eral years to develop a remediation method to clean up ground-
water contaminants, using nanoscale metallic particles. He has been
field-testing the method at several industrial sites. The industrial sites
are contaminated with such toxicants as polychlorinated biphenyls
(PCBs), DDT (a potent pesticide), and dioxin. These are all chlori-
nated hydrocarbons and persistent organic pollutants of types that are
fairly insoluble in water; they are found mostly in soil sediments, and
fatty animal tissue. So far, the results of his research have been very
encouraging.
Professor Zwang’s technology involves pumping nanoparticles (iron-
based particles measuring 100 to 200 nm) into the contaminated
groundwater. The nanoparticles are almost all iron with less than 1 per-
cent palladium. Palladium (Pd) is a rare silver-white metal and is used as
a catalyst in catalytic converters on cars. When the iron-based nanopar-
ticles are applied to water or soil contaminated with carcinogenic
chlorinated solvents, the particles remove the chlorine and convert the
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solvents into harmless hydrocarbons and chloride, commonly found in

table salt.
Professor Zhang’s nanoremediation offers potential advantages over
existing conventional methods. One of the advantages is that nanore-
mediation avoids digging up the contaminated soil and treating it—this
is a very costly treatment process.
CLEANING UP ORGANIC POLLUTANTS USING

NANOTECHNOLOGY
Trichloroethene or TCE is one of the most common and poisonous
organic pollutants in U.S. groundwater and one of the nation’s most
pervasive and troublesome groundwater pollutants. TCE is an industrial
solvent used primarily in metal degreasing and cleaning operations.
TCE is found at 60 percent of the contaminated waste sites on the
Superfund National Priorities List, and it is considered one of the most
hazardous chemicals at these sites because of its prevalence and its tox-
icity. Superfund is the common name for the Comprehensive Environ-
mental Response, Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA) of 1980.
This is a federal law whose mission is to clean up the worst hazardous and
toxic waste site areas on land and water. These sites constitute threats to
human health and the environment.
TCE, as a volatile organic compound (VOC), has a tendency to
volatilize or escape from groundwater into the air. When this process
of volatilization happens in groundwater beneath a building, the TCE
can enter the building as a vapor, which can produce an air quality or
inhalation hazard to people within the building.
TCE can be absorbed through the lungs, mucous membranes, gas-
trointestinal tract, and the skin. Exposure to TCE happens mostly from
breathing contaminated air and drinking contaminated water. Short-
term exposure to high levels of this chemical can result in toxic effects
on a number of organs and systems, including the liver, kidney, blood,
skin, immune system, reproductive system, nervous system, and cardio-
vascular system. In humans, acute inhalation exposure to TCE causes
central nervous system symptoms such as headache, dizziness, nausea,
and unconsciousness. TCE has been linked to liver damage, impaired
pregnancies, and cancer.
TCE Cleanup with Gold Nanoparticles

Cost is the major hurdle to cleaning up TCE-polluted groundwater.
Cleanup costs for TCE nationwide are estimated in the billions of dollars.
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The Department of Defense alone estimates the cost of bringing its

1,400 TCE-contaminated sites into Environmental PA compliance at
more than $5 billion.
Researchers at Rice University and Georgia Institute of Technology
have found that gold nanoparticles coated with palladium are extremely
effective catalysts for breaking down toxic chemicals such as TCE into
less harmful products. Using a treatment of gold nanoparticles, the
researchers hope to drive down the costs of cleanup operations by
eliminating:
r the drilling costs for new wells,

r the construction costs for surface treatment facilities, and
r the energy costs of pumping up water to the surface.
Tests have found that the gold-palladium nanocatalysts break TCE

down about 100 times faster than bulk palladium catalysts. One of the
major advantages of using palladium catalysts to break down TCE is
that palladium converts TCE directly into nontoxic ethene and ethane,
colorless, odorless, and gaseous hydrocarbons.
The researchers have another idea and that is to develop a device
that would include a cylindrical pump containing a catalytic membrane
of the gold-palladium nanoparticles. The device would be placed down
existing wells where it would pump water through continuously breaking
the TCE into nontoxic components.
CLEANING UP NUCLEAR WASTE SITES

Scientists believe that using gold-palladium nanoparticles may have
an impact on other toxic waste sites, such as the Hanford Nuclear Waste
Site located in the southeastern part of Washington State. The site,
near the Columbia River, contains nuclear waste material since the end
of World War II. Many environmental activists are concerned that the
waste will get into the groundwater. So, maybe a new kind of treatment
method using nanoparticles could play a role in preventing the spread
of the nuclear wastes into the groundwater.
AIR POLLUTION
Air pollution is a major health problem in the United States and
throughout the world. An estimated 3 million people die each year
from the effects of air pollutants. Medical researchers have linked high
levels of air pollution to illnesses and diseases. These health problems
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Table 8.2 Applications of Titanium Oxide (TiO2 ) as a Photocatalyst
r Self-cleaning and bacterial degradation for glass products and for

floors and walls in hospitals.
r Water cleaning capacity and for purification of soil.
r Air cleaning effects for pavement blocks and sidewalks.
include asthma, allergies, emphysema, chronic bronchitis, lung cancer,

and heart attacks. Pollutants in the air cost citizens billions of dollars
every year in health care and lost time at work. In a major health study
conducted by the American Lung Association, about 50 percent of the
United States population is breathing unhealthy amounts of air pollu-
tion. Other countries suffer from air pollution too.
Titanium Dioxide and Clean Air

Walking down a street in central London, a person may suddenly feel
that the air quality is quite clean. The sidewalk has been treated with
a nanotechnology product containing catalytic properties that break
down molecules in harmful pollutant emissions in the air. In Milan
(Italy) and Paris (France), there are similar concrete sidewalks that are
treated with titanium dioxide (TiO2 ). According to some experts, the
titanium dioxide concrete slabs have reduced pollutants during rush
hour by 60 to 70 percent in these two cities.
Japan’s Mitsubishi Materials Corporation has developed a paving
stone that uses the catalytic properties of TiO2 to remove nitrogen
oxides (NOx ) from the air. Nitrogen oxides are emitted into the air
primarily from the emissions of automobiles and power plants that burn
petroleum and coal. The paving stone breaks down nitrogen oxides into
more environmental-friendly substances such as nitric acid ions. These
ions can then be washed away by rainfall or neutralized by the alkaline
composition of the concrete.
What Is Titanium Dioxide?

Titanium dioxide is a white powder. It is used as a whitener for paints,
in food products, toothpaste, and many other consumer goods. Tita-
nium dioxide is a strong photocatalyst. A photocatalyst produces surface
oxidation to eliminate bacteria and other materials when it is exposed
to the sun or a fluorescent lamp. Therefore, when a product is made
of TiO2 in the sun, organic compounds such as dirt, mold and mildew,
and bacteria break down, without consuming the TiO2
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Another advantage of products made from titanium dioxide is that

it has a self-cleaning surface. When water hits the titanium dioxide, a
smooth sheet forms instead of tiny droplets. The sheet of water gets
under the dirt and lifts it off the surface and washes it away. The com-
bination of these effects makes TiO2 self-cleaning to a large extent, and
it can be applied in microscopically thin coatings to building materials,
glass, or even fabrics.
Scientists in Hong Kong are developing dirt-resistant clothing with
titanium dioxide and a Japanese company has manufactured ceramic
tiles using the chemical.
Did you know? The titanium dioxide self-
Not all air pollution occurs outdoors. In fact, in- cleaning ceramic tiles, ac-
door air is often even more polluted than the air cording to the National
outside homes and workplaces. The United States Institute of Health’s Envi-
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Science ronmental Health Perspec-
Advisory Board has ranked indoor air pollution tives, have achieved a 99.9
among the top five environmental risks to public percent bacterial kill rate
health. Many of these indoor air quality hazards within one hour for such
are attributable to VOCs, such as TCE and other
strains as penicillin-resistant
organic solvents.
Staphylococcus aureus and Es-
cherichia coli.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY

AND DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY
Two major federal agencies that will be involved in the development,
funding, and applications of nanotechnology for environmental pro-
grams to conserve and protect resources and to provide new sources
of energy will be the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the
Department of Energy (DOE).
Environmental Protection Agency

The Environmental Protection Agency was created in 1970 and was
established in response to growing public concern about: unhealthy air,
polluted rivers and groundwater, unsafe drinking water, endangered
species, and hazardous waste disposal.
The agency’s mission is to “protect public health and to safeguard
the natural environment—air, water, and land—upon which human
life depends.” Its areas of responsibility include control of air pollu-
tion and water pollution, solid waste management, protection of the
drinking water supply, and pesticide regulation. The EPA is aware that
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nanotechnology is a revolutionary science and engineering approach

that has the potential to have major consequences—positive and
negative—on the environment.
Department of Energy
The Department of Energy’s (DOE) goal is to advance the national,
economic, and energy security of the United States. The department’s
strategic goals to achieve the mission are designed to deliver results
along strategic themes that include:
r Energy Security: Promoting America’s energy security through reliable,

clean, and affordable energy,
r Environmental Responsibility: Protecting the environment by providing
a responsible resolution to the environmental legacy of nuclear weapons
production.
NANOTECHNOLOGY AND ENERGY SOURCES

In this century, along with renewal energy sources such as wind energy,
geothermal energy, and nuclear energy, many companies are focusing
on the technology to produce photovoltaic solar cells and hydrogen fuel
cells.
Solar Photovoltaic Cell (PV)

A solar photovoltaic cell (PV) is a device that converts solar energy
into electricity in a manner that does not release any pollutants to the
environment. Today, solar cells are commonly used to power small-sized
items such as calculators and watches. But solar PVs have a great future
in providing all the electricity needs for rural communities, homes, and
businesses. The future for solar cell production and their usage is very
promising as a renewable energy resource. However, the technology still
remains expensive when compared to the costs of fossil fuels to produce
electricity.
Solar cells have two major challenges: they cost too much to make (in
the form of energy), and they are not very efficient. Although efficiencies
of 30 percent have been achieved, the present-day typical efficiencies
for solar cells is from 15 to 20 percent. However, solar nano researchers
believe they can make solar cells more efficient.
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Quantum Dots for Solar Cells

Much of the sun’s energy is wasted by today’s photovoltaic cells.
When solar photons strike a solar cell, they release electrons in the
semiconductor to produce an electric
current. However, when an electron is
set free by the photon, it collides often
with a nearby atom making it less likely
to set another electron free. So even
though the sun’s solar photons carry
enough energy to release several elec-
trons, producing more electricity, they
are limited to one electron per solar
photon. As a result, conventional solar
cells operate at 15 to 20 percent effi-
ciency using solar energy.
Scientists have been doing a lot of re-
search and experiments with quantum
dots to make photovoltaic cells more
efficient. Researchers at the National
Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL)
and the Los Alamos National Laboratory
have been experimenting with quantum
dots as a semiconductor in a solar cell.
They have discovered that the use of the
quantum dots allows solar energy to re-
lease multiple electrons, not just one.
This research has the potential to make
major improvements in the manufactur-
ing of photovoltaic cells. The two re-
Figure 8.2 Konarka Technologies de- search teams have calculated that a max-
velops light-activated Power Plastic
R imum of solar conversion to electricity
that is flexible, lightweight, low in cost to a 42 percent efficiency rate is pos-
and much more versatile in applica- sible from the conversion of solar en-
tion than traditional silicon-based ergy to electricity. The solar cells could
solar cells. These new materials are be used to make hydrogen directly from
made from conducting polymers and water for fuel cells. The researchers still
nano-engineered materials that can need more time and research to com-
be coated or printed onto a surface plete their studies.
in a process similar to the way photo-
graphic film is made. (Courtesy Konarka
Technologies, Inc.—Power PlasticTM )
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Hydrogen Fuel Cells

The next technological advance in energy will be the use of fuel
cells. Hydrogen fuel cells are devices that directly convert hydrogen into
electricity. Fuel cells can provide electricity to power motor vehicles and
to heat and light homes, office buildings, and factories.
The hydrogen fuel cell vehicle is also an excellent alternative to fos-
sil fuel vehicles because hydrogen produces no carbon dioxide when
burned, and the fuel cell requires little maintenance because it has few
moving parts.
Fuel Cells and the Automobile Industry

Presently, carmakers are investing billions in hydrogen fuel cell re-
search and are testing prototype fuel-cell vehicles. Within the next
decade or so, some au-
tomakers and other experts Did you know?
believe the hydrogen fuel Fuel cells are used in NASA’s space program to
cell will replace the need for provide heat, electricity, and drinking water for as-
petroleum, diesel, and nat- tronauts. Fuel cells are also used aboard Russian
ural gas as the main fuel space vehicles.
for automobiles, buses, and
trucks.
There are many different types of hydrogen fuel cells that use dif-
ferent electrolytes, operate at different temperatures, and are suited to
different uses. Presently, the most popular fuel cell for automobiles is
called the proton exchange membrane (PEM). It is a lightweight fuel
cell that is one of the easiest to build. The outside portion of the fuel
cell, or membrane, is coated with platinum, which acts as a catalyst.
Hydrogen under great pressure and temperature is forced through the
catalyst. At this point, the element is stripped of its electrons, allowing
them to move through a circuit to produce electricity. The hydrogen
protons pass through the membrane and combine with oxygen in the
outside air to form water. There is no polluted emission, only water is
the by-product.
Today, Hydrogen used in most fuel cells is made from “reform-
ing” methane with high-pressure steam. The steam interacts with the
methane to separate the
hydrogen from the hydro-
carbon molecules in the
Hydrogen Fuel Cell. To see how a fuel cell
works go to: http://www.digitalsplashstudios.
methane. Special equip- com/fuel-cell.html
ment, called reformers, can
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Figure 8.3 Fuel Cell Source. Source: U.S. Department of Energy.
make hydrogen from coal, fossil fuels, nuclear energy, sewage, bacteria,
and paper-mill waste. In the future, solar cells may be used to make
hydrogen.
The Problem with Fuel Cells

One of the major obstacles in fuel-cell research is designing a safe,
lightweight, and compact hydrogen fuel tank that can store sufficient
amounts of hydrogen.
Hydrogen is a gas, and is not dense, so to store enough of it in a
tank you have to compress it at very high pressures. Another option is to
store the hydrogen gas
chemically by bonding it
Did you know? with another material. The
The first fuel cell was built in 1839 by Welsh judge
carbon nanotubes maybe
and scientist Sir William Grove. However, the use
the answer to the storage
of fuel cells as a practical generator began in the
1960s, when the National Space Administration
problem. The reason is that
(NASA) chose fuel cells over nuclear power and hydrogen easily bonds to car-
solar energy to power the Gemini and Apollo space- bon nanotubes. Placing a
craft. Today, fuel cells provide electricity and water grid of coated nanotubes (or
on the space shuttles. buckyballs) inside the tank,
the nanotubes would “soak
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up” the hydrogen like a sponge. As a result, the nanotube grid has the
capacity to absorb large amounts of hydrogen gas in a tank about the
size of an automobile gas tank.
Once the tank is filled up with the hydrogen, the driver would start
the car engine. This action would cause the hydrogen to dislodge from
its storage area, the tank, and float through a hose into the fuel cell. In
the fuel cell, the hydrogen would be converted into electricity and water
vapor. However, while fuel cells look promising, more research will need
to be done before a mass production of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles are
on the road.
EMERGING NANOTECHNOLOGIES AND RISKS

Industry and academic experts suggest there is still uncertainty about
the impact of releasing nanoparticles into the environment. It has also
been pointed out that there is a lot more to learn about how nanopar-
ticles behave when they are released into the environment. Like all
emerging technologies with great promise, the nanotechnology and
nanochemistry industries will face challenges in ensuring that environ-
mental risks are properly managed.
NANO INTERVIEW: PROFESSOR PAUL G. TRATNYEK, Ph.D.,

OREGON HEALTH & SCIENCE UNIVERSITY’S OGI SCHOOL
OF SCIENCE & ENGINEERING
Professor Paul G. Tratnyek is an environmental chemist and a pro-
fessor of environmental and biomolecular systems at Oregon Health &
Science University’s OGI School of Science & Engineering, Beaverton,
Oregon.
Dr. Tratnyek’s research group, along with collaborators at the Pacific
Northwest National Laboratory and the University of Minnesota, has
discovered that at least one type of nano-sized particles of iron may be
helpful in cleaning up carbon tetrachloride contamination in ground-
water. Carbon tetrachloride is a chemical that is used in dry-cleaning
applications and as a degreasing agent to clean tools. Carbon tetrachlo-
ride is a toxic chemical that has shown to cause cancer in animals.
The prospect of using iron nanoparticle technology for environmen-
tal cleanup is promising. However, Dr. Tratnyek states that there are a
lot of unanswered questions about the appropriate implementation of
this technology and even some questions about its safety.
Dr. Tratnyek talked to the author about his career and his environ-
mental work in groundwater contamination.
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Where did you grow up and what schools did you attend?
I grew up in Sudbury, Massachusetts, a suburb of Boston. I went
to the public high school and then to Williams College in Western
Massachusetts where I received
my bachelor’s degree. After
Williams College, I went to
the Colorado School of Mines
in Colorado and received my
Ph.D. degree in applied chem-
istry. The reason I selected
the Colorado School of Mines
to study was because I was
interested in the link between
chemistry and the earth sci-
ences.
What were some of your
favorite activities and subjects
in school?
As a young person in elemen-
tary school I was very interested
in the environmental science
activities and natural history.
Through high school and col-
lege I focused mainly on the “ba-
sics,” i.e., chemistry, physics, and
Professor Paul G. Tratnyek is an environmen- mathematics. Only in graduate
tal chemist and a professor of environmental school did I come back around
and biomolecular systems at Oregon Health to studying environmental sci-
& Science University’s OGI School of Science ence.
& Engineering, Beaverton, Oregon. (Courtesy
Anne Rybak Photographic) How did you get interested in
using iron particles in cleaning
up contaminants in
groundwater?
When I arrived at the Oregon Graduate Institute and became a professor,
one of my senior mentors, another professor in the department, knew
the group in Canada that had first stumbled onto the possibility of using
iron metal to remediate contaminated groundwater. But the group had
difficulty addressing the chemical aspect of that technology. I offered to
help with that, and they provided a small amount of funding for me to
get started. My early results helped explain how the technology worked
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and this gave people confidence and boosted the commercial viability
of the technology.
How does groundwater become contaminated?

Groundwater contamination occurs all over the place and comes from
two forms—point sources and nonpoint sources. Point source means
that the contamination was discharged to the environment from some
localized source, such as a dry-cleaning plant or from a factory or busi-
ness that had a leaking pipe or had spilled the contaminants. Nonpoint
sources include contamination that was distributed broadly across a wide
environment. Pesticides often present nonpoint source contamination
problems because they are introduced to the environment over large
areas, by aerial spraying, or the like.
Nonpoint and point sources are both big problems and it is difficult
at times to know where the source of the contamination came from.
What you usually hear in the news is the point source contamination
cases because you can get names of some companies who buried toxic
materials in their backyards. Many of these are Superfund sites, which
get a lot of press.
What are some of the contaminants found in groundwater and which

ones are the most harmful to human health?
Overall, the most significant contaminants probably are the chlorinated
solvents, which were used in dry cleaning, degreasing, cleaning circuit
boards in the electronic industry, etc. Big and small spills of these chem-
icals are widespread. The chlorinated solvents are toxic (e.g., some are
carcinogenic) and therefore present real problems when they contam-
inate groundwater used for drinking purposes. Besides chlorinated sol-
vents, there are other major categories of contaminants: gasoline and
other fuels; metals like chromate, etc.
What is the most common or traditional method that is used for

groundwater remediation?
The most traditional method is referred to as a “pump and treat.” This
involves pumping the groundwater out of the ground and treatment
of the contamination at the surface. Because treatment is done above
ground, it’s called an “ex situ” method.
In this process, a well is put into the ground where there is contami-
nated groundwater. A pump is attached to the well and if the pumping
is successful it will draw some of the contamination out of the ground to
the surface. Then the contaminants are treated in a variety of different
ways, usually be adsorption to activated carbon filters. The pump and
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treat is easy from an engineering standpoint. However, this process is

also criticized as being inefficient for two related reasons. The pump
and treat method tends not to solve the problem, but just controls it.
This means that you have to continue to pump these contaminated ar-
eas for a long period. If the well pumps are turned off, the contaminant
concentrations tend to rebound.
The constant daily pumping operation is costly. Ex situ process can
also be tied up in legal and regulatory issues because once the contami-
nated water is pumped up to the surface you cannot just dump it back
on the ground again because it is hazardous waste, so you need to go
through regulatory and legal requirements to remove it.
You have been studying how iron particles break down pollutants since
1992. One technology you and your colleges helped to develop was the
use of Permeable Reactive Barriers (PRBs), commonly called “iron
walls,” to remediate contaminated groundwater. In this process,
however, you used macro-sized iron particles. What are iron walls and
what are the advantages of using this process for cleanup rather than
the traditional remediation technologies?
The “iron wall” or permeable reactive barriers (PRBs) has two main
characteristics—it is in situ and it is passive. In situ means that you
apply iron particles by placing them into the ground and treat the
contamination there. You do not have to pump the contaminated water
up to the surface. The other advantage is that this method is passive.
Pump and treat is active because you have to constantly keep the pumps
working. Ideally passive technologies mean that once the treatment is
in place you can cover it up, plant grass, and then you can leave the
area—there is nothing else to do.
Passive can be much less expensive in the long haul than pump and
treat which is an active process. In situ allows you to put iron particles
and materials down into the ground to interact with the groundwa-
ter to remove the contaminants. The groundwater will flow through
this treatment zone and be treated and what comes out at the end is
cleaned. The iron wall also serves the function of an in-ground cutoff
wall. This means you can intercept the contaminated groundwater in a
very precise way—you cut it off. This cutoff wall is useful in many ways
where many properties are near one another. So, if someone spills toxic
materials into the ground and contaminates the groundwater, you can
use a cutoff wall to keep the contaminants from entering the ground-
water of the nearby neighbor’s property, or discharging into surface
water.
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How does iron break down the contaminants?

Traditionally iron walls have been made with granular iron particles that
are the size of millimeters. These coarse iron grains are fairly inexpen-
sive and plentiful. When contaminated water interacts with the metal,
a chemical reaction takes place. The reaction removes the chlorines,
which makes the products less toxic. In a traditional iron wall, the iron
remains available to degrade contaminants pretty much indefinitely.
Do the iron particles have any advantages over the use of other metals
for groundwater remediation?
You can use other metals but iron is better because it is less harmful to
the environment than other metals. Iron is cheaper too. There are two
methods of using iron particles in groundwater remediation.
The traditional way or the most common way of making permeable
iron walls (PRBs) is to use iron particles that are manufactured for the
construction industry. These micron-sized iron particles are coarse and
granular-shaped.
Recently, however, there has been interest in the PRB field in using
nano-sized iron particles for cleaning up contaminants in groundwater.
Nano-sized particles range in size from 10 to 100 nanometers. Much of
this process is similar to the conventional iron wall method for clean up.
However, there are a few differences. The nanoparticles particles are so
small that you can make slurry solutions and then inject the solutions
into the wells. By using this process, you can create an iron wall, but
at a much greater depth than the conventional PRB way. This is huge
advantage. The downside is that when you inject the iron nanoparticles
into the ground, it is not clear how far the particles will move once they
are in the groundwater.
Generally, nanoparticles do not move very far, in fact they do not move
far enough. You want the nanoparticles to move farther. Researchers
are working on ways to make nanoparticles go farther, but if they get
too good at this the particles might move to places we don’t want them
(drinking water supplies, for example). So, we need to do more research
to try to figure out if this PRB process poses a potential problem.
Once these “iron walls” are placed in the soil how long is it before they
need to be replaced?
The installation of the conventional non-nano iron wall has lasted for
some time. There are a good number of iron walls that have worked for
more than 10 years.
We expect that the nanoparticle iron wall installation will not last very
long, because the nanoparticles are so small that they will be used up in a
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short time. Therefore, it is difficult to estimate how long the nanoparticle

iron wall will last. Our best estimate is that the nanoparticle iron wall
will probably last only for a few months. The goal of the nanoparticle
iron wall is to knock out the contaminants quickly.
Where have these “iron walls” been used in Oregon and elsewhere?
The convention iron wall (PRBs) was first used by researchers at the
University of Waterloo at a site in Ontario, Canada. In the U.S., the
first large-scale conventional iron wall was used in an industrial park in
Sunnyvale, California. Since then, there have been many applications of
the conventional PRB.
The iron nanoparticle remediation process is much newer and there
are fewer of those that have been implemented. The first pilot program
was initiated by Professor W.X. Zhang at Lehigh University. He estab-
lished a pilot program at a chemical manufacturing site on the east coast
and reported some favorable results. This was the first pilot-scaled pro-
gram and since then there have been a number of consulting companies
that have done more than a dozen versions of the nanoparticle iron wall
installations.
Are there any risks in using iron nanoparticles for groundwater
remediation and if so, what would some of these risks be?
There is much debate going on about the use of nanoparticles. The risks
have two parts; one is toxicity and the other part is the exposure part.
Nanoparticles can be toxic, especially if you inhale them, but will there
be any harm to humans and animals? That depends on whether there
is exposure to these iron nanoparticles.
Different situations pose different risks. If you are in the business
of manufacturing these particles then you have occupational health
issues that you need to worry about. However, once you inject these
particles into the ground for remediation there is very little chance that
anyone will be exposed to those iron particles. It is quite clear that these
particles are not very mobile in groundwater because they tend to stick
onto anything available for them to attach to. A general rule is once
you inject these particles into the ground they may move only a few feet
from where you have injected them. So there is little likelihood that the
nanoparticles will show up in the neighbor’s drinking water well that is
300 feet away.
I heard that scrap iron is used to make iron particles used for
groundwater remediation. Is this true? If so, how is it used?
The conventional commercial granular iron micro-particles (not iron
nanoparticles) that are used in a conventional iron wall come from a
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variety of scrap metal dealers, many from the Midwest. These materi-
als come from sources like old brake drums. The scrap iron is shred-
ded and then it is cleaned to remove any grease or oil on the metal,
and is sold for a variety of commercial applications such as hardening
concrete.
The iron nanoparticles are not made this way. Iron nanoparticles are
usually made in a process called bottom-up nanofabrication. Nanopar-
ticles start with a solution of iron and some other materials and then
you precipitate the nanoparticles out of the solution starting from the
molecules going to the nanoparticles.
In one of your articles, you described an experiment for

undergraduate general chemistry students. In the experiment, the
students investigated the chemistry behind the iron-permeable reactive
barriers (iron walls) used to remediate contaminated groundwater. Is
this an activity that high school chemistry students could also perform
safely, under supervision, in their science class?
Yes, Students and teachers can refer to a 4-page article, A Discovery-
Based Experiment Illustrating How Iron Metal is Used to Remediate Contami-
nated Groundwater. For the article, go to: http://cgr.ebs.ogi.edu/merl/
resources.htm
From reading the article, teachers and students can get enough in-
formation to investigate the details of the degradation process in the
PRB contaminant system by determining the various parameters for the
degradation of a dye in place of a contaminant. Dyes have often been
used as model contaminants. So, we use a dye in this activity because it
is nontoxic and it works well.
In the activity, students measure the kinetics of the disappearance of
a dye solution in a cuvette containing granular iron particles—not the
iron nanoparticles. There is a nice illustration in the article that shows
the degradation process of the dye. If you wish, you can also monitor
the dye concentration by using a UV-vis spectrophotometer. We have
had high school teachers who have worked on several variations of this
activity.
Resources for Educators and Students
1. A multimedia CD-ROM (MERL: Metals for Environmental Remediation and

Learning), which provides more details on the history, development, in-
stallation, and chemistry of iron walls, is available from the authors. See
http://cgr.ebs.ogi.edu/merl/ (accessed on October 2001) for more in-
formation.
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2. Useful information on iron walls can be found at many Web sites, in-
cluding http://cgr.ebs.ogi.edu/iron; http://www.rtdf.org; http://www.
doegjpo.com/perm-barr/.
NANO ACTIVITY: DISCOVERING THE PROPERTIES OF

FERROFLUIDS (Teacher Supervision Advised)
Nanotechnologists are experimenting with ferrofluids to help clean
up wastewater. Ferrofluids contain nanoparticles of a magnetic solid,
usually magnetite (Fe3 O4 ), in a colloidal suspension.
NASA discovered ferrofluids when their scientists were trying to con-
trol liquid products in space. Ferrofluids have been used in many ap-
plications, including computer disk drives, low-friction seals, and loud-
speakers.
In this activity, you will learn about some of the properties of ferroflu-
ids. The activity was adapted from the NanoSense Program produced by
the SRI International in Menlo Park, California. Patricia Schank and
Tina Stanford coauthored the activity. To learn more about this nano
activity and other NanoSense activities go to: www.nanosense.org (Safety
Note: You should do the following activity with teacher supervision.)
Materials You Need

1. Sealed display cells of ferrofluids (for ordering, see Where to Buy)
2. Magnet
r Have your teacher show and pass around one or more samples of fer-
rofluid along with a strong magnet. Under teacher supervision, let stu-
dents play with the ferrofluids and magnet and see what they can make it
do. The teacher may also want to show and pass around another magnetic
material, like a piece of iron, for comparison. The teacher should explain
to the students that since we have been able to make the particles in the
ferrofluids so small, we have been able to change the physical state of the
material from a solid to a liquid.
r What happens when you bring a magnet close to the liquid?
r When you put the magnet near the ferrofluids, it distorts. What causes
this distortion?
r What does this distortion represent?
Where to Buy Ferrofluids

The science department or the science teacher can order sealed dis-
play cells of ferrofluids from Educational Innovations, Inc., at: http://
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www.teachersource.com (click on “Browse or Search the Catalog”, “Elec-

tricity! Magnetism! Engines!” and then “Ferrofluids”). A Ferrofluid Ex-
periment Booklet is also available (item FF-150) for about $6.
References
http://jchemed.chem.wisc.edu/JCESoft/CCA/CCA2/MAIN/FEFLUID/CD2R1
.HTM
READING MATERIAL
Karn, Barbara, Vicki Colvin, Paul Alivasatos, Tina Masciangioli (Eds.). Nanotechnology
and the Environment. Washington, DC: American Chemical Society, 2004.
Lewis, Scott Alan. The Sierra Club Guide to Safe Drinking Water. San Francisco: Sierra
Club Books, 1996.
Roco, Mihail C., and William Sims Bainbridge. Societal Implications of Nanoscience and
Nanotechnology. Boston, MA: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2001.
Somerville, Richard C.J. The Forgiving Air: Understanding Environmental Change. Berke-
ley, CA: University of California Press, 1998.
Wiesner, Mark, and Jean-Yves Bottero. Environmental Nanotechnology. New York. Mc-
Graw Hill Professional Publishing, 2007.
VIDEOS
Photovoltaics. Turning Sunlight into Electricity. United States Department of En-
ergy. Solar Energies Technologies Program: Animations. The “photovoltaic ef-
fect” is the basic physical process through which a PV cell converts sunlight
into electricity. Sunlight is composed of photons or particles of solar energy.
http://www1.eere.energy.gov/solar/video/pv3.mov
Clean Technology Vehicles. Altairnano. Demonstration vehicle using NanoSafe long-
term batteries for vehicles. http://www.altairnano.com/ZEV.mov
Hydrogen Fuel Cell. Digital Splash Multimedia Studios. http://www.
digitalsplashstudios.com/fuel-cell.html
How a Fuel Cell Works. Ballard Fuel Cells. Ballard’s principal business is the design,
development, and manufacture of proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell
products. (Scroll down)
http://www.ballard.com/be informed/fuel cell technology/how the technology
works
WEB SITES
National Institute for Occupational Health (NIOSH): http://www.cdc.gov/
niosh/homepage.html
Copies of the National Air Quality and Emissions Trends Report are available from U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency. Copies of the report may be viewed via the OAR
Web site at: http://www.epa.gov/docs/oar/oarhome.html
Environmental Protection Agency: http://www.epa.gov/
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A site for innovative technologies for contaminated soil and groundwater.

Department of Energy: http://www.energy.gov/index.htm
National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL): www.nrel.gov/
Sandia National Laboratories: http://www.sandia.gov/
SOMETHING TO DO
Do you ever wonder how much energy your school building uses? Could you become
an energy consultant who could design a nanotechnology program to save energy?
If you do, you may want to go to the EnergyNet sponsored by the Department of
Energy. They have several energy projects on their Web site.
Energy Audits
Here is one online project from the Department of Energy that will give you and
others in grades 6–12 the opportunity to act as energy consultants for their schools.
In this project, you can conduct energy audits to review the energy use in your school
or other buildings. For directions go to:
http://www.energynet.net/eninfo/info/what is energynet.html
The U.S. Department of Energy also has a Web site of many other kinds of activities
to do. Here is their Web site:
http://www1.eere.energy.gov/education/lesson plans.html
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Nanotechnology
Projects and the
United States
Government
Nanotechnology is expected to have a large impact on many sectors

of the United States and the world’s economy. All governments agree
that a strong nanotechnology economy can lead to new products, new
businesses, new jobs, and even new industries for many countries. As a
result, nanotechnology funding for research is growing rapidly in many
countries.
The U.S. government is aware of the economic and social impacts
that nanotechnology can make. For several decades, the government
has funded nanotechnology research.
NATIONAL NANOTECHNOLOGY INSTITUTE

However, a big push for more government investment in nanotech-
nology research occurred in 2001. At that time, President Clinton re-
quested in the 2002 federal budget a major new initiative, called the
National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI). The budget included an in-
crease of more than 200 million dollars for the government’s investment
in nanotechnology research and development.
Additional nanotechnology dollars were authorized during President
Bush’s term. In December 2003, President Bush signed the Nanotech-
nology Research and Development Act, which authorizes funding for
nanotechnology research and development (R&D) nanotechnology.
This legislation puts into law programs and activities supported by the
National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI). The legislation also autho-
rizes public hearings and expert advisory panels, as well as the American
Nanotechnology Preparedness Center to study the emerging technol-
ogy’s potential societal and ethical effects.
According to one report, from 2001 to 2007, NNI participants formed
over 60 facilities or institutes involved in nanotechnology research
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Table 9.1 United States Government Expenditures in Nanotechnology

(in millions of dollars, approximately)
Agencies 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
National $ 204 $ 221 $ 256 $ 338 $ 344 $ 373

Science
Foundation
Department of $ 224 $ 322 $ 291 $ 267 $ 436 $ 345
Defense
Department of $ 89 $ 134 $ 202 $ 216 $ 207 $ 258
Energy
Other Federal $ 136 $ 142 $ 183 $ 217 $ 251 $ 259
Agencies
and development throughout the United States. New centers of nan-

otechnology expertise, most of which are associated with universities,
train workers and help educate researchers and developers of tech-
nology.
Spending on nanotechnology research and development (R&D) has
amounted to several billions of dollars since the late 1990s, by the United
States alone and accounts for a large portion of worldwide spending on
this type of work. The government agencies that have spent the greatest
amounts on nanotechnology are the National Science Foundation, the
Department of Energy, and the Nation Institutes of Health.
In nanotechnology research, engineers, medical doctors, educa-
tors, chemists, physicists, nanotechnology researchers usually collabo-
rate on studies and projects. Nanotechnology researchers often must
share equipment, because many of the high-technology microscopes
and other devices used in this technology are too expensive for each
individual research facility to purchase and maintain its own. For ex-
ample, acquiring a scanning electron microscope and building a clean-
room can cost millions of dollars. So, grants and loans from govern-
ment and private institutions provide money for such activities and
equipment.
So far, the NNI has already made valuable contributions to the devel-
opment of nanotechnology. With NNI funding, researchers have been
working on gold nanoshells that can target the destruction of malig-
nant cancer cells (See Chapter 5), low-cost solar cells and quantum dots
for energy sources (See Chapter 6), and nanoscale iron particles that
can reduce the costs of cleaning up contaminated groundwater (See
Chapter 8).
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Nanotechnology Projects and the United States Government 195
THE NATIONAL NANOTECHNOLOGY INITIATIVE (NNI) AND

FEDERAL AGENCIES
The main goal of the National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI) is
to coordinate all of the federal agencies’ efforts in nanoscale science,
engineering, and technology. Three of these federal agencies were cov-
ered in earlier chapters. They included the Department of Agriculture
in Chapter 7 and the work of the Environmental Protection Agency and
the Department of Energy in Chapter 8.
This chapter will report on nanotechnology research at the National
Science Foundation, Department of Defense, National Institute of Stan-
dards and Technology, National Institute of Occupational Safety, Depart-
ment of Homeland Security, and the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration.
NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION (NASA)

President Dwight D. Eisenhower established the National Aeronautics
and Space Administration (NASA) in 1958; this was the time of the then
Soviet Union’s launch of the first artificial satellite. NASA grew out
of the National Advisory Committee on Aeronautics, which had been
researching flight technology for more than 40 years. NASA’s mission
is to pioneer the future in space exploration, scientific discovery, and
aeronautics research.
In Chapter 5, you read a little bit about NASA’s lab-on-a-chip.
Lab-on-a-Chip
According to NASA, the lab-on-a-chip technology can be used for new
tools to detect bacteria and life forms on Earth and other planets and
for protecting astronauts by
monitoring crew health and Did you know?
detecting microbes and con- Since the lab-on-a-chip is small device, a large num-
taminants in spacecraft. ber of them could be carried on a Mars rover to
On Earth, some basic search for life and for monitoring microbes inside
lab-on-a-chip technology ap- Martian habitats.
proaches are being used for
commercial and medical diagnostic applications. As an example, the lab-
on-a-chip technology can be used as an in-office test for strep throat, or
modern in-home pregnancy tests. The hand-held portable device, con-
taining a simple chip design, can conduct diagnostic tests and record
test results in a short time for the patient.
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Lab-on-a-chip. The lab-on-a-chip is a microfabricated device that performs

chemical and biochemical procedures under computer control, using
miniscule quantities of samples to be analyzed. (Courtesy U.S. Department of
Energy, Oak Ridge National Laboratory)
Spacecraft
In the near future NASA may use combinations of plastics and other
materials that will greatly reduce the weight of a spacecraft. Less weight
in the spacecraft can reduce launch costs.
Carbon fiber technology has already been used to replace many space-
craft components. Presently, the B-2 Stealth Bomber uses carbon fiber
materials in its wings. Carbon fiber composites, for example, are five
times stiffer than steel for the same weight allowing for much lighter
structures. In addition, carbon fibers have the highest thermal conduc-
tivity; they do not overheat. This property allows the carbon fibers to
be used as heat dissipating elements on the outside of the craft for
spacecraft reentry protection.
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A Self-Repair Spacecraft
Using advanced nanotechnology, the spacecraft may adapt to con-
ditions in space travel by rebuilding itself, as needed, while in
flight. Solar energy from the spacecraft solar panels would power
the computers and assemblers. This would also allow general re-
pair and maintenance to occur without using crew repair astro-
nauts.
Spacecraft Recycling
Recycling aboard the spacecraft will be greatly improved by nanotech-
nology. Recycling at the atomic level will be very efficient and, in closed
environments, such as space stations, this will be crucial. Nanotechnol-
ogy should also be able to recycle the air efficiently as well, providing a
high-quality life support system. Recycling water is also well within the
capabilities of nanosystems with all waste molecules being recycled and
used elsewhere.
Improvements in NASA Spacesuits

The new nano-designed spacesuits will be light, thin, comfortable,
and easy to work with but they will have enhanced strength. The suit will
automatically adjust to the contours of the astronaut’s body when it is
put on. The suit will be able to repair itself.
NASA Space Elevator

A space elevator is essentially a long cable extending from the Earth’s
surface to a tower in space. The space elevator will orbit Earth at about
36,000 kilometers in altitude.
Four to six “elevator tracks” would extend up the sides of the
tower and cable platforms, at different levels. These tracks would allow
electromagnetic vehicles to
travel at speeds reaching Did you know?
thousands of kilometers-per- What will be the first major space commercial busi-
hour. The vehicles traveling nesses? The top two businesses may be passenger
along the cable could serve flights and mining. Advertising is also a possibility.
as a mass transportation sys-
tem for moving people, payloads, and power between Earth and space.
Security measures are also planned to keep the cable structure from
tumbling to Earth.
Carbon Nanotubes and the Space Elevator. To build such a sky-high el-
evator, very strong materials would be needed for the cables (tethers)
and the tower. Carbon nanotubes could be the answer for constructing
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the cables. Carbon nanotubes appear to have the potential strength the
space elevator needs.
According to NASA researchers, carbon nanotubes are 100 times
stronger than steel. The space elevator will become a realistic possibility
with nanotube fibers that
Space Elevator. Scientists envision a space
elevator based in the Pacific Ocean. Go to:
nanotechnology will provide.
Maximum stress is at the high-
http://www.sciencentral.com/articles/view. est point—the altitude, so the
php3?article id=218392162&language= cable must be thickest there
english and taper exponentially as it
approaches Earth. Using this
material, a cable could be constructed, probably downwards from the
space station.
However, NASA states that the space elevator construction is not fea-
sible today, but it could be toward the end of the 21st century.
NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION

The National Science Foundation (NSF) is an independent federal
agency. Their goal is to promote the progress of science; to advance the
national health, prosperity, and welfare; to secure the national defense.
NSF funds support basic research conducted by America’s colleges and
universities. About 1,300 projects involving more than 6,000 faculty and
students are supported each year.
The NSF funds the National Nanofabrication Users Network (NNUN)
and the Network for Computational Nanotechnology (NCN). The
NNUN includes five university-based research hubs which are focused on
electronics, biology, advanced materials, optoelectronics, and nanoscale
computer simulation. The NCN, centered at Purdue University, is link-
ing theory and computation to experimental work that helps turn the
promise of nanoscience into new nanotechnologies.
The National Science Foundation funds a number of projects. One
example of a funded nanoproject includes nano research work done
at the University of Akron. Scientists at the University of Akron have
shown how to create a densely packed carpet of carbon nanotubes that
functions like an artificial gecko foot—but with 200 times the gecko
foot’s gripping power. Potential applications include dry adhesives for
microelectronics, information technology, robotics, space, and many
other fields.
Another NSF program that was funded included work at the Uni-
versity of Wisconsin-Madison. Researchers were able to begin the pro-
cess of developing nanoscale electronic devices that can be directed to
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The National Science Foundation funded an exhibit called “It’s a Nano

World.” The traveling exhibit, organized by Sciencenter in Ithaca, New
York, is a hands-on interactive exhibition that introduces children and their
parents to the biological wonders of the nanoworld. At this station in the
exhibit, visitors are using magnifying glasses to look at tiny parts of feathers,
shells, and seeds. (Courtesy Sciencenter, Ithaca, NY )
self-assemble themselves automatically. This research development

would allow manufacturers to mass-produce nanochips having circuit
elements only a few molecules across. The mass production of the
nanochips would provide large quantities of chips to be developed with
possible lower costs per unit.
National Science Foundation Classroom Resources

The NSF provides Classroom Resources, a diverse collection of lessons
and Web resources for classroom teachers, their students, and students’
families. Go to: http://www.nsf.gov/news/classroom/
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF STANDARDS AND

TECHNOLOGY (NIST)
The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) mission is
to promote U.S. innovation and industrial competitiveness by advancing
measurement science, standards, and technology in ways that enhance
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economic security and improve our quality of life. Researchers in NIST’s

develop measurements, standards, and data crucial to private industry’s
development of products for a nanotechnology market that could reach
$1 trillion during the next decade. NIST’s work also aids other federal
agencies’ efforts to exploit nanotechnology to further their missions,
such as national security and environmental protection.
THE FOOD AND DRUG ADMINISTRATION (FDA)

The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is an agency of the United
States Department of Health and Human Services and is responsible for
regulating
r food,
r dietary supplements,
r drugs and cosmetics,
r biological medical products,
r dietary supplements,
r color additives in food,
r blood products, and
r medical devices.
FDAconducts research in several of its Centers to understand the char-

acteristics of nanomaterials and nanotechnology processes. Research in-
terests include any areas related to the use of nanoproducts that FDA
needs to consider in the regulation of these products. As an example
of current research, FDA is collaborating with other agencies on studies
that examine the skin absorption and phototoxicity of nano-sized tita-
nium dioxide and zinc oxide preparations used in sunscreens. If any
risks are identified, which may occur from these nano chemicals used in
sunscreens, then additional tests or other requirements may be needed.
FDA only regulates certain categories of products. Existing require-
ments may be adequate for most nanotechnology products that we will
regulate. These products are in the same size-range as the cells and
molecules that FDA reviewers and scientists associate with every day.
DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE (DOD)

The mission of the Department of Defense is to provide the military
forces that are needed to deter war and to protect the security of the
United States. The department’s headquarters is at the Pentagon.
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The DOD has a long history of supporting innovative nanotechnol-

ogy research efforts for the future advancement of warfighter and battle
systems capabilities. The DOD includes the Defense Advanced Research
Projects Agency (DARPA), Office of Naval Research (ONR), Army Re-
search Office (ARO), and the Air Force Office of Scientific Research
(AFOSR).
Since the mid-1990s, DOD identified nanoscience as a strategic re-
search area that would require a substantial amount of basic research
funding on a long-term basis. The potential of nanotechnology appli-
cations will impact many areas for future warfighting. Some of these
areas include chemical and biological warfare defense, a reduction in
the weight of warfighting equipment, high-performance information
technology, and uninhabited vehicles and miniature satellites.
DEPARTMENT OF HOMELAND SECURITY

The Department of Homeland Security is a federal agency whose
primary mission is to help prevent, protect against, and respond to acts
of terrorism on U.S. soil. The Department of Homeland Security has
the capability to anticipate, preempt, and deter threats to the homeland
whenever possible, and the ability to respond quickly when such threats
do materialize.
As the United States focuses on protecting and defending against
terrorism, scientists are conducting research in antiterrorist technology.
One of the programs is to develop new kinds of nanoscale sensors to
detect explosives and hazardous chemicals at the nanometer level. Most
experts agree that sensors are critical to all of the homeland security
strategies.
Nanoscale sensors, with their small, lightweight size will improve the
capability to detect chemical, biological, radiological, and explosive or
CBRE agents. The use of nanoscale sensors for CBRE can be deployed
for advance security to
r transportation systems (protection for air, bus, train/subway, etc.);
r military (protection for facilities, equipment and personnel);
r federal buildings (White House, U.S. embassies, and all other federal
buildings);
r customs (for border crossings, international travel, etc.);
r civilian businesses; and schools.
Further research will yield sensor technologies that are cheaper and
lighter yet far more sensitive, selective, and reliable than current systems.
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Underwater Sensor Networks

An area that nanotechnology has much significant promise for is in
developing networks of multiple sensors that can communicate with
each other to detect very small amounts of chemicals or biological
agents. As an example, an
Did you know? underwater sensor network
Nanotechnology-based materials will be essential to could be used to detect the
fabricate protective garb for emergency response movement of ships into and
teams and hospital staff who will need to cope with out of various seaports. The
CBRE incidents. sensors could also be built
into cargo ship containers
for detecting any chemical, biological or radiological materials in the
cargo.
THE MAPLESEED: A NANO AIR VEHICLE FOR SURVEILLANCE

The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARP) is a central
research and development organization for the Department of Defense.
The organization is working
Detecting Deadly Chemicals. Science Daily.
The Anthrax Scare and a New Tool for
with an aircraft company to
design a surveillance drone
Collecting Chemical or Biological Sam- shaped like a mapleseed. The
ples. Go to: http://www.sciencedaily.com/ remote-controlled nano air
videos/2006-12-10/ vehicles (or NAVs, for short)
would be dropped from an
aircraft. Then, it would whirl around a battlefield snapping pictures or
delivering various payloads. Besides controlling lift and pitch, the wings
will also house telemetry, communications, navigation, imaging sensors,
and battery power. If built, the NAV may only be about 1.5 inches long
and have a maximum takeoff weight of about 0.35 ounces.
SAFETY IN NANOTECHNOLOGY: THE NATIONAL INSTITUTE

FOR OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH (NIOSH)
The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)
is the federal agency responsible for conducting research and making
recommendations for the prevention of work-related injury and illness.
NIOSH is part of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)
in the Department of Health and Human Services.
NIOSH is the leading federal agency conducting research and pro-
viding guidance on the occupational safety and health implications of
nanotechnology. This research focuses NIOSH’s scientific expertise on
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answering questions that are essential to understanding safe approaches

to nanotechnology. Some of these questions include:
r Are workers exposed to nanomaterials in the manufacture and use of

nanomaterials, and if so what are the characteristics and levels of expo-
sures?
r What effects might nanoparticles have on the body’s systems?
r Are there potential adverse health effects of working with nanomaterials?
r What work practices, personal protective equipment, and engineering
controls are available, and
r How effective are they for controlling exposures to nanomaterials?
NIOSH believes that the answer to these questions is critical for sup-
porting the responsible development of nanotechnology and for main-
taining competitiveness of the United States in the growing and dynamic
nanotechnology market.
NIOSH publishes a document called Approaches to Safe Nanotechnol-
ogy. The document reviews what is currently known about nanoparticle
toxicity and control. The document serves as a request from NIOSH to
occupational safety and health practitioners, researchers, product inno-
vators and manufacturers, employers, workers, interest group members,
and the general public to exchange information that will ensure that no
worker suffers material impairment of safety or health as nanotechnol-
ogy develops.
Opportunities to provide feedback and information are available
throughout this document. You can download a copy of the document by
contacting the following Web site: http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/
nanotech/safenano/
To learn more about Nanotechnology and NIOSH go to: http://www.
cdc.gov/niosh/topics/nanotech/
NIOSH provides an online library on nanotechnology. Go to: http:
//www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/nanotech/nil.html
NANO INTERVIEW: LAURA BLASI, Ph.D., AND NASA’S VIRTUAL LAB

Dr. Laura Blasi has been committed to the pursuit of equity in educa-
tion, focused on evaluation in K-12 education and at the college-level.
Her emphasis has been on improving innovation—such as the use
of technology for teaching and learning. She has collaborated with
colleagues at the Association of American Colleges and Universities
(AAC&U) and at the University of Virginia’s Center for Technology
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and Teacher Education (CTTE). In collaboration with her colleague

Dr. Dan Britt, she is currently working on “To Infinity and Beyond”
which emphasizes the history and role of telescopes and microscopes
in the exploration of space, funded by NASA’s Space Telescope Science
Institute (STScI).
Dr. Blasi is a member of Project Kaleidoscope: Faculty for the 21st
Century (F21), a national network of emerging leaders in undergrad-
uate STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) fo-
cused on transforming the environment for learning for undergraduate
students in mathematics and the various fields of science. Dr. Laura
Blasi is currently an evaluation specialist at Saint Leo University near
Tampa, Florida, working with faculty members in science to integrate
NASA’s Virtual Lab at the college-level and with faculty members in
math to transform entry-level courses to support student success. While
at the University of Central Florida (UCF) for the past 4 years, Dr. Laura
Blasi’s research had focused on high school science in low-income class-
rooms, specifically using the Virtual Lab simulation developed by NASA
Kennedy Space Center.
You have been working with NASA’s Virtual Lab, tell us more
about this . . .
The Virtual Lab is a suite of simulations of advanced microscopes, in-
cluding the Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM); Fluorescence Light
Microscope; Energy Dispersive Spectrometer (for the SEM); and an
Atomic Force Microscope (AFM). There are a range of specimens ac-
cessible through these tools, such as the eye of a housefly, euglena,
an integrated circuit, and lunar dust. The Virtual Lab was developed by
NASA within the Learning Technologies Project (LTP), and the software
was designed and built by the Beckman Institute.
The software was refined using the findings from a study I conducted
funded by the BellSouth Foundation in low socioeconomic schools using
the Virtual Lab. The study documented the use of the Virtual Lab soft-
ware within tenth grade science classrooms in the 2004–2005 school year
(n=225) in low socioeconomic status areas in Orange County, Florida,
while contributing to the further development of the program.
Working with my colleague, Theresa Martinez, at NASA Kennedy Space

Center (KSC), we recently launched Cogs (Connecting a Generation
to Science) on the Web (http://www.nasa-inspired.org/). This project
seeks to develop materials to support the systemic integration of NASA’s
Virtual Lab into middle and high school classrooms nationally.
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We developed Cogs from requests for support made by teachers

when we piloted the Virtual Lab. While Cogs includes the Virtual Lab
download and teaching materials to support the use of this simulation,
teachers can post requests for new specimens to be added or they can
ask questions that can be addressed by experts in the field.
How did the Virtual Lab develop?
A team from NASA Kennedy Space Center (KSC) led by Berta Alfonso
proposed this Virtual Lab. The Virtual Lab concept was proposed in
response to educators’ requests to provide students access to NASA’s
instruments. Many of these instruments are too costly for schools and
colleges to purchase and maintain. Specifically, this need was voiced
within our discussions with Historically Black Colleges and Universities
(HBCUs) in the United States.
By providing simulations of these microscopes, we could meet these
needs in a way that did not conflict with KSC operations and security.
By providing this software freely to all, NASA could also ensure equal
access and availability to the local community, the nation, and beyond
borders across the globe. Theresa Martinez now heads up the NASA KSC
overseeing the Virtual Lab. We described the development of the Virtual
Lab at length in the journal Simulation and Gaming last year (2006).
How did you get involved with the Virtual Lab?
I became involved as an independent evaluator. With funding from
the BellSouth Foundation working with talented graduate students in
the UCF College of Education, I conducted a usability study in three
Orange County public schools that serve low-income communities using
the Virtual Lab software in Florida. The schools were low performers
on the state standardized tests for 3 or more years prior. So we were
not focused on Advanced Placement students in mathematics and the
sciences at well-funded schools for public relations purposes—we really
wanted to know what was happening and if the technology could be
improved to meet the needs of the students and teachers.
The Virtual Lab allows students and teachers to work individually
with very sophisticated scientific instruments. These tools from NASA
are free of cost and cannot be broken. They allow science teachers
to teach science using a hands-on approach rather than only through
lecture or textbook reading. This is the reason it was important for
me to work within low-income schools, which provide access to the
classroom conditions that are experienced across the country. If the
limited access to technology is not addressed systemically in education,
it will be difficult to reach the goals for the development and use of
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advanced technologies that we imagine setting and achieving over the

next 10 years in the United States.
Can teachers become involved with the Virtual Lab project?
Yes, while teachers use the simulation in their classrooms, we also have
had teachers then go on to train others in their schools. The Virtual
Lab has also been developed for use in professional development for
teachers in science and math, with the idea that teachers will more likely
incorporate it if they have experience using and integrating the Virtual
Lab into their lesson plans.
The interface includes annotation and measuring tools (from mil-
limeters to microns) and the integration of the software can support
student preparation for standardized tests in mathematics and the sci-
ences. The Virtual Lab is also used at the college level in the sciences, it
is not limited in its design but instead it replicates the actual microscope
interfaces.
With this context in mind we have been developing Cogs, so that high
school and middle school teachers can browse, print, and even create
resources and lesson plans related to the Virtual Lab. The Cogs project
also gives teachers access to related animations and videos on the tools
themselves, their use, and careers in the field.
What are the career paths available for Science, Technology,
Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) education that emerged in the
development of the Virtual Lab?
There are a few that may not be thought of as options for middle
and high school students, simply because they are evolving with this
generation and were not featured in the options that many teachers
had available to them. Artists and programmers who created the Vir-
tual Lab provide examples of emerging careers in design and develop-
ment. Scientists and engineers worked as subject matter experts, pro-
viding information and insights—as well as virtual specimens for our
project.
There are other roles for evaluators, teachers, and project directors
directly related to STEM education, and these are roles that I have had
throughout this project. It’s important to keep in mind that both women
and men are pushing the frontiers of this work. Career counseling and
advising in high school and in college will play a large role when working
toward these kinds of STEM careers, but earlier exploration paired with
guidance is better to develop the necessary skills for success. In terms of
nanotechnology, while aiming for specific goals in terms of the economic
competitiveness of the United States, we also need to focus on ways
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students today can be part of the effort to improve the pathways toward
those goals.
While the Virtual Lab can be used in middle, high school, and college
classrooms, can programmers, scientists, and other researchers also get
involved?
Yes, definitely. The Cogs Web site offers a place for microscopists to
view requested specimens and to discuss ways of contributing to the
project. Dr. Glenn Fried and Dr. Ben Grosser and their colleagues at the
Beckman Institute who developed the software also have made sure that
the architecture is open source on SourceForge. Defined in XML code,
the Virtual Lab can be easily expanded by the developer community
(see: http://virtual.itg.uiuc.edu/software/).
From your perspective, what role can the Virtual Lab play as we seek to
prepare students in the United States to fuel innovation in the field of
nanotechnology research and development?
The Virtual Lab specifically allows students to see objects that are familiar
and relevant to everyday living at the level of millimeters and microns.
In order to think and work at the level of nanometers, students need
to understand the concept of scale while also experiencing the level of
detail possible through advanced microscopy.
More generally in terms of careers in STEM, both men and women
need to approach study as an active experience that they can do rather
than as a secondary report that they can read about. The Virtual Lab
allows students to experience first-hand investigation guided by their
teachers using equipment that was once out-of-reach for almost all
schools in terms of space available for equipment and expense.
There will continue to be debate over the ways to best prepare students
for STEM careers, just as there will be debate over the role of virtual labs
in education. We need to be clear that in both cases there are conclusive
research findings and we are able to act on them. Overall, the Virtual
Lab allows more diverse populations access to advanced microscopes
across all socioeconomic status (SES) levels when adequate technology
access and support is available.
NANO ACTIVITY: NASA VIRTUAL LAB. TRY IT!

Dr. Blasi explained in her interview that NASA provides a virtual lab.
The virtual lab is a suite of microscopes and multidimensional, high-
resolution image datasets, all available online, without cost for science
classrooms, teachers, and students. The Virtual Lab can be used on
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computers without the purchase of any additional equipment. To down-

load, A Description of the Virtual Lab Here: Go to: http://www.nasa-
inspired.org/cogs/?q=nasavirtual
Animation of Atomic Force Microscopy Basics

What is an Atomic Force Microscope (AFM)? How does it “see”
atomic resolution? How does it provide the Virtual Microscope with
three-dimensional data about
Download the Atomic Force Microscope
Training Animation http://virtual.itg.uiuc.
topography? This animation
will show you the basics
edu/training/#afm behind this imaging tech-
For the Other Animated Tutorials Go nique, and covers scanning
to: http://www.nasa-inspired.org/cogs/?q= tunneling, contact mode,
nasamicroscope and tapping mode AFM.
READING MATERIAL
Foster, Lynn E. Nanotechnology: Science, Innovation, and Opportunity. Upper Saddle

River, NJ.:Prentice Hall, 2005.
Hall, J. Storrs. Nanofuture: What’s Next For Nanotechnology? Amherst, NY: Prometheus
Books, 2005.
Ratner, Daniel, and Mark A. Ratner. Nanotechnology and Homeland Security: New
Weapons for New Wars. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2003.
Shelley, Toby. Nanotechnology: New Promises, New Dangers (Global Issues). London, UK:
Zed Books, 2006.
VIDEOS
Detecting Deadly Chemicals. Science Daily. Investigators on a crime scene can now
use a new tool for collecting chemical or biological samples. The sampler gun collects
samples on a cotton pad—eliminating direct contact with anything harmful, as well
as risk of contaminating evidence—a GPS system to record the samples’ location,
a camera that snaps pictures for evidence, and a digital voice recorder and writing
pad for taking notes. http://www.sciencedaily.com/videos/2006-12-10/
NASA Space Elevator. Can we build a 22,000-mile-high cable to transport cargo and
people into space? http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/sciencenow/3401/02.html
A Nanotechnology Super Soldier Suit. Nanotechnology in the military.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-pNbF29l9Zg&mode=related&search=
Detecting Deadly Chemicals. Science Daily. The Anthrax Scare and a new tool for col-
lecting chemical or biological samples. http://www.sciencedaily.com/videos/2006-
12-10/
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Space Elevator. Scientists envision a space elevator based in the Pacific Ocean
and rising to a satellite in geosynchronous orbit. http://www.sciencentral.com/
articles/view.php3?article id=218392162&language=english
AUDIO

WEB SITES
National Science Foundation: http://www.nsf.gov/crssprgm/nano/
NSF Home Page: http://www.nsf.gov
NSF News: http://www.nsf.gov/news/
Department of Homeland Security: http://www.dhs.gov/index.shtm
Department of Defense: http://www.defenselink.mil/
The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health: http://www.cdc.gov/
niosh/homepage.html
National Aeronautics and Space Administration: http://www.nasa.gov/home/
index.html
Los Alamos National Laboratory: http://www.lanl.gov/
National Nanotechnology Initiative: The National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI)
is a federal R&D program established to coordinate the multiagency efforts in
nanoscale science, engineering, and technology. The goals of the NNI are to: main-
tain a world-class research and development program aimed at realizing the full
potential of nanotechnology; facilitate transfer of new technologies into products
for economic growth, jobs, and other public benefit; develop educational resources,
a skilled workforce, and the supporting infrastructure and tools to advance nan-
otechnology. http://www.nano.gov/
U.S. Food and Drug Administration: The U.S. Food and Drug Administration reg-
ulates a wide range of products, including foods, cosmetics, drugs, devices, and
veterinary products, some of which may utilize nanotechnology or contain nanoma-
terials. http://www.fda.gov/nanotechnology/
National Institute of Standards and Technology: http://www.nist.gov/
public affairs/nanotech.htm
SOMETHING TO DO
You may enjoy a National Science Foundation game, called NanoMission.

NanoMissionTM is a cutting edge gaming experience which educates players about
basic concepts in nanoscience. http://www.nanomission.org/
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10
Colleges and Schools

and Nanotechnology
In Chapter 1, Dr. Mihail Roco, a senior adviser for nanotechnology at the

NSF’s National Nanotechnology, said that companies building products
at the atomic level eventually would face a serious shortage of talent—far
worse than what is already occurring.
Dr. Roco estimated about 2 million nanotech-trained workers will be
needed to support growing industries and the startups they start within
the next 10 to 15 years. He emphasized that the country needs to find
ways to motivate students about sciences and to make them aware of the
career opportunities in nanotechnology fields.
Based on the need to employ 2 million nanotechnology-savvy workers
by 2015, the National Science Foundation (NSF) is pushing for children
between the ages of 10 and 17 to become educated now about the
field of nanotechnology.
The science organization
also stated that 20 percent
Work Force Preparation. Are We Prepared
to Get Into the Nanotechnology Workforce?
of the 2015 workforce would Professor Wendy Crone. Go to: http://
be scientists. The remain- mrsec.wisc.edu/Edetc/cineplex/MMSD/
ing 80 percent will consist prepared.html
of highly skilled engineers,
technicians, business leaders, mechanics, sales representatives, graphic
designers, economists, and others. So, many workers will not need a
Ph.D. to get into this field.
To learn more about career paths in nanotechnology, you may want to
watch the following video that interviews a number of students and pro-
fessionals about their nanotechnology careers: http://virtual.itg.uiuc.
edu/training/index.shtml#careers
This chapter will highlight some middle schools and high schools,
several universities and colleges, and a few nonprofit organizations on
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how they are helping the young people understand nanotechnology and
to explore careers in this emerging field.
AN INTERVIEW WITH DR. NANCY HEALY, EDUCATION

COORDINATOR OF THE NATIONAL NANOTECHNOLOGY
INFRASTRUCTURE NETWORK (NNIN)
One of the major groups that is providing state-of-the-art nanotech-
nology facilities and resources to schools and colleges is the National
Nanotechnology Infrastructure Network (NNIN). The author had an
opportunity to talk with Dr. Healy during a phone interview about her
professional career as the Education Coordinator of the National Nan-
otechnology Infrastructure Network (NNIN). Dr. Healy’s office is lo-
cated at Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia.
The NNIN is a National Science Foundation funded program, which
supports nanoscience researchers by providing state-of-the-art nanotech-
nology facilities, support, and resources. The NNIN is a consortium of
thirteen universities across the United States (http://www.nnin.org). In
addition to researcher support, the NNIN has a large and integrated
education and outreach program.
What is your role as the Education Coordinator of the National

Nanotechnology Infrastructure Network?
The NNIN education programs focus on the development of a nano-
ready workforce as well as development of a nano-literate public.
Outreach efforts span elementary-level students through adults. The
NNIN provides a variety of programs which include: summer camps
for middle and high school students; on-site and off-site school
visits which include laboratory tours, hands-on activities, demonstra-
tions, and presentations; summer research experiences for undergrad-
uates and K-12 teachers; workshops for K-12 teachers; K-12 instruc-
tional materials development; workshops/seminars for undergraduates;
community college programs; symposia at national meetings; work-
shops for faculty, industry, and government personnel (lifelong learn-
ing); and a Web site for accessing information on our resources and
programs.
Where did you grow up and what were your favorite subjects
in high school?
I grew up in Greenville, Rhode Island, and my favorite subjects in high
school were science and history. I wanted to be an archaeologist so I
could combine the two subjects.
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Colleges and Schools and Nanotechnology 213
What college did you attend and what was your major?
I attended University of Rhode Island for my undergraduate degree
in zoology and then I received a master’s degree and Ph.D. degree in
geology at the University of South Carolina.
How did you get interested in a career in nanotechnology education?
I don’t think anyone working in nanotechnology education had a
straight path in this career. I knew about nanotechnology when I was in
South Carolina working for the state agency that oversaw all the colleges
and universities. We had just approved the Nano Center at the Univer-
sity of South Carolina. So I learned about the field of nanotechnology.
Around the same time, I found out that Georgia Tech wanted somebody
to coordinate this new program in nanotechnology education and out-
reach (NNIN). They wanted someone with an interdisciplinary science
background, which is what I had, and someone who had an understand-
ing of teacher professional development in K-12 math and science. I
applied and I received my new position in July 2004.
You were quoted in an article, “People generally don’t know what
nanotechnology really is. There’s a risk that their perceptions will be
based on popular culture portrayals of it rather than fact.” What are
some ways to help the general population to be able to separate
nanotechnology fact from fiction?
I really think it is the responsibility of researchers, whether they are
in the university, in government, or in industry to make sure that the
public knows what is true and what is not true about any field, whether
it is nanotechnology, biomedicine, or aeronautics. Researchers and sci-
entists need to engage the public about what they are doing. One way
of communicating this to the public is to have scientists address various
clubs and organizations such as the rotary clubs. Having nanotechnol-
ogy forums in schools and campuses is another way to educate the
public. I think it is very important to work with the media, too. Scientists
have the responsibility to make sure their science reported in the me-
dia is accurate and correct, and to correct any misconceptions in their
work.
What are some of the benefits in nanotechnology? What are some of
the ethical or societal issues?
One major benefit will be in the microelectronic and telecommunica-
tion fields. Our whole electronic world will be faster and smaller and will
consume much less energy than we do now. Another benefit will be in
the area of nanomedicine. This is a huge area. We will see some amazing
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things happening in biomedical applications, particularly in such areas

as cancer detection and treatment.
On social and ethical issues, I
think one of the major concerns
is about the production of materi-
als using nanoparticles. The ques-
tion is, “will the nanoparticles
be the next asbestos problem?”
There is research that says yes
they are harmful, but I have spo-
ken with other researchers who
point out that some of these stud-
ies are not done well. So it is very
important that good studies and
good science be done in this
area of concern. No one wants
to breathe in bad stuff into our
lungs, but everyday we intake par-
ticles from vehicle exhausts. So
will the Buckyballs be any more
harmful than the soot that comes
out of the exhausts from vehi-
cles? That is a study that needs to
Dr. Nancy Healy, Education Coordinator of
be done. The EPA and NSF are
the National Nanotechnology Infrastructure
Network (NNIN). The NNIN is a National funding more and more research
Science Foundation funded program that programs to look at the safety
supports nanoscience researchers by provid- concerns of nanotechnology.
ing state-of-the-art nanotechnology facilities, I think that there is a big ethi-
support, and resources. (Courtesy National Nan- cal issue of nanotechnology that
otechnology Infrastructure Network) could occur between the haves
and have-nots. In other words,
will the industrialized nations get all this technology, and in doing so,
bypass those countries that are poorer? This issue needs to be addressed
by everyone in the industry and that includes the scientists, ethicists,
and the lawyers.
In the past the NNIN has presented programs at the National Science
Teachers Association to inform teachers about nanotechnology. What
kind of presentation have you done?
In NNIN, we have a program called the NNIN Research Experience
for Teachers (NNIN RET). The teachers who were participants in this
program have presented instructional nanotechnology units at the
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NSTA meetings. The teachers developed these units as a result of their

summer nanotechnology research experiences at such colleges as Geor-
gia Tech, Harvard, Howard University, Penn State, and the University
of California, Santa Barbara. In 2006, 19 teachers participated in the
NNIN RET and their units were presented to schoolteachers at the 2007
NSTA. After the presentations, the schoolteachers visited our NSTA ex-
hibit booth to review the units and to get additional information. These
units are posted or will be posted on our Web site.
One teacher, from Gwinnett County, Georgia, created a physics and
literature unit based on material in the Ratner and Ratner book, Nan-
otechnology, A Gentle Introduction to the Next Big Idea. Even though she
teaches advanced placement physics, she included literature materials
into the unit. Then, she brought the unit to the elementary grades by
having her students create books on what the future will be like with
nanotechnology. In the beginning, the NNIN RET involved all high
school teachers with physics and chemistry backgrounds. We now have
added middle school teachers with backgrounds in physical science and
in basic biology.
The NNIN program sponsors volunteers who go to local schools and
work with student groups who visit the Georgia Tech Campus. What
kinds of activity lessons do they present? Are any of these lessons
available for teachers?
Yes, lessons are available to teachers. As an example, we have our “Mod-
eling Self-Assembly” lesson and another lesson on hydrophobic and hy-
drophilic properties posted on the education portal. We are now prepar-
ing and working on another 20 units that will be available to teachers.
We also have a teacher resource flyer that we hand out to
teachers and that flyer is available on the Georgia Tech Web site
(http://www.mirc.gatech.edu/education.php). The NNIN goal is to
provide information to teachers so they can go to one place for spe-
cific information on nanotechnology units, such as a chemistry unit,
that they can use in their classes.
The NNIN program has a variety of summer camps for high-school
aged students. What do the students learn at these camps?
Every camp we have provides an introduction to nanotechnology. We
give the kids an understanding of what nano is and where it is going.
Every camp has information on education and career opportunities. So,
kids get an idea what the field is, where it is going, and what jobs will
be available. All the camps bring the kids into some kind of laboratory
facility. At Georgia Tech, they visit at least three research laboratories
learning about what the researchers are doing in their own labs. Students
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The University of Michigan conducts a nanoelectronics camp for students.

In this photo, students are working with a professor in a cleanroom envi-
ronment. (Courtesy National Nanotechnology Infrastructure Network)
also visit a cleanroom facility to learn how it is used in nanotechnology. At

some camps, students can do microchip preparation using a cleanroom.
The camps provide a lot of exposure in the nanotechnology field.
Do students at these camps have access to different kinds
of electron microscopes?
Yes, at some camps. We are moving into this area of developing ways
for students to access Atomic Force Microscopes and Scanning Electron
Microscopes. Some groups at the University of California, Santa Barbara,
have been able to remotely use the AFM at Penn State.
We had a group of high school students come in and use our AFM
and our SEM microscopes at Georgia Tech. These microscopes allowed
the students to go down and look at miniscule amounts of matter. We
are also looking at ways to use remote access to these microscopes, too.
Penn State has an animation of how a scanning electron microscope
is used. This animation, Amazing Creatures with Nanoscale Features, is
an introduction to microscopy, scale, and applications of nanoscale
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properties. It introduces some of the tools that are used by scien-

tists to visualize samples that are smaller than what we can see with
our eyes. This activity is available for use via the Center’s Web site at
http://www.cneu.psu.edu/edToolsActivities.html.
I learned that one college had a nanotechnology career day and it
attracted more than 300 school-age students. The NNIN also has
career days. What are some of the advantages for students to attend
these kinds of career day events?
We do something called Nanoinfusion at Georgia Tech. This event is
pretty much like a career day. At one of these events, we had about 375
eighth grade students split between 2 days for about 4 hours each day.
The activities of a nano career day, or field trip to a facility, depends on
which facility they visit and the duration of the visit. Typically there are
hands-on activities and demonstrations, lectures, and tours. The advan-
tage of all these nano career days is that it gets kids on a college campus,
and for many, to see a college campus for the first time. While on campus,
the students can interact with graduate students and faculty members.
To excite students, the career day should have a tie-in with something
that has real-world applications which is what we strive to provide our
visitors.
Diana Palma, the Assistant NNIN Education Coordinator at Georgia
Tech, is the one who developed and organized Nanoinfusion. She can
keep 150–175 kids busy during a 3–4 hour visit. The students visit our
facility and they go to a series of stations that are set up where they get
to see either a demonstration or do a hands-on activity at each station.
Then they move on in groups to experience different things, such as a
cleanroom tour or a laboratory tour. For the first Nanoinfusion, we had
15 research labs on campus participate and 70 volunteers to assist the
students. At the end, we may have them create an advertising piece or
commercial based on a nanotechnology product that they have seen
or a possible product from someone’s research. They get exposed to a
whole range of things during their visit.
NNIN has featured on its Web site a number of features that are
directed to students and teachers. A partial list includes
Nanotechnology Careers, Nanotechnology Tools, Nanotechnology
Products, Seeing Nanostructures and even a children’s science
magazine called Nanooze. Is the NNIN planning to add any additional
educational topics?
We are planning on a few more features and to provide additional nan-
otechnology educational units on the NNIN Web site for K-12 teachers.
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What would your advice be for high school students who wish to
explore a career in nanotechnology?
At the high school level, students need to take a minimum of 3 years of
science and mathematics. They need to explore some of the career and
educational options that are available in this field. I wish more states
would duplicate the program at Penn State. Penn State has a special
program where students can obtain a two-year degree in nanotechnology
(at a local community college with a capstone semester at Penn State)
and then go on to a 4-year program if they want to pursue further
education. Students should know that they do not need to have a Ph.D.
degree to work in the field of nanotechnology research. As with any
field, there are all kinds of opportunities. At the technical level, they
could be maintaining vacuum pumps in a lab or learning how to do
different fabrication processes in the cleanroom. You can be a lawyer
and be involved with nanotechnology perhaps as a patent lawyer. You
can be a graphic artist or a businessperson on the entrepreneurial side.
But you need to have some basic understanding of the interactions of
all the sciences and engineering. One of the units we have up on our
Web site, which is our nanoproducts unit, includes an extension activity
on careers. The unit provides the students with a number of sites they
can visit to explore career opportunities. We eventually plan to have on
our Web site a whole unit on exploring nanotechnology careers.
You can visit the NNIN Web site at: http://www.nnin.org
NATIONAL SCIENCE TEACHERS ASSOCIATION

AND EXPLORAVISION
Each year, several elementary, middle school, and high schools have
entered science projects in a program called ExploraVision, which is
sponsored by the Toshiba Corporation and the National Science Teach-
ers Association (NSTA). The ExploraVision is designed for K–12 stu-
dents of all interest, skill, and ability levels. ExploraVision encourages
students to create and explore a vision of future technology by combin-
ing their imaginations with the tools of science.
Since 1992, more than 200,000 students from across the United States
and Canada have competed in ExploraVision. For many of the partic-
ipants ExploraVision can be the beginning of a lifelong adventure in
science, as students develop higher-order thinking skills and learn to
think about their role in the future.
Each year there are several schools that explore a future vision of
nanotechnology. As an example, in Chapter 5, the author interviewed
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students who were winners of the ExploraVision Program. There have

been other ExploraVision nanotechnology winners over the past years.
Here is a short list of some of those schools that participated in the
ExploraVision program.
ExploraVision Project
The Tumor-nator, Mr. Paul Octavio Boubion. Mr. Paul Octavio
Boubion is an eighth-grade physical science teacher at the Carl H. Lor-
beer Middle School, in Diamond Bar, California. I asked Mr. Boubion
to comment on his experiences in the nanotechnology field and the
ExploraVision program. Here is what he had to say.
I got interested nanotechnology from my brother-in-law, Timothy Ryan, PhD.

who is a research scientist at Cornell University. Dr. Ryan is a neurophysicist
and has inspired me with his research and discoveries. He is a wealth of
information about a wide variety of scientific topics and my “lifeline” when I
have a question.
I have also been inspired by the creative topics my students have re-
searched for Toshiba/NSTA ExploraVision contest each year. The best
entries my students have submitted in the past seem to be nanotech
related.
The “Tumor-nator” was a Toshiba/NSTA ExploraVision project and was
one of the main inspirations as a teacher. The four 8th graders worked on
this project for months and I provided as much help as I could. The students
learned more about science through their research than all they learned in
middle school.
The students project, Tumor-nator, received a Toshiba/NSTA ExploraVi-
sion Honorable Mention in 2005. The tumor-nator targets malignant tumors
in the body and repairs the P53 gene in the DNA of cancer cells. The P53 gene
triggers cell death in the life cycle of a healthy cell. Then, T-cells can work to re-
move the cells using the body’s own natural processes. The Tumor-nator treat-
ment also contains, interferon, which stimulates T-cell production in the body.
My advice for students who want to explore a career in nanotechnology
is to take their laboratory training very seriously so they are prepared to do
science, not merely earn a grade.
You can contact Mr. Boubion at this email: paul.boubion@pusd.org
ExploraVision Project: Appy-Bot, Norma L. Gentner

Mrs. Norma L. Gentner is an Enrichment Teacher (K-5) at Heritage
Heights Elementary, Sweet Home Central School District, Amherst, New
York. Mrs. Gentner’s team of fifth-grade students took second place
in the Nationals as ExploraVision winners. I asked Mrs. Gentner to
comment on her experiences in the nanotechnology field and about
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The “Tumor-nator” was a Toshiba/NSTA ExploraVision project done by

eighth-grade students in Diamond Bar, California. Their teacher is Paul
Boubion. The Tumor-nator targets malignant tumors in the body and repairs
the P53 gene in the DNA of cancer cells. (Courtesy Paul Boubion)
the award-winning ExploraVision project, the Appy-Bot. The following

includes her comments,
The Appy-Bot will eliminate the need for appendectomies in the future by
using nanotechnology to repair a patient’s appendix.
Normally, nanotechnology wouldn’t be a science studied at the elementary
school level, but the national science competition, ExploraVision provides
a forum that challenges students and teachers to go beyond the classroom
curriculum.
During the 2004–2005 school year, a team of three fifth graders wanted to
create a future technology that would eliminate the need for appendectomies.
The Pediatric Surgeon who performed an appendectomy on one of the team
members came in and shared what was happening to the appendix before
surgery. He also encouraged the team to do some research on nanobots. They
went on-line and learned about nanobots and nanotechnology.
The next part of the design process took them to the University of Buf-
falo where they met with professors in Chemical and Biological Engineering.
One professor felt that the team’s initial concept for the Appy-Bot had too
many functions for it to be nano-sized and encouraged them to create micro-
machines. The competition required them to look 20 years into the future,
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Norma L. Gentner with her team of fifth grade students who were Second
Place ExploraVision winners. Their nanotechnology project was called, The
Appy-Bot, which eliminates the need for appendectomies in the future by
using nanotechnology to repair a patient’s appendix. (Courtesy Norma L.
Gentner)
and they felt that micro-machines were not futuristic enough. They also dis-
covered that the 2020s were going to be the “Golden Age of Nanobots,” which
would be the perfect time to launch their idea. The team left that professor’s
office disheartened, but ran into another professor from that department Mrs.
Gentner had used before. He took them to a conference room and “really”
helped them to understand through analogies and some math calculations
just how small a nano was. Their project went through its final revision, and
became a fleet of millions to billions of nanobots in a gel cap someone would
swallow. There would be two types of Appy-Bots. One type would suck in
surrounding liquids, flushing out the obstruction to the appendix, while the
other would pick away at it.
The team took 2nd Place in the Nationals. National Winners and their
Web sites/projects are posted on the ExploraVision Web site (http://www.
exploravision.org). Or, you can go directly to the team’s Web site (http://
www.exploravision.org/past-winners/winners-2005.php). Just scroll down the
page until you get to “The Appy-Bot,” and click on “View winning Web site.”
Again, you asked how important nanotechnology is in the subject I teach.
As you can see, it was extremely rewarding in its application to ExploraVision
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challenges, and future science. Due to the abstract nature of nano science
though, not all students at the elementary level would be as ready as this
team was in its application. Plus, most of the science taught at this level
concerns itself with present science, and doesn’t usually take a problem-solving
approach. This was real-life application!
I think that the possibilities of what nanotechnology can do for medicine
in the future and people in general are truly exciting. But, we have to take
a different approach to science in elementary schools, where students are
applying what they learn in the classroom to authentic questions/problems.
You can go to their Web site at http://dev.nsta.org/evwebs/531/
Other Toshiba/NSTA ExploraVision Winners

La Jolla, California
The La Jolla High School in La Jolla, California, developed The
Nanoclotterator. The nanoclotterator is an injectable blood-clot eating
nanobot designed like the T4 bacteriophage virus. The NCR would be
about 4 microns in size—small enough to fit within the tiniest cap-
illaries, yet large enough to keep from passing through blood vessel
walls. A specially designed “mouth” would extend from the NCR cap-
sule, biting out and removing chunks of a blood clot. The school was
a second place ExploraVision winner in 2006. The project Web site is
http://dev.nsta.org/evwebs/3314/
St. Louis, Missouri

Middle School students at the John Burroughs School, St. Louis, Mis-
souri, developed a way to help travelers overcome airline jet lag and
students can study all night. The name of their project was called the
Body Clock Band. A nanocomputer imbedded in the wristwatch-like de-
vice dispenses sleep-inducing or “stayawake” pharmaceuticals through
the skin according to user-
Did you know? programmed sleep cycles.
The Toshiba Corporation, based in Tokyo, is a diver- Drugs are nonhabit forming
sified manufacturer and marketer of advanced elec- and safeguard excessive use.
tronic and electrical products, communications You can go to the Explo-
equipment, power systems, industrial and social in- raVision Web site to find
frastructure systems, and household appliances. other Toshiba/NSTA win-
ners in a variety of fields be-
sides nanotechnology.
COLLEGES MOTIVATE STUDENTS IN NANOTECHNOLOGY

Many universities and colleges sponsor a variety of workshops,
career days, field trips, laboratory and cleanroom visits, hands-on
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nanotechnology activities, and Web sites to motivate students in science

and nanotechnology.
NanoDay at Northwestern
The Northwestern University-Nanoscale Science and Engineering
Center sponsors a NanoDay at their campus. The mission of the NWU-
NSEC is to foster a lifelong interest in science and technology by teach-
ing people of all ages about the nanoworld. Many schools have come
to Northwestern to participate in “NanoDay.” It is a half-day of activ-
ities designed to spark student interest in nanoscience and technol-
ogy. The students watch a variety of demonstrations led by professors.
The students also participated in a hands-on activity: building model
LEGOR atomic force microscopes (AFMs). At the end of the activities,
each student received a take-home “Try This!” Nanokit developed by
the University of Wisconsin-Madison. For more information contact:
www.nsec.northwestern.edu
Northwestern University and Materials World Modules
Materials World Modules is a National Science Foundation (NSF)
funded inquiry-based science and technology educational program
based at Northwestern University.
The program is dedicated to helping teachers enhance their science
curriculum and excite their students about science and the world we
live in. The Materials World Modules (MWM) Program has produced a
series of interdisciplinary modules based on topics in materials science,
including Composites, Ceramics, Concrete, Biosensors, Biodegradable
Materials, Smart Sensors, Polymers, Food Packaging, and Sports Ma-
terials. The modules are designed for use in middle and high school
science, technology, and math classes. Over 9,000 students in schools
nationwide have also used them. For more information, go to Web site:
http://www.materialsworldmodules.org/aboutmwm.htm
You may be interested in seeing a video: Inside MWM: An Interview
with Lake Forest Science Teacher Kate Heroux. In this interview with
science teacher Kate Heroux, Professor Robert Chang, the developer
of MWM, discusses the successes and challenges of implementing the
Materials World Modules in high school. To see the video go to: http://
www.materialsworldmodules.org/videocenter/MWMinterview kh.htm
Penn State Nanotech Camps
Penn State offers programs for high school students interested in
learning more about nanofabrication. These include one-day experi-
ences during the school year, and the extremely popular, three-day
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Nanotech Camps during the summer months. Throughout the year,

students in grade 7 and above are invited to attend 1-day camps at
University Park to receive an introduction to nanotechnology. For stu-
dents in ninth grade and above, three-day summer nano camps offer
more in-depth opportunities for looking into careers, education, and
the details of nanotechnology fabrication and application. Penn State
offers students certificates or degrees in Nanofabrication Manufactur-
ing Technology (NMT). You can also request a free copy of Careers in
Nanotechnology Information Video at www.cneu.psu.edu
Rice University: The NanoKidsTM

The NanoKidsTM is an educational outreach program, headed by
Dr. James M. Tour, Chao Professor of Chemistry and Director of the Car-
bon Nanotechnology Laboratory at Rice University. The NanoKids pro-
gram is dedicated to increasing public knowledge of the nanoscale world
and the emerging molecular research and technology that is rapidly ex-
panding internationally. Some of the goals in the program are to:
r significantly increase students’ comprehension of chemistry, physics, bi-

ology, and materials science at the molecular level;
r provide teachers with conceptual tools to teach nanoscale science and
emerging molecular technology; and to
r demonstrate that art and science can combine to facilitate learning for
students with diverse learning styles and interests.
For more information about NanoKids go to: http://cohesion.rice.

edu/naturalsciences/nanokids/
University of California, Santa Barbara: Chip Camp

The University of California offers a program called Nanotech Chip
Camps for small groups of high school students. The Nanotech Chip
Camp at UCSB pairs high school students with graduate student mentors
in a cleanroom laboratory and teaches them nanofabrication processes.
On the first day, students make a micro resistor. On the second day,
students have a guided exploration of parameters and do an analysis.
Students also attend talk(s) provided by faculty member(s) about various
aspects of nanotechnology. Students will then be able to share what they
have learned through this experience via their school or county science
fair. By using scientific inquiry, students will have a better understanding
of the intricacies of nanofabrication processes and how these processes
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relate to other pure and applied sciences, as well as the world around
them.
The Chip Camp provides students (and the participating teacher)
with an intensive two-day laboratory experience that enables students to:
r gain a better understanding of integrated circuit systems;

r understand how the order of steps used in processing affects the outcome;
r develop procedures which compare change with constancy;
r model the processes and explain it to someone else; and
r organize what they have learned into a comprehensive display.
For more information about Chip Camps write to berenstein@

ece.ucsb.edu
College of Nanoscale Science and Engineering (CNSE),

University of Albany
The College of Nanoscale and Engineering (CNSE) has been assist-
ing school districts in the implementation of programs that encourage
science awareness in grades K-12 and help build the science and tech-
nology workforce of the future.
In October 2006, CNSE announced the $500,000 “Nano High” initia-
tive program. The mission of this pilot program is between CNSE and
the City School District of Albany. The goal is to develop and implement
innovative science and engineering educational programs between Al-
bany High School and CNSE. Under a pilot program, NanoHigh will
focus on school-to-work activities designed to train Albany High School
students in creative nanoscience and nanoengineering concepts. The
program will also help equip them with the skills necessary to pursue
advanced educational opportunities in the emerging field of nanotech-
nology. For more information go to: http://www.albanynanotech.org/
Cornell University
Cornell University sponsors a program called Main Street Science.
Main Street Science serves the needs of the K-12 students and ad-
vances the science literacy of the general public through the de-
velopment of hands-on science, technology, engineering, and math
(STEM) activities. Main Street Science provides lesson plans on can-
tilevers, diatoms, microscopy and scale, motors, sunprint paper and
photolithography, sodium alginate polymers, and chromatography. Go
to: http://www.nbtc.cornell.edu/mainstreetscience/index2.html
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The University of Wisconsin-Madison

The University of Wisconsin-Madison Materials Research Science
and Engineering Center (MRSEC) Interdisciplinary Education Group
(IEG): uses examples of nanotechnology and advanced materials to
explore science and engineering concepts. The center provides K-12
curriculum kits and activities, programs, exhibits, and videos. They even
have a slide-show library.
You can reach their Web site at: http://www.mrsec.wisc.edu/edetc/
modules/index.html
Arizona State University

The Arizona State University sponsors a program called SPM - LIVE!
The program gives educators and researchers the opportunity to per-
form Scanning Probe Microscopy (SPM) experiments, through the In-
ternet with image broadcasting and control of the instrument on a
real-time basis. They offer a list of modules that include size and scale,
and scanning probe microscopy, the Allotropes of carbon and engi-
neered materials. For more information send an email: invsee@asu.
edu.
North Carolina State University and the University of North Carolina,

Chapel Hill
The universities provide a unique software program where you can
explore characteristics of viruses with the use of atomic force microscopy.
Your challenge in the software program is to figure out what is making
a puppy ill. You observe a phage invading a bacterium, learn about
how viruses take over a cell and multiply, and examine different virus
structures. The program also includes the history of virology research.
This program is available free to educators and students for use in
instructional contexts. For more information go to: http://ced.ncsu.
edu/nanoscale/materials.htm
SRI International: NanoSense

As you learned in Chapter 6, The SRI International provides a pro-
gram called NanoSense. Working closely with chemists, physicists, edu-
cators, and nanoscientists, the NanoSense team is creating, classroom
testing, and disseminating a number of curriculum units to help high
school students understand science concepts that account for nanoscale
phenomena and integrate these concepts with core scientific ideas in
traditional curricula.
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NanoSense is led by Co-Principal Investigators, Patricia Schank and

Tina Stanford at the Center for Technology in Learning. SRI Inter-
national is an independent, nonprofit research institute conducting
client-sponsored research and development for government agencies,
commercial businesses, foundations, and other organizations.
For more information about Nanosense, or if you have questions or
comments, contact us at: nanosense-contact @ ctl.sri.com
NANOTECHNOLOGY IN MUSEUMS AND TRAVELING EXHIBITS

Museums also are developing exhibits, demonstrations, and activities
for people of all ages to learn about the field. The Boston Museum
of Science offers programs, media, and exhibits about recent research
in nanoscale science and nanomedicine. Both online and in the Ex-
hibit Halls, the Museum is an information clearinghouse for this emerg-
ing field, utilizing podcasts, cablecasts, live demonstrations, and special
events to bring visitors the latest nanotech information.
The museum offers live presentations that have included Nano-Sized
Factories of the Future, Nanotech Today, and Nanoparticles for Cancer
Drug Discovery. Contact: http://www.mos.org/topics/cst
Making Things Smaller

Purdue University’s Department of Physics and the School of Elec-
trical and Computer Engineering, in conjunction with the Children’s
Museum of Oak Ridge, offers an exhibit called “Nanotechnology: The
Science of Making Things Smaller.” In the exhibit, Youngsters will have
the opportunity to learn firsthand about nanotechnology through video
animations, a wall of nano-art, hands-on activities, posters, and a LEGOR
scanning probe microscope. In fact, the first stop in the exhibit for
many visitors is the LEGOR working model of a scanning probe micro-
scope. The LEGOR model “sees” by probing objects with a small, sharp
tip. By slowly touching the LEGO R
model surface with a tip, a three-
dimensional image can be generated and displayed on a computer.
It’s a Nano World and Too Small to See Exhibits

Cornell University has a traveling nanotech exhibit called, It’s a Nano
World. Over the last 3 years, elementary school children all over the
United States have been learning about incomprehensibly tiny things by
walking through and playing with very large and colorful things in a trav-
eling science museum exhibition. The exhibition was created by Cornell
University’s National Science Foundation (NSF)-funded Nanobiotech-
nology Center (NBTC) in partnership with the Sciencenter, Ithaca’s
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Sciencenter has a traveling nanotech exhibit called It’s a Nano World and
another one called Too Small To See. Attending the exhibits, school-aged
children have been learning about tiny things by walking through and
playing with very large and colorful objects in a traveling science museum
exhibition. In this photo, a visitor at the exhibit is discovering that
molecules are too small to see, but not too small to smell. (Courtesy Gary
Hodges and the Sciencenter, Ithaca, NY)
hands-on science museum, and Painted Universe, a local design firm.

The focus of the exhibit, aimed at 5- to 8-year-olds and their parents, is
to explain concepts of size and scale, showing children that many things
in the world are too small to be seen with the naked eye.
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It’s a Nano World exhibit first opened at the Sciencenter in 2003.

Since then the exhibit has traveled to science museums in Ohio, South
Carolina, Louisiana, Michigan, Virginia, and Texas. An estimated 3 mil-
lion people have seen the exhibit.
Another exhibit developed by the
same group at Cornell is called, “Too
Small to See,” This exhibit is aimed
at middle school students to explain
how nanotechnologists create and
use devices on a molecular scale.
The exhibit, aimed at 8- to 13-year-
olds, helps visitors view the world at
the atomic scale and to better under-
stand just how small a nanometer is.
Lawrence Hall of Science

Established in 1968, at the Uni-
versity of California, at Berkeley, in
honor of Ernest O. Lawrence, the
Renee DeWald is a chemistry teacher at the
Lawrence Hall of Science provides Evanston Township High School, Evanston
an online site, called the Nanozon. IL. Her high school team researched and
At this site you can do a variety of developed a project titled, Fighting Can-
activities such as solving nanopuz- cer with Nano-Shells, that in the future,
zles, watching a nanovideo, make nano-shells would be used as one of the ma-
a nanometer ruler, and even ask jor treatments for cancerous tumor cells.
Nanobrain a question such as how (Courtesy Renee DeWald )
tall is a cupcake or how small is a
molecule. http://nanozone.org/
HIGH SCHOOL PROGRAMS IN NANOTECHNOLOGY

The Future is N.E.A.R. program at North Penn High School in Lans-
dale, Pennsylvania, offers its students an opportunity to gain 21st cen-
tury skills that will help prepare them to become successful leaders in
the new, technological global society. The program introduces the fun-
damentals of nanotechnology, engineering research, and higher-level
thinking and application of knowledge to high school students while
cultivating their interest in engineering, problem solving, and life-long
learning. Some of the main goals of The Future is N.E.A.R. project are
to inform and educate students about nanotechnology, the present and
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future applications of nanotechnology and to improve science, tech-

nology, engineering, and mathematical (STEM) knowledge and skills
utilizing a collaborative, real-world research environment.
NANOTECHNOLOGY INFORMATION AND SITES FOR TEACHERS

The Nanoscale Informal Science Education (NISE) Network brings
researchers and informal science educators together to inform the pub-
lic about nanoscience and technology. The network includes an online
resource center that features careers in nano and even activities de-
signed for students who have an understanding of atoms and molecules
to help them learn the applications of nanotechnology in everyday life.
The National Center for Learning and Teaching in Nanoscale Science
and Engineering (NCLT) is the first national center for learning and
teaching of nanoscale science and engineering education in the United
States.
The mission of NCLT is to develop the next generation of leaders in
NSE teaching and learning, with an emphasis on NSEE capacity build-
ing, providing a strong impact on national STEM education.
The NCLT provides Professional Development Opportunities for 7–12
grade science teachers interested in learning more about Nanoscience
and how to incorporate this cutting-edge research into the classroom.
This program offers science teachers opportunities to work with
nanoscience researchers, science educators, and learning tool experts
in content development and laboratory experiments. For more infor-
mation about this program: http://www.nclt.us/pd activities.htm
With support from the National Science Foundation, the NanoScale
Science Education Research Group has been investigating how students
learn about nanotechnology and nanoscale science. This research in-
cludes studies of elementary, middle, high school, undergraduate, and
graduate students. For more information about this program and a list-
ing of studies go to: http://ced.ncsu.edu/nanoscale/materials.htm
NANO INTERVIEW: MS. RENEE DEWALD, TOSHIBA/NSTA

EXPLORAVISION, FIGHTING CANCER WITH NANO-SHELLS
Renee DeWald is a chemistry teacher at the Evanston Township High
School, Evanston, Illinois. The high school team researched and de-
veloped a project titled, Fighting Cancer with Nano-Shells, that in the
future, nano-shells would be used as one of the major treatments for
cancerous tumor cells. The ExploraVision project, Fighting Cancer with
Nano-Shells, earned an honorable mention in 2006.
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How did you get interested nanotechnology?

For many years, I have worked with Northwestern University Professor
Robert Chang on the Materials Worlds Modules curriculum program.
When NU became a partner in the first national center for learning and
teaching of nanoscale science and engineering education in the United
States (NCLT), I became interested in nanotechnology and facilitated
summer professional development opportunities for high school teach-
ers in nanoscience.
Describe some of your teaching experience in developing the
nanotechnology project.
For many years, I have had students enter the Toshiba ExploraVision
competition. Working in groups to simulate research and development
teams, students select a current technology and after researching its
history and present, creatively project what the technology will look
like in 20 years. They predict what breakthroughs will be needed to
realize the vision as well as examining the possible positive and negative
consequences of the new technology.
Each year, several of my student teams would earn honorable mention
awards, and all of these winning projects incorporated nanotechnology
in the vision. So more recently, I started actively teaching a nanotechnol-
ogy unit before the project and encouraged all students to use nanotech-
nology concepts in their ExploraVision papers. The project Fighting
Cancer with Nano-Shells earned an honorable mention in 2006.
How important is the field of nanotechnology in the subject you teach?
I think nanotechnology has the potential of teaching students the how
of science. Often we tell students what we know without telling them how
we know. In the nanoscience unit that I teach, students build a model
of an atomic force microscope after learning about atomic structure.
What advice would you give students who want to explore a career
in nanotechnology?
I would tell them that nanotechnology is the future of science and that
the worldwide need for nanotechnology workers is expected to reach 2
million by 2015.
Can you provide a Web site or recommend a one where our readers
would be able to access more information about your project work?
Yes, I can. Here are a few of them.
www.exploravsion.org has information on the contest as well as Web
sites of past winning papers. Here is another Web site:
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http://www.nclt.us is the Web site for the NCLT and a valuable nan-
otechnology resource.
NANO ACTIVITY: NANOTECHNOLOGY CONSUMER PRODUCTS

The National Nanotechnology Infrastructure Network (NNIN) pro-
vides a Web site titled, Nanotechnology Educational Resources and Activ-
ities for K-12 students and teachers. The Web site provides Nanoproducts
Guides, Worksheets, Teacher Guides, and Activity Pages.
Since a growing number of consumer products employ nanotechnol-
ogy, the NNIN has assembled a set of activity sheets describing some
common and not so common applications of nanotechnology that stu-
dents can relate to. In general, these products take advantage of some
unique property of materials at the nanoscale to provide improved func-
tionality. All the following guides and worksheets are for the following
consumer nanotechology products. Some of the consumer product ac-
tivities include:
r Nanofilm Lens Cleaner- Clarity Fog Eliminator

r Eagle One Nanowax
r Kodak Ultima Picture Paper
r NDMX Golf Balls
r Stain Free “Nano-pants”
r Wilson Double Core Tennis Balls
r Shock Doctor “Hotbed” Insoles
r Nanotech Tennis Racket
r Pilkington Self-Cleaning Glass
Go to: http://www.nnin.org/nnin k12nanotechproducts.html
READING MATERIALS
Brezina, Corona. Careers in Nanotechnology. New York: Rosen Publishing Group, 2007.
Drexler, Eric K., Christine Peterson, and Gayle Pergamit. Unbounding the Future. New
York: William Morrow and Company, Inc., 1991.
Feynman, Richard P. The Meaning of it All: Thoughts of a Citizen-Scientist. New York:
Perseus Books, 1998.
Books, 2005.
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VIDEOS
Vega Science Trust, England: Videos on basics of nanotechnology and how
it will change the world. http://www.vega.org.uk/series/tnbt/nanotechnology/
index.php
Work Force Preparation. Are We Prepared to Get Into the Nanotechnology Work-
Penn State University. Amazing Creatures with Nanoscale Features. This animation is
an introduction to microscopy, scale, and applications of nanoscale properties. It
introduces some of the tools that are used by scientists to visualize samples that are
smaller than what we can see with our eyes. This activity is available for use via the
Center Web site at http://www.cneu.psu.edu/edToolsActivities.html
N is for Nanotechnology. NISE Network. “N” is for Nanotechnology” is a 30-minute
documentary exploring the hypes, hopes, and facts of this fascinating field as seen
through the eyes of award-winning scientists, industry leaders, and writers. http://
www.knhproductions.ca/nisnano/trailer.html
Web casts. Presentation. University of Texas, Nanotechnology
“Nanoscience: Big Science at Tiny Scales” Join Dr. Paul Barbara for an exploration of
what nanotechnology is and can be, and how researchers at the University of Texas
are helping to shape our nanotechnology future. ESI http://streamer.cit.utexas.edu:
16080/esi/webcast
WEB SITES
Harvard University: Includes monthly cable casting of NanoTech News via New
England Cable News, NanoScale Science & Engineering Presentations, NSEC guest
researcher appearances, multimedia research updates, educational collaboration
& dissemination activities, Teacher Programs, outreach to students & knowledge
transfer to public. http://www.nsec.harvard.edu/education.htm
University of California at Berkeley: Includes researcher presentations, interac-
tive demos and facilitated activities, physical/virtual contextual bridge exhibits, in-
sights into research, human map of research and talking techno heads. http://
scienceview.berkeley.edu/wor/Exhibits.html and http://scienceview.berkeley.edu/
wor/Partners.htm
University of Chicago: Includes details on research opportunities for undergrad-
uates and high school students, demos for elementary school kids and intern-
ships for high school students. Also, includes videos like “Sights & Sounds of Sci-
ence,” “DragonflyTV,” etc. Talks about museum collaborations & science camps.
http://mrsec.uchicago.edu/outreach/
SOMETHING TO DO
Like a mystery? Solve the Case of the Green Milk by going to The Lawrence Hall of
Science, Nanozone site. http://nanozone.org/what.htm
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GGBD159APXA GR3880/Mongillo Top Margin: 5/8in Gutter Margin: 3/4in September 25, 2007 16:7
Appendix A
Bibliography
Atkinson, William Illsey. Nanocosm: Nanotechnology and the Big Changes Coming from the
Inconceivably Small. New York: AMACOM/American Management Association,
2003.
Berube, David M. Nano-Hype: The Truth behind the Nanotechnology Buzz. Amherst, NY:
Prometheus Books, 2005.
Brezina, Corona. Careers in Nanotechnology. New York: Rosen Publishing Group,
2007.
Committee on Implications (author). Implications of Emerging Micro- and Nanotech-
nologies. Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 2002.
Crandall, B.C. Nanotechnology: Molecular Speculations on Global Abundance. Cambridge,
MA: The MIT Press, 1996.
Crandall, B.C., and James Lewis (Ed.). Nanotechnology: Research and Perspectives. Cam-
bridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1992.
Di Ventra, Massimiliano, and Stephane Evoy (Eds.). Introduction to Nanoscale Science
and Technology. New York: Springer, 2004.
New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1992.
———. Engines of Creation. Garden City, NY: Anchor Press, 1987.
Drexler, Eric K., Christine Peterson, and Gayle Pergamit. Unbounding the Future. New
York: William Morrow and Company, Inc., 1991.
Feynman, Richard P. The Character of Physical Law, The 1964 Messenger Lectures.
Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1967.
———. Six Easy Pieces: Essentials of Physics Explained by Its Most Brilliant Teacher. New
York: Perseus Books, 1998.
———. Six Not So Easy Pieces: Einstein’s Relativity, Symmetry and Space-Time. Reading,
MA: Addison Wesley, 1997.
———. The Meaning of it All: Thoughts of a Citizen-Scientist. New York: Perseus Books,
1998.
Fishbine, Glenn. The Investor’s Guide to Nanotechnology & Micromachines. New York:
John Wiley & Sons, 2001.
Foster, Lynn E. Nanotechnology: Science, Innovation, and Opportunity. Upper Saddle
River, NJ:Prentice Hall, 2005.
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236 Appendix A
Fouke, Janie (Ed.). Engineering Tomorrow: Today’s Technology Experts Envision the Next
Century. Piscataway, NJ: IEEE Press, 2000.
Freitas, Jr., Robert A, and Ralph C. Merkle. Kinematic Self-Replicating Machines. Austin,
TX: Landes Bioscience, 2004.
Freitas, Jr., Robert A. Nanomedicine: Basic Capabilities, Vol. 1. Austin, TX: Landes
Bioscience, 1999.
Fujimasa, Iwao. Micromachines: A New Era in Mechanical Engineering. Oxford, NY:
Oxford University Press, 1996.
2004.
Hall, J. Storrs. Nanofuture: What’s Next for Nanotechnology. Amherst, NY: Prometheus
Books, 2005.
Hamakawa, Yoshihiro. Thin-Film Solar Cells. New York: Springer-Verlag, 2004.
Imry, Yoseph. Introduction to Mesoscopic Physics. Oxford, NY: Oxford University Press,
2002.
Johnson, Rebecca, L. Nanotechnology (Cool Science). Minneapolis, MN: Lerner Publi-
cations, 2005.
Jones, R.L. Soft Machines: Nanotechnology and Life. Oxford, UK: Oxford University
Press, 2004.
Jones, M. Gail, Michael R. Falvo, Amy R. Taylor, and Bethany P. Broadwell. Nanoscale
Science. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press, 2007.
Karn, Barbara, Vicki Colvin, Paul Alivasatos, and Tina Masciangioli (Eds.). Nan-
otechnology and the Environment. Washington, DC: American Chemical Society,
2004.
Krummenacker, Markus, and James J. Lewis. Prospects in Nanotechnology: Toward Molec-
ular Manufacturing. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1995.
Luryi, Serge, and Jimmy Xu. Future Trends in Microelectronics: Reflections on the Road to
Nanotechnology. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1996.
Artificial Intelligence will Transform Our World. Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books,
2002.
National Academy Press (author). Small Wonders, Endless Frontiers: A Review of the
National Nanotechnology Initiative. Washington, DC: National Academy Press,
2002.
John Wiley & Sons, Wiley-Interscience, 2003.
Ratner, Daniel, and Mark A. Ratner. Nanotechnology and Homeland Security New Weapons
for New Wars. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2003.
Regis, Edward. Nano: The Emerging Science of Nanotechnology. Boston, MA: Little Brown
& Co., 1996.
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Appendix A 237
———. Nano! The True Story of Nanotechnology—the Astonishing New Science That Will
Transform the World. London, United Kingdom: Transworld Publishers Ltd.,
1997.
Rietman, Edward A. Molecular Engineering of Nanosystems Series: Biological and Medical
Physics, Biomedical Engineering. New York: Springer, 2001.
Roco, Mihail C., and William Sims Bainbridge. Societal Implications of Nanoscience and
Nanotechnology. Boston, MA: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2001.
———. (Eds.). Converging Technologies for Improving Human Performance: Nanotechnol-
ogy, Biotechnology, Information Technology and Cognitive Science. New York: Springer,
2004.
Sargent, Ted. The Dance of the Molecules: How Nanotechnology is Changing Our Lives.
New York: Thunder’s Mouth Press, 2006.
Schulte, Jurgen (Ed.). Nanotechnology: Global Strategies, Industry Trends and Applica-
tions. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2005.
———. (author). Understanding Nanotechnology. New York: Grand Central Publishing,
2002.
Shelley, Toby. Nanotechnology: New Promises, New Dangers (Global Issues). London, UK:
Zed Books, 2006.
Smalley, R.E. Carbon Nanotubes: Synthesis, Structure, Properties and Applications. New
York: Springer, 2001.
Uldrich, Jack. Investing in Nanotechnology: Thank Small. Win Big. Cincinnati, OH:
F + W Publications, 2006.
Uldrich, Jack, and Deb Newberry. Next Big Thing Is Really Small: How Nanotechnology
Will Change the Future of Your Business. New York: Crown Publishing Group, 2003.
Wiesner, Mark, and Jean-Yves Bottero. Environmental Nanotechnology. New York.
McGraw Hill Professional Publishing, 2007.
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GGBD159APXB GR3880/Mongillo Top Margin: 5/8in Gutter Margin: 3/4in September 25, 2007 16:8
Appendix B
Companies in
Nanotechnology
Research and
Development
AccuFlex
R
Evolution Golf Shaft by AccuflexR
: http://www.accuflexgolf Designers
and manufacturers of a new nanoparticle golf shaft. http://www.accuflexgolf.com
Advanced Magnetics: http://www.advancedmagnetics.com/ Advanced Magnetics,
Inc. is a developer of iron oxide nanoparticles used in pharmaceutical products.
Agilent Technologies: http://www.home.agilent.com Agilent Technologies offers a
wide range of high-precision atomic force microscopes (AFM).
Alnis Biosciences, Inc.: http://www.alnis.com Alnis is a drug development company
with a therapeutic technology to treat cancer as well as infectious and inflammatory
diseases.
Altairnano: http://www.altairnano.com/ Altairnano is an industry in the develop-
ment and manufacturing of ceramic nanomaterials.
Angstrom Medica, Inc.: http://www.angstrommedica.com/ Angstrom Medica is a
life-science biomaterials company that implements nanotechnology for orthopedic
applications.
Anpath Group, Inc. formerly EnviroSystems: http://www.envirosi.com/ A company
that develops products designed to prevent infectious diseases without harming the
environment.
Applied Materials, Inc.: http://www.appliedmaterials.com/about/index.html Ap-
plied Materials, Inc. provides, service and software products for the fabrication of
semiconductor chips, flat panels, and solar photovoltaic cells.
Applied Nanoworks: http://www.appliednanoworks.com/ Applied NanoWorks is
a technology company that produces additives for the coatings, plastics, ink, and
adhesives industries.
Arryx Inc.: http://www.arryx.com/about.html Provides technology that uses focused
light that function like microscopic tweezers to grab small objects.
Asia Pacific Fuel Cell Technologies: http://www.apfct.com/ The company is involved
with PEM fuel cell technology.
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Appendix B 239
Aspen Aerogels: http://www.aerogel.com/ A manufacturer of aerogels in easy-to-

apply blankets and fabricated packages, two to eight times more effective than
existing insulations.
BASF, The Chemical Company: http://www.corporate.basf.com Currently produces
several nanoproducts, such as nanoparticle pigments and nanoscale titanium diox-
ide particles.
Bayer: http://www.bayer.com/en/Profile-and-Organization.aspx Bayer is a
research-based, growth-oriented global enterprise with core competencies in
the fields of health care, nutrition, and high-tech materials. Bayer is successfully
exploiting the innovative potential of nanotechnology.
BioDelivery Sciences International: http://www.biodeliverysciences.com A pharma-
ceutical company that has patented drug delivery technologies.
Bell Labs, Alcatel-Lucent: http://www.alcatellucent.com/wps/portal/BellLabs New
Jersey Nanotechnology Consortium (NJNC) is created by the State of New Jersey, the
New Jersey Institute of Technology, and Lucent Technologies to conduct research,
develop nanotechnology prototype devices, and to train more nanotech scientists
and specialists.
BabolatR
NSTM Drive Tennis Racket by Babolat R
: http://www.babolat.com/
english/tennis/technology/index.php?src=tennis The company produces carbon
nanotubes used to stiffen key areas of the racquet head and shaft.
Cabot Corporation: http://w1.cabot-corp.com/controller.jsp?N=21+1000 This
company produces nano-structured and submicron particles that are used in the
production of tires, inks, and plastics.
Carbon Nanotechnologies, Inc.: http://www.cnanotech.com CNI is a producer of
Buckytubes.
Carter Wallace. First Response
R
Home Pregnancy Test by Carter-Wallace
R
: http://
nanopedia.case.edu/NWPage.php?page=pregnancy.tests The home pregnancy test
is an example of how nanoproperties can be used.
Cima Nanotech, Inc.: http://www.cimananotech.com/products.aspx Cima Nan-
oTech manufactures nanomaterials-based products for use in electronics applica-
tions.
CG2 NanoCoatings, Inc.: http://cg2nanocoatings.com NanoCoatings provides in-
novative and practical nanotechnology-based coating solutions.
DayStar: http://www.daystartech.com/ DayStar’s goal is to provide low-cost, high-
volume solar-electric photovoltaic (PV) cells.
Dendritech: http://www.dendritech.com/ The company provides antibody conju-
gates used in an immunoassay for rapid and sensitive detection of markers indicative
of heart attacks.
Dendritic Nanotechnologies, Inc.: http://dnanotech.com/ DNT, Inc. and the Na-
tional Cancer Institute (NCI) have entered into a Small Business Innovation Re-
search (SBIR) contract to develop a new generation of targeted diagnostic and
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240 Appendix B
therapeutic delivery technology for the early detection and treatment of epithelial
ovarian cancer.
DockersR
Go Khaki R
by Dockers R
: http://www.popsci.com/popsci/science/
92a80b4511b84010vgnvcm1000004eecbccdrcrd.html The clothing company offers
pants which promise to keep your legs stain-free using nanotechnology.”
DuPont Titanium Technologies: http://www.titanium.dupont.com/ DuPont has
been a pioneer in titanium dioxide technology for the coatings industry.
Eagle One Nanowax R
by Eagle One: http://www.eagleone.com/pages/products/
product.asp?itemid=1103&cat=5010
NanoWax uses nanotechnology to fill in these scratches and conceal the swirl marks.
Eastman Kodak, Ultima R
Photo Paper by Eastman Kodak
R
Company: http://
nanotechwire.com KODAK Ultima Picture Paper employs ceramic nanoparticles
to resist the effects of heat, humidity, light, and ozone.
Ecologycoatings Liquid Nanotechnology: http://www.ecologycoatings.com The
company uses nano-sized particles of mineral oxides to create waterproof coatings
for paper.
EnviroSystems: http://www.envirosi.com The company’s goal is to produce products
designed to prevent infectious diseases without harming the environment.
Evident Technologies: http://www.evidenttech.com The company develops prod-
ucts based on proprietary quantum dot technology.
eSpin Technologies: http://www.espintechnologies.com/company.htm The com-
pany manufactures Nanofibers used in industries such as aerospace, health care,
and energy storage.
FEI Company: http://fei.com FEI designs and manufactures a wide variety of elec-
tron microscopes and nanotechnology tools and components.
Filtration Technology, Inc.: http://www.filtrationtechnology.com/foodchem.shtml
Filtration Technology, Inc., are filtration and contamination control specialists that
provide cleanroom facilities and air and liquid filtration.
General Motors
R
Automotive Exterior by General Motors
R
Inc.: http://www.
azonano.com
GM is now using about 660,000 pounds of nanocomposite material per year.
Goodweaver: http://www.goodweaver.com/ Goodweaver produces nanosilver an-
tibacterial and deodorant insole that stops itching and prevents athletic foot.
Helix Material Solutions: http://www.helixmaterial.com/ HMS provides single-
walled carbon nanotubes (SWNT) and a variety of multiwalled carbon nanotubes
(MWNT) for applications in electronics, biology, and medicine.
Hewlett Packard: http://www.hpl.hp.com/research/about/nanotechnology.html
Researchers at Hewlett-Packard are focusing on the fabrication of nanometer-scale
structures.
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Appendix B 241
Hitachi High-Technologies Corporation: http://www.hitachi-hitec.com/global/

Hitachi High-Technologies is an integrated organization that develops, manufac-
tures, markets, and services equipment and systems in the emerging field of nan-
otechnology.
Hyperion Catalysis International: http://www.fibrils.com Hyperion Catalysis Inter-
national is a company in carbon nanotube development and commercialization.
IBM Research: http://researchweb.watson.ibm.com/nanoscience/ IBM uses scan-
ning tunneling microscopy (STM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM) as structural
probes, and, along with electron beam lithography, as tools for the modification of
materials at the atomic and nanometer scales.
Innovative Skincare: http://innovativeskincare.com/ Innovative
R
Skincare pro-
duces SPF 20 Sunscreen Powder that provides the ultimate broad-spectrum sun
protection.
Intel: http://www.intel.com/ Develop the first 45nm processor. Intel entered the
nanotechnology era in 2000 when it began volume production of chips with sub-
100nm length transistors.
Isotron: http://www.isotron.net/isotron.php?style=gold The company employs pro-
tective coatings for equipment and decontamination technologies for homeland
security, industrial, and military applications.
Kereos Targeted Therapeutics and Molecular Imaging: http://www.kereos.com/
Kereos Inc. develops targeted therapeutics and molecular imaging agents designed
to detect and treat cancer and cardiovascular disease early.
Konarka Technologies: http://www.konarkatech.com/ Konarka builds a light-
activated power plastic that converts light to energy—anywhere. The light-activated
power plastic is inexpensive, lightweight, flexible, and versatile.
Lands’ End: ThermaCheck R
Vest by Lands’ End
R
Inc. http://www.landsend.com/
The company applies nanotechnology to each fiber in the fleece that resists static
cling and shock, repels lint, and pet hair.
Luna nanoWorks: http://www.lunananoworks.com/ Luna nanoWorks produces
high quality proprietary carbon nanomaterials, including single-walled carbon nan-
otubes.
Mercedes-Benz: http://www.mercedes-benz.com The automobile company intro-
duced nanoparticle new paint system for its Mercedes models.
MetaMateria Partners:www.metamateria.com MetaMateria Partners is a developer
and manufacturer of nanopowders and ceramic manufacturing methods for energy
storage such as batteries and capacitor.
Metal Nanopowders: http://www.metalnanopowders.com/ The company produces
metal nanopowders that can be used in magnetic tapes and targeted drug delivery.
Molecular Imprints: http://www.molecularimprints.com Molecular Imprints de-
sign, develop, manufacture, and support imprint lithography systems to be used
by semiconductor device and other industry manufacturers.
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242 Appendix B
Motorola R
Organic Light Emitting Diodes (OLEDs) by Motorola R
:
www.motorola.com The research arm of Motorola Inc. has built a 5-inch
color video display prototype using its own carbon nanotube (CNT) technology.
mPhase and Lucent Technologies: http://www.mphasetech.com mPhase and Lu-
cent Technologies are laboratories that are developing new kinds of batteries.
Nanergy Inc.: http://www.nanergyinc.com/ Nanergy is a company that is focus on
products that harness nanotechnology, and especially photovoltaic nanofilms.
Nano-C Inc.: http://www.nano-c.com Nano-C is a developer in the production of
high-quality fullerenic materials including C60, C70, C84, and fullerene black.
Nanochem: http://www.nanochem.com NanoChem has developed a new chemical
process that efficiently removes ammonia from wastewaters.
Nanoco Technologies: http://www.nanocotechnologies.com Nanoco Technologies
manufactures fluorescent nanocrystals from semiconductor and metallic materials
known as quantum dots.
Nanofilm Technology: http://www.nanofilmtechnology.com Nanofilm develops op-
tically clear, thin coatings, self-assembling nanolayers, and nanocomposites that
act as a protective layer for displays, such as computer displays and cell phone
windows.
NanoDynamics: http://www.nanodynamics.com NanoDynamics provides nano-
enabled solutions in the fields of energy, automotive, water processing, and con-
sumer products.
NanoHorizons: http://nanohorizons.com/ A company that provides anti-odor/
antimicrobial protection to natural and synthetic fibers and fabrics.
NanoInk: http://www.nanoink.net/ The company’s product is The NSCRIPTORTM ,
which allows scientists to perform experiments using Dip Pen Nanolithography
R
.
Nano Interface Technology, Inc.: http://www.nanointerfacetech.com Nano Inter-
face Technology is a research organization committed to developing nanotechnolo-
gies in biotechnology and the drug delivery areas.
Nanolab: http://www.nano-lab.com Nanolab is a manufacturer of carbon nanotubes
and a developer of nanoscale devices.
Nanoledge: http://nanoledge.com Nanoledge provides carbon nanotubes-filled
resins for high-performance equipment applications that include water sports, mo-
tor sports, and balls sports, including tennis rackets.
NanoMedica, Inc.: http://www.nanomedica.com/ The company is developing ther-
apeutics for the treatment of cancer using nanotechnology.
Nanonex Corp: http://www.nanonex.com Manufacturer of imprint, step-and-flash
lithography systems.
NanoOpto Corporation: http://www.nanoopto.com NanoOpto’s products have ap-
plications in optical communications, digital imaging, and optical storage (CD/DVD
drives).
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Appendix B 243
Nanostellar: http://www.nanostellar.com/home.htm Nanostellar is developing

technology for applications that include automobile catalysts, petrochemical in-
dustry, displays, fuel cells and batteries.
Nanosolar: http://www.nanosolar.com Nanosolar has developed proprietary tech-
nology that makes it possible to simply roll-print solar cells.
NanoSonic, Inc.: http://www.nanosonic.com NanoSonic, Inc. develops revolution-
ary new molecular self-assembly processes that allow the controlled synthesis of
material structure at the nanometer level and the manufacturing of new materials.
Products include Metal Rubber and sensors and systems.
Nanophase Technologies: http://www.nanophase.com/ Nanophase is developing
processes for the commercial manufacturing of nanopowder metal to be used in
fuel cells, personal care, and wood preservation.
Nanospectra Biosciences, Inc.: http://www.nanospectra.com/ Nanospectra Bio-
sciences, Inc. is developing a therapeutic medical device to destroy solid
tumors.
Nanosys: http://www.nanosysinc.com The company is using thin-film electronics
technology to help develop high performance fuel cells for use in portable consumer
electronics such as laptop computers and cell phones.
Nanosurf: http://www.nanosurf.com Nanosurf develops scanning probe micro-
scopes (SPM)
Nanotec. Nanoprotect Glass and Automotive Glass by Nanotec Pty Ltd.: http://
www.nanotec.com.au/ Nanoprotect Glass is a special nanotechnology product with
a long-term self-cleaning effect for glass and ceramic surfaces.
Nano-Tex R
Textiles by Nano-Tex R
, Inc., LLC.: http://www.nano-tex.com Nano-
TexTM ’s technology fundamentally transformed fabric at the nano-level to improve
everyday clothing by being stain-resistant and static free.
NEC: http://www.nec.com NEC is developing a carbon nanohorn electrode that it
claims can create 20 percent more power in fuel cells used in laptop computers and
mobile phones.
Nucryst: http://www.nucryst.com Nucryst Pharmaceuticals develop medical prod-
ucts that fight infection and inflammation based on its patented nanocrystalline
silver technology.
OptoTrack, Inc.: http://www.optotrack.com/ot info/index.html Optotrack, Inc. is
a company in the development of optical, imaging, biological sensors, and microsys-
tems based on microfabrication and nanotechnology.
Owlstone Nanotech: http://www.owlstonenanotech.com Owlstone has created a
complete chemical detection system a hundred times smaller and a thousand times
cheaper than other currently available devices.
Oxonica: http://www.oxonica.com/index.php Oxonica Energy division is focused
on the development of ENVIROXTM , a diesel fuel-borne catalyst which reduces fuel
consumption and exhaust emissions.
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244 Appendix B
Pacific Nanotechnology: http://www.pacificnanotech.com Pacific Nanotechnology

provides atomic force microscope products and services.
Pilkington: http://www.pilkingtonselfcleaningglass.co.uk Pilkington ActivTM is the
world’s first self-cleaning glass to use a microscopic coating with a unique dual
action.
Powdermet, Inc.: http://www.powdermetinc.com Powdermet manufactures metal
and ceramic nano-engineered fine powders and particulates used in many fields
including electronic materials, metal cutting, and paints.
Proctor & Gamble: http://www.pg.com/en US/index.jhtml Proctor and Gamble
have been using nano-structured fluids research in consumer products.
pSivida: http://www.psivida.com/ pSivida is a bio-nanotechnology company that has
developed drug delivery products in the health-care sector.
QuantumSphere, Inc.: http://www.qsinano.com QuantumSphere Develops catalyst
materials and electrode devices for clean-energy applications such as batteries and
micro-fuel cells for portable power.
Rosseter Holdings Ltd.: http://www.e-nanoscience.com. Rosseter Holdings Limited,
located in Cyprus, is a company that specializes in large-scale production of carbon
nanotubes and related materials.
Samsung R
Refrigerator by Samsung R
: http://www.samsung.com Samsung utilized
nanotechnology and applied it to the interior coating of their refrigerators for
effective sterilization, deodorization, and antibacterial effects.
Shemen Industries.Canola Active Oil by Shemen Industries: http://goliath.ecnext.
com/ The Canola Active Oil is used to inhibit the transportation of cholesterol from
the digestive system into the bloodstream.
Smith and Nephew: http://www.accuflexgolf.com/tech.asp) Acticoat R
Wound
Dressings by Smith & Nephew provides antimicrobial barrier protection.
Sharper Image, Antibacterial Silver Athletic and Lounging Socks by Sharper Image:
http://www.sharperimagebest.com/zn021.html) The quarter-length sports socks
are knitted with a cotton material containing millions of invisible silver nanopar-
ticles.
Solaris Nanosciences Corporation: http://www.solarisnano.com/contactus.php
The Solaris primary goal is to provide low manufacturing cost, high-efficiency, and
long-life solar cells in the projected growth of the global renewable energy market.
SonyR
Corporation Organic Light Emitting Diodes (OLEDs) by Sony R
Corpo-
ration: http://www.sony.com/ Made of nano-structured polymer films, the OLED
screens emit their own light and are lighter, smaller, and more energy efficient than
conventional liquid crystal displays.
T-2R
Photocatalyst Environment Cleaner by T-2R
: http://www.t-2.biz/index.php?
cf=t-2 intro The company has developed a surface cleaner that can cause the break-
down of organic toxins, odors, and more.
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Appendix B 245
Toshiba, Lithium-Ion Battery by Toshiba Corporation: http://www.toshiba.co.jp/

about/press/2005 03/pr2901.htm The company is developing a new kind of battery
that contains nanoparticles that can quickly absorb and store vast amount of lithium
ions, without causing any deterioration in the electrode.
Veeco: http://www.veeco.com Veeco is a leader in atomic force and scanning probe
microscopy. Vecco produces scanning probe microscope systems (AFM/SPM).
Wilson Sporting Goods: http://www.wilson.com Wilson announced it was the
first golf equipment manufacturer to strategically use nanotechnology to develop
stronger and lighter materials in their sporting equipment.
Xintek, Inc.: http://www.xintek.com Xintek’s major products include carbon nan-
otube (CNT)-based field emission electron source, field emission grade CNT mate-
rial, field emission x-ray source, and CNT AFM probes.
Zyvex: http://www.zyvex.com/ Zyvex develops nanomanipulation products that are
compatible with scanning electron microscopes and standard optical microscopes.
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Appendix C
Nanotechnology
Web sites
Please note that the author has made a consistent effort to include up-to-date Web
sites. However, over time, some Web sites may no longer be posted.
GOVERNMENT AGENCIES
Department of Agriculture (DOA): The Department of Agriculture’s multifaceted
mission is to ensure a safe food supply; care for agricultural lands, forests, and
rangelands,. http://www.usda.gov/wps/portal/usdahome
Department of Defense (DOD): The mission of the Department of Defense is to
provide the military forces needed to deter war and to protect the security of the
United States. http://www.defenselink.mil/
Department of Education (DOE): Its original directive remains its mission today—to
ensure equal access to education and to promote educational excellence throughout
the nation. http://www.ed.gov/index.jhtml
Department of Energy: The Department of Energy’s (DOE) goal is to advance the
national, economic, and energy security of the United States. http://www.energy.
gov/index.htm
Department of Homeland Security(DHS): The Department of Homeland Security
is a federal agency whose primary mission is to help prevent, protect against, and
respond to acts of terrorism on United States soil. http://www.dhs.gov/index.shtm
Environmental Protection Agency(EPA): The Environmental Protection Agency was
created in 1970 and was established in response to growing public concern about
unhealthy air, polluted rivers and groundwater, unsafe drinking water, endangered
species, and hazardous waste disposal. http://www.epa.gov/
Food and Drug Administration (FDA). The U.S. Food and Drug Administration
regulates a wide range of products, including foods, cosmetics, drugs, devices, and
veterinary products, some of which may utilize nanotechnology or contain nanoma-
terials. http://www.fda.gov/nanotechnology/
Los Alamos National Laboratory: The Laboratory has served the nation by develop-
ing and applying the best science and technology to ensure its safety and security.
http://www.lanl.gov/
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Appendix C 247
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA): NASA’s mission is to pio-

neer the future in space exploration, scientific discovery, and aeronautics research.
http://www.nasa.gov/home/index.html
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH): The agency is
responsible for developing and enforcing workplace safety and health regulations.
http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/homepage.html
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST): NIST’s mission is to pro-
mote U.S. innovation and industrial competitiveness by advancing measurement
science, standards, and technology in ways that enhance economic security and
improve our quality of life. http://www.nist.gov/public affairs/nanotech.htm
National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI): The National Nanotechnology Initiative
(NNI) is a federal R&D program established to coordinate the multiagency efforts
in nanoscale science, engineering, and technology. http://www.nano.gov/
National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL): The nation’s primary laboratory
for renewable energy and energy efficiency research and development (R&D).
www.nrel.gov/
National Science Foundation (NSF): Their goal is to promote the progress of sci-
ence; to advance the national health, prosperity, and welfare; to secure the national
defense. http://www.nsf.gov/crssprgm/nano/
National Science and Technology Council (NSTC): A primary objective of the NSTC
is the establishment of clear national goals for Federal science and technology
investments http://www.ostp.gov/nstc/index.html
Sandia National Laboratories: Sandia National Laboratories has developed science-
based technologies that support our national security. http://www.sandia.gov/
OTHER WEB SITES

All Things Nano: Museum of Science, Boston. http://antill.com/MOS/
AZoNano Information: The aim of AZoNano.com is to become the primary Nan-
otechnology information source for the science, engineering, and design commu-
nity worldwide. http://www.azonano.com/aboutus.asp
Big Picture on NanoScience: The Wellcome Trust is an independent charity fund-
ing research to improve human and animal health. http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/
node5954.html
CMP Cientifica: News, networks, conferences, and nanotechnology resources in
Europe. http://www.cientifica.com
Foresight Institute: Nonprofit institute focused on nanotechnology, the coming
ability to build materials and products with atomic precision, and systems to aid
knowledge exchange and critical discussion, thus improving public and private
policy decisions. http://www.foresight.org/
Foresight Institute, Nanomedicine: Nanomedicine may be defined as the mon-
itoring, repair, construction and control of human biological systems at the
molecular level, using engineered nanodevices and nanostructures. Includes the
Nanomedicine Art Gallery. http://www.foresight.org/Nanomedicine
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248 Appendix C
How Stuff Works: How Nanotechnology Will Work: Animated narrative shows
how Nanotechnology has the potential to totally change manufacturing, health
care and many other areas. http://www.howstuffworks.com/nanotechnology.
htm
IBM Almaden STM Molecular Art: Some of the famous images of atoms and
molecules made with IBM’s scanning tunneling microscope. http://www.almaden.
ibm.com/vis/stm/lobby.html
Institute of Nanotechnology (UK): The Institute of Nanotechnology has been cre-
ated to foster, develop, and promote all aspects of science and technology in those
domains where dimensions and tolerances in the range of 0.1 nm to 100nm play a
critical role. http://www.nano.org.uk/
NanoBusiness Alliance: Provides nanobusiness information. www.nanobusiness.
org/
Nanogloss: Online dictionary of nanotechnology. http://www.nanogloss.com
Nanooze: A science magazine about nanotechnology for kids. www.nanooze.
org
NanoScale Science Education: NanoScale Science Education Research Group
that offers K-12 nanotechnology materials. http://ced.ncsu.edu/nanoscale/
nanoteched.htm
Nano Science and Technology Institute: The Nano Science and Technology Institute
(NSTI) is chartered with the promotion and integration of nano and other advanced
technologies through education, technology and business development. http://
www.nsti.org/
NanoSpace: The Center for NanoSpace Technologies is a Texas-based nonprofit
scientific research and education foundation. http://www.nanospace.org
Nanotechnology: Institute of Physics monthly journal for aspects of nanoscale sci-
ence and technology. http://www.iop.org/journals/nano
Nanotechnology Now: Provides introduction to nanotechnology, general infor-
mation, images, interviews, news, events, research, books, glossary, and links.
http://nanotech-now.com/
National Cancer Institute: Provides information about common cancer types.
http://www.cancer.gov/
National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute: The National Heart, Lung, and Blood
Institute (NHLBI) provides leadership for a national program in diseases of the
heart, blood vessels, lung, and blood; blood resources; and sleep disorders. http://
www.nhlbi.nih.gov/index.htm
NIST. Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM): Describes the invention of the to-
pografiner, a precursor instrument, between 1965 and 1971, and also tells of the
STM’s development. http://physics.nist.gov/GenInt/STM/stm.html
Science Friday Kids’ Connection in association with Kidsnet: http://www.
sciencefriday.com/kids/sfkc20021206-1.html
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Scientific American: Nanotechnology articles, some free and some archived.

http://www.sciam.com/nanotech/
Secret Worlds: The Universe Within. View the Milky Way at 10 million light years
from the Earth. Then move through space toward the Earth in successive orders of
magnitude until you reach a tall oak tree. http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/
java/scienceopticsu/powersof10/
Small Times: Daily articles covering MEMS, nanotechnology, and microsystems, with
a business angle. http://www.smalltimes.com
The Incredible Shrunken Kids: http://www.sciencenewsforkids.org/articles/
20040609/Feature1.asp
The NanoTechnology Group: A consortium of nano companies, universities,
and organizations developing a nano science curriculum for K-12. http://www.
TheNanoTechnologyGroup.org
The Nanotube Site: Michigan State University’s Library of Links for the Nanotube
Research Community. http://www.pa.msu.edu/cmp/csc/NTSite/nanopage.html
Vega Science Trust, England: Videos on basics of nanotechnology and how
it will change the world. http://www.vega.org.uk/series/tnbt/nanotechnology/
index.php
Virtual Journal of Nanoscale Science & Technology: A weekly multijournal compi-
lation of the latest research on nanoscale systems. http://www.vjnano.org
Xerox/Zyvex Nanotechnology: Former Xerox Palo Alto Research Center Nanotech-
nology page: brief introduction to core concepts of molecular nanotechnology
(MNT), and links for further reading. http://www.zyvex.com/nano/
Zyvex.com: Provides a brief introduction to the core concepts of molecular nan-
otechnology. http://www.zyvex.com/nano/
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Appendix D
Nanotechnology
Videos and Audios
The following videos and audios are suggested to enhance your understanding of
nanotechnology topics and issues. Some of the videos listed are presented in the
chapters. However, you may wish to review other videos as well.
Please note that the author has made a consistent effort to include up-to-date
Web sites. However, over time, some Web sites may move or no longer be posted.
Viewing some of these videos may require special software called plug-ins. There-
fore, you will need to download certain software to view the videos. You may need
to upgrade your player to the most current version.
VIDEO
How Breast Cancer Spreads. Sutter Health. This group has a number of cancer
videos. http://cancer.sutterhealth.org/information/bc videos.html
Faster Results for Breast Cancer. Pathologists Use Digital Imaging to Speed up
Cancer Diagnosis. Science Daily. http://www.sciencedaily.com/videos/2006-02-06/
Detecting Deadly Chemicals. Science Daily. A sampler gun that can now be used
to detect harmful or dangerous diseases such as anthrax. http://www.sciencedaily.
com/videos/2006-12-10/
Work Force Preparation. Are We Prepared to Get into the Nanotechnology Work-
Video Game: PlayGen develops games for learning and teaching. NanoMissiontm
is developing first scientifically accurate interactive 3d learning games based on
understanding nanosciences and nanotechnology. To see a sample of one of their
games with a theme of nanoscience and cancer go to: http://www.playgen.com/
home/content/view/30/26/
Scanning Probe Microscopy. Professor Wendy Crone The next big thing or smaller.
Conversations in Science. Madison Metropolitan School District. UW-Madison In-
terdisciplinary Education Group. http://mrsec.wisc.edu/Edetc/cineplex/MMSD/
scanning2.html
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Appendix D 251
Stroke Stopper. Neuroradiologists Treat Brain Strokes with New Kind of Stent, Sci-
ence Daily Video. Go to: http://www.sciencedaily.com/videos/2006-04-07/
Nanoscale. Professor Wendy Crone What is a nanoscale. Discusses Quantum Effects,
and Quantum Dots. Surface to Volume Ration Makes a Difference is also discussed.
Conversations in Science. Madison Metropolitan School District. UW-Madison In-
terdisciplinary Education Group. http://mrsec.wisc.edu/Edetc/cineplex/MMSD/
index.html
When Things Get Small. Google Video. Describes how small is a nanometer? The film
showing how scientists layer atoms to form nanodots. http://video.google.com/
videoplay?docid=-215729295613330853
Try the Simulator. To see a simulation of a scanning tunnel microscope go to: http://
nobelprize.org/educational games/physics/microscopes/scanning/
Using Nanoscience to understand the properties of matter. Explore Materials.
http://www.wpsu.org/nano/lessonplan detail.php?lp id=21
What is Matter? http://www.wpsu.org/nano/lessonplan detail.php?lp id=21
What is a Molecule? http://www.wpsu.org/nano/media/Molecule.mov
Taking Pictures of What You Can’t See. http://www.wpsu.org/nano/media/
TakingPictures.mov
The Threat of Bird Flu. ScienceDaily http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/
04/070416092206.htm
NASA Space Elevator. Can we build a 22,000-mile-high cable to transport cargo and
people into space? http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/sciencenow/3401/02.html
Forming Carbon Nanotubes. University of Cambridge. Two videos show how nickel
reacts in a process called catalytic chemical vapor deposition. This film demonstrates
one of several methods of producing nanotubes. Text accompanies the video for
better understanding of the process. http://www.admin.cam.ac.uk/news/special/
20070301/?
Videos from the Hitachi Corporation. What’s Next in Nanotechnology? http://www.
hitachi.com/about/corporate/movie/
The Lemelson Center. Nobel laureate William Phillips levitates a magnet to explain
how atoms form bonds. There are several videos in this collection. Select the one on
levitation. You may be also interested in the other videos as well. http://invention.
smithsonian.org/centerpieces/ilives/phillips/phillips.html
CSI: X-Ray Fingerprints. Stimulating atoms to reveal chemicals on fingerprints,
http://www.sciencedaily.com/videos/2006-12-08/
What is Nanotechnology? University of Wisconsin-Madison engineer Wendy Crone
is on a mission. She and her interns are creating user-friendly exhibits to teach the
public about the nanoworld. http://www.sciencedaily.com/videos/2006-06-11/
Exploring the Nanoworld: Movies of nano-structured materials: ferrofluids, memory
metals, amorphous metals, LEDs, self-assembly, DNA, Magnetic Resonance Imaging,
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252 Appendix D
Lego models. National Science Foundation supported Materials Research Science

and Engineering Center on Nanostructured Materials and Interfaces at the Univer-
sity of Wisconsin-Madison. http://mrsec.wisc.edu/edetc
A Nanotechnology Super Soldier Suit. Nanotechnology in the military. http://www.
youtube.com/watch?v=-pNbF29l9Zg&mode=related&search=
Nanokids-Bond With Me. You Tube. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R6
vWWGjt10
Monitoring Blood Glucose Without Pain or Blood. A short film of Professor Paran-
jape and the lab where the diabetes biosensor device is produced. http://college.
georgetown.edu/research/molecules/14887.html
Secret Worlds: The Universe Within. Visit the subatomic universe of electrons and
protons and viewing the Milky Way. http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/java/
scienceopticsu/powersof10/
G Living. The Phoenix Electric Nano Battery SUV. http://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=w-Zv5RFgmWY&NR
National Geographic. National Geographic has five video shots on Nanotechnology.
They include the following titles: Smaller than Small, Land of the Giants, Nano in Nature,
Growing Technology, and Stand by for a Change. This activity is available at: http://www7.
nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0606/feature4/multimedia.html
Penn State University. Amazing Creatures with Nanoscale Features: This animation is
an introduction to microscopy, scale, and applications of nanoscale properties. It
introduces some of the tools that are used by scientists to visualize samples that are
smaller than what we can see with our eyes. This activity is available for use via the
Center Web site at http://www.cneu.psu.edu/edToolsActivities.html
Electron-Beam Lithography. Nanopolis Online Multimedia Library. Electron-beam
lithography is a technique for creating extremely fine patterns required for modern
electronic circuits. http://online.nanopolis.net/viewer.php?subject id=139
Is Nanotechnology Going to be The Next Industrial Revolution? Conversa-
tions in Science. Madison Metropolitan School District. UW-Madison Inter-
disciplinary Education Group. http://mrsec.wisc.edu/Edetc/cineplex/MMSD/
nano5.html
Cosmetics. Nanopolis Online Multimedia Library. The cosmetics industry was one
of the first industries to employ nanotechnology for cosmetics that include creams,
moisturizers, and sunscreens. http://online.nanopolis.net/viewer.php?subject id=
274
Carbon Nanotube Transistors. Nanopolis Online Multimedia Library. The car-
bon nanotubes are ideal building blocks for molecular electronics. http://online.
nanopolis.net/viewer.php?subject id=268
University of Virginia Materials Research Science and Engineering Center. Paladin
Pictures, Inc. and the University of Virginia Materials Research Science & Engineer-
ing Center (MRSEC). The film, Nano Revolution, was filmed largely on-location
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Appendix D 253
at the University of Virginia, and is aimed at introducing people to the field of

Nanotechnology. http://www.paladinpictures.com/nano.html.
Dendritic Polymer Adhesives for Corneal Wound Repair Presented by: Mark
W. Grinstaff, Ph.D., Metcalf Center for Science and Engineering. http://www.
blueskybroadcast.com/Client/ARVO/
Nanoparticles—Chemistry, Structure and Function
Presented by: Karen L. Wooley, Ph.D. and Professor, Washington University in
Saint Louis, Department of Chemistry. http://www.blueskybroadcast.com/Client/
ARVO/
Introduction to Nanoscale Materials Behavior—Why all the Fuss? Presented by: Mark
A. Ratner, Ph.D., Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University. http://www.
blueskybroadcast.com/Client/ARVO/
National Cancer Institute: Video Journey Into Nanotechnology. http://nano.cancer.
gov/resource center/video journey qt-low.asp
Bones that Grow Back Video. http://www.sciencentral.com/
Careers in Nanotechnology Information Video. Penn State U. http://www.cneu.
psu.edu/nePublications.html
Electrostatic Self-Assembly. NanoSonic. http://www.nanosonic.com/schoolkits/
schoolkitsFS.html
NanoManipulator: Seeing and Touching Molecules. http://www.nanotech-now.
com/multimedia.htm
Smaller than Small, National Geographic Magazine. http://www7.
nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0606/feature4/multimedia.html
Nanozone, Lawrence Hall of Science. http://www.nanozone.org/whatvideo.htm
Clean Technology Vehicles. Altairnano. Demonstration vehicle using NanoSafe long-
term batteries for vehicles. http://www.altairnano.com/ZEV.mov
Vega Workshop Videos. There are several videos in this collection. They include
Harry Kroto’s Buckyball Workshops and John Murrell’s States of Matter Workshop.
http://www.vega.org.uk/schools/details/4
Molecular Motors Drive Cellular Movements. A group led by Susan P. Gilbert, as-
sociate professor of biological sciences, is figuring out how motors inside cells
convert chemical energy into mechanical force. http://www.pitt.edu/research.
html
Nano-optics Research Offers a Bright Future. Researchers led by Hong Koo Kim,
codirector of the Institute of NanoScience and Engineering, have developed a new
technology that may revolutionize optics and fields like imaging, spectroscopy, and
information technology. http://www.pitt.edu/research.html
Project on Emerging Nanotechnologies. “Hands-on” Learning Activity for Science
Invisible to the Naked Eye. Bethany Maynard, a 6th grader at a Fairfax County,
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254 Appendix D
Virginia elementary school, shows how young people can observe, test, and inves-
tigate nanotechnology. http://www.nanotechproject.org/76/nanotechnology-can-
be-childs-play
Nanowires and Nanocrystals for Nanotechnology. Yi Cui is an assistant professor
in the Materials Science and Engineering Department at Stanford. video.google.
com/videoplay?docid=6571968052542741458
Synthesis of Colloidal Silver. The formation of silver nanoparticles can be observed
by a change in color, small nanoparticles of silver are yellow. http://mrsec.wisc.edu/
Edetc/nanolab/silver/index.html
The Lemelson Center. What is a buckminsterfullerene? Sir Harold Kroto. The
Nobel Laureate explains why he named the carbon cluster that he discov-
ered as a buckminsterfullerene. http://www.invention.smithsonian.org/video/ and
http://invention.smithsonian.org/centerpieces/ilives/kroto/kroto.html
Dr. Alan Goldstein on potential and dangers of nanotechnology. http://video.
google.com/videoplay?docid=5221560918013409256&hl=en
Cellular Visions: The Inner Life of a Cell, the animation illustrates unseen molecular
mechanisms and the ones they trigger, specifically how white blood cells sense and
respond to their surroundings and external stimuli. The animation shows a num-
ber of molecular machines—ribosomes, motors, and more. http://www.studiodaily.
com/main/searchlist/6850.html
Probe Microscopes. Wendy Crone. Activities using magnetic probe strips to inves-
tigate the north and south poles of a magnet. Scanning Probe microscopy works
the same way. Conversations in Science. Madison Metropolitan School District.
UW-Madison Interdisciplinary Education Group. http://mrsec.wisc.edu/Edetc/
cineplex/MMSD/scanning1.html
Nanotech Assembly. Productive Nanosystems: From Molecules to super products.
Mark Sims, and Nanorex, Inc. http://singularityvideos.blogspot.com/2006/09/
nanotech-assembler.html
Demonstration Video. See How It Works. Self-Cleaning Glass from Pilking-
ton. http://www.pilkingtonselfcleaningglass.co.uk/howitworks;jsessionid=450BA
85300D73FF706160BEECB8A1614
Nanotechnology Size and Scale. Professor Wendy Crone. Conversations in Science.
Madison Metropolitan School District. UW-Madison Interdisciplinary Education
Group. http://mrsec.wisc.edu/Edetc/cineplex/MMSD/nano3.html
N is for Nanotechnology. NISE Network. “N” is for Nanotechnology” is a 30-minute
documentary exploring the hypes, hopes, and facts of this fascinating field as
seen through the eyes of award-winning scientists, industry leaders, and writers.
http://www.knhproductions.ca/nisnano/trailer.html
mPHASE Nanobattery. MPhase develops new nanobattery technology. Applications
include homeland security, space exploration, communications, and the medical
field. YouTube. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P8UwBP4yVgM
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Appendix D 255
Nanotechnology Applications: Professor Lisensky shows some nanotechnology ex-

amples such as ferrofluids and carbon nanotubes and how these can be used
to make displays, space elevators, cancer treatments, self-cleaning windows, and
stain-free. Nano Quest Video Library. http://fll.ee.nd.edu/index.cgi?videoname=
apps
Space Elevator. Scientists envision a space elevator based in the Pacific Ocean and
rising to a satellite in geosynchronous orbit. http://www.sciencentral.com/articles/
view.php3?article id=218392162&language=english
NNIN Soft Lithography Network. Professor George M. Whitesides. This is a tech-
nical forum on how to use lithography in a small business as users and providers.
http://www.cns.fas.harvard.edu/research/cns videos.php
Photovoltaics: Turning Sunlight Into Electricity. United States Department of En-
ergy. Solar Energies Technologies Program: Animations. http://www1.eere.energy.
gov/solar/video/pv3.mov
Measuring Electrical Properties with an Electron Force Microscope. Professor
Wendy Crone. Madison Metropolitan School District. http://mrsec.wisc.edu/
Edetc/cineplex/MMSD/scanning3.html
What are the Symptoms of Diabetes? Who is at Risk? How is Diabetes Con-
firmed? Diabetes Clinic. IrishHealth. (56K/Dialup. http://www.irishhealth.com/
clin/diabetes/video.html#
How a Fuel Cell Works. Ballard Fuel Cells. Ballard’s principal business is the design,
development, and manufacture of proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell
products. http://www.ballard.com/be informed/fuel cell technology/how the
technology works
How Fuel Cells Work. A HowStuffWorks Video. Professor Tom Fuller from the
Georgia Tech Institute of Technology explains how a fuel cell works. http://videos.
howstuffworks.com/fuel-cell-video.htm
Hydrogen Fuel Cell. Digital Splash Multimedia Studios. http://www.
digitalsplashstudios.com/fuel-cell.html
Detecting Toxics. A new portable lab that detects deadly chemicals in the air. Sci-
enceDaily. http://www.sciencedaily.com/videos/2006-02-09/
Nature: The First Nanotechnologist. Dr. Gentry explains how nature works at
the nanometer size scale to create the cells in our bodies; examples include cell
walls, molecular self-assembly, and odor receptors. http://fll.ee.nd.edu/index.cgi?
videoname=nature
Probe Microscopes: Tools used in Nanotechnology by Professor Wendy Crone.
What are the tools that are used to explore the world of nano science? Professor
Crone uses a common refrigerator magnet to illustrate a probe device for iden-
tifying atoms. The presentation continues with an illustration how nanoprobes
investigate surfaces and move atoms. http://fll.ee.nd.edu/index.cgi?videoname=
tools
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256 Appendix D
Development of a platform based on a fleet of scientific instruments con-

figured as autonomous miniature robots capable of fast operations at the
nanometer scale. NanoRobotics Laboratory. Laboratoire de nanorobotique. Go to:
http://wiki.polymtl.ca/nano/index.php/Research Then click on the site. New
Micro-Nanorobotics Platforms.
Golf Gear Improving Your Score With Technology. AOL Video. http://video.aol.
com/video-search/Golf-GearImproving-your-score-with-technology/id/
3305225634
E. Coli Hand-Held Sensor. Detecting Bacteria With Electromechanical Cantilevers.
Chemical engineers have developed a sensor that can almost instantly detect the
presence of E. coli. Science Daily. http://www.sciencedaily.com/videos/2006-11-09/
Safer Water Worldwide. Industrial Toxicologists Develop Cost-Effective, Life-Saving
Disinfection. Toxicologists developed PUR, a water purifier that combines a floccu-
lant, which separates particles and organisms from water Science Daily. http://www.
The Threat of Bird Flu. ScienceDaily. http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/
04/070416092206.htm
Protein Lab Chip Assay. Agilent. A lab-on-a-chip used for analyzing proteins. http://
www.chem.agilent.com/scripts/generic.asp?lPage=1566&indcol=N&prodcol=Y
Smart Trash Cans. A microchip embedded in recycling bins encourages households
to recycle trash for dollars. Science Daily. http://www.sciencedaily.com/videos/
2006-10-01/
Protein Lab Chip Assay. A lab-on-a-chip used for analyzing proteins. http://www.
chem.agilent.com/scripts/generic.asp?lPage=1566&indcol=N&prodcol=Y
AUDIOS
The Lure of Nanotechnology. National Public Radio. http://www.npr.org/
templates/story/story.php?storyId=1604431
“Buckyball” Nobel Laureate Richard Smalley Dies. http://www.npr.org/
Next Generation of Drug Delivery. The Bourne Report. There are all sorts of ways to
get medicine into the body; here are a few examples of how MEMS and Nanotech-
based approaches are making a difference. Marlene Bourne.
http://bournereport.podomatic.com/entry/2006-12-10T13 46 12-08 00
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Appendix E
Some Important
Events in
Nanotechnology
History
1900 Max Planck proposes energy quantization.
1905–1930 Development of quantum mechanics.
1927 Heisenberg formulated his uncertainty principle

1931–1933 The first electron microscope was built by Ernst Ruska and Max Knoll.
1953 DNA structure discovery by James D. Watson and Francis Crick.

1959 Feynman’s talk, “There is plenty of room at the bottom.”
1968 Alfred Y. Cho and John Arthur of Bell Laboratories and their colleagues
invent a technique that can deposit single atomic layers on a surface.
1965 Proposal of Moore’s Law.

1974 Norio Taniguchi conceives the word “nanotechnology” to signify man-
ufacturing products with a tolerance of less than a micron.
1981 Invention of STM by Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer. The scanning
tunneling microscope can image individual atoms.
1983 Ralph Nuzzo and David Allara of Bell Laboratories discover self-
assembled monolayers. Nuzzo and Allara’s research lead to the de-
velopment of stain-repellent coatings on carpet, lubricants that still
cling in harsh weather, and materials that line artificial hearts and
keep the body’s proteins from depositing.
1985 Buckyball discovery by Kroto, Curl, and Smalley.
1986 Invention of Atomic Force Microscope by Binnig, Quate, and Gerber

1986 Eric Drexler writes Engines of Creation that describes the manufacture
of Nanoscale devices.
1989 Donald Eigler of IBM writes the letters of his company using individual
xenon atoms.
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258 Appendix E
1991 Discovery of carbon nanotubes by Sumio Iijima.

1996 Robert Curl Jr., Richard Smalley, and Harold Kroto receive a Nobel
Prize for the discovery of buckministerfullerene, the scientific name
for Buckyballs.
2000 The Clinton administration announces the National Nanotechnology
Initiative (NNI), which funds 700 million dollars a year.
2002 U.S. Army awards a contract to Massachusetts Institute of Technology

to develop military applications for nanotechnology.
2003 President Bush Signs Nanotechnology Research and Development Act,

which authorizes funding for nanotechnology research and develop-
ment (R&D) over 4 years, starting in FY 2005.
2004 Carbon nanotubes used a light filament. President Bush Signs Bill Au-
thorizing $3.7 Billion Nanotechnology Program for nanotechnology
R&D, for FY 2005–2008.
2005 Beam of electrons used to shape metallic nanowires.
2006 Technology for making thin-film nanotubes by evaporation is invented.

Food and Drug Administration faces a growing number of nanotech
medical devices to evaluate.
2007 Russia decides to invest 1 billion dollars in nanotechnology from their

funds in oil and gas reserves. Regulatory oversight of nanotechnology
is urgently needed and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
should act now, reports an EPA study in 2007.
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Appendix F
National Science
Education Standards,
Content Standards
Unifying Concepts and Processes, K–12

Systems, order, and organization
Evidence, models, and explanation
Constancy, change, and measurement
Evolution and equilibrium
Form and function
Science as Inquiry, Content Standard A, Grades 9–12
Abilities necessary to do scientific inquiry
Understandings about scientific inquiry
Physical Science, Content Standard B, Grades 9–12
Structure of atoms
Structure and properties of matter
Chemical reactions
Motions and forces
Conservation of energy and increase in disorder
Interactions of energy and matter
Life Science, Content Standard C, Grades 9–12
The cell
Molecular basis of heredity
Biological evolution
Interdependence of organisms
Matter, energy, and organization in living systems
Behavior of organisms
Earth and Space Science, Content Standard D, Grades 9–12
Energy in the earth system
Geochemical cycles
Origin and evolution of the earth system
Origin and evolution of the universe
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260 Appendix F
Science and Technology, Content Standard E

Abilities of technological design
Understandings about science and technology
Science in Personal and Social Perspectives, Content Standard F
Personal and community health
Population growth
Natural resources
Environmental quality
Natural and human-induced hazards
Science and technology in local, national, and global challenges
History and Nature of Science, Content Standard G
Science as a human endeavor
Nature of scientific knowledge
Historical perspectives
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Appendix G
Colleges and
Museums
National Nanotechnology Infrastructure Network (NNIN) has provided the follow-

ing links as resources for nanotechnology education. These links are arranged by
institution to which these educational and outreach programs are affiliated. Some
links are devoted to middle school and high school students, while a majority con-
tains information for all levels. A brief description for each link is provided.
Albany NanoTech: Albany NanoTech at the University at Albany—SUNY brings
together the nanoelectronics, nanosystems, and nanophotonics technologies that
power the nanotechnology revolution. http://www.albanynanotech.org
Arizona State University: Includes images of animations, microscopy, schemat-
ics, and lecture videos in engineering, life sciences, math, technology, and phys-
ical sciences. Also includes interactive activities on carbon allotropes, biomin-
erals, engineered materials, liquid crystals, yeast, iridescence, modern informa-
tion storage media, gold films, music of spheres, light bulb, friction, DNA, etc.
http://invsee.asu.edu/Invsee/invsee.htm
Columbia University: Details on seminars, NanoEngineering Clinic at Rowan, nan-
otechnology courses and workshops, REU, RET, and NanoDay in New York. Details
on the REU, RET, High School Visitation & Ron McNair CITIES programs.
http://research.radlab.columbia.edu/nsec/outreach/
http://www.cise.columbia.edu/mrsec/education.htm
Cornell University: Lesson plans on cantilevers, diatoms, microscopy and scale,
motors, sunprint paper and photolithography, sodium alginate polymers, chro-
matography, dissolving chocolate, springboks, create a mechanical flea, size, cat-
apults, elasticity testing, frog jumping, paper thickness, immunology curriculum,
nanosmores and photolithography, and microrebus. http://www.nbtc.cornell.edu/
mainstreetscience/index2.html
Lehigh: ImagiNations. Lehigh University Web site for students and teachers who
want to know more about nanotechnology. http://www.lehigh.edu/∼inimagin/
Museum of Science at Boston: Articles, news clips, demos, presentations, ex-
periments, videos, speeches, etc., on nanotechnology. http://www.mos.org/doc/
1137?words=nanotechnology
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262 Appendix G
NanoScience Instruments: Details on RET & REU programs at Virginia Tech, Cor-
nell University, Harvard University, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Rice Uni-
versity, Northwestern University, University of Connecticut, University of Califor-
nia at Santa Barbara, Columbia University, and University of South Carolina.
http://www.nanoscience.com/education/nanoschools.html
National Nanotechnology Infrastructure Network: This site provides general in-
formation about nanotechnology, links to additional resources, information on
REU and RET programs, and an online science magazine for students. http://
www.nnin.org.
North Carolina State University: In this unique software you explore characteristics
of viruses with the use of atomic force microscopy to figure out what is making a
puppy ill. Watch a phage invade a bacterium. Learn about how viruses take over a
cell and multiply. Examine different virus structures and learn about the history of
virology research. http://ced.ncsu.edu/nanoscale/materials.htm
Northwestern University: Materials World Modules and national Center for Learn-
ing and Teaching in Nanoscale Science & Engineering includes instructional mate-
rials, workshops, professional development, and video broadcasts
http://www.materialsworldmodules.org/
http://www.nsec.northwestern.edu/education.htm http://www.nclt.us
Rice University: Series of 12 self-contained nanoscale science and technology
lessons. Twenty-minute Proof-of-Concept DVD—3D animated video combining two
lesson/adventures: Welcome to the NanoLoft & DNA the Blueprint of Life? Interac-
tive digital student workbook features the Research Laboratory, the NanoLoft, the
DNA room, & the Nanotechnology room with information, exercises, games, sound
bites, out-of-the-box imagination, songs, etc. nanokids.rice.edu/
ScienceCentral, Inc: Lesson plans on nano cancer fix, nano’s downside, smallest
robot, etc. http://www.sciencentral.com/
University of California at Berkeley: Includes researcher presentations, interactive
demos and facilitated activities, physical/virtual contextual bridge exhibits, insights
into research, human map of research and talking techno heads.
http://scienceview.berkeley.edu/wor/Exhibits.html
http://scienceview.berkeley.edu/wor/Partners.htm
University of Chicago: Includes details on research opportunities for undergrad-
uates and high school students, demos for elementary school kids and intern-
ships for high school students. Also, includes videos like “Sights & Sounds of Sci-
ence,” “DrangonflyTV,” etc. Talks about museum collaborations & science camps.
http://mrsec.uchicago.edu/outreach/
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign: The Bugscope project provides a re-
source to classrooms so that they may remotely operate a scanning electron mi-
croscope to image “bugs” at high magnification. The classroom has ownership of
the project—they design their own experiment and provide their own bugs to be
imaged in the microscope. http://bugscope.beckman.uiuc.edu/
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill: Good site to explore relative sizes
of objects. Contains the classic video “Powers of 10” by Eames & Eames, along
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Appendix G 263
with other resources for investigating scientific notation and the scale of things.
Interactive Web site that starts with a pinhead & scales down to a virus. http://www.
cs.unc.edu/Research/nano/ed/scale.html
University of South Carolina: The National Science Foundation awarded the De-
partment of Chemistry & Biochemistry with Research Experiences for Undergrad-
uates Program & Research Experiences for Teachers Program in Nanoscience.
http://nano.sc.edu/ret/about/home.html
University of Wisconsin-Madison: Modules designed to show how x-ray diffraction &
scanning probe microscopy, shape-memory alloys, light-emitting diodes, ferrofluids,
magnetism, curricular connections, memory metal, and other metal nanoparticles
illustrate basic science concepts covered in the traditional chemistry curriculum.
http://www.mrsec.wisc.edu/edetc/modules/index.html
Vega Science Trust, England: Videos on basics of nanotechnology and how it will
change the world. http://www.vega.org.uk/series/tnbt/nanotechnology/index.
php
Virginia Tech: First edition of Nano2Earth, a secondary school curriculum designed
to introduce nanoscience and nanotechnology. It is the first program in the country
to introduce these subjects using an environmental science approach. http://www.
nanoed.vt.edu/curriculum2.htm
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Glossary
adhesion. The force causing unlike molecules to be attached to one another.

alkali metals. A group of soft, very reactive elements that include lithium, sodium,
and potassium.
angstrom unit. One hundred-millionth of a centimeter or 108 .
anion. A negatively charged ion.
arsenic. A gray, brittle element with a metallic luster.
assay. A chemical test to determine the effect of a drug.
atom. The smallest unit of a chemical element, about a third of a nanometer in
diameter. A unit composed of neutrons, electrons, and protons. Atoms make up
molecules and solid objects.
Atomic Force Microscope (AFM). An instrument able to image surfaces by measur-
ing the force on a tip as it moves across a surface on a substrate. Also termed a
scanning force microscope.
biopolymer. A polymer found in nature. DNA and RNA are examples of naturally
occurring biopolymers. See also polymer.
biosensor. A sensor used to detect a biological substance (for example: bacteria,
blood gases, or hormones).
biotech. Biotechnology, a technology based on biological organisms or molecular
biological techniques.
bottom-up nanofabrication. Building larger objects from smaller building blocks
such as atoms and molecules.
Buckminsterfullerene. See Fullerenes. A broad term covering the variety of buckyballs
and carbon nanotubes that exist. Named after the architect Buckminster Fuller, who
is famous for the geodesic dome, which buckyballs resemble.
Buckyball. A large molecule made up of 60 carbon atoms arranged in a series of
interlocking hexagonal shapes, forming a structure similar to a soccer ball.
carbon. A nonmetallic element found in all living things. Carbon is part of all or-
ganic compounds and, in combined form, of many inorganic substances. Diamonds,
graphite, and fullerenes are pure forms of carbon.
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266 Glossary
carbon nanotubes. Long, thin cylinders of carbon, that are unique for their size,
shape, and remarkable physical properties. Nanotubes have a very broad range
of electronic, thermal, and structural properties that change depending on the
different kinds of nanotube length, chirality, or twist.
catalyst. Any substance that increases a chemical reaction without itself being con-
sumed by the reaction.
cell. A small, usually microscopic, membrane-bound structure that is the fundamen-
tal unit of all living things.
cholesterol. A large molecule found in living tissue including much of the mass of
the human liver.
cleanroom. A climate- and particle-controlled workspace that includes an air filtra-
tion system that changes the air in the cleanroom about ten times every minute.
Special cleanroom suits are also required to protect equipment and other materials
in the cleanroom.
compound. A material in which atoms of different elements are bonded to-
gether.
crystals. The formation of a solid whose atoms have a definite pattern or arrange-
ment.
dendrimer. A dendrimer is a polymer with physical characteristics that make it very
applicable to probe and diagnose diseases or to manipulate cells at the nanoscale.
Dendrimer comes from the Greek word dendra, meaning tree.
Dip Pen Nanolithography. An AFM-based soft-lithography technique. A method for
nanoscale patterning of surfaces by the transfer of a material from the tip of an
atomic force microscope onto the surface.
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). The molecule that encodes genetic information,
found in the cell’s nucleus.
DNA Chip. A purpose-built microchip used to identify mutations or alterations in a
gene’s DNA.
drug delivery. The use of physical, chemical, and biological components to deliver
controlled amounts of a therapeutic agent to a diseased cell.
E-beam. An electron beam focused, steered, and controlled by magnets and by
electrostatic lenses, such as in an e-beam writer or a Scanning Electron Microscope
(SEM).
electrode. A material that allows an electric current to enter or leave a device.
electron. A subatomic particle with one negative charge.
electron beam lithography. A process of fabrication that uses electron beams to form
structures on surfaces.
electron microscopy. An electron microscope uses electrons rather than light to
create an image. An electron microscope focuses a beam of electrons at an object
and detects the actions of electrons as they scatter off the surface to form an image.
element. A material consisting of only one type of atom.
fuel cell. An electrical cell that converts chemical energy of a fuel into direct-current
electrical energy. Researchers are hoping to develop fuel cells that could take the
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Glossary 267
place of combustion engines, thereby reducing the world’s dependence on fossil

fuels.
ferrofluid. A fluid in which fine particles of iron, magnetite, or cobalt are suspended,
typically in oil. Ferrofluids were invented by NASA as a way to control the flow of
liquid fuels in space.
ferromagnetic materials. Substances, including a number of crystalline materials
that are characterized by a possible permanent magnetization.
fluorescence. The property of molecules to absorb a wavelength of light and then
emit light at a higher wavelength.
fullerenes. Fullerenes are a molecular form of pure carbon discovered in 1985. The
most abundant form produced is buckminsterfullerene (C60), with 60 carbon atoms
arranged in a spherical structure. There are larger fullerenes containing from 70 to
500 carbon atoms.
in vivo. A medical experiment done within a living subject.
ion. An atom or molecule that is electrically charged.
ion conductors. The discharge of charged particles in a fluid electrolyte to conduct
an electrical current.
ionic bond. A chemical bond in which an attractive electric force holds ions of
opposite charge together.
lab-on-a-chip devices. Miniaturized analytical systems that integrate a chemical labo-
ratory on a chip. Lab-on-a-chip technology enables portable devices for point-of-care
(or on-site) medical diagnostics and environmental monitoring.
liposome. A type of nanoparticle made from lipids or fat molecules. It was the
first nanoparticle used to create therapeutic agents to treat infectious diseases and
cancer.
lithography. The process of imprinting patterns on materials.
logic gates. Fundamental logic structures that are used in digital computing. The
most common gates are AND, OR, NOT Logic gates.
Magnetic Force Microscope. A kind of scanning probe microscope in which a mag-
netic force causes the tip to move. The motion allows the operator to measure the
magnetic force of a sample.
matter. Anything that occupies space.
metastasis. The process by which certain cancers spread from one organ or structure
within the body to another.
microchip. A silicon chip that contains many microscopic components.
molecular manufacturing. The automated building of products from the bottom
up, molecule by molecule, with atomic precision. This will make products that are
extremely lightweight, flexible, and durable.
molecular motors. Nanostructures that work by transforming chemical energy to
mechanical energy within biological structures.
molecules. Molecules are groups of atoms, which are bonded together.
monomer. A small molecule that may become chemically bonded to other
monomers to form a polymer. From the Greek mono “one” and meros “part.”
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268 Glossary
Moore’s Law. Coined in 1965 by Gordon Moore, future chairman and chief ex-
ecutive of Intel, it stated at the time that the number of transistors packed into an
integrated circuit had doubled every year since the technology’s inception four years
earlier. In 1975 he revised this to every 2 years, and most people quote 18 months.
nanobiotechnology. The ability to develop the tools and processes to build devices
for studying biosystems, in order to learn from biology how to create better nanoscale
devices.
nanocomposites. Nanomaterials that result from the mixture of two or more
nanoparticles to create greater strength in a product.
nanocrystals. Nanocrystals are aggregates of thousands of atoms that combine into a
crystalline form of matter. Typically around 10 nanometers in diameter, nanocrystals
are larger than molecules but smaller than bulk solids. The crystals might be added
to plastics and other metals to make new types of composite structures for everything
from cars to electronics.
nanodots. Nanoparticles that consist of homogenous materials that are spherical or
cubical in shape.
nanofabrication. The construction of items using assemblers and stock molecules.
nanofiber. A polymer membrane formed by electrospinning, with filament diame-
ters of 150–200 nanometers.
nanolithography. Refers to etching, writing, or printing at the microscopic level,
where the dimensions of characters are on the order of nanometers.
nanomanipulation. The process of manipulating items at an atomic or molecular
scale in order to produce precise structures.
nanomedicine. The area of research focusing on the development of a wide spec-
trum of nanoscale technologies for disease diagnosis, treatment, and prevention.
nanometer. A unit of measurement equal to one-billionth of one meter. The head
of a pin is about 1 million nanometers across.
nanoparticle. A nanoscale spherical or capsule-shaped structure. Most nanoparticles
are hollow, which provides a central reservoir that can be filled with anticancer
drugs, detection agents, or chemicals. Most nanoparticles are constructed to be
small enough to pass through blood capillaries and enter cells
nanoprobe. Nanoscale machines used to diagnose, image, report on, and treat dis-
ease within the body.
nanorods or carbon. Formed from multiwall carbon nanotubes.
nanoscale. The length scale between 1 to 100 nanometers.
nanoshells. Nanoscale metal spheres, which can absorb or scatter light at virtually
any wavelength. Nanoshells are being investigated for use in treating cancer.
nanoscience. The scientific understanding of nanoscale.
nanospheres. Spherical objects from tens to hundreds of nanometers consisting of
synthetic or natural particles.
nanostructures. Structures whose overall design is at the nanoscale.
nanotechnology. A manufacturing technology to fabricate most structures and ma-
chines from individual atoms and molecules.
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Glossary 269
nano-test-tubes. Carbon nanotubes that are opened and filled with materials, and
used to carry out chemical reactions.
nanotube. A one-dimensional fullerene with a cylindrical shape. Carbon nanotubes
were discovered in 1991 by Sumio Iijima. Nanotubes are a proving to be useful as
molecular components for nanotechnology.
nanowires. Semiconductor nanowires are one-dimensional structures, with unique
electrical and optical properties, that are used as building blocks in nanoscale de-
vices.
neutron. A subatomic particle with no electrical change and positive charge.
optics. The science of light and its interaction with matter.
piezoelectrics. Dielectric crystal that produces a voltage when subjected to mechan-
ical stress or can change shape when subjected to a voltage.
photosynthesis. The process by which plants and bacteria transform energy from
light sources into chemical energy.
photovoltaics. An artificial system that transforms light energy into electrical cur-
rent.
polymer. A macromolecule formed from a long chain of molecules called
monomers. Polymers may be organic, inorganic, synthetic, or natural in origin.
polymerization. The process of making polymers from monomers.
protein. Large organic molecules involved in all aspects of cell structure and func-
tion.
proton. A subatomic particle with a positive charge of one unit. The number of
protons in a nucleus determines which element the atom is.
quantum. A small discrete package of light energy.
quantum dots. Nanometer-sized semiconductor particles, made of cadmium se-
lenide (CdSe), cadmium sulfide (CdS), or cadmium telluride (CdTe) with an inert
polymer coating. Researchers are investigating the use of quantum dots for medical
applications, using the molecule-sized crystals as probes to track antibodies, viruses,
proteins, or DNA within the human body.
quantum dot nanocrystals (QDNs). They are used to tag biological molecules.
quantum mechanics. A largely computational physical theory that describes the
properties of matter at the nanometer scale.
replicator. A system able to build copies of itself when provided with raw materials
and energy.
RNA (ribonucleic acid). A long linear polymer of nucleotides found mainly in the
cytoplasm of a cell that transmits genetic information from DNA to the cytoplasm
and controls certain chemical processes in the cell.
Scanning Force Microscope (SFM). An instrument able to image surfaces to molecu-
lar accuracy by mechanically probing their surface contours. Also termed an atomic
force microscope.
Scanning Probe Microscopy (SPM). Experimental techniques used to image both
organic and inorganic surfaces with atomic resolution. Includes atomic force micro-
scopes and scanning tunneling microscopes.
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270 Glossary
Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM). An instrument able to image conducting

surfaces to atomic accuracy to reveal the structure of a sample.
self-assembly. At the molecular level, the spontaneous gathering of molecules into
well-defined, stable structures that are held together by intermolecular forces.
semiconductor. A solid substance, such as silicon, whose ability to conduct electricity
is less than metals. The semiconductor’s ability to conduct electricity increases with
rising temperatures.
silicon. A nonmetallic element that is widely used as a semiconductor for making
integrated circuits.
solubility. The ability of a solute to dissolve in a given solvent.
spectroscopy. The science of using a tool to reveal the composition of a sample
by measuring the light absorbed, scattered, and emitted by atoms or molecules
resulting in a spectrum.
stent. An expandable wire mesh used in a medical operation to keep blood vessels
open.
substrate. A wafer that is the basis for subsequent processing operations in the
fabrication of semiconductor devices.
superconductor. An object or substance that conducts electricity with zero resis-
tance.
thin film. A film one molecule thick; often referred to as a monolayer.
top-down fabrication. The process of making a nanostructure starting with the
largest structure and taking parts away.
top-down nanofabrication. Produces nanometer-scaled devices from bulk materials
by lithography techniques, which include photolithography, e-beam lithography,
and nanoimprint, etc.
transistor. The basic element in an integrated circuit. It is an on/off switch that
determines whether a bit is one or two.
Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM). The use of electron high-energy beams
to achieve magnification close to atomic observation.
wavelength. The wavelength of light is usually measured in angstrom units.
zeolite. A ceramic material built of aluminum oxide and silicon oxide with other
materials.
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Index
Abbe, Ernst, 63 CBEN. See Center for Biological and

Actuators/artificial muscles, 90–91 Environmental Nanotechnology
AFM. See Microscope: atomic force Cells: fuel, 8, 181–83; solar, 179–80
microscopy Center for Biological and
Aircraft structures, morphing, 47 Environmental Nanotechnology, 21
Appy-Bot, 219–21 Center for Responsible
Atomic mass, 39 Nanotechnology, 21
Atomic number, 39 Claus, Richard, Dr., 48
Atoms, 35–39 Cleanroom facilities, nanofabrication,
66–67
Batteries, 137–38 Cosmetics: sunscreens, 129
Biosensors, 114, 147; definition of, 151; CPGGH. See Canadian Program on
diabetes, treatment for, 114; glucose Genomics and Global Health
monitoring, for, 162–64; herbicides Crone, Wendy, 211
detection, in, 154–55; uses for, 165 Culpepper, Martin L., interview with, 21
Blasi, Laura, interview with, 203 CVD. See Nanotubes, carbon: chemical
Bonding: chemical, covalent chemical, vapor deposition
ionic, 40
Boyas, Matt, interview with, 120–22 DARP. See Defense Advanced Research
Buckyballs, 83–84, 100–101 Projects Agency
Bugscope project, 65 Defense Advanced Research Projects
Agency, 202
Campbell, Dean, interview with, 71–74 Democritus, 39
Canadian Program on Genomics and Dendrimers, 43–44, 111–12
Global Health, goals of, 11–12 Department of Agriculture, 195
Cancer: breast cancer, 108–11; Department of Defense, 200
dendrimers and, 43–44, 111–12; Department of Energy, 179, 195
detection and diagnosis of, 106–13; Department of Homeland Security, 201
skin cancer, 129; treatment with Desalination, 172–73
nanoshells, 107, 229 DeWald, Renee, 229–32
Carbon, 80–83 Diabetes, treatment for, 114–15, 162–64
Cardiovascular diseases, 103–05 Diamond, the mineral, 82
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272 Index
Diseases: bar code detection of, Medicine and health, nanotechnology

foodborne, 149, 153–54; biochips for in, 103–24; blood clots, drugs for,
detection of, livestock, 157 105; burn victims treatment, 116;
DOD. See Department of Defense drug delivery and targeting, 43–44,
DOE. See Department of Energy 117–18; heart stents, nano-thin
Dosimeter, carbon nanotube, 92 coating application for, 106;
Herceptin, 111; infections, fighting,
Electronics, nanoscale, 88 119; medical bandages, 135;
Empedocles, 38 pharmaceutical research, 119;
Energy sources, 179–83 salmonella, 149; vaccines, 159
Engineering: materials, 97; mechanical, Metalloids, 34–35
22–23, 25, 97 Metal Rubber, 47, 49–51, 134
Environmental Protection Agency, 21, MFM. See Microscope: magnetic force
178–79, 195 Microscope: atomic force, 57–60, 90,
EPA. See Environmental Protection 138, 156; atomic force microscopy,
Agency 138; electron, transmission, 63–64,
ExploraVision, 218 216–17; Hitachi tabletop, 66; Lego
models of, 60–63, 73–75, 227;
Fabric, nanomade, 128 magnetic force, 61; optical, 55–56;
FDA. See Food and Drug Administration scanning electron, 63, 65, 67;
Feynman, Richard P., 18–19 scanning probe, 56, 72–75; scanning
Food and Drug Administration, 200 tunneling, 57; Virtual, 69
Fullerenes, 82 Molecular self-assembly, 44–47, 132
Molecules, 39–47
Gentner, Norma L., 219 Mongillo, John, 51
GNAT robots, 122 Monolayer, 45
Monomer, 41
Healy, Nancy, 212 Moore’s Law, 88
MRI. See Imaging tools: magnetic
Iijima, Sumio, 84 resonance imaging
Imaging tools, 116–17; magnetic MWNTs. See Nanotubes, carbon:
resonance imaging, 117; molecular multi-walled
imaging diagnosis, 117; positron
emission tomography, 117 NAI: Nanotech Active Immunization,
Implants, 115–16 121–22
Isotopes, 37 Nano, definition of, 3
Nanobiotechnology Center, 227–29
Lab-on-a-Chip, 7, 117–18, 195–96 NanoCheck: water-cleaning, for, 159
Lam, Chiu-Wing, 19 Nanoclotterator, 222
Lawrence Hall of Science, 229 Nano-composite plastic barrier, 148
Nanocrystals, 93–94, 112, 127; plastic,
Macqueen, Brent, Dr., interview with, in, 149
139–42 Nanoelectronics, 98
Mapleseed, 202 Nanofabrication, 44, 66–67, 70–72, 132
Marcotte, Cathy, 48, 51 Nanoinfusion, 217
Mass: atomic, 39; definition of, Nanolithography, 68–69
30 Nanomachine, 23–25
Matter, 29–33 Nanomanipulators, 70
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Index 273
Nanooze, 217 made by, 86; multi-walled, 85; reverse

Nanoparticles, 3, 35; blood clots, for, osmosis, used in, 173; single-walled,
105; clay, 148; drug delivery and 85
targeting using, 117–18; gold, Nanotubes, non-carbon, 92–93
140–41, 175; iron, 74–175, 184–89; Nanowires, 93
medical applications of, 140–41; Nanozon, 229
nuclear waste sites cleanup with, 176; NASA. See National Aeronautics and
production of, 140; sunscreens, in, Space Administration
49, 140–41 National Aeronautics and Space
Nanorobots, 114, 141 Administration: spacecraft, 195–97;
NanoSafe, 2, 20 space elevator, 92, 197–98; Virtual
Nanoscale Informal Science Education, Lab, 69, 203–07
230 National Center for Learning and
NanoSense, 227 Teaching in Nanoscale Science and
Nanoshells, 96, 107, 229 Engineering, 230
Nanosolar, 136 National Heart, Lung, and Blood
NanoSonic, Inc., 47–51 Institute, 103
Nanosponges, polymer-based, 42 National Institute of Occupational
Nanotechnology: applications, 4, 7; Safety and Health, 20, 202–03
aquaculture, in, 159; benefits of, National Institute of Standards and
213–14; business of, 125–46; career Technology, 199
areas of, 17–18; career paths for, 211; National Institutes of Health, 103
definition of, 1, 29; demonstration National Nanofabrication Users
kit, 50–51; education for, 206–07, Network, 198
222–27, 229–30; energy sources and, National Nanotechnology
179–83; exhibits, traveling, of, Infrastructure Network, 14, 212, 232
227–29; fields of study influencing, National Nanotechnology Initiative, 2,
16; food packaging, in, 148–50; forest 10, 20, 193–95
products, in, 159; funding, U.S. National Science Foundation, 45,
government, for, 193–208; job market 198–99, 211
for, 13; products, consumer, using, National Science Teachers Association,
4–7, 15, 29, 125–35, 232; risks of, 19; 218
solar energy, in, 136; stage NAVs. See Vehicles, nano air
development of, 4; tools, 55; U.S. NCLT. See National Center for Learning
government investment in, 10, and Teaching in Nanoscale Science
193–208 and Engineering
Nanotechnology Education and NCN. See Network for Computational
Research program, 15 Nanotechnology
Nanotechnology Environmental and NEAR. See Nanotechnology Education
Health Implications, 20 and Research
Nanotechnology Research and NEHI. See Nanotechnology
Development Act, 193 Environmental and Health
Nanotubes, carbon, 83, 90–92, 97–99, Implications
135, 198; applications of, 86; Network for Computational
chemical vapor deposition, made by, Nanotechnology, 198
86; dosimeter, 92; electric arc NHLBI. See National Heart, Lung, and
discharge, made by, 86; hydrogen Blood Institute
fuel cells and, 90; laser ablation, NIH. See National Institutes of Health
P1: 000
274 Index
NIOSH. See National Institute of Schank, Patricia, Dr., interview with,

Occupational Safety and Health 139–42
NISE. See Nanoscale Informal Science Science, Technology, Engineering, and
Education Mathematics, 206–07, 225
NNI. See National Nanotechnology Semiconductors, 35
Initiative Sensors: chemical, 91; electronic nose,
NNIN. See National Nanotechnology 152–53; electronic tongue, 153; food
Infrastructure Network packaging, 152; tracking livestock,
NNIN Research Experience for for, 158; underwater networks, 202
Teachers, 214–18 Sourceforge, 69
NNIN RET. See NNIN Research SPM. See Microscope: scanning probe
Experience for Teachers STEM. See Science, Technology,
NNIST. See National Institute of Engineering, and Mathematics
Standards and Technology STM. See Microscope: scanning
NNUN. See National Nanofabrication tunneling
Users Network Surface area to volume, 56; nanosugar,
NSF. See National Science Foundation 53
NSTA. See National Science Teachers Surveillance, air, 202
Association SWNTs. See Nanotubes, carbon:
single-walled
Octavio, Paul, 219
OLED. See Organic light-emitting Targeted Nano-Therapeutics System,
displays 113
Optical fibers, 48 Tatoos, for treatment of diabetes, 115
Organic light-emitting displays, 7, TEM. See Microscope: electron,
131 transmission
Titanium dioxide, 177–78
Paranjape, Makarand, interview with, TNT. See Targeted Nano-Therapeutics
160–66 System
Particles, subatomic, 32, 36–37 Toshiba/NSTA ExploraVision, 230–31;
Perez, Edith, 109–11 awards program, 121
Periodic Table of Elements, 33–34 Tratnyek, Paul G., interview with,
Perrone, Sarah, interview with, 120–22 183–89
PET. See Imaging tools: positron Tumor-nator, 219
emission tomography
Photolithography, 67–68 Unterman, Nathan, interview with,
Photovoltaic cells: solar, 43, 136, 179–80 61–63
Pollution, air, 176–79, 184–88
Pollution, water, 169–76, 184–89 Vehicles, nano air, 202
Polymers, 41–43 Volume, definition of, 30
Prosthetics, 115–16 Volume to surface area, 33
Quantum dots, 94–96, 136; cancer and, Warheit, Davis, 19

112; solar cells, for, 180 Wise, Alyssa, Dr., interview with, 139–42
Roco, Mihail, Dr., 4, 13, 211 Xenon (Xe), 36
Sands, Timothy, interview with, 96–100 Zeolites, in water irrigation, 156

P1: 000
GGBD159ATA GR3880/Mongillo Top Margin: 5/8in Gutter Margin: 3/4in September 25, 2007 16:11
About the Author
JOHN MONGILLO is a noted science writer and educator. He is coau-

thor of Encyclopedia of Environmental Science, Environmental Activists, and
Teen Guides to Environmental Science, all available from Greenwood.
P1: 000
GGBD159ATA GR3880/Mongillo Top Margin: 5/8in Gutter Margin: 3/4in September 25, 2007 16:11

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Recent Titles in the

Human Origins 101

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data is available.

All rights reserved. No portion of this book may be

The paper used in this book complies with the

The U.S. Government Invests in Nanotechnology Research 10

Models of the Atoms 37

Hitachi Tabletop Microscope 66

Sporting Goods Equipment 125

Nano Plastic Packaging 148

Reverse Osmosis 172

A Self-Repair Spacecraft 197

North Carolina State University and the University of

Appendix A: Bibliography 235

What should you know about science? Because science is so central to

The National Science Foundation predicts that the global market-

r Bibliography. An excellent listing of reading materials at the end of each

RICHARD E. SMALLEY (1943–2005)

Richard Smalley died of non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma on October 2005.

The author wishes to acknowledge and express the contribution of gov-

Table 1.1 Some Common Objects in Nanometers

How Many Nanometers? Approximately

The Width of an Atom 1 nanometer (nm)

nanometers across. To get a sense of some other nano-scaled objects, a

r Research and technology development at the atomic, molecular, or macro-

See Chapter 8 for more information about the National Nanotechnology

Living with Nanoparticles

NANO, NANO, NANO

NANOTECHNOLOGY, A FUTURE TRILLION

NANOTECHNOLOGY WILL DEVELOP IN STAGES

NANOTECHNOLOGY PRODUCTS AND APPLICATIONS

Figure 1.1 Scale of Things. (Courtesy of Jeff Dixon)

Car Paint and Car Waxes

Sunscreens and Cosmetics

Organic Light-Emitting Displays or OLEDs

FUTURE APPLICATIONS OF NANOTECHNOLOGY

can be sprayed onto other materials and used as a portable source of

Food and Agriculture

Automobiles and Aeronautics

spacecraft. Planes, trains, and automobiles will be lighter, faster, and

THE U.S. GOVERNMENT INVESTS IN NANOTECHNOLOGY

Other Countries Are Also Investing in Nanotechnology Research

WHAT DO AMERICANS THINK OF NANOTECHNOLOGY?

find out about the public’s perceptions of nanotechnology. The tele-

For the full report, Study Shows Americans Encouraged by Prospects of

WILL NANOTECHNOLOGY BE USED TO HELP PEOPLE

The GPGGH is a leading international group that studies nan-

1. Energy storage, production, and conversion

Disease diagnosis and screening was ranked fourth. Some of these

THE NANOTECHNOLOGY JOB MARKET

UNIVERSITIES OFFER NANOTECHNOLOGY YOUTH PROGRAMS

Students interact with the LEGO R

of New Mexico, Stanford, Howard University, Michigan State, Univer-

The National Nanotechnology Infrastructure Network provides a variety of

have sponsored on-the-road nanoexhibits to spark public interest in

THE FIELDS OF STUDY THAT INFLUENCE NANOTECHNOLOGY

The field of engineering constitutes applied science or the use of

Feature: Mechanical Engineering