Introduction

This document is a companion document to the WW2 anti-tank gun penetration performance file, and I hope it will prove of equal or greater interest to WW2 wargamers. It differs from the ATk penetration file in its wider subject-matter and narrower range of sources. This is because, while information on anti-tank guns is frequently presented in popular works, data on the effectiveness of artillery or small arms is much rarer. All the sources currently cited here are documents from the PRO, Kew, in the series WO 291, which are reports and memoranda from operational research (OR) sections during and after WW2. The papers drawn on, in numerical order, are: WO 291/107 Comparison of the 7lb and 10lb 3" mortar bomb. 3 WO 291/113 Lethal effect of artillery fire. 4 WO 291/128 A theory of fragmentation. 5 WO 291/129 Lethality of 3" mortar HE bomb. 6 WO 291/138 Influence of ground cover on performance of HE projectiles. 7 WO 291/146 Dispersion of M48 HE shell from 75mm M3 gun in Sherman M4A4. 7 WO 291/150 WP as an anti-personnel weapon. 8 WO 291/157 Performance of 2-in mortar. 9 WO 291/163 Smoke fog trials. 9 WO 291/166 Accuracy and dispersion of fire from a 25-pdr troop. 10 WO 291/204 Japanese tank fighting methods. 10 WO 291/220 Dispersion and suggested bracketing drill for 95mm Tank Howitzer. 11 WO 291/262 Study of casualties caused by bombardment. 11 WO 291/300 VT fuzes. 12 WO 291/307 Effectiveness of the 'S' mine 35. 12 WO 291/308 Effect of flamethrowers on military personnel. 13 WO 291/324 Accuracy of first round in ATk engagements. 13 WO 291/383 Effectiveness of airburst HE. 14 WO 291/389 Weapon analysis memo. 14 WO 291/391 Night operations. 14 WO 291/399 Casualties to Churchill tanks in 25-pdr concentrations. 15 WO 291/410 A comparison of British and German mine detectors. 15 WO 291/443 Ranging procedure adopted with the 3" mortar. 16 WO 291/455 Cutting of wire obstacles by HE. 16 WO 291/464 Measure of effect of an HE weapon. 17 WO 291/469 Ranging mortars at night. 17 WO 291/471 Weight of small-arms fire needed for various targets. 18 WO 291/472 Performance and handling of HE grenades. 19 WO 291/473 Performance of bullet weapons. 21 WO 291/474 Rate of fire of the LMG. 22 WO 291/476 Comparison of rifle, Bren and Sten. 23 WO 291/479 Optimum rate of aimed rifle fire. 24 WO 291/482 The indication of targets by infantry to tanks. 24 WO 291/486 The indication of targets within the infantry section. 24 WO 291/491 Notes on R & A trials of British 3-in and German 8cm mortars. 26 WO 291/496 Anti-personnel effect of small HE shell. 27 WO 291/502 German infantry in action. 28 WO 291/538 A preliminary estimate of the destructiveness of various projectiles against MT and guns. 29 WO 291/543 Note on an experiment with Grenades 36 on dummy targets at Birmingham. 29 WO 291/559 The visual location of enemy positions. 30 WO 291/579 Comparison of mortar bombs. 30 WO 291/596 Observations on tank casualties. 30 WO 291/602 The practicability of overhead cover. 31 WO 291/620 The vulnerability of guns to attack by bombs and shell. 31 WO 291/672 An investigation of the accuracy of aiming with the Wasp flamethrower Mark II. 32 WO 291/716 The appearance of hull down tanks. 32 WO 291/741 Comparison of the performance of 75mm and 76mm tank gun ammunition. 33 WO 291/904 Morale effect of bombardment. 33 WO 291/946 Effects of bombardment present state of knowledge. 34

Introduction
WO 291/171, /180 and /741, which contain information on the accuracy and penetration of anti-tank guns, are summarised in the ATk penetration file. This is an extensive series, and the material presented here has been chosen and points extracted to suit my personal taste and interest in limited available time. I have concentrated on papers that looked as if they might be informative on the effectiveness of artillery or small arms; it is not always obvious from the title exactly what a file contains. Many of the papers concern field trials of fragmentation weapons. In these, wooden (I believe pine) board targets were set up, and the fragment impacts on them counted. Results are often expressed in "deep strikes and throughs". Using Professor Zuckerman's wounding criteria, penetration of one inch of wood was considered equivalent to incapacitating a man. "Throughs", obviously, are where fragments completely penetrate the target. I have not been able to discover any difference in intended meaning between "vulnerable area" and "lethal area" when used in the context of fragmentation weapons. The two terms appear to be used interchangeably. The usual common-sense cautions about the variability of results in real life apply, and in some cases the papers draw attention to the imperfect nature of their estimates. Wherever a passage appears in "quotation marks", it is copied verbatim from the original report. Imperial units are used in all the source documents, and I have retained them here. In order to facilitate conversion to SI units, a note on conversion factors is included at the end of the document. As ever, I would welcome comments, corrections or additions by e-mail to John.Salt@Brunel.ac.uk. If you can supply additional information on artillery or small-arms effectiveness, please be sure to include title, author, publisher and year of publication for any source you refer to.

John D Salt 16 December 1998

WW2 weapon effectiveness

WO 291/107 Comparison of the 7lb and 10lb 3" mortar bomb.
The effectiveness of each is the same, as for some unknown reason the 7lb bomb fragments more efficiently. "For normal angles of descent (6070) therefore the fragments sweep the ground all round the bomb with approximately uniform density." Results of screen tests, deep strikes and throughs per square foot: 7lb bomb Calculated 0.318 0.063 0.25 10lb bomb Calculated 0.511 0.116 0.061

Range (ft) 20 40 60

Observed 0.135 0.066 0.022

Range (ft) 15 30 45

Observed 0.333 0.444 0.062

"The chance per round of knocking out a point target is found to be approximately 1 in 16, so that after 20 rounds against an unprotected point target 70 per cent of the men present would have become casualties." The results for the 10lb bomb are acknowledged to be anomalous. The kill probability per round is given as 0.06. It is stated that r.m.s. errors (whatever they are) are 80 20 yards.

WW2 weapon effectiveness

WO 291/113 Lethal effect of artillery fire.
The results presented in this paper are based on a trial conducted at the School of Artillery on 22 June 1943. 81 wooden targets were set out in a 9 9 grid 100 yards wide and 150 yards deep. Six series were shot as follows: Series 1 2 3 4 5 6 Shell 25 pr HE Mk ID 105mm HE Mk 1 75mm HE 25 pr HE Mk ID 25 pr HE Mk ID 25 pr HE Mk ID Filling TNT Amatol 5050 TNT TNT TNT TNT Fuze 222 M48 (delay) M48 (delay) 231 Mk IV 118 Mk IV cap off 118 Mk IV cap on Action Time airburst Ricochet Ricochet Ricochet
Instantaneous DA

Rounds fired 100 100 38 100 200 200

Effective rounds 85 95 29 82 159 181

Short delay percussion

The effect on the targets was recorded as follows: Series 1 2 3 4 5 6 Effective rounds 85 95 29 82 159 181 Strikes 12 65 33 26 61 29 Tgts incapacitated 9 65 33 26 61 29 Lethal area (sq ft) 340 3000 2500 720 2300 780

Ground was considered to shield one-third of the fragments that would otherwise hit standing men. Airburst shells were considered to be no better than goundburst against targets in slit trenches, despite a theoretical prediction of a 2:1 improvement.

WW2 weapon effectiveness

WO 291/128 A theory of fragmentation.
The table below shows the "vulnerable areas" of various weapons, in square feet, making no allowance for ground effect. Protection levels shown are in thicknesses of mild steel in inches. Fragment velocities are in feet per second. Weapon 25 pdr Filling TNT Amatol 50/50 Amatol 60/40 " TNT Amatol 50/50 Amatol 50/50 Amatol 70/30 TNT " " " " Amatol 80/20 " " Amatol 60/40 " " " " " " Frag vel 2200 1800 1800 1800 3200 2800 2750 2100 1800 1900 2500 2650 4500 3000 3000 3500 3500 5000 " " 6500 " " No prot 3000 2650 2000 3000 3270 3600 5400 5600 1950 4200 500 220 3450 8500 9400 9100 12750 38400 45400 68100 35000 40000 62700 inch 550 inch 1 inch 2 inches

300 130 780

Ford steel

95mm

140

5.5"

80lb shell 100lb shell

1470 1400

500 330

3" 20cwt 4.5-inch Bofors 40mm Oerlikon 20mm 3" U.P. 3" steel mortar
4.2" mortar

800

600 1100 1900 2100 3900 17400 22900 34600 14300 19500 31600 300 400 1200 9500 14200 21400 7600 11900 20100 2500 5100 8400 2000 4600 8400

20lb "F" bomb 40lb GP bomb 250lb GP bomb 500lb GP bomb 1000lb GP bomb 250lb MC bomb 500lb MC bomb 1000lb MC bomb

350 440 400 1100

The vulnerable area for the 2-in mortar bomb (filled with baratol) is quoted as 2060 square feet by Professor Zuckerman, calculated as 18001900 square feet in theory. Figures for 3-in mortar including ground effect are 5,350 sq ft for the 7 lb bomb, 5,700 sq ft for the 10lb bomb. The expected difference in performance between GP and MC bombs was not shown.

WW2 weapon effectiveness

WO 291/129 Lethality of 3" mortar HE bomb.
The cast iron (Mark IV) bomb is about 70% better than the steel (Mark III) bomb, due to finer fragmentation. Stick fuzes would probably add 65% to the effectiveness of the cast iron bomb, 25% to the steel. Time-fuzed HE was considered "practically valueless" due to the zone of the fuze and the steep angle of descent. "Jumping" mortar bombs might perhaps be up to ten times more effective against entrenched troops, whereas the stick fuze would be no more effective. "Preliminary results obtained by AORS7 show that the reduction in overall lethality by small bumps may be as much as 6 times for men lying down." Vulnerable areas are given as 3,200 square feet for the steel bomb, 5,500 the cast-iron. Probability of incapacitation (%) for each type of bomb are given as: Range (feet) Cast iron Steel 10 100 90 20 73 48 30 48.5 29 50 22 9.3 100 1.5 1.2

It is suggested that these can be usefully presented in two ways; either as percentage chances, or as odds. As percentages at different ranges (yards): Range (yds) Cast iron Steel 2 100 100 5 90 60 10 50 30 20 12 5 40 1 1

As ranges (yards) at which different odds apply: Odds Cast iron Steel 10-1 on 5 3 Evens 10 5 3-1 15 10 10-1 20 15 100-1 40 40

WW2 weapon effectiveness

WO 291/138 Influence of ground cover on performance of HE projectiles.
Ground is considered to fall into one of five categories: Cover rating Very poor Poor Average Good Very good Description Sandy beaches Bare heath, links, level grassland Most grassland, woods (ignoring trees) Rough grass, old ploughland (3 weeks or more), land with strong undulations. Ground with anthills, or strewn boulders; freshly ploughed land; old tank park.

I II III IV V

Cover factors for each kind of ground are: Rating I II III IV V Ground cover factor 25 pdr 3" mor C.I. 12 11.5 24 1.52 46.5 23 6.510 34 >10 >4 Lethal area 3" mor C.I. 8000 6000 4000 3000 <2500

25 pdr 2000 1000 500 350 <250

Effect of height of burst for 25pdr is given as: Height (ft) Cover factor 1 5.3 2 3.1 3 2.7 4 2.1 6 1.6

WO 291/146 Dispersion of M48 HE shell from 75mm M3 gun in Sherman M4A4.

90% zone of the shell, at the following ranges: Range (yds) 1000 2000 3000 4000 1000 2000 3000 4000 Charge Normal " " " Super " " " Vertical (feet) 3 8 18 39 2 7 13 27 Horizontal (yards) 35 46 56 83 59 67 66 82

WW2 weapon effectiveness

WO 291/150 WP as an anti-personnel weapon.
White phosphorous is considered especially effective against targets in slit trenches, as the burning lumps of phosphorous lose velocity quickly and fall vertically. Soft ground decreases effectiveness; slit trenches halve the "incendiary area". It is recommended that when WP smoke is used for screening, it should be placed directly on the enemy position to be screened. The advantages are both casualty effect and screening regardless of wind direction. Infantry follow friendly artillery "perhaps as close as 70 yards". "...battle experience has shown that flat trajectory support has not the same neutralising properties as 'crump', unless targets are accurately located, which is not often the case." Four kinds of WP-filled projectile were available, with weights and fillings as follows: Weapon 77 grenade 2-in mortar 3-in mortar 4.2-in mortar Overall weight 12 oz 2 lb 10 lb 20 lb Weight of WP 8 oz 5 oz 1 lb 5 lb

The "incendiary area" (analogous to "lethal area" or "vulnerable area") of each, in square feet, is: Weapon 77 grenade 2-in mortar 3-in mortar 4.2-in mortar Hard ground 800 700 2700 Troops in the open Marshy ground Soft ground In slit trenches Hard ground Soft ground

1800 5000

550

1500 3000

The choking effect of WP smoke is mentioned. It is also mentioned that burns contaminated with phosphorous are extremely painful, but that the effects of WP are unlikely to be lethal. If four 3-in mortars fire 100 HE bombs into an area 100 yards square occupied by a platoon (48 men) in slit trenches, it is considered that there is a 60% chance of destroying one trench (4% of the platoon). The same number of WP bombs is expected to result in 40% casualties. The same results could be achieved with about half the number of 4.2-in bombs.

WW2 weapon effectiveness

WO 291/157 Performance of 2-in mortar.
Results from trials performed in 1942. Use of the no. 2 sight is recommended to improve accuracy. The 2-in smoke bomb was criticised for leaving smoke trails that were thought to give away the firing position; in fact the problem was with smoky propellant. It is mentioned that the chance of hitting a target under 2-in mortar illumination at night is approximately one-third of the chance in daylight. The following table gives the hit probabilities and number of rounds needed to secure a 50% chance of incapacitating the target, a standing man, at the ranges given: Range (yds) Hit probability No. bombs 200 LA 10% 7 400 LA 3.8% 18 525 6.8% 10 400 HA 4.9% 14 200 HA 6.0% 12

WO 291/163 Smoke fog trials.

Trials were performed with lines of smoke generators up to 1000 yards long. The limiting windspeeds for formation of an efficient smoke blanket, over flat ground with scattered belts of trees, were found to be 3 and 10 mph. The optimum visibility for sub-units attacking, whether infantry on infantry or tanks on ATk guns, was, according to the trials participants, 15 to 25 yards. "Even with so low a visibility as 20 yards, the infantry defender has an advantage of 7 seconds over the attacker as regards first sight. With greater visibilities, the advantage increases almost linearly." The maximum useful visibility was 25 yards, which produced no difficulty in controlling a platoon provided that direction can be assured. Visibilities of 50 to 100 yards offer little protection against LMGs and small arms. When tanks are attacking in visibility of 15 to 25 yards, "the interval of time between mutual sighting is so reduced that the tank has a very good chance of overrunning the gun before the latter can fire. In such densities of smoke the telescopic sight is useless, and the tank will depend on overrunning and its secondary armament. The maximum range of the manpack flamethrower is given as 40 yards.

WW2 weapon effectiveness

WO 291/166 Accuracy and dispersion of fire from a 25-pdr troop.
This trial was conducted in 1943, consisting of six shoots with a troop of four guns. The observed 50% zones, in yards, for each gun, for each shoot, were:
Shoot

Gun 1 2 3 4

1 Charge III range line 49 9 67 10 127 19 31 13

2 Charge III range line 20 10 47 6 52 11 58 14

3 Charge III range line 90 10 54 20 49 14 55 21

4 Charge III range line 98 11 60 19 89 3 44 10

5 Charge II range line 122 5 96 13 118 6 95 6

6 Charge III range line 5 11 91 12 132 10 67 4

The number of ranging shots fired, for each shoot, were:

Shoot

Range, yds Shots

1 6900 9

2 7150 8

3 7150 14

4 7000 7

5 6900 13

6 6900 13

For each shoot, the maximum errors in range and line, in yards, were:
Shoot

Range Line

1 + 75 106 (twice)

2 +143 35

3 +108 137

4 +62 179

5 +246 74

6 +187 100

WO 291/204 Japanese tank fighting methods.

"Until recently their heaviest ATk gun was the 37mm, which had approximately half the penetration of the 2-pdr firing APCBC shot." "One Matilda at Finschhafen took 50 hits from a 37mm and a 75mm, and was only disabled eventually by a hit on the track and track adjuster. (Realising the 37mm will not penetrate the Matilda the Japanese are now shooting at the tank tracks)." A 75mm hollow-charge round is estimated to have a penetrating performance of between 50 to 100mm of homogenous armour at normal, probably 80mm. "One report mentions a 75mm AP round which just penetrated a Stuart turret at 5080 yards." The 75mm Model 88 AA gun has been used in the ATk role, on one occasion knocking out four light tanks, but it has a low velocity for an AA gun and penetration is only slightly better than the Model 90 field gun. A hollow-charge ATk rifle grenade, similar to the German Gross Gewehr PanzerGranate 40, has a penetration performance of 50mm of mild steel. A frangible Prussic acid gas grenade captured in Malaya contained 278 grams of HCN.

10

WW2 weapon effectiveness

WO 291/220 Dispersion and suggested bracketing drill for 95mm Tank Howitzer.
The following horizontal and vertical 90% zones and horizontal 50% zones are given for HE Mark IA from the 95mm Tank Howitzer: Range (yards) 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 90% zones Horizontal (yds) 30.5 54.0 75.0 94.0 109.0 119.0 126.0 131.0 136.0 141.5 50% zone Horizontal (yds) 12.5 22.0 30.8 38.5 44.5 49.0 51.5 53.5 56.0 58.0

Vertical (ft) 2.2 8.5 18.6 32.2 49.5 69.5 92.0 118.0 147.0 177.0

WO 291/262 Study of casualties caused by bombardment.

"25 pdr equivalents" for two weapons, in nominal lbs: Weapon 5-in rocket 105mm shell Warhead weight 29lb 33lb HE weight 7.0lb 4.9lb 25-pdr equivalent 50 40

Lethal areas for CB on gun targets, 5.5in 98lb shell: Target weapon 150mm or 170mm gun 75mm or 105mm gun 88mm gun No data were available on the lethal area for Nebelwerfer targets. Some CB results reported in this document show German 88mm guns surviving, for example, a medium round in the gun pit, or 4 field rounds in the gun pit. Killing guns seems to need a direct hit or a medium round. Results from a 500lb & 1000lb bomb drop on German tanks in an orchard showed much higher effectiveness than expected 13.4 bombs per acre on 12 tanks resulted in 3 destroyed and 6 damaged by fire. No apparent relation was observable between fire damage and distance from the nearest crater. Lethal area, sq ft 1300 700 1000

11

WW2 weapon effectiveness

WO 291/300 VT fuzes.
In four trials, rates of accurate fuze function were observed as 66.7%, 77.8%, 77.5% and 71.0%. "It should be noted that for angles of impact less than 50 these best heights of burst are very much lower than the mean height of burst obtained." In other words, VT tends to burst too high unless fired well into the upper register. Some selected mean heights of burst: Fuze T97E6 T97E9A T97E9C T98E6 T100E6 T100E6B T100E9A T100E6 Shell 25-pdr 25-pdr 25-pdr 3.7" AA 5.5" 80lb 5.5" 80lb 5.5" 80lb 7.2" Mean height of burst (feet) 105 195 73 225 142 76 125 173

WO 291/307 Effectiveness of the 'S' mine 35.

This report states that lethal area is not a good measure of effectiveness for mines. Average chances of becoming a casualty at different distances from the mine are deduced from a casualty survey, and from a dummy trial. From the casualty survey: Range (feet) 10 20 30 50 80 From the dummy trial: Range (feet) 5 to 10 15 20 30 40 60 80 100 Casualties 2 6 3 5 5 10 4 1 Exposed 3 8 7 13 32 72 97 98 Percentage 67 75 43 38 16 14 4 1 Casualties 83 34 13 9 5 Exposed 99 57 36 42 25 Percentage 84 60 36 21 20

12

WW2 weapon effectiveness

WO 291/308 Effect of flamethrowers on military personnel.
Users believe from experience in action that flamethrowers have a strong morale effect. It is estimated that a gallon of burning fuel in contact with the victim will kill. Information from flame actions showed an average of 270 gallons per death, 9 gallons per prisoner. Discharge rates are 4.7 gallons/sec for the Crocodile, 1 gallon/sec for the manpack. Thickened fuel gives a clean flame rod, with little or no obscuration, and the fuel continues to burn on the ground. Unthickened fuel produces a sheet of billowing flame, much obscuration, and little burning on the ground. This obscuration effect could be used to blind pillbox slits at 20 yards or over with a manpack flamethrower, then approach to 10 yards, close enough to shoot through the aperture.

WO 291/324 Accuracy of first round in ATk engagements.

This paper considers the various sources of error in the first shot for anti-tank shooting, and concludes that the dominating source of error is in range estimation. The following figures show the expected range error, in minutes, of different gun and ammo combinations: Ammunition APCBC APSV/DS (zeroing with APCBC) APSV/DS
(zeroing with APSV/DS)

Gun 6 pdr 17 pdr 6 pdr 17 pdr 6 pdr 17 pdr

Range (yds) 400 1000 400 1000 400 1000

Range error (mins) 2.9 6.3 3.7 5.2 3.6 5.1

1 minute of arc corresponds to an error of 4.2 inches at 400 yards, or 10.5 inches at 1000 yards.

13

WW2 weapon effectiveness

WO 291/383 Effectiveness of airburst HE.
This investigates the effectiveness of airburst HE using the 210 fuze. The 100% zone of the fuze is stated as 250 yards at 6000 yards. When combined with the "practical zone of the gun" for the 25-pdr of 160 yards, this gives (taking the square root of the sum of the squares of the two figures) a combined zone of 300 yards. The difficulty of firing airburst is stressed, as the observer must adjust fire in three (range, line and fuze length), rather than two, dimensions. Adjustment is hard unless, as in dry dusty soil, the splinter pattern can be seen. "The American SP 105mm with which one regiment is equipped, is provided with a proportion of time fuzes, and airburst HE was used against ATk gun detachments, and in the opinion of observing officers, its neutralising effect was far quicker and more effective than that of HE burst on the ground." If a man is in cover such that he will only be hit by fragments coming down at angles over 45 to the horizontal, the lethal areas against targets in slit trenches vary with height of burst as follows: Height (ft) Lethal area (sq ft) 0 25 (direct hit) 25 400 50 800 75 900 100 800 200 500 300 350 400 250 600 180

WO 291/389 Weapon analysis memo.

This mentions that "...until quite recently, it was not known that very small fragments of shells, weighing less that 1/100 of an ounce, can easily kill a man."

WO 291/391 Night operations.

This 1943 paper suggest that night operations have so far been neglected. It offers various advice about preserving dark-adaptation and seeing at night, and the following table, giving ranges of visibility, in yards, of a man in khaki or field grey: Lighting Full moon Half moon Starlight Snow or sky 300 150 100 Background Grass 150 75 30

Plough 100 50 15

14

WW2 weapon effectiveness

WO 291/399 Casualties to Churchill tanks in 25-pdr concentrations.
A trial conducted in 1943 tested proposed new tactics, whereby Churchills would advance though concentrations of friendly 25-pdr fire, by twice driving a squadron of Churchills through live artillery fire. It is concluded that the worst that can happen to a Churchill in these circumstances is immobilisation. The effect of a 25-pdr round exploding on a Churchill is described thus: "There is no adverse effect on the crew from a 25 pdr direct hit. Fragments cannot penetrate the tank, and the blast is not at all uncomfortable."

WO 291/410 A comparison of British and German mine detectors.

This paper concludes that there is "little to choose between them". The average horizontal distance at which buried German ATk mines were found was 26 inches with the German detector, or the British one with the large search coil. With the British detector fitted with the small search coil the distance was 21 inches, "quite adequate for its purpose".

15

WW2 weapon effectiveness

WO 291/443 Ranging procedure adopted with the 3" mortar.
This paper is dated 28 May 1943. The drill is: 1. Fire an HE round at the estimated range. 2. If it lands minus, add (typically 100 to 200 yards) so that the next shot falls plus, or vice-versa. 3. Continue until a "long bracket" is obtained, that is, two bombs straddling the target at ranges differing by 100 yards. 4. Confirm a "short bracket" by observing two bombs fired at the same range fall plus and two more at a range 50 yards less fall minus. 5. Fire for effect at a range midway between the two ends of the short bracket. If a "contradiction" is obtained two bombs fired at the same range, one falling minus, the other plus and if this is supported by having observed a minus at 50 yards less range and a plus at 50 yards more, there is no need to confirm the short bracket, and fire for effect can begin at once. At ranges below 800 yards, the commander may go straight to a short bracket without obtaining a long bracket. The mortar must be re-laid for range between shots, but not for line unless in very soft soil. The table below shows results from 12 ranging shoots (13 shoots were made but no results recorded from the first), showing which shots fell plus and minus, the range in yards at which fire for effect was ordered, and the method of obtaining the range, whether by contradiction or confirmed short bracket. N/O means not observed, B means blind. Shoot 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 1 +
N/O

N/O

2 + + + + + + + +

3 + + B +

4 + + + + + + +

5 + + + + + + +
FFE

6 + +
FFE

7
FFE

8
FFE

10

FFE

+ +
FFE FFE

FFE

+
FFE

FFE

FFE

FFE

Range 950 1625 1675 1175 1075 2325 2275 2200 2175 2275 2300 2200

How obtained Contradiction Conf. SB Conf. SB Conf. SB Conf. SB Conf. SB Conf SB Contradiction Conf. SB Conf. SB Contradiction Contradiction

WO 291/455 Cutting of wire obstacles by HE.

A single 25-pdr shell will cut a gap of about 10 1 feet. A single gun or a battery of 25-pdrs ranged accurately on the same point will require about 1000 shells to cut a gap through a wire obstacle. One cut per foot is considered sufficient for an effective gap. Bangalore torpedoes cut gaps of 19ft in British wire, 15ft in German wire.

16

WW2 weapon effectiveness

WO 291/464 Measure of effect of an HE weapon.

"Radius of effect is defined as the radius of a semi-circle in front of the projectile on which the average density of throughs and deep strikes on vertical wooden targets is 1 per 10 square feet." As the radius of effect of a projectile is proportional to the square root of the weight, so the area is directly proportional to the weight. "As a general rule the vulnerable areas of a projectile is rather less than proportional to its weight."

WO 291/469 Ranging mortars at night.

3" mortar star shell (parachute illuminating) has a 10-second delay and burns for 30 to 40 seconds. It will illuminate the position of the mortar from which it was fired unless the range is over 500 yards. Stars can be fired to 650 yards with 3 secondary charges. Using more risks tearing the parachute off, but with 6 secondaries 850 yards is possible. It is considered that ranging can be done at 900 to 1000 yards, or to 1400 if a second tube is used to fire the stars. It is important to economise on star shell, as few are likely to be carried. The ranging drill, whether firing stars from the same or a different tube, is: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Fire an HE round. Wait 5 seconds. Fire a star, which should light in time to show the HE burst. Fire a second HE. Fire 3 MPI rounds and a star.

If a long bracket is obtained with the first two HE bombs, only 2 stars may be needed to range. At longer (6 secondaries) range, this won't work. Instead, fire 3 HE and one star in 8 seconds, or, probably better, fire 1 star, wait 10 seconds, then fire 3 HE and repeat as necessary. Firing the star first gives a slightly longer time to apply corrections to the sights.

17

WW2 weapon effectiveness

WO 291/471 Weight of small-arms fire needed for various targets.
"These figures are exceedingly tentative, and it should be realised that even if correct, they may have little value in the Infantry battle, where the weight of fire needed is in general decided more by what is available, and then corrected empirically." Targets are considered to be in slit trenches, exposing an area of sq ft to fire, or pillboxes, exposing an area of sq ft to fire from an embrasure. Two levels of neutralisation are recognised. "Light neutralisation" is defined as the minimum weight of fire to appreciably effect the accuracy of enemy fire. The enemy will suffer casualties at a rate of 2% per minute, or one man per platoon per minute, if they stay in a firing position for more than a third of the time they are fired on. "Heavy neutralisation" is defined as the weight of fire needed effectively to stop any retaliatory measures on the part of the enemy, with a casualty rate of 10% per minute, or one man per section per minute. It is estimated that a bullet passing within 3 yards sounded near enough to be dangerous. Sections are assumed to be at full strength, 1+9, with Bren, Sten and 8 rifles, although it is acknowledged that rarely in battle will section strength exceed 1+6. Brens are assumed to fire 120 rds/min, rifles 18 rds/min. The range of engagement is assumed to be 100 to 200 yards. The effect of 2-in mortars is neglected. Rounds per minute required to achieve neutralisation on target frontages in yards are: Cover Frontage Light neut Heavy neut Slit trenches 20 50 200 Pillboxes 20 100 400

100 250 1000

4 10 40

100 500 2000

4 20 80

Force required to give covering fire: Cover Frontage Light neut Heavy neut Slit trenches 20 1 Bren gp or rifle gp 1 sec Pillboxes 20 Bren gp or rifle gp 2 sec

100 1 sec 1 pl + 1 sec

4 1 rifleman
1 Bren gp or 3 riflemen

100 2 secs 1 coy

4 Bren gp or 2 riflemen 1 Bren gp or rifle gp

18

WW2 weapon effectiveness

WO 291/472 Performance and handling of HE grenades.
A trial of grenade-throwing accuracy was conducted using the 36 grenade (Mills bomb), taking the average of 18 throws (3 throws by 6 men). The average errors, in feet, at different ranges were: 15 yds 13 5 20 yds 11 4 26 9 30 yds 14 10 11 8 40 yds 12 10 14 11

Guards Devons

Range Line Range Line

For stick grenades, "the stick does not seem to increase the maximum accurate throw, but it does prevent rolling". Average errors and length of roll, in feet, are given as: Range 15 8 Line 8 8 Roll 9 3

Mills 36 Time-fuzed stick

Chances of incapacitation, at different distances from different grenades, are given as: Distance (feet) 3 6 9 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 36 grenade USA grenade Normal filling TNT filling German stick grenade On base As thrown 97% 83% 92% 75% 70% 45%

45% 17% 13% 10% 3.0% 1.4% 0.7%

20% 7% 2% 0.5%

40% 18% 10% 5%

The USA grenade was given an experimental TNT filling for these tests. Only one German grenade was available, so this was fragmented on its base and the results used to calculate the expected results "as thrown", the orientation of a thrown grenade being significant in affecting its burst pattern. The 36 grenade, it is stated. "has a very irregular burst". The lethal area of the 36 grenade is given as 1550 sq ft on meadow land, and that of the USA grenade 350 sq ft. The lethal area of the 36 grenade is calculated as 2000 sq ft on perfectly flat ground, which would correspond to 1500 sq ft on normal ground. On perfectly smooth ground, incapacitation probabilities are stated as being 84% at 10 feet, falling to 14% at 30 feet. Maximum throws, in yards, for different types of British grenade: Grenade 70 71 36 Standing 33 28 30 Lying 31 23 26

"The conclusions with regard to the 69 grenade were: (i) A direct hit would be lethal (ii) Apart from the concussive effect and flying stones there seems to be little probability of injury beyond a radius of a few feet."

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WW2 weapon effectiveness

Length of throw, in yards, for British and US grenades: Standing behind cover 31 31 In the open Crouching behind cover 21 21 Lying in the open

British 36 US fragmentation British 69 US offensive

32 28

26 26

Average length of throw, in yards, for different British grenades: Grenade 70 71 36 69 (segmented jacket) 69 (plain jacket) Standing behind cover 29 25 30 26 28 Crouching behind cover 24 22 25 23 23 Lying 23 22 24 24 22

Screen test results giving percentage chance of incapacitation at different ranges: Grenade 70 71 36 69 (segmented jacket) 69 (plain jacket) 4 feet 85 98 73 96 91 8 feet 39 63 29 56 44 12 feet 20 36 14 31 23

Finally, the average percentage chances of incapacitation at 10 to 20 feet are given as 33% for the 36 grenade, 25% for the US rifle grenade M9A1, an anti-tank grenade, but with good anti-personnel characteristics.

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WW2 weapon effectiveness

WO 291/473 Performance of bullet weapons.

On the matter of relative rate-of-fire of the Bren and MG-42, this paper says "...the advantages of the German gun over the Bren are due almost entirely to the belt feed rather than to the cyclic rate." A trial was conducted to find out, for closely-spaced standing targets, whether "traversing fire" traversing the gun over an arc without aiming at individual targets was superior to "service bursts", that is, firing short aimed bursts at individual targets, with the Bren gun. The results tabulated here show the expected number of casualties per 30 seconds' firing: Range (yds) 100 100 200 200 Spacing in feet 4 8 4 8 Service bursts 9 5 8 5 Traversing fire 16 8 12 7

Another trial concerned the relative accuracy of the Bren fired from the hip using ball and tracer ammunition. Firing at fixed targets at 35 yds and moving targets at 17 yds, an improvement averaging 24% was found firing tracer rather than ball. Yet another trial involved comparing the Sten gun against the service pistol. At a range averaging 10 yards, the following average results were obtained on targets exposed for an average of 5 seconds and moving across the line of fire at 10 feet per second: Type of fire Sten from the hip Pistol from the hip Pistol, aimed Hits per shot 0.12 0.08 0.14 Hits per engagement 1.86 0.48 0.71 Shots per engagement 16 5 5

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WW2 weapon effectiveness

WO 291/474 Rate of fire of the LMG.
In trials held in 1944, the average time of Bren gunners needed to re-aim in between bursts was measured as 2.3 seconds; to change mag and re-aim, 3.8 seconds. These figures are not fast enough to maintain the official "rapid rate" of 112 rds/min, which would need 1.8 and 3.3 seconds respectively. Four theoretical gun types were considered: Gun A B C D Cyclic rate of fire 500 1000 500 1000 Feed mag mag belt belt rds/min burst fire 112 120 124 134 rds/min continuous fire 218 285 400 660

The above figures assume no time to change belts, but 9 seconds to change barrel after 280 rounds. "It will be very exceptional for the LMG to be fired at a greater range than 600 yards by forward troops." Trials were conducted on the time required to duck to cover on hearing a loud noise. They showed an average of 0.19 seconds to start ducking, and 0.56 seconds to get completely under cover. An average of about 20% improvement was expected for the belt-fed guns due to higher rate of fire. If being used to neutralise 8 targets over a frontage of 20 to 40 yards at a range of 100 to 200 yards, the relative neutralisation values of the guns in terms of targets neutralised were evaluated as 6 for gun A, 7 for gun B, and 8 for guns C and D. Firing burst in defence, the relative advantages of the guns in casualty-causing potential were estimated at +7% for gun B, +11% for gun C and +20% for gun D, with even greater advantages for the faster guns if using traversing fire. Expected casualties caused by each gun using traversing fire on 24 men spaced at 6 ft intervals: Gun minute 1 minute A 13 19 B 15 21 C 18 23 D 22 24

Enfilade fire gives much bigger advantages to faster rates of fire; gun B +20%, gun C +100%, gun D +220%, though no allowance made for over-hitting.

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WW2 weapon effectiveness

WO 291/476 Comparison of rifle, Bren and Sten.
This paper investigates four theories about small-arms effectiveness: 1. 2. 3. 4. Rifle and Bren shooting is generally so poor that the real accuracy of these weapons is never used; Rifles and Brens are rarely used at long ranges except by snipers; For semi-skilled troops, automatic weapons are disproportionately better than single shot; The advantage of automatic over single-shot is increased by battle conditions.

Trials conducted at the School of Infantry confirm 1, 2 and 4. "It is admitted that all the above trials have been on a small scale and that and that the sample of men was probably not representative of the Infantry as a whole; but it is expected that the trends shown will hold for all except possibly the first class shot." The Bren and Sten were fired at 100, 200 and 300 yards, and the equivalent 90% zones, in inches, calculated at 25 yards. Single shot 100 yds 200 yds 300 yds Mean Bren 2.4 2.0 2.0 2.2 Sten 4.3 5.2 5.4 5.0 Bren 3.8 4.4 3.8 4.1 Automatic Sten 4.6 5.0 5.6 5.0

Shooting was done lying with weapon rested; an improvised backsight was fitted to the Sten for shooting at 300 yards. An extra trial to confirm the lethality of Sten bullets at 300 yards was performed with " deal targets covered in two thicknesses of webbing. All hits were "throughs". Another set of trials, each of 20 rounds, was shot on a 30 yard range, and the following results obtained. It was noted that "the average firer has a higher overall chance of hitting an enemy at 200 yards with a Sten than with a rifle." Weapon Rifle (unrested) Bren Sten (unrested) Sten (rested) Fire type 90% zone (inches at 25 yds) 3.1 2.9 4.0 5.6 10.4 4.6 6.7 % chance of a hit on a man at 200 yds single shot 4-rd burst 57 60 90 31 40 40 68

single burst single burst single burst

A trial was performed on moving targets at 17 yards. The targets were 4ft tall and 1ft wide, covering a 50 ft run, exposed for 5 seconds. Weapon Rifle Bren (single) Bren (bursts) Sten III (single) Sten III (bursts) Runs 6 5 6 10 35 Shots/run 2 4 6.8 5.6 12.1 Hits/run 1.3 1.4 1.2 2.0 4.4 Hits/shot 0.67 0.35 0.17 0.36 0.38

"An analysis of the hits in each burst for 27 Sten runs showed that the most common number of hits per burst is about 1, thus disproving the suggestion that a high score in "bursts" is due to all the shots in one burst hitting."

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WW2 weapon effectiveness

WO 291/479 Optimum rate of aimed rifle fire.

"It has for some time been the practice at the School of Infantry and elsewhere to demonstrate a rifleman firing his rifle at a very high rate (up to 25 rounds per minute), and it has appeared to be questionable whether such a rate is worth while attempting." A trial was conducted with 8 Guardsmen and 5 Canadians firing from the lying position at 25 yards. The average minimum and maximum rates of fire were 12.7 and 22.7 rds/min for the Guards, 13.2 and 19.5 rds/min for the Canadians. The results were adjusted to give the following expected number of hits per minute on a 5ft 1ft target at 200 yards: Rate Hits 10 3.8 12 4.5 14 5.1 16 5.7 18 6.2 20 6.7 22 7.1 24 7.5 26 7.9

WO 291/482 The indication of targets by infantry to tanks.

"It is realized that before the infantry can indicate targets to tanks, they must have located them themselves first. This is a major problem in itself and frequently the infantry will not be able to locate targets accurately." It is pointed out that a proportion of tanks used to carry the 38 set for communication with infantry, but, since the withdrawal of 38 sets from infantry use, there has been no common set in tank and infantry use. Although when tanks and infantry had worked together before procedures arranged locally were thought satisfactory, it was felt desirable to have some standardised procedure. The paper describes trials in which various methods of target indication were tried. Only tracer (preferably coloured) and flares from grenade launchers or 2-in mortar were considered satisfactory. WP smoke was too obscuring. Because of the inaccuracy and short range of flares (370 yards for the 2-in mortar, which is also stated as the range of its WP round) verbal communication was also required. The average time for 3 gunners in the trial using all methods of target indication was 58 seconds. A commentary on the paper pointed out that tank telephones had been used with success on operations.

WO 291/486 The indication of targets within the infantry section.

This paper, dated 10 Mar 1945, report trials conducted at the School of Infantry at Barnard Castle. The use of tracer is recommended. The average time taken for a section to fire for effect on a target for various methods of target indication are given as: Method Time (sec) Verbal 29 Tracer 20 Observe strike 26 Smoke tracer 24 Observing amn 33

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WW2 weapon effectiveness

25

WW2 weapon effectiveness

WO 291/491 Notes on R & A trials of British 3-in and German 8cm mortars.
This paper was published in 1943. Times of flight, on targets about 2600 yards away, are typically around 24 seconds. "It is safe to conclude that the difference in maximum range using top service charge is small." "It is safe to conclude that both German bombs are more accurate in range than our own, and that the m.d. in range of either German bomb is probably more than half the m.d. in range of our own." Average mean deviations in range and line, in yards, for three types of bomb: Bomb British HE Mk IV German HE WGr 34 German HE WGr 59 Range 62 41.3 43.9 Line 11 9.5 7.0

On one shoot, a 3-in mortar was fired using 16 secondaries, well over the "top service charge", achieving a range of 3874 yards.

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WW2 weapon effectiveness

WO 291/496 Anti-personnel effect of small HE shell.
"It is frequently stated that the 75mm HE shell is the smallest that is likely to be useful. This is probably the case at long ranges where the angle of descent is large, because the small shell will be mainly below the surface at the moment of detonation, and small irregularities in the ground will have a large screening effect. The calculations of this paper suggest, however, that at short ranges with ricochets smaller shells will be effective." The paper reproduces the table given for cover factors at different burst heights given in WO291/138, but mysteriously labels the heights as being in inches, instead of feet. It states that these factors are for men lying down, and that the effects are negligible on men standing. The calculated vulnerable areas of a some HE rounds are given as: Shell 2 pdr Bofors 6 pdr HE Mk I/T/L 75mm 25-pdr Filling TNT TNT TNT Amatol 60/40 Vulnerable area (sq ft) 500 1430 3000 3000

It is stated that a Bofors, if correct for line and with a mean range error of 30 feet, fuzed to burst over a trench, will give the following chances per round of inflicting a casualty: 2ft wide trench 4ft wide trench 2.3% 4.5%

For a trench not more than 4ft wide, giving no protection against fragments descending at more than 30 from the horizontal, the following probabilities of inflicting a casualty per round are given: Chance per round 6-pdr 5.4% 10.3% 12.3%

Burst height 5 ft 10 ft 20 ft

75mm 5.4% 10.7% 20.2%

2-pdr 5.4% 7.9% 5.6%

"A longer delay with the 75mm HE shell would, theoretically, give a considerable advantage; it is however doubtful whether this would compensate for the disadvantages in ranging."

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WW2 weapon effectiveness

WO 291/502 German infantry in action.
This is a training pamphlet issued to familiarise readers with German minor infantry tactics, highlighting the places where these differ from British practice. The rifle section is composed as follows: Sec comd SMG LMG no. 1 LMG, pistol LMG no. 2 pistol, amn box LMG no. 3 rifle, 2 amn boxes 6 riflemen rifle

The fact that the MG no.1 and no.2 carry pistols is contrasted with British practice. Section formations are single file and extended line. Unlike British practice, file and arrowhead are not used. Single file has the sec comd leading, followed by the gun group. The gun group is always positioned near the sec comd, with the senior private as "bringer-up". It is stated that the German platoon consists of four sections. The sec comd directs the fire of the LMG, and often uses it only. Riflemen, in contrast to British practice, usually fire independently. Sections advance in single file as long as possible to permit supporting MGs to fire past the section, an evolution not envisioned in British practice. In defence against AFVs, men without ATk weapons take cover and remain hidden. This contrasts with British practice, which is to engage (1) accompanying infantry and (2) tank vision slits with small-arms. Again in contrast to British practice, German documents make no mention of ATk obstacles and tank-proof areas. The Germans place more emphasis than the British on concealment in defence. Great stress is placed on direct observation of the battlefield, and quick local counter-attacks are stressed more. Written orders are regarded as exceptional.

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WW2 weapon effectiveness

WO 291/538 A preliminary estimate of the destructiveness of various projectiles against MT and guns.
Projectile 25-pdr TNT 25-pdr 60/40 Amatol 95mm TNT 4.5" 5.5" 80lb shell 5.5" 100lb shell 2" mortar 3" mortar steel bomb 3" mortar cast-iron bomb 4.2" mortar steel bomb 20lb 'F' bomb 40lb GP bomb 250lb MC or GP bomb 500lb MC or GP bomb 1000lb MC bomb Effect on MT No trials; VA probably about 500 sq ft VA about half TNT Apparently better than 25-pdr TNT VA about half 5.5" Roughly equal to 100lb VA perhaps about 1200 sq ft Small but unknown About twice as good as 25-pdr TNT; VA perhaps 800 sq ft Small but unknown 34 times as good as 25-pdr TNT; VA prob. about 1500 sq ft VA probably about 2000 sq ft VA probably about 3000 sq ft MC bomb VA of the order of 15000 sq ft MC bomb "slightly better" than GP bomb VA probably 2025000 sq ft Field guns Small Smaller than TNT Better than 25-pdr TNT Considerably smaller than 5.5" Better than 100lb Probably negligible Small Probably negligible About equal to 5.5" 100lb shell VA probably about 150 sq ft Rather better than 20lb 'F' VA 5000 sq ft VA 7500 sq ft VA 12000 sq ft

The figures for 250lb and larger bombs are based partly on calculations and partly on Prof. Zuckerman's report on Pantelleria. For guns in pits the VAs will be about half these figures.

WO 291/543 Note on an experiment with Grenades 36 on dummy targets at Birmingham.

"One of the main effects of a grenade 36, indoors, is blast. Our methods do not, however, allow us to assess this effect quantitatively." "Personnel within 3 feet of the burst stand a very small chance of escaping incapacitation if not otherwise protected. Ordinary doors and planks afford little protection, ceiling and floor together are good, and even a thin brick wall gives absolute cover against this weapon." "A man would seem to stand a more than even chance of escaping incapacitation if 5 feet or more away from the burst. A fuller trial in the open at the School of Infantry (by AORG 6) showed a risk rate falling from 45% ten feet from the grenade to 17% twenty feet from the grenade."

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WW2 weapon effectiveness

WO 291/559 The visual location of enemy positions.
This paper is mostly about the selection of men with good eyesight. However, it lists the following "main essentials" when spotting camouflaged enemy positions: 1. Proper scanning routine. 2. Elementary appreciation of the factors which make an object visible, such as colour, tone, contrast and shape. 3. Study of common object in unusual positions. "A man may be thoroughly familiar with an ATk gun as normally seen in lateral view and yet have no idea of what a German ATk gun looks like with the gun pointing at him." 4. A study of German camouflage methods.

WO 291/579 Comparison of mortar bombs.

The fragment velocity of the American 60mm mortar bomb is estimated at 4000 feet per second, as against 3000 for the British 3-in mortar and 4500 for the 2-in mortar. Vulnerable areas for each, allowing for a ground cover factor of 1.5, are given as: Bomb British 2" American 60mm British 3" steel British 3" cast iron Vulnerable area (sq ft) 1200 2500 5000 6500

WO 291/596 Observations on tank casualties.

This is a "how-to" guide on field reporting of tank casualties, published 11 Mar 1944. It goes into considerable detail on the "forensic" aspects of the behaviour of armour under different kinds of attack. Four main types of armour plate are distinguished: 1. 2. 3. 4. Rolled homogenous, machineable quality. Cast. Flame-hardened. Rolled homogenous hard.

It is noted that (3) has been seen on Pz IV and Pz IV nose, tail and mantlet, but never yet on tank sides. (4) is used only on light vehicles such as armoured cars. It is stated that face-hardened armour usually fails by "plugging" rather than "petalling".

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WW2 weapon effectiveness

WO 291/602 The practicability of overhead cover.
Two types of overhead cover were considered. "Type A" uses raised overhead cover over the whole trench. "Type B" has a flat covered part, and so is harder to observe, but means that men must leave the overhead cover area to use their weapons. On light soil (most soils, especially clays, give more protection for a given thickness), if 100 casualties would be caused by 25-pdr airburst on trenches without overhead cover, the following casualties are predicted: Cover Men manning weapons Type A Type B 100 100 100 100 100 Crouching in cover (either type) 10 2 60 17 10

6-inch logs with: No earth 12 1 ft earth 2 Corrugated iron or light timber, with: 6" earth 65 1 ft earth 22 2 ft earth 12

"Both in Russia and Italy the Germans have used semi-mobile "pill-boxes" partly sunk in the ground and protected with 30 to 150mm armour plate. These accommodate 2 men and would be invulnerable to anything but a direct hit from a shell or bomb."

WO 291/620 The vulnerability of guns to attack by bombs and shell.

German guns are considered as the following equivalent target areas of -inch mild steel: 88mm "IFH 18" 105mm howitzer "SFH 18" 150mm howitzer 4.8 sq ft 1.8 sq ft 5.5 sq ft

The vulnerable area of a 5.5" 100lb shell is "of the order of 1000 sq ft against a gun in the open". "A sunken or sandbagged emplacement restricts effective rounds to those actually bursting in the emplacement except where part of the recoil system is above the barrel." The British 6-pdr, with its recoil system below the barrel, "is probably rather less vulnerable than the German 105mm". Vulnerable areas, in square feet, for various weapons on 105mm and 150mm targets are given below. The 25-pdr, 20lb 'F' bomb and 40lb GP bomb are listed with no VAs, and so are assumed ineffective except for direct hits. Weapon 5.5" shell 250lb GP bomb 1000lb GP bomb 150mm 1300 12500 24300 105mm 600 5800 11700

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WW2 weapon effectiveness

WO 291/672 An investigation of the accuracy of aiming with the Wasp flamethrower Mark II.
This paper describes tests showing the improvement in aiming accuracy using a telescopic sight instead of the existing open sight. 50% zones in elevation and traverse, in minutes, are given as: Range 2030 yds 4060 yds 7090 yds Sight open sight telescopic sight open sight telescopic sight open sight telescopic sight Elevation 5.8 3.6 18.2 5.9 29.4 5.1 Traverse 1.5 3.6 4.7 1.9 3.6 3.8

WO 291/716 The appearance of hull down tanks.

This paper contains photographs from field trials showing the appearance of hull down tanks. The average areas visible, in square feet, of different types of tank: Sherman Crusader Churchill Cromwell 9.8 10.3 12.1 14.25

The use of periscopes is advised to minimise the exposed area of the turret. Rounded turrets, as in the Sherman, are harder to spot than square, boxy turrets as in Churchill and Cromwell. Hatches sticking up are very noticeable.

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WW2 weapon effectiveness

WO 291/741 Comparison of the performance of 75mm and 76mm tank gun ammunition.
The 75mm M48 is longer and heavier than the 76mm M42A1 and has greater capacity. 76mm M42A1 is assumed identical to the 3-inch M42A1. All three use the M48 fuze. Vulnerable areas against men in the open, in square feet, are given as: 3" or 76mm M42A1 75mm M48 2200 sq ft 2900 sq ft

"Thickness of homogenous armour plate penetrated at 30angle of attack by APCBC/HE shell." Ranges in yards. Range Point blank 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 75mm 79.5 75.3 72 68.5 65.5 63 60.3 57.8 55 52.6 50 76mm 108.2 104.2 100.2 96.7 93 89.7 86.3 83.1 80 77 74

The report concludes that, whereas lack of HE performance can be compensated for by using more of the less effective shell, lack of penetrating power cannot be made up for in this way.

WO 291/904 Morale effect of bombardment.

One case suggest that the casualty-producing value of an 81mm mortar may be nearer to 4 than 3 MGs. The weighting factor for converting instantaneous nose-fused 250lb GP bombs to "25-pdr equivalents" seems to be about 1.0 in other words, one such bomb is worth 10 25-pdr shells. Two methods of assessing morale effect are described, based on the reduction to casualties among attacking troops by different levels of preparatory bombardment. It is stated that "...the effect on morale is several times as great as the material effect. "Several times" in the case of method A means about 6 times and in the case of method B about twice."

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WW2 weapon effectiveness

WO 291/946 Effects of bombardment present state of knowledge.
This summary was published in 1946. Against men in slit trenches, 25-pdr groundburst must hit the trench or parapet to be effective. If firing 1000 25-pdr shells into a 300 300 yard box with 100 men in it in slit trenches, the expected number of casualties would be nine. Four kinds of effect from bombardment are distinguished: Lethal: Killing or incapacitating personnel. Material: Destroying weapons and equipment. Neutralisation: Preventing the enemy from observing or using his weapons for the duration of the bombardment. Morale effects: Reduction in effectiveness lasting after the bombardment has ceased. Two possible morale effects are mentioned. "Sensitization" means that greater weights of bombardment have progressively more morale effect. The existence of this effect was supported by "abundant evidence". "Habituation" means the lowering of morale effect by men getting used to small bombardments. The occurrence of this was "more difficult to support by adequate evidence". The "minimum effective density" of a bombardment is 0.3 lbs/sq yd for 25-pdr shell. "If the enemy is in protected positions such as pillboxes or concrete gun casemates instead of in open positions the state of affairs is different. No projectile which cannot pierce the protection has any noticeable effect. The neutralising, morale and lethal effects do not exist until the material effect is achieved." Experience on the Normandy beaches suggested that one 81mm mortar had the same casualty-causing effect as 1 MG. Casualties were weapon were one-and-a-half times more on Omaha than the British beaches, where they were in turn four times greater than on Utah. The difference is attributed to greater effectiveness of preliminary bombardment. Morale effect (lasting after the bombardment ceases) "...can only be achieved against enemy in open positions, unless the duration is about 8 hours or more, in which case lightly protected positions may be affected especially if retaliation is impossible." On open positions a bombardment intensity of 0.1 lb/sq yd/hour in 25-pdr equivalents produces collapse in about 4 hours; 1.0 lb/sq yd/hour in about hour. Neutralising effect, in NW Europe, on an enemy in open positions, was achieved with a bombardment intensity of 0.020.08 lb/sq yd/hr. in 25-pdr equivalents. Lethal effect: A density of 0.1 lb/sq yd causes 2% casualties on targets in slit trenches, about 20% on targets in the open. Material effect: A density of 0.1 lb/sq yd damages about 1% of weapons or guns in pits, 20% of soft vehicles in the open.

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Conversion factors
Imperial units used in this document are: Imperial unit Weight (mass) 1 pound = 16 ounces ounce Distance 1 mile = 1760 yards 1 yard = 3 feet 1 foot = 12 inches inch Area 1 acre = 4840 square yards 1 square yard = 9 square feet square foot Volume 1 gallon = 8 pints Abbreviation lb oz m or mi yd or x ft or ' in or " Conversion to SI 0.454 Kg 28.4 g 1 609 m 0.914 m 0.305 m 25.4 mm 0.405 ha 0.835 m2 0.093 m2 4.544 l

sq yd sq ft gall

The conversion factors for yards, feet, acres, pounds and pints are taken from "SMP Elementary Tables", CUP, 1967, which are given only to 3 s.f.; the others have been calculated. The pound shown here is the pound avoirdupois, used for weighing common materials; strictly, it is a measure of weight, whereas Kg is a measure of mass, but the distinction is elided in common usage. "Pound" is abbreviated "lb", as shown, but the poundage of guns (2-pounder, 6-pounder and so on), although it corresponds to the weight of their shot or shell in pounds, is always abbreviated as "pdr" or "pr", never as "lb" or "lber". Note that the Imperial gallon is different from the U.S. gallon. Note also that the Imperial system is far more baroque and illogical than this table may indicate, but I wish to spare the patient reader the full horrors of the troy ounce, the pottle and the ell.

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