Symmetry

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Symmetry (disambiguation).

Sphere symmetrical group o representing an octahedral rotational symmetry. The yellow region shows the fundamental domain.

Leonardo da Vinci's Vitruvian Man (ca. 1487) is often used as a representation of symmetry in the human body and, by extension, the natural universe.

Symmetric arcades of a portico in the Great Mosque of Kairouanalso called the Mosque of Uqba, inTunisia.

Symmetry (from Greek symmetren "to measure together") has two meanings. The first is a vague sense of harmonious and beautiful proportion and balance.[1][2] The second is an exact mathematical "patterned self-similarity" that can be demonstrated with the rules of a formal system, such asgeometry or physics. Although these two meanings of "symmetry" can sometimes be told apart, they are related, so they are here discussed together.[2] Mathematical symmetry may be observed

with respect to the passage of time; as a spatial relationship; through geometric transformations such as scaling, reflection, and rotation; through other kinds of functional transformations;[3] and as an aspect of abstract objects, theoretic models, language, music and even knowledge itself.[4][5]

This article describes these notions of symmetry from four perspectives. The first is symmetry in geometry, which is the most familiar type of symmetry for many people. The second is the more general meaning of symmetry in mathematics as a whole. The third describes symmetry as it relates to science andtechnology. In this context, symmetries underlie some of the most profound results found in modern physics, including aspects of space and time. The fourth discusses symmetry in the humanities, covering its rich and varied use in history, architecture, art, and religion. The opposite of symmetry is asymmetry.

Contents
[hide]

1 In geometry

o o o o o o o o o

1.1 Reflection symmetry 1.2 Point reflection and other involutive isometries 1.3 Rotational symmetry 1.4 Translational symmetry 1.5 Glide reflection symmetry 1.6 Rotoreflection symmetry 1.7 Helical symmetry 1.8 Non-isometric symmetries 1.9 Scale symmetry and fractals

2 In mathematics

o o o

2.1 Mathematical model for symmetry 2.2 Symmetric functions 2.3 In logic

3 In science and nature

o o

3.1 In physics 3.2 In physical objects

o o o

3.2.1 Classical objects 3.2.2 Quantum objects 3.2.3 Consequences of quantum symmetry

3.3 Generalizations of symmetry 3.4 In biology 3.5 In chemistry

4 In history, religion, and culture

o o o o o o

4.1 In social interactions 4.2 In architecture 4.3 In pottery and metal vessels 4.4 In quilts 4.5 In carpets and rugs 4.6 In music

 o o

4.6.1 Musical form 4.6.2 Pitch structures 4.6.3 Equivalency

4.7 In other arts and crafts 4.8 In aesthetics

5 See also 6 References 7 External links

In geometry[edit]
The most familiar type of symmetry for many people is geometrical symmetry. A geometric object is said to be symmetric if, after it has been geometrically transformed, it retains some property of the original object (i.e., the object has an invariance under the transform). For instance, a circle rotated about its center will have the same shape and size as the original circle. A circle is then said to be symmetric under rotation or to have rotational symmetry. The type of symmetries that are possible for a geometric object depend on the set of geometric transforms available and what object properties should remain unchanged after a transform. Because the composition of two transforms is also a transform and every transform has an inverse transform that undoes it, the set of transforms under which an object is symmetric form a mathematical group. The most common group of transforms considered is the Euclidean group of isometries, or distance preserving transformations, in two dimensional (plane geometry)or three dimensional (solid geometry) Euclidean space. These isometries consist of reflections, rotations, translations and combinations of these basic operations.[6] Under an isometric transformation, a geometric object is symmetric if the transformed object is congruent to the original.[7] A geometric object is typically symmetric only under a subgroup of isometries. The kinds of isometry subgroups are described below, followed by other kinds of transform groups and object invariance types used in geometry.

Reflection symmetry[edit]
Main article: reflection symmetry

An isoceles triangle with mirror symmetry. The dashed line is the axis of symmetry. Folding the triangle across the axis results in two identical halves.

A drawing of a butterfly with bilateral symmetry

Reflection symmetry, mirror symmetry, mirror-image symmetry, or bilateral symmetry is symmetry with respect to reflection. In one dimension, there is a point of symmetry about which reflection takes place; in two dimensions there is an axis of symmetry, and in three dimensions there is a plane of symmetry. An object or figure which is indistinguishable from its transformed image is called mirror symmetric (see mirror image). The axis of symmetry of a two-dimensional figure is a line such that, if a perpendicular is constructed, any two points lying on the perpendicular at equal distances from the axis of symmetry are identical. Another way to think about it is that if the shape were to be folded in half over the axis, the two halves would be identical: the two halves are each other's mirror image. Thus a square has four axes of symmetry, because there are four different ways to fold it and have the edges all match. A circle has infinitely many axes of symmetry passing through its center, for the same reason.

If the letter T is reflected along a vertical axis, it appears the same. This is sometimes called vertical symmetry. One can better use an unambiguous formulation; e.g., "T has a vertical symmetry axis" or "T has left-right symmetry". The triangles with reflection symmetry are isosceles, the quadrilaterals with this symmetry are the kites and the isosceles trapezoids. For each line or plane of reflection, the symmetry group is isomorphic with Cs (see point groups in three dimensions), one of the three types of order two (involutions), hence algebraically isomorphic to C2. The fundamental domain is a half-plane or half-space.

Point reflection and other involutive isometries[edit]

Two triangles showing point reflection symmetry in the plane. Triangle A'B'C' can also be generated from triangleABC by a 180 rotation around point O.

Reflection symmetry can be generalized to other isometries of m-dimensional space which are involutions, such as

(x1,xm) (x1,xk,xk+1,xm)
in a certain system of Cartesian coordinates. This reflects the space along an mk-dimensional affine subspace. If k = m, then such a transformation is known as a point reflection or an inversion through a point. On the plane (m = 2) a point reflection is the same as a half-turn (180) rotation; see below. Such a "reflection" preserves orientation if and only if k is an even number. This implies that for m = 3 (as well as for other odd m) a point reflection changes the orientation of the space, like a mirror-image symmetry. That is why in physics the term P-symmetry is used for both point reflection and mirror symmetry (P stands for parity). As a point reflection in three dimensions changes a left-handed coordinate system into a right-handed coordinate system, symmetry under a point reflection is also called a left-right symmetry.[8]

Rotational symmetry[edit]

Main article: rotational symmetry Rotational symmetry is symmetry with respect to some or all rotations in m-dimensional Euclidean space. Rotations are direct isometries; i.e., isometries preserving orientation. Therefore a symmetry group of rotational symmetry is a subgroup of the special Euclidean group E+(m). Symmetry with respect to all rotations about all points implies translational symmetry with respect to all translations, and the symmetry group is the whole E+(m). This does not apply for objects because it makes space homogeneous, but it may apply for physical laws. For symmetry with respect to rotations about a point we can take that point as origin. These rotations form the special orthogonal groupSO(m), which can be represented by the group of matrices with determinant 1. For m = 3 this is the rotation group SO(3). In another meaning of the word, the rotation group of an object is the symmetry group within E+(m), the group of direct isometries; in other words, the intersection of the full symmetry group and the group of direct isometries. For chiral objects it is the same as the full symmetry group. Laws of physics are SO(3)-invariant if they do not distinguish different directions in space. Because of Noether's theorem, rotational symmetry of a physical system is equivalent to the angular momentum conservation law. See also rotational invariance.

mm orthogonal

Translational symmetry[edit]

Congruent triangles generated by translations along the arrow.

Main article: Translational symmetry

Translational symmetry leaves an object invariant under a discrete or continuous group of translations . The illustration on the right shows four congruent triangles generated by

translations along the arrow. If the line of triangles extended to infinity in both directions, they would have a discrete translational symmetry; any translation that mapped one triangle onto another would leave the whole line unchanged.

Glide reflection symmetry[edit]

A glide reflection in which the upper triangle is reflected about the horizontal axis of symmetry and then translated to the right.

In the plane, a glide reflection symmetry (in 3D it is called a glide plane symmetry) means that a reflection in a line or plane combined with a translation along the line / in the plane, results in the same object. The composition of two glide reflections results in a translation symmetry with twice the translation vector. The symmetry group comprising glide reflections and associated translations is the frieze group p11g and is isomorphic with the infinite cyclic groupZ.

Rotoreflection symmetry[edit]

A rotoreflection in 3D in which the upper triangle is rotated about a vertical axis and then reflected about a horizontal plane of symmetry.

In 3D, a rotoreflection or improper rotation is a rotation about an axis combined with reflection in a plane perpendicular to that axis. The symmetry groups associated with rotoreflections include:

if the rotation angle has no common divisor with 360, the symmetry group is not discrete if the rotoreflection has a 2n-fold rotation angle (angle of 180/n), the symmetry group is S2n of order 2n (not to be confused with symmetric groups, for which the same notation is used; the abstract group is C2n). A special case is n = 1, an inversion, because it does not depend on the axis and the plane, it is characterized by just the point of inversion.

the group Cnh (angle of 360/n); for odd n this is generated by a single symmetry, and the abstract group is C2n, for even n this is not a basic symmetry but a combination. See also point groups in three dimensions.

Helical symmetry[edit]

A drill bit with helical symmetry.

See also: Screw axis Helical symmetry is the kind of symmetry seen in such everyday objects as springs, Slinky toys, drill bits, and augers. It can be thought of as rotational symmetry along with translation along the axis of rotation,

the screw axis. The concept of helical symmetry can be visualized as the tracing in three-dimensional space that results from rotating an object at an constant angular speed while simultaneously translating at a constant linear speed along its axis of rotation. At any one point in time, these two motions combine to give a coiling angle that helps define the properties of the traced helix. When the tracing object rotates quickly and translates slowly, the coiling angle will be close to 0. Conversely, if the rotation is slow and the translation is speedy, the coiling angle will approach 90. Three main classes of helical symmetry can be distinguished based on the interplay of the angle of coiling and translation symmetries along the axis:

Infinite helical symmetry: If there are no distinguishing features along the length of a helix or helix-like object, the object will have infinite symmetry much like that of a circle, but with the additional requirement of translation along the long axis of the object to return it to its original appearance. A helix-like object is one that has at every point the regular angle of coiling of a helix, but which can also have a cross section of indefinitely high complexity, provided only that precisely the same cross section exists (usually after a rotation) at every point along the length of the object. Simple examples include evenly coiled springs, slinkies, drill bits, and augers. Stated more precisely, an object has infinite helical symmetries if for any small rotation of the object around its central axis there exists a point nearby (the translation distance) on that axis at which the object will appear exactly as it did before. It is this infinite helical symmetry that gives rise to the curious illusion of movement along the length of an auger or screw bit that is being rotated. It also provides the mechanically useful ability of such devices to move materials along their length, provided that they are combined with a force such as gravity or friction that allows the materials to resist simply rotating along with the drill or auger.

n-fold helical symmetry: If the requirement that every cross section of the helical object be identical is relaxed, additional lesser helical symmetries become possible. For example, the cross section of the helical object may change, but still repeats itself in a regular fashion along the axis of the helical object. Consequently, objects of this type will exhibit a symmetry after a rotation by some fixed angle and a translation by some fixed distance, but will not in general be invariant for any rotation angle. If the angle (rotation) at which the symmetry occurs divides evenly into a full circle (360), the result is the helical equivalent of a regular polygon. This case is called n-fold helical symmetry, where n = 360; for example, a double helix. This concept can be further generalized to include cases where is a multiple of 360 that is, the cycle does eventually repeat, but only after more than

one full rotation of the helical object.

Non-repeating helical symmetry: This is the case in which the angle of rotation required to observe the symmetry is irrational. The angle of rotation never repeats exactly no matter how many times the

helix is rotated. Such symmetries are created by using a non-repeating point group in two dimensions.DNA, with approximately 10.5 base pairs per turn, is an example of this type of nonrepeating helical symmetry.[9]

Non-isometric symmetries[edit]
A wider definition of geometric symmetry allows operations from a larger group than the Euclidean group of isometries. Examples of larger geometric symmetry groups are:

The group of similarity transformations; i.e., affine transformations represented by a matrix A that is a scalar times an orthogonal matrix. Thus homothety is added, self-similarity is considered a symmetry.

The group of affine transformations represented by a matrix A with determinant 1 or 1; i.e., the transformations which preserve area. This adds, e.g., oblique reflection symmetry.

The group of all bijective affine transformations. The group of Mbius transformations which preserve cross-ratios. This adds, e.g., inversive reflections such as circle reflection on the plane.

In Felix Klein's Erlangen program, each possible group of symmetries defines a geometry in which objects that are related by a member of the symmetry group are considered to be equivalent. For example, the Euclidean group defines Euclidean geometry, whereas the group of Mbius transformations defines projective geometry.

Scale symmetry and fractals[edit]

Scale symmetry refers to the idea that if an object is expanded or reduced in size, the new object has the same properties as the original. Scale symmetry is notable for the fact that it does not exist for most physical systems, a point that was first discerned by Galileo. Simple examples of the lack of scale symmetry in the physical world include the difference in the strength and size of the legs of elephants versus mice (so-called allometric scaling), and the observation that if a candle made of soft wax was enlarged to the size of a tall tree, it would immediately collapse under its own weight. A more subtle form of scale symmetry is demonstrated by fractals. As conceived by Benot Mandelbrot, fractals are a mathematical concept in which the structure of a complex form looks similar or even exactly the same no matter what degree of magnification is used to examine it. A coast is an example of a naturally occurring fractal, since it retains roughly comparable and similar-appearing complexity at every level from the view of a satellite to a microscopic examination of how the water laps up against individual

grains of sand. The branching of trees, which enables children to use small twigs as stand-ins for full trees in dioramas, is another example. This similarity to naturally occurring phenomena provides fractals with an everyday familiarity not typically seen with mathematically generated functions. As a consequence, they can produce strikingly beautiful results such as the Mandelbrot set. Intriguingly, fractals have also found a place in CG, or computergenerated movie effects, where their ability to create very complex curves with fractal symmetries results in more realistic virtual worlds.

Leslie Grade
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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Find sources: "Leslie Grade" news books scholar JSTOR free images (June 2009)

Leslie Grade

Born

1916 Tokmak, Ukraine, Russian Empire

Nationality

Russian

Occupation

talent agent

Leslie Grade (1916-1979) was a British talent agent and executive with The Grade Organisation. He was born Laszlo (or Lazarus) Winogradsky inTokmak, Ukraine, Russian Empire. Along with his brothers Lew Grade and Bernard Delfont, he became a leading figure in theatre management. His son Michael Grade became a successful television executive, who was eventually Chairman of ITV. He had two children by his second marriage, to Audrey Smith, Anita Grade (now Anita Land), a theatrical agent and Antony Grade, head of exterior design for Renault. Grade was for many years a Director of Leyton Orient Football Club along with his friend Harry Zussman. Leslie Grade suffered a major stroke, which disrupted his career in middle age and he died in 1979.

Age grade

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In sociology and anthropology, an age grade or age class is a form of social organization based on age, within a series of such categories, through which individuals pass over the course of their lives. This is in contrast to an age set, to which individuals remain permanently attached as the set itself becomes progressively more senior. The number of age classes, the determining ages and the terminology vary significantly between traditions. Even within a single society, a person may belong to several overlapping grades in different spheres of life, e.g. per year a different school class and yet for several years on end a child, then an adolescent, finally an adult. In tribal societies entry into an age grade - generally gender-separated - is often marked by an initiation rite, which may be the crowning of a long and complex preparation, sometimes in retreat. After a period of some years, during which they often perform certain common activities, alone or under senior guidance, members may be initiated either collectively or individually into a more senior age grade. This progression is often accompanied by the revelation of secret knowledge. In most cultures, age grade systems, as with age sets, are the preserve of men, and it is the older men who control a society's secret knowledge, collectively or restricted to a council of elders and/or specific positions such as shaman entrusted with the preparation of initiants. Closely related age-grade systems are common among East African Cushitic communities. Particularly, the Oromo, a trans-national nation living in Ethiopiaand Kenya, have a well-developed age-grade system known as the Gadaa System. Gadaa through history came to organize social life around the series of five generation grades which assign obligations as well as rights to members of the society. Through Gadaa, many

socio-political functions were carried out. For example, the system operated as an educational institution by providing periods of training and skill development in each grade and by casting all those YUBA (who had finished the full cycle consisting of five-grades) in the role of teachers and advisors. The system operated as a judicial institution by assigning a Chief Justice, jurors at the national level and making all LUBA wherever they were into arbitrators and councilors ready to defend the national law.[1] Many male age grade systems are associated with patrilineal kinship systems.[2] Male age grade systems associated with matrilineal kinship systems are found among the Austronesian populations of Taiwan. [3]

Grade skipping
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Grade skipping is a form of academic acceleration, often used for academically talented students, that involves the student entirely skipping the curriculum of one year of school. This is done when a student is sufficiently advanced in all school subjects that he or she can move forward in all subjects, rather than in only one or two areas.
Contents
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1 Timing and other factors 2 Cost-effectiveness 3 Potential Problems with Grade Skipping

o o o

3.1 Knowledge Gaps 3.2 Friendships 3.3 Other Social Concerns

4 Resistance despite benefits 5 See also 6 References 7 External links

Timing and other factors[edit]

Grade acceleration is easiest to implement through an early start to school by either entering kindergarten [1] a year early or skipping kindergarten into grade 1 directly. By starting the child ahead many of the problems associated with grade skipping, such as leaving friends behind or knowledge gaps, are [2] avoided. Sometimes the grade skip occurs at the end of an academic year, such that the student advances two grades. Grade skips are also successful at mid-year.

Other key factors to a successful grade skip include the desire of the student, the receptivity of the receiving teacher, and whether a sibling is in the old or new grade. All these factors have been studied and organized into a survey called The Iowa Acceleration Scale, which when completed yields a recommendation on whether or not to accelerate.

Cost-effectiveness[edit]
As described in A Nation Deceived, grade skipping is one of the most cost-effective ways of addressing the needs of a profoundly gifted student, as it requires very little more than assigning the child to a different classroom, without the expense of special materials, tutoring or separate programs. The cost of educating the gifted child in a regular classroom with typical, same-age peers is the same as the cost of educating that child in a regular classroom with typical, somewhat older students, so using grade skipping [3] is essentially cost-free.

Potential Problems with Grade Skipping[edit]

Many academic administrators and the general public carry misconceptions about grade skipping, believing that children are often harmed by being placed in an environment for which they are [1] academically ready but emotionally or socially not,. Nonetheless, there are some problems that can be expected: high IQ has a 75% correlation with introversion, which makes dealing with new social groups [citation needed] significantly more difficult.

Knowledge Gaps[edit]
The time that the student skips may create a knowledge gap if the child has not self-studied the material [1] taught to the students in the grade being entered,. While the student is bridging this gap they will likely find the new material challenging. It may be demoralizing to leave a situation in which they are top performers into a situation where they are struggling with the material. Knowledge gaps are smaller in [2] earlier school years. Students almost always successfully catch up to match their peers.

Friendships[edit]
Students entering a new grade after being in school are taken out of their existing peer group and put into [1] a new group, essentially leaving friends behind and being forced to make new friends. Although this is perceived as a problem, and certainly being displaced is a trial for the student, it is often the case with gifted children that they are more easily able to relate to older children than children their age. Regardless, there will likely be a period of stress while the student integrates into the new class.

Other Social Concerns[edit]

Students in the new class may view the skipping student as different. This may result in additional social problems such as teasing or perceived preferentlial treatment.

Resistance despite benefits[edit]

The neutrality of this section is disputed. Please do not remove this message until the dispute is resolved. (September 2011) Grade skipping allows students to learn at a level appropriate for their cognitive abilities. For the majority [1] of gifted students, grade skipping is beneficial both academically and socially.

American schools commonly oppose grade skipping, or limit it to one or at the most two grades, [3] regardless of the student's academic and social situation. There is no research that supports these limits, and the decision to limit grade skipping is usually based on the gut feeling of school personnel or administration's ignorance of the academic and social benefits. Refusing to promote the student to an [3] appropriate level can result in social isolation and educational underachievement.

See also[edit]
Academic acceleration Early entrance to college Gifted education

References[edit]
1. ^
a b c d e

Dominick Campbell, Nicholas Colangelo, N., Assouline, S., and Gross, M., A Nation Deceived:

How Schools Hold Back America's Brightest Students , University of Iowa, Volume I 2. ^ 3. ^
a b

Gierus, Alex. (29 August 2012) "The Benefits of Skipping a Grade" Perfecting Parenthood. Cloud, John. (16 August 2007) "Are We Failing Our Geniuses?" Time Magazine.

a b c

External links[edit]
Iowa Acceleration Scale A Nation Deceived "Grade Skipped and Successful" - A list of prominent people who skipped at least one year of school and went on to achieve some notable success Skipping a Grade: Insights and Advice by Archana Sohmshetty - Skipping a grade or whole grade acceleration is an alternative that academically advanced students should consider. This book offers insights and advice on why and how to skip a grade.