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Principle stresses
Principle stresses are the results of combinations of tensile and shear stresses at the same point on the cross-section of a piece of loaded structure. Although these two stresses are from different causes, the plane on which they act can be imagined to be rotated and when this is done the size of each stress varies. Some of the shear stress can then become a tensile stress and the opposite also is applicable. The rules for this are defined by a circle diagram with the tension or compression stress plotted horizontally and the shear stress vertically. A point on the circle defines the angle at which the particular combination of stress applies and this is the combination of stress first found and described above. On the horizontal axis the circle cuts it in two places. These are the values of maximum and minimum principle stresses, when all of the stress is expressed in terms of a tension (or compression) form.
Von Mises stress

In an elastic body that is subject to a system of loads in 3 dimensions, a complex 3 dimensional system of stresses is developed (as you might imagine). That is, at any point within the body there are stresses acting in different directions, and the direction and magnitude of stresses changes from point to point. The Von Mises criterion is a formula for calculating whether the stress combination at a given point will cause failure. There are three "Principal Stresses" that can be calculated at any point, acting in the x, y, and z directions. (The x,y, and z directions are the "principal axes" for the point and their orientation changes from point to point, but that is a technical issue.) Von Mises found that, even though none of the principal stresses exceeds the yield stress of the material, it is possible for yielding to result from the combination of stresses. The Von Mises criteria is a formula for combining these 3 stresses into an equivalent stress, which is then compared to the yield stress of the material. (The yield stress is a known property of the material, and is usually considered to be the failure stress.) The equivalent stress is often called the "Von Mises Stress" as a shorthand description. It is not really a stress, but a number that is used as an index. If the "Von Mises Stress" exceeds the yield stress, then the material is considered to be at the failure condition.
The formula is actually pretty simple, if you want to know it: (S1-S2)^2 + (S2-S3)^2 + (S3-S1)^2 = 2Se^2 Where S1, S2 and S3 are the principal stresses and Se is the equivalent stress, or "Von Mises Stress". Finding the principal stresses at any point in the body is the tricky part.
Shear strength
Subjected to forces which cause it to twist, or one face to slide relative to an opposite face, a material is said to be in shear (Figure 5). Compared to tensile and compressive stress and strain, the shear forces act over an area which is in line with the forces.
Figure 5: Shear stress applied to an object
The force per unit area is referred to as the shear stress, denoted by the symbol (Greek letter tau), where
Its unit is the pascal (Pa), where force is measured in newtons (N) and area in square metres.
When shear stress is applied, there will be an angular change in dimension, just as there is a change in length when materials are under tension or compression. Shear strain, denoted by the symbol (Greek letter gamma), is defined by
where the angular deformation, symbol (Greek letter phi) is expressed in radians. The last approximate equality results from the fact that the tangent of a small angle is almost the same as the angle expressed in radians. This is the reason why some texts give the radian as the unit of strain. Both shear strain and angular deformation are ratios, so have no units. However, it is not unusual for shear strain to be quoted in %, as with tensile strain. Shear stresses are most evident where lap joints are fastened together and forces applied to pull them apart, but are also seen when rods are twisted, or laminated boards bent. The shear strength of a material is the maximum stress that it can withstand in shear before failure occurs. For example, punching, cropping and guillotining all apply shear stresses of more than the maximum shear stress for that material. As with Hookes Law for tensile stress, most metals have a shear stress which is proportional to the shear strain. And in a similar way to Youngs modulus, the gradient of the graph is referred to as the shear modulus or modulus of rigidity. Again the SI unit3 for shear modulus is the pascal (Pa). 3 You are very likely to find Youngs modulus and shear modulus quoted in psi (pounds force per square inch) or kpsi (thousands of psi). To convert to MPa, multiply the figure in kpsi by 6.89. Watch the units! You should also expect there to be very wide variations in the figures quoted, as these depend critically on alloy composition and work hardening (for metals), on purity (for ceramics) and on formulation (for polymers). Table 2: Shear strength and shear modulus for selected materials material shear strength MPa modulus of rigidity GPa 96% alumina 330 304 stainless steel 186 73 copper 42 44 aluminium 30 26 Sn63 solder 28 6 epoxy resin 10 40
Stiffness
The stiffness of a material is an important aspect of PCB design, being the ability of the material to resist bending. When a board is bent, one surface stretches and the inside of the radius is compressed. The more a material bends, the more the outer surface stretches and the internal surface contracts. A stiff material is one that gives a relatively small change in length when subject to tension or compression, in other words, a small value of strain/stress. However, on the basis that stiff = good, a natural feeling that this should be a larger figure means that we actually quote the ratio of stress/strain. So a stiff material has a high value of Youngs modulus. From Table 1 you will be aware of the very wide range of properties in electronic materials. Note that the metals in this list are much stiffer than polymers, but well below the stiffness of a typical ceramic. However, this stiffness is accompanied by extreme brittleness. One of the features of a metal is that it is unlikely to shatter, as would a piece of glass or ceramic, but it will show permanent deformation when forces are applied ask any car body shop!

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Principle stresses

Von Mises stress

Figure 5: Shear stress applied to an object

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