Soft annealing Soft annealing is carried out at a temperature of just under Ac1*, sometimes also over Ac1 or by fluctuating

around Ac1 with subsequent slow cooling to achieve a soft condition (DIN 17022 part 1-5). Through this heat treatment, the cementite lamination of the perlite is transformed to a spherical form - known as granular cementite. This type of microstructure provides the best workability for steels with a C-content of more than approx. 0.5%. Granular cementite provides the condition for best workability for any type of cold working e.g. for cold-heading, drawing, or cold extrusion. In practice, the steel is heated to the prescribed tempering temperature, maintained at this temperature for some time and then slowly cooled in the furnace to approx. 600C before being cooled in air. Through hardening followed by soft annealing, it is possible to achieve a particularly even annealed microstructure with finely distributed granular cementite. Normalising When normalising, the steel is heated to a temperature (approx. 20C to 50C) above the upper transformation point Ac3*), for hypereutectoid steels above Ac1, and is then cooled in static air. It is used to achieve an even, fine-grained microstructure. For hypoeutectoid steels, the microstructure consists of perlite and ferrite and for hypereutectoid steels of perlite and cementite. Grain refining is carried out by going through the a-g transformation *) twice, during heating and cooling. The higher the heating and cooling speeds, the finer the grains in the microstrurture become, providing that the transformation during cooling takes place in the perlite stage. Through normalising, an uneven and coarse grained microstructure which has come about during hot forming can be eliminated. In addition, for steels with C-contents of less than 0.5% which transform easily, the adjustment to a perlitic-ferritic-microstructure with largely even distribution leads to good machining properties. Air cooling can only be used for steels which transform fully in the perlite stage. This is true of non-alloyed and low alloy steels. In case of doubt, information in this regard can be found int the time-temperature diagram for continuous cooling along with Figure 12. For higher alloy steels, isothermal perlite transformation is effective. Based on the time-temperature diagram for isothermal transformation and allowing an adequate safety margin for the time period, the temperature where the most rapid formation of perlite occurs is selected. Hardening (Quench hardening) The term hardening is used to describe cooling from a temperature above the transformation points A3 or A1 at such a speed that on the surface or throughout, there is a significant increase in hardness, generally through the formation of martensite. The heating must be carried out to a temperature above the transformation points Ac1 or Ac3 and the cooling from a temperature above the transformation points Ac1 or Ac3 (DIN17022 Part 1-5). The aim of the hardening is to achieve as high a level of hardenss as possible in the workpiece.

The hardness reached depends on the carbon content of the steel and its hardenability whereby the dimensions of the workpiece and conditions during heat treatment also play a role. In order to carry out optimum hardening, it is necessary to adhere to the temperatures given and times for holding these as well as to correctly select and handle the hardening medium. The most suitable hardening values are to be achieved through hardening during the martensite phase. Ferrite in the hardened microstructure is caused by a hardening temperature which was too low or is a result of cooling too slowly. Residual austenite can occur in high carbon alloyed steels if the hardening temperature was too high. In these cases there is ususally also coarsening of the grains. If the proportion of ferrite, perlite or bainite is too high, there is a reduction in hardness and the toughness properties are also diminished. The quenching media are usually water, oil or air, whereby the application depends on the critical cooling spped of the steel. In each case, the mildest quenching medium possible is used for each particular case, in order to keep the risk of tearing and distortion to a minimum.

*) Definitions: A1 point = eutechtoid transformation (723) A3 point = (a-g )-iron-transformation Ac1,Ac3 point = Arresting point on the heating curve at A1- a/o. A3- transformation (c = chauffage) Ar1,Ar3 point = Arresting point on the cooling curve at A1- a/o. A3transformation (r = refroidissement)

Warm bath hardening The term warm bath hardening is used to describe hardening of a workpiece by cooling in a salt or metal bath with retardation until temperature equalisation is achieved and then subsequently cooling as required to room temperature (DIN 17022 part 1-5). This treatment is used when there is a risk of distortion because of the shape of the part. One prerequisite is that the steel used can be hardened in oil. A transformation gap between perlite and bainite or sufficient time for starting in the bainite range above the MS temperature are desired characteristics for the particular isothermal transformations.

Austempering The term austempering is used to describe the quenching of a workpiece from the hardening temperature in salt and metal baths of a temperature lower than is required for the formation of perlite but higher than for the formation of martensite. This is maintained until the transformation to bainite has ended and there is subsequent cooling as desired to room

temperature (DIN 17022 Teil 1-5). Isothermal transformation into bainite of this type results in very low distortion levels and excellent toughness properties. Tempering is not required.

Tempering The term tempering is used to describe heating after previously hardening, cold working (cold levelling) or welding to a temperature between room temperature and below the transformation point Ac1 and holding at this temperature with subsequent cooling as suits the purpose (DIN 17022 part 1-5). A microstructure which has been transformed quickly through rapid cooling is not in a stable state of equilibrium meaning that when reheated, the toughness increases and, at the same time, the hardness can be decreased. The amount by which the hardness decreases is determined by the temperature and time period for tempering.

The decrease in hardness takes place in various steps which are characterized by certain precipitation and transformation processes. First, the tetragonal martensite is tranformed (at approx. 200 C) into cubic martensite which is less prone to tearing and above this temperature more and more carbides are gradually precipitated. If there is residual austenite in higher alloy steels, these precipitation processes cause a lack of carbon in the residual austenite which hence converts to tetragonal matensite during cooling. In such cases, additional tempering is required. The tempering treatment should be carried out immediately after hardening in order to prevent tearing through tension. The adjustment of the mechanical values is detemined to a far greater degree by the temperature during tempering than by the time. Generally, a temperature holidng period of one hour is selected per 25 mm wall thickness. The cooling after tempering depends on the shape of the workpiece and on the quality of steel. For more complicated pieces, cooling too rapidly can casue unnacceptable levels of strain. With slower cooling from the tempering temperature, tempering brittleness can occur which becomes apparent in the decrease in impact strength. This embrittlement occurs mostly in allyo steels containing Mn, CrMn and CrNi when, after tempering, the temperature range 550 to 400C is slowly passed through or the temperature is held in this range for a long period. The tendency towards tempering brittleness can be weakened by adding Mo to these steels. It is also possible that, through cooling with a greater thermal shock, the tempering brittleness can be suppressed if tempering has been carried out above the risk temperature, i.e. above 550C. The changes in mechanical characteristics depending on the tempering temperature lead to a constant reduction in hardness without any noticeable increase in toughness up to a temperature of approx. 500C. It is only at above 500C that there is a strong increase in toughness with a further decrease in hardness.

Stress Relieve Annealing The term stress relieve annealing is used to describe annealing at a temperature below the transformation point Ac1, mostly at under 600C followed by slow cooling to release internal stresses without bringing about any significant changes in the exisiting properties (DIN 17014). It is used where, due to inherent stresses, distortion or tearing of the workpiece can occur. The stresses can have arisen as a result of the increase in volume of the crystal lattice (e.g. with the formation of martensite), due to irregular temperature changes or as a result of cold working (levelling processes). Generally, temperatures of between 450 and 650 C are used. The temperature should certainly remain 30-50C below the tempering temperature. The decrease in the flow limit with increasing temperature leads to a reduction in the stresses and this becomes apparent in corresponding distortion. For this reason, stress releif can best be achieved if the workpiece is heated above the transformation level, allowed to cool slowly and the distortion which has occurred is then worked off. Appropriately overdimensioning is necessary for this method of working. Stress relief in pieces which are to retain a high level of hardness (e.g. case hardened pieces) is carried out at approx. 200C. The reduction in stress is achieved through the transformation of tetragonal martensit into cubic martensite which has less tension.

OB Annealing (a term introduced by us) We use the term OB annealing to describe heat treatment for adjusting the microstructure to allow optimum workablitiy (condition BG*). The microstructure which is most suitable for the workability can be very varied and depends on the type of machining, the chemical composition and the behaviour of the steels during transformation. Whereas the best properties for machining purposes are demonstrated in steels with low and medium C contents and lower alloy content and which have a microstructure consisting of lamellar perlite and ferrit, for steels with more carbon and higher alloy content, it is advantageious to have a microstructure containing granular cementite. In order to adapt the steel to optimum workability, the type of processing used is of essential importance since the same microstrucutre can behave differently in various processes. For carrying out OB-annealing, the same regulations apply as described for normalising, tempering and soft annealing, whereby the treatment can be carried out with continuous or with isothermal transformation.

Full annealing (Coarse grain annealing)

The term full annealing is used to describe annealing at a temperature above the upper transformation point Ac3 with cooling as required to suit the purpose and achieve a coarser grain. As a result of the coarse grains, good workability is obtained, above all, in steels with a low carbon content and a highly ferritic-perlitic microstructure. This improvement is based on the fact that the workpiece with coarse grains has a low degree of toughness meaning that a slightly brittle swarf occurs on it and this, in turn, leads to a reduction in wear when cutting.

Case hardening The term case hardening is used to describe hardening after previous carburization and, possibly, simultaneously increasing the nitrogen content of the surface (DIN 17014). It is used in cases where,besides high core toughness, a workpiece also needs to have a hard surface which is resistent to wear. Furthermore, through case hardening, the fatigue strength is increased at the edges due to inherent stresses. Steels used for this have low C contents and, depending on the desired core toughness, may be alloyed. Carburization ( case hardening, cementing) is the enrichening with carbon in an area limited to the edges by holding the temperature above the transformation points Ac1, or Ac3 in carbon releasing media. Depending on the type of medium used, it is described as gas, bath, powder or paste carburization (DIN 17014). The carburization depth is determined by the length of time required for cementation and the activity of the carburization medium. Generally, the case hardening temperatures lie at about 870-930C but sometimes higher temperatures are used. For case hardening, depending on the material and shape and size of the workpieces, various types of treatment can be considered of which some are shown in the form of a diagram in figure 20.

Figure 20 (to enlarge please klick to figure in question) Examples of successful treatment in case hardening steels

*) Heat treatment to achieve a particular microstructural formation (BG): The workpieces are cooled in a controlled process from a temperature of between 900 and 1000C. 1. Direct hardening (hardening out of the case) involves hardening the carburized workpiece at the end of the carburization process whereby the hardening temperature can be lower than the temperature during carburization but must be higher than, Ar1 the case (DIN 17014). 2. Single hardening (case refining) involves case hardening of the carburized workpiece and, after that, cooling to below the transformation point Ar1 abgekhlten from the hardening temperature of the (DIN 17014). 3. Double hardening involves hardening the carburized workpiece twice whereby the first hardening is carried out from the the hardening temperature of the core workpiece, the second from the hardening temperature of the case (DIN 17014). For both single and double hardening, intermediate annealing of the carburized components can be carried out before the edge hardening. This heat treatment consist of annealing at just under Ac1, i.e. mostly at approx. 600-650C with a longer holding time and subsequent slow cooling. Due to this intermediate anealing, it is possible to cut out the carbon released as surplus in the austenite carbon as cementite and avoid the risk of formation of residual austenite during the subsequent case refining process. It also results in a reduction in distortion. Tempering The term tempering is used to describe heat treatment to achieve high levels of toughness with a particular tensile strength by hardening and subsequently annealing, normally at high temperatures(DIN 17014).

The mechanical properties of a tempered steel, in particular its toughness, depend to a large degree on the care taken during the tempering treatment. The best limit of elasticity ratio and greatest toughness are achieved in tempering when full hardening has been carried out above the martensite stage. Suitable properties can still be achieved when tempering with large cross sections, if, after hardening, a microstructure consisting of at least 50% martensite is achieved in the core. In order to achieve the desired properties, the tempering diagrams whch are given for most types og steel can be used. The selection of steels for a desired degree of hardness is also based on the tempering cross-sections which are dealt with in the information regarding mechanical properties (DIN 17.200). Surface hardening The term surface hardening is used to describe heating of workpieces which is confined to the surface during which the core remains below the hardening temperature and is not hardened at all during quenching. This heating confined to the surface is achieved by gas flames (flame hardening) or inductive heating (induction hardening). As a result of these types of heating, under corresponding conditions, it is possible to achieve heating to hardening temperature throughout but then these types of heating can no longer be called surface hardening. Special types of surface hardening are case hardening and nitride hardening.

Surface hardening is used where a hard and wear-resistent surface with tough core properties is required. At the same time, the fatigue strength is improved. The C contents of the steels which can be used are to be adapted to the desired surface hardness (see DIN 17.212). The surface hardness which can be achieved depends on the C content of the workpiece, the hardening depth depends on the alloy basis and the hardening conditions and, in particular, on the austenitising temperature (which is higher than for normal hardening), as well as on the heating period and austenitisation period. In practice, these factors are controlled by the energy input per time unit and the feeding speed. Immediately after hardening, the parts are treated at approx. 200C to relieve stresses (see also under "Steels for Surface Hardening"). Nitriding (Gas and Salt Bath Nitriding) Nitriding consists of annealing in nitrogen releasing media to achieve a nitrogen-enriched surface (DIN 17014). The nitrided surface reaches a high level of hardness, good resistence to wear and annealing stability up to 500C - providing there is a tendency for special nitrides to form. Nitriding can be carried out in an ammoniac gas flow at 500C; the nitriding period amounts to

approx. 10 to 100 hours. In addition, nitriding is carried out in salt baths where temperatures are at 550 to 580C and this treatment period is significantly shorter.

The depth of hardening can reach up to 1 mm if the period of nitriding in gas is suficiently long. In a salt bath it is a few tenths of mm Whereas gas nitriding is mostly used for nitriding steels which can achieve very high levels of hardness because of their Al and Cr contents, in salt bath processes all steels are nitrided. For these steels without nitride forming elements, the nitriding process in a salt bath (soft nitriding) only leads to a small increase in the surface hardness. Resistence to wear, however, is greatly increased. For the nitriding treatment, it is necessary to use material (DIN 17.211) which has sufficiently low-stess levels and which has had its surface cleaned and all grease removed. Furthermore, there must be no sharp transitional edges. The most suitable properties of the nitriding layer are achieved after tempering as the microstructure is then even and has no spots of ferrite. Decarburized edges must be avoided. For gas nitriding, cooling is carried out slowly in the furnace so that, after cooling, a workpiece which is largely free of distortion is achieved. Tenifer treatment Tenifer treatment is a salt bath process especially developed from soft nitriding. As a nitrogen carrier, a KCN/KCNO salt bath with air cooling is used. The parts are treated at approx.. 570C for between 30 and 120 min. and are then cooled in water or air, depending on the material and shape. The surface which has been treated in this way, consists of two layers, a so-called connecting zone and, beneath that, a diffusion zone. The former consists of carbon nitrides and is betwee 12 and 16 thick. The latter contains released nitrogen which precipitates and forms needle-shaped nitrides only during slow cooling or annealing at over 300C. In alloy steels, special nitrides form in the diffusion zone. Both zones are more than 0.6 mm thick . Tenifer treatement has proved itself in particular for the treatment of parts which are subjected to sliding friction (e.g. at bearings). The diffusion zone means that the fatigue strength is also increased. The improved sliding properties result from the improved friction coefficients in the connecting zone meaning that seizing is prevented. Tenifer treated parts also have a certain resistence to corrosion. Carbonitriding The term carbonitriding is used to described simultaneous enrichment with carbon and nitrogen at the area round the edge by holding the temperature above or, if need be, also below the transformation point Ac1 of the core material in carbon and nitrogen releasing media (DIN 17014). Finally, depending on the properties required, cooling is carried out in water, oil or air.

Carbonitrided workpieces are more resistent to wear than case hardened ones but the core hardness is lower than with case hardening.

The treatment can be carried out in a gas flow or in a salt bath at lower temperatures than for case hardening (700C to 800C). There is therefore less thermal shock during quenching. As a result of the presence of nitrogen in the layer at the edge, the critical cooling speed is reduced. For this reason, there is less distortion in the parts. Depending on the temperature guidance and various proportions of nitrogen carriers in the the gas or bath, the composition of the edge zone can vary. With a low treatment temperature, there is first a carbonitride layer consisting of carbonitrides and cementite and, below this, due to the high nitrogen content of the layer, there is a hardened microstructure. At higher treatment tempertures, the carbonitride layer consists of cementite in which the carbon can be replaced by nitrogen.

Our company News Production sites Products o according to fields of application o Programme o according to execution o according to types of rolled-steel o Heat treatment and charcteristics Basic principles of heat treatment Application of the time-temperature diagrams Examples applications Types of heat treatment Properties Hardness conversion table o REACH Alloy-surcharges Customer Information Certificates Quality assurance Environment protection Careers Contacts Feedback Sitemap Imprint Search