18 - Fasteners
18 - Fasteners
18 - Fasteners
FASTENERS
We use fasteners to hold things together
How are these specified? What are the issues when choosing among different types of screws?
Bolt or Screw?
Inch
Number of threads per inch
Metric
Diameter inches
Type
Diameter millimeters
Distance millimeters
Type
3/4 3/4
10 16
M8 M8
X X
1.25 1
= Coarse = Fine
Know These Keywords: -Screw Diameter -Thread -Pitch -Series -Class Understand how these concepts fit into your application: -Diameter of Screw? -Length of Screw? -Strength and Torque? -Head Type, Drive Type? -Material Composition? -Coatings?
This information defines how well screws fit with their mating surfaces such as nut or threaded holes.
Classes 1A and 1B are considered an extremely loose tolerance thread fit. This class is suited for quick and easy assembly and disassembly. This thread fit is rarely specified. Classes 2A and 2B offers optimum thread fit that balances performance, economy, and ease of manufacturing. Most of the mechanical engineering community uses this class of thread fit. Classes 3A and 3B are suited for close tolerance fasteners. These fasteners are intended for service where safety is a critical design consideration. This class of fit has restrictive tolerances and no allowance.
Strength:
Inch
1 Amount of force required to pull apart fastener 2 Converted from megapascals (MPa) PSI/145 = MPa or MPa x 145 = PSI
Grade indicates strength level in the inch system. When specifying inch fastener strengths, call them out as grades.
Metric
Property class indicates strength level in the metric system. When specifying metric fastener strengths, call them out as property classes. Don't confusingly ask for a metric Grade 8 hex cap screw. Ask for a metric property class 10.9 instead.
Warning: Similar numbers used for grade and property class designations don't stand for the same strength. For example, a Grade 8 hex cap screw and a property class 8.8 hex cap screw have different tensile strengths. See table.
Strength (contd):
Shear stress is total force/engaged area Rules of thumb: Engage screws into threads over length >1 x the diameter The first 3 threads carry most of the load Root diameter = screw diameter thread spacing Shear strength = ultimate strength/sqrt(3) (using Von Mises strength) Example: -20 grade 2 screw threaded into Aluminum For nominal 1320 lb clamp load Strength of Al threads For engaged length L = 0.25 in Mean diameter Dr= -(1/20)/2 = 0.225 Engaged area = pi * D L = 0.2 in2 Shear stress = 1320 lb/0.2 in2 = 6500 psi Ultimate strength of aluminum= 42 ksi (Yield strength is 35 ksi) Shear strength = 42 ksi/1.73 = 24 ksi. Safety factor of 24/6.5 = 3.7 Strength of screw: Root diameter Dr = 0.25 1/20 = 0.2 A = pi Dr2/4 = 0.031 in2 Stress = 1320 lb/0.031=43 ksi Ultimate strength for grade 2 bolt is 74 ksi Proof load strength is 55 ksi Safety factor of 55/43 = 1.8
The threads are generally stronger than the screw A more detailed method of establishing strength is given in the appendix
Bolted Joints:
Strength comes from fastener. Stiffness comes from assembly.
Notes:
1. Tightening torque values are calculated from the formula T = KDP, where T= tightening torque. lb-in. K=torque-friction coefficient; D = nominal bolt diameter. in; and P = bolt clamp load developed by tightening. lb. 2. Clamp load is also known as preload or initial load in tension on bolt. Clamp load (lb) is calculated by arbitrarily assuming usable bolt strength is 75% of bolt proof load(psi) times tensile stress area(sq in.) of threaded section of each bolt size. Higher or lower values of clamp load can be used depending on the application requirements and the judgement of the designer.
Head Types:
Low head
Flat head
Button head
Socket Head Cap Screw - strongest of all head style. Head height is equal to shank diameter. Shouldn't be mated with a regular hex nut, which isn't as strong. Low Head Cap Screw - designed for applications with head height limitations Head height is approximately half the shank diameter. Flat Head Cap Screw - for flush applications Button Head Cap Screw Larger head diameter makes it more appropriate for holding thin materials like sheet metal guards. Because of its internal hex drive style it's ideal for tamper-proofing applications. Good substitute for other drive styles that are prone to stripping like Phillips and slotted. Socket Shoulder Screw Typically used as a pivot point or axle because shoulders are ground to a tight tolerance.
Caution: Inch and metric have different countersink angles. Mismatching fastener and hole countersink angles can result in premature fastener failure
Drive Types:
Offers excellent corrosion resistance, even more than 18-8 stainless steel. Contains molybdenum which increases corrosion resistance to chlorides and phosphates. 316L stainless steel with a high molybdenum content offering corrosion resistance similar to 316 stainless steel. May be mildly magnetic. Nonmagnetic and softer than stainless steel and mild steel. Nonconductive and resistant to chemicals and solvents (except mineral acids). Since nylon absorbs moisture from the environment, changes in moisture content will affect the fastener's dimensions and properties. Withstands a wide range of temperatures. Made of 95-98% copper with a small amount of silicon for strength. Nonmagnetic and offers high thermal conductivity and corrosion resistance. Made of 26% nickel and 15% chrome with corrosion resistance similar to 18-8 stainless steel and strength properties comparable to alloy steel. Is considered an iron-based super alloy. Passivated (a nitric acid treatment that creates a passive film to protect against oxidation and corrosion).
Silicon Bronze
Specialty Hardware
Vented Screws:
Safety Wire:
Set Screws:
Threaded Inserts:
Threads in soft materials are easily damaged Strength can be significantly improved
Washers:
Distribute load from screw head Protect surface from screw head Keep screw from backing out Take up space (shim) Act as a spring Provide sealing
Tapping:
Major diam. (inches) 0.0600 0.0860 0.1120 0.1380 0.1640 0.190 0.2500 0.3125 0.375 0.4375 0.5000 0.5625 0.6250 0.7500 0.8750 1.0000
UNC tpi 56 40 32 32 24 20 18 16 14 13 12 11 10 9 8
UNF tpi 80 64 48 40 36 32 28 24 24 20 20 18 18 16 14 14
Nut Size
5 3 32 16
5 16 32 8
11
3 7 9
16 16 8
U
27 31 17 21 49 64 64 32 32 64 8
9 5 16 8
7 8
7 8
118 1516 1
Tapping (contd):
Tapping (contd):
Roll Forming Process:
Production Tapping:
Appendix
Guide to Specifying Torque Values for Fasteners
Note : The following notes are given as a guide only. It is recommended that torque values derived from formulae should not be used without comparison to figures obtained using practical tests. Introduction Generally, in the majority of applications, the reliability of the joint is dependent upon the bolt's ability to clamp the parts together. Adequate clamping prevents relative motion between parts of the joint and leakage from joints containing gaskets. Measuring a bolt's clamp force is difficult, especially under production assembly conditions. The clamp force generated by a bolt can be indirectly controlled by regulating the applied torque. The method, known as Torque Control, is by far the most popular method of controlling a bolt's clamp force. The initial clamp force generated by the bolt is frequently called Preload. There is a link between the torque applied to a bolt and the resulting preload. A problem exists because friction has a large influence on how much torque is converted into preload. Besides the torque required to stretch the bolt, torque is also required to overcome friction in the threads and under the nut face. Typically, only 10% to 15% of the torque is used to stretch the bolt. Of the remaining torque, typically 30% is dissipated in the threads and 50% to 55% under the nut face. Because friction is such an important factor in the relationship between torque and preload, variations in friction have a significant influence on the bolt's preload. Different bolt surface finishes generally have different friction values. The torque required for a socket headed screw will not be the same as that required for the same size hexagon bolt. The larger bearing face of the standard bolt will result in increased torque being required compared to a socket headed screw. This is because more torque is being dissipated between the nut face and the joint surface. Stresses induced into a bolt When a bolt is tightened, the shank and thread sustain a direct (tensile) stress due to it being stretched. In addition, a torsion stress is induced due to the torque acting on the threads. These two stresses are combined into a single equivalent stress to allow a comparison to be made to the bolt's yield strength. In order to effectively utilize the strength of the bolt, yet leave some margin for any loading the bolt would sustain in service, an equivalent stress of 90% of yield is commonly used. This approach is used in this guide. This approach has a number of advantages over the method where a direct stress, and hence preload value, is assumed in the bolt. For high thread friction values, a high torsion stress results in the bolt. Less of the available strength of the bolt is being utilized in such a case to generate preload. In the extreme case when a nut has seized on the bolt thread, all the applied torque is sustained as torsion stress with no preload being available. In the other extreme, low thread friction results in higher preloads. Note : The following information is provided to assist Engineers wishing to establish the theoretical torque value for a particular fastener. Caution should be exercised when using theoretical values because the preload and torque is dependant upon the friction values selected. Calculation Procedure
The formulae used are applicable to metric and unified thread forms which have a thread flank angle of 60o. The calculation procedure distinguishes between thread and underhead friction as well as differences which can be caused by bearing face diameter variations. The procedure comprises of the following steps; 1. Fastener Details Dimensions and strength grades are specified in various standards.
Table 1
Strength Grade * Yield Stress N/mm2 3.6 180 4.6 240 4.8 320 5.6 300 5.8 400 6.8 480 8.8 640 # 9.8 720 10.9 900 12.9 1080
* Nominal values quoted. # For grades 8.8 and above a proof stress is specified because of problems measuring yield. BS 6104 Pt. 1 Table 1 presents information on strength grades of bolts; the most common grade for metric fasteners is grade 8.8. Estimating the appropriate friction coefficient can problematic.
Table 2
External Steel Threads Dry Self Finish or Phosphate Treated Oiled Self Finish or Phosphate Treated Dry Zinc Plated Oiled Zinc Plated Thread Adhesive Internal Self Finish Steel Threads 0.10 to 0.16 Internal Zinc Plated Steel Threads 0.12 to 0.18 Internal Cast Iron Threads Internal Aluminium Threads 0.10 to 0.20
0.10 to 0.16
Tables 2 and 3 may be used as a guide when other information is not available.
Table 3
Zinc Plated Steel Self Finish Steel Cast Iron part Condition of the Bolt Head Aluminum part part clamped by part clamped by clamped by clamped by Bolt or Nut Bolt Bolt Bolt Dry Zinc Plated Finish Slight Oil Applied to Zinc Plated Finish Dry Self Finish or Phosphate or Black Oxide Finish Slight Oil Applied to a Self Finish or Phosphate or Black Oxide Finish 0.16 to 0.22 0.10 to 0.18 0.10 to 0.20 0.10 to 0.18 0.10 to 0.20 0.10 to 0.18 -
0.10 to 0.18
0.10 to 0.18
0.08 to 0.16
0.10 to 0.18
0.10 to 0.18
0.12 to 0.20
0.08 to 0.20
Gaps in table indicate a lack of available published data. 2. Determination of the tensile stress in the threaded section. To determine the tensile stress in the fastener, first establish what proportion of the yield strength you wish the tightening process to utilise. Normally a figure of 90% is acceptable but may be varied to suit the application. Because of the torque being applied to the threads, torsion reduces the tensile stress available to generate preload. The following formula can be used to determine the tensile stress in the thread.
3. Establish the preload The preload F is related to the direct tensile stress by :
The stress area of the thread As represents the effective section of the thread. It is based upon the mean of the thread pitch and minor diameters. It can be obtained from tables or calculated using the formula:
4. Determine the tightening torque. The relationship between tightening torque T and bolt preload F is:
If units of Newton's and millimeters are being used, T will be in N.mm. To convert to N.m, divide the value by 1000. The effective friction diameter Df can be determined using the following formula:
For a standard hexagon headed nut, Do is usually taken as the across flats dimension and Di as the diameter of bolts clearance hole. Note : Use of friction values As can be seen from tables 2 and 3, upper and lower limits to friction values are stated. Traditionally a mean value of friction is used when calculating the tightening torque and preload value. Be aware however, that for other conditions remaining constant, the higher the value of friction - higher is the required tightening torque and lower is the resulting preload.
Example Calculation
As an example, the above formulae will be used to determine the preload and tightening torque for a grade 8.8 M16 hexagon headed bolt. Step 1 Establishing the dimensions and friction conditions. The data below is to be used.
d2 = 14.701 mm d3 = 13.546 mm P = 2 mm T Taken as 0.11 H Taken as 0.16 Step 2 Calculating the tensile stress in the fastener using 90% of 640 N/mm2 gives substituting values into the formula gives; = 491 N/mm2. Step 3 Taking the stress area as As as 157 mm2, gives the bolt preload F to be 77087N. Step 4 Determination of the tightening torque T. i ) The effective friction diameter. Taking D0 = 24 mm and Di = 17.27 mm gives Df = 20.6 mm. ii ) Using the values calculated gives a tightening torque T of 223481 , that is 223 Nm. = 576 N/mm2,