Entire GPS

EM 1110-1-1003
1 July 2003

US Army Corps
of Engineers

ENGINEERING AND DESIGN

NAVSTAR Global Positioning
System Surveying

ENGINEER MANUAL

i
DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY EM 1110-1-1003
US Army Corps of Engineers
CECW-EE Washington, DC 20314-1000

Manual 1 July 2003
No. 1110-1-1003
Engineering and Design
NAVSTAR GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM SURVEYING

Table of Contents

Subject Paragraph Page

Chapter 1
Introduction

Purpose .....................................................................................................................1-1 1-1
Applicability.............................................................................................................1-2 1-1
Distribution...............................................................................................................1-3 1-1
References ................................................................................................................1-4 1-1
Background ..............................................................................................................1-5 1-1
Use of Manual ..........................................................................................................1-6 1-2
Scope of Manual.......................................................................................................1-7 1-2
Life Cycle Project Management Applicability.........................................................1-8 1-3
Metrics and Accuracy Definitions............................................................................1-9 1-3
Trade Name Exclusions............................................................................................1-10 1-3
Abbreviations and Terms .........................................................................................1-11 1-4
Mandatory Requirements .........................................................................................1-12 1-4
Governing Engineer Regulations and Related Standards.........................................1-13 1-4
Proponency and Waivers..........................................................................................1-14 1-4

Chapter 2
Operational Theory of NAVSTAR GPS

General .....................................................................................................................2-1 2-1
Global Positioning System (GPS) Overview............................................................2-2 2-1
NAVSTAR GPS Program Background....................................................................2-3 2-1
NAVSTAR System Configuration...........................................................................2-4 2-2
GPS Broadcast Frequencies and Codes....................................................................2-5 2-5
GPS Broadcast Messages and Ephemeris Data........................................................2-6 2-6
GPS Status and Problem Reporting..........................................................................2-7 2-8
GPS User Operating and Tracking Modes ...............................................................2-8 2-10
Absolute GPS Positioning Techniques.....................................................................2-9 2-10
Differential or Relative GPS Positioning Techniques..............................................2-10 2-11
NAVSTAR GPS Modernization Initiatives (2003-2014).........................................2-11 2-11

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Chapter 3
GPS Reference Systems

General .....................................................................................................................3-1 3-1
Geodetic Coordinate Systems...................................................................................3-2 3-1
WGS 84 Reference Ellipsoid....................................................................................3-3 3-2
Horizontal Datums and Reference Frames...............................................................3-4 3-2
Transforming between Horizontal Survey Datums ..................................................3-5 3-5
Orthometric Elevations.............................................................................................3-6 3-7
WGS 84 Ellipsoidal Heights ....................................................................................3-7 3-9
Orthometric Height and WGS 84 Ellipsoidal Elevation Relationship .....................3-8 3-9
Geoid Undulations and Geoid Models .....................................................................3-9 3-10
North American Vertical Datum of 1988 (NAVD 88).............................................3-10 3-11
Using GPS to Densify Orthometric Elevations ........................................................3-11 3-12
GPS Vertical Site Calibration...................................................................................3-12 3-13
GPS Time References...............................................................................................3-13 3-15

Chapter 4
GPS Absolute Positioning Determination Concepts, Errors, and Accuracies

General .....................................................................................................................4-1 4-1
Absolute Point Positioning.......................................................................................4-2 4-1
GPS Absolute Position Solution Process--Pseudoranging .......................................4-3 4-2
GPS Point Positioning Accuracies ...........................................................................4-4 4-4
Positional Accuracy Statistics--Root Mean Square..................................................4-5 4-5
GPS Range Error Budget..........................................................................................4-6 4-7
User Equivalent Range Error....................................................................................4-7 4-11
Satellite Geometry Effects on Accuracy--Geometrical Dilution of Precision..........4-8 4-12
Resultant Positional Accuracy of Point Positioning.................................................4-9 4-14

Chapter 5
Differential or Relative Positioning Determination Concepts

General .....................................................................................................................5-1 5-1
Differential Positioning Concepts ............................................................................5-2 5-1
Differential Positioning (Code Pseudorange Tracking) ...........................................5-3 5-2
Differential Positioning (Carrier Phase Tracking)....................................................5-4 5-4
Carrier Phase Survey Techniques.............................................................................5-5 5-5
Real-time Kinematic (RTK) GPS.............................................................................5-6 5-7
Differential GPS Error Sources................................................................................5-7 5-8
Differential GPS Accuracies ....................................................................................5-8 5-9
Differential GPS Augmentation Systems .................................................................5-9 5-11

Chapter 6
GPS Applications in USACE

General .....................................................................................................................6-1 6-1
Project Control Densification...................................................................................6-2 6-3
Facility Site Plan Topographic Mapping and GIS Surveys 6-3 6-4
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Shallow Wetland Mapping.......................................................................................6-4 6-5
Flood Control Projects--Levee Assessments............................................................6-5 6-6
Navigation Project Survey Vessel and Dredge Control ...........................................6-6 6-6
Hydraulic and Hydrology Studies ............................................................................6-7 6-8
Structural Deformation Surveys ...............................................................................6-8 6-9
Construction Stakeout and Grading..........................................................................6-9 6-10
Coastal Engineering Surveys....................................................................................6-10 6-10
Photogrammetric Mapping Control..........................................................................6-11 6-11

Chapter 7
GPS Receiver and Equipment Selection

General ....................................................................................................................7-1 7-1
Types of GPS Receivers...........................................................................................7-2 7-1
GPS Receiver Selection Considerations...................................................................7-3 7-2
Military Grade GPS Receivers .................................................................................7-4 7-5
GPS Receiver Manufacturers ...................................................................................7-5 7-6
Other Auxiliary Equipment ......................................................................................7-6 7-7
Resource Grade GIS Mapping Receivers.................................................................7-7 7-8
Common Data Exchange Formats............................................................................7-8 7-10
GPS Training and Operation Manuals......................................................................7-9 7-13
Guide Specifications for Procuring Geodetic Quality GPS Receivers.....................7-10 7-13

Chapter 8
Planning Data Collection with GPS

Scope ........................................................................................................................8-1 8-1
General Planning Considerations for GPS Surveys .................................................8-2 8-1
Project Control Function and Accuracy ...................................................................8-3 8-2
Selection of a GPS Survey Technique......................................................................8-4 8-8
Planning Differential Code Phase GPS Surveys ......................................................8-5 8-9
Field Reconnaissance for GPS Surveys....................................................................8-6 8-10
Technical Criteria for Carrier Phase GPS Horizontal Control Surveys....................8-7 8-18
Recommended Static Baseline Occupation Times for
Horizontal Control Surveys..............................................................................8-8 8-23
Network Design and Layout for Carrier Phase GPS Horizontal Control Surveys ...8-9 8-24
Planning Vertical Control Surveys using Carrier Phase GPS ..................................8-10 8-29
Technical Criteria for GPS Vertical Densification...................................................8-11 8-30
Orthometric Elevation Guidelines............................................................................8-12 8-30
Additional Guidelines and Recommendations for
Planning GPS Vertical Densification ...............................................................8-13 8-33
Cadastral Survey Standards and Guidelines using GPS...........................................8-14 8-35
Field Planning Considerations for GPS Surveys......................................................8-15 8-36
Mandatory Criteria ...................................................................................................8-16 8-38
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Chapter 9
Conducting GPS Field Surveys
General .....................................................................................................................9-1 9-1
General GPS Field Survey Procedures.....................................................................9-2 9-1

Section I--Conducting Absolute GPS Positioning and Navigation Surveys
General .....................................................................................................................9-3 9-12
Absolute Point Positioning Techniques....................................................................9-4 9-12
Absolute GPS Navigation Systems ..........................................................................9-5 9-12
Mapping Grade GPS Receivers................................................................................9-6 9-13

Section II: Conducting Differential GPS Code Phase Positioning and Mapping Surveys
General .....................................................................................................................9-7 9-15
USCG DGPS Radiobeacon Navigation Service.......................................................9-8 9-15
FAA Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS)....................................................9-9 9-18
FAA Local Area Augmentation System (LAAS).....................................................9-10 9-20
OmniSTAR Wide-Area Differential Positioning Service ........................................9-11 9-21
LandStar Differential GPS Service (Thales) ............................................................9-12 9-23
Code and Carrier Phase Wide Area Augmentation Services....................................9-13 9-24

Section III: Conducting Differential GPS Carrier Phase Surveys
General .....................................................................................................................9-14 9-25
Ambiguity Resolution ..............................................................................................9-15 9-25
Static Carrier Phase Field Survey Techniques .........................................................9-16 9-26
Rapid/Fast Static Surveying Procedures...................................................................9-17 9-27
Kinematic GPS Survey Techniques .........................................................................9-18 9-29
Stop-and-Go Kinematic Field Survey Techniques...................................................9-19 9-29
Pseudo-Kinematic Field Survey Techniques............................................................9-20 9-31
Real-Time Kinematic (RTK) Field Surveying Techniques......................................9-21 9-32
RTK Survey Field Procedures and Calibrations.......................................................9-22 9-34

Chapter 10
Post-Processing Differential GPS Observational Data

General .....................................................................................................................10-1 10-1
General Differential Reduction Techniques.............................................................10-2 10-1
Carrier Phase Observables........................................................................................10-3 10-2
Baseline Solution by Linear Combination................................................................10-4 10-2
Baseline Solution by Cycle Ambiguity Recovery....................................................10-5 10-5
Field/Office Baseline Processing..............................................................................10-6 10-6
Resultant Baseline Output and Quality Criteria .......................................................10-7 10-8
Examples of Baseline Reduction Software Output ..................................................10-8 10-12
Baseline Reduction Summaries................................................................................10-9 10-17
Baseline Reduction in Mapping Grade GPS Receivers............................................10-10 10-19
Field/Office Loop Closure Checks ...........................................................................10-11 10-20
On-Line Positioning User Service (OPUS) ..............................................................10-12 10-23
Scripps Coordinate Update Tool (SCOUT)..............................................................10-13 10-28
Automated GIPSY Analyses (Jet Propulsion Laboratory) .......................................10-14 10-29
Baseline Data Management and Archival ................................................................10-15 10-29
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Chapter 11
Adjustment of GPS Surveys

General .....................................................................................................................11-1 11-1
Adjustment Considerations ......................................................................................11-2 11-1
GPS Error Measurement Statistics ...........................................................................11-3 11-2
Survey Adjustments and Accuracy ..........................................................................11-4 11-4
Free or Minimally Constrained Adjustments ...........................................................11-5 11-7
Fully Constrained Adjustments ................................................................................11-6 11-8
Partially Constrained Adjustments ...........................................................................11-7 11-10
Rigorous Least Squares Adjustments of GPS Surveys ............................................11-8 11-11
Network Adjustment Software Used in Corps .........................................................11-9 11-12
Network Adjustment Criteria ...................................................................................11-10 11-13
Baseline Weights--Covariance Matrix .....................................................................11-11 11-14
Adjustment Output Statistics....................................................................................11-12 11-16
Minimally Constrained Adjustment Considerations ................................................11-13 11-16
Relative Baseline Accuracy Estimates .....................................................................11-14 11-17
Normalized or Standardized Residuals.....................................................................11-15 11-18
Outlier Tests and Reject Criteria ..............................................................................11-16 11-19
Positional Accuracy Statistics and Error Ellipses.....................................................11-17 11-21
Sample GPSurvey Network Adjustment--San Juan PR Flood Control Project........11-18 11-24
Sample Network Adjustment--Virginia Key, FL Disposal Area Site ......................11-19 11-29
Sample Network Adjustment--Everglades National Park
Modified Water Deliveries ..................................................................................11-20 11-36
Approximate Adjustments of GPS Networks...........................................................11-21 11-43
Geocentric Coordinate Conversions.........................................................................11-22 11-49
Evaluation of Adjustment Results ............................................................................11-23 11-52
Final Adjustment Reports, Submittals, and Metadata ..............................................11-24 11-53
Mandatory Requirements .........................................................................................11-25 11-59

Chapter 12
Contracting GPS Surveying Services

General .....................................................................................................................12-1 12-1
Brooks Architect-Engineer Act`...............................................................................12-2 12-1
Contracting Processes and Procedures .....................................................................12-3 12-1
Indefinite Delivery Contracts and Task Orders........................................................12-4 12-2
Contract Price Schedule ...........................................................................................12-5 12-3
Sample Cost Estimate for Contracted GPS Survey Services....................................12-6 12-5
Cost Per Work Unit (GPS Station) Schedule ...........................................................12-7 12-6
Contract Specifications and Accuracy Standards.....................................................12-8 12-6
Contract Statements of Work ...................................................................................12-9 12-7
Contract Quality Control and Quality Assurance.....................................................12-10 12-7
Task Order Time and Cost Estimates.......................................................................12-11 12-7
Sample Task Order for GPS Services.......................................................................12-12 12-8

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Appendix A References

Appendix B Abbreviations and Acronyms

Appendix C Contract Schedules for GPS Surveying Services

Appendix D Application: Dredge Material Disposal Area RTK Cross-Sections
(Jacksonville District)

Appendix E Application: Photogrammetric Mapping Control Surveys of Nine Mile Run
(Pittsburgh District)

Appendix F Application: Static GPS Control Survey--Coyote Dam, Russian River, CA
(Sacramento District)

Appendix G Application: Structural Deformation Reference Network Survey--Dworshak
Dam, Idaho (Walla Walla District and Topographic Engineer Center)

Appendix H Application: Upper Saginaw River, MI Navigation Project--Second-Order
GPS Photo Mapping Control Surveys (Detroit District)

Appendix I Application: Rio Guamani, Puerto Rico Section 205 Flood Control Project--
GPS Horizontal and Vertical Control Densification (Jacksonville District)

Appendix J Application: Upland Disposal Area GPS Control Survey--Manatee Harbor,
FL (Jacksonville District)

Glossary
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Chapter 1
Introduction
1-1. Purpose
This manual provides technical specifications and procedural guidance for surveying and mapping with
the NAVSTAR Global Positioning System (GPS). It is intended for use by engineering, planning,
operations, real estate, and construction personnel performing georeferenced feature mapping or accurate
control surveys for civil works and military construction projects. Procedural and quality control
standards are defined to establish Corps-wide uniformity in the use of GPS by hired-labor personnel,
construction contractors, and Architect-Engineer (A-E) contractors.
1-2. Applicability
This manual applies to all USACE commands having responsibility for the planning, engineering and
design, operation, maintenance, construction, and related real estate and regulatory functions of civil
works, military construction, and environmental restoration projects. It applies to GPS survey
performance by both hired-labor forces and contracted survey forces. It is also applicable to surveys
performed or procured by local interest groups under various cooperative or cost-sharing agreements.
1-3. Distribution
This publication is approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.
1-4. References
Referenced USACE publications and related bibliographic information are listed in Appendix A. Where
applicable, primary source material for individual chapters may also be noted within that chapter. Up to
date information on GPS systems, processes, equipment, and vendors may be obtained through the US
Army Topographic Engineering Center's GPS web site: http://www.tec.army.mil/info_links.html.
1-5. Background
GPS surveying is a process by which highly accurate, three-dimensional point positions are determined
from signals received from satellites. GPS-derived positions may be used to provide the primary
reference control monument locations for engineering and construction projects, from which detailed site
plan topographic mapping, boundary demarcation, and construction alignment work may be performed
using conventional surveying instruments and procedures. GPS surveying also has application in the
precise positioning of marine floating plant and photogrammetric mapping aircraft, and in monitoring
structural deformations of locks and dams. GPS control surveying techniques are also used for the rapid,
real-time geospatial feature mapping of wetlands, facilities, utilities, and related geographical information
system (GIS) products. USACE commands first began using GPS in 1983, primarily for establishing
precise positions on fixed monuments to control navigation and military construction projects. In the
early 1990s, commands began using dynamic GPS for real-time control of hydrographic survey vessels
and dredges, and real-time topographic mapping. In the later 1990s, GPS applications expanded to
precise airborne positioning for photogrammetric mapping and Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR)
terrain modeling applications. Simply operated hand-held GPS receivers using wide-area augmentation
networks will now provide accurate, real-time geospatial coordinate and feature data for an expanding
and unlimited number of USACE positioning and navigation applications.
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1-6. Use of Manual
This manual is intended to be a USACE reference guide for a variety of GPS applications, including:
precise control surveying, topographic site plan mapping, GIS feature mapping, positioning, and
navigation. These activities may be performed by hired-labor forces, contracted forces, or combinations
thereof. It is also used as the primary reference manual for Proponent Sponsored Engineer Corps
Training (PROSPECT) courses on GPS surveying. General planning criteria, field and office execution
procedures, and required accuracy specifications for performing GPS surveys in support of USACE
engineering, construction, operations, planning, and real estate activities are provided. Accuracy
specifications, procedural criteria, and quality control requirements contained in this manual shall be
directly referenced in the scopes of work for Architect-Engineer (A-E) survey services or other third-party
survey services. This is intended to assure that uniform and standardized procedures are followed by both
hired-labor and contract service sources throughout USACE. Throughout the manual, recommended GPS
surveying and mapping criteria are normally summarized in tables. Technical or procedural guidance is
in more general terms where methodologies are described in readily available references or in GPS
instrumentation and software operating manuals. Where procedural guidance is otherwise unavailable
from industry sources, it is provided herein.
1-7. Scope of Manual
The original version of this manual was developed in the late 1980s and published on 14 June 1991 by the
USACE Engineer Topographic Laboratory at Fort Belvoir (now the Topographic Engineering Center
under the Engineer Research and Development Center--ERDC). The 1991 version was subsequently
revised on 31 December 1994 and 1 August 1996. These original versions contained detailed GPS
theory, operational instructions, procedures, and equipment procurement guidance, and were based on the
technology and observational methods that were still evolving during that period. Since GPS theory and
observational methods are now covered in various DoD technical documents, academic publications,
and/or GPS equipment manufacturer's manuals, the current update is more focused on specific USACE
project applications, accuracy standards, observation criteria, and adjustment analysis.
a. General coverage. This update to the manual primarily focuses on the use of static and
kinematic differential carrier phase GPS survey techniques for establishing and/or extending project
horizontal and vertical construction control, boundary control, and topographic site plan mapping. Both
static and kinematic control survey methods are covered, along with related GPS data reduction, post-
processing, and adjustment methods. Absolute GPS point positioning methods (i.e. non-differential) and
code-phase differential navigation positioning from wide-area augmentation networks are covered to a
lesser extent since these techniques are not normally employed for establishing high-accuracy control
coordinates on project reference monuments. These techniques do, however, have an expanding
application on many USACE surveying and GIS feature mapping projects. Dynamic differential
code/carrier-phase GPS positioning methods supporting hydrographic surveying and dredge control are
also covered in EM 1110-2-1003 (Hydrographic Surveying). Airborne mapping and LIDAR applications
of GPS are covered more fully in EM 1110-1-1000 (Photogrammetric Mapping). High-precision uses of
GPS for monitoring structural deformations are more thoroughly described in EM 1110-2-1009
(Structural Deformation Surveying).
b. Manual coverage and appendices. The first few chapters in this manual are intended to
provide a general overview of the theory and physical concepts of satellite GPS positioning, including
coordinate systems and reference datums. Subsequent chapters cover GPS survey planning, data
acquisition, data processing, and data adjustment and analysis. The final chapter on estimating costs for
GPS surveys is intended to assist those USACE commands that contract out these services. The
appendices to this manual contain detailed examples of GPS surveys covering a variety of Corps
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projects--both civil and military. Users should be aware that these sample applications are only
representative of current (2003) GPS applications and accuracies. For further information on GPS, and to
stay abreast of this continuously changing technology, users of this manual should periodically consult
the related publications, governmental agencies, and the Internet web site listed in paragraph 1-4 above.
c. Evolving GPS technology and procedures. Equipment operation, calibration, and procedural
methods for acquiring, logging, processing, and adjusting GPS survey data are usually adequately detailed
in operation manuals provided by the various GPS equipment manufacturers and geodetic adjustment
software vendors. Since many of the receiver operation and data processing methods are unique to each
vendor, and are being constantly updated, this manual can only provide a general overview of some of the
more common techniques used by the Corps or its contractors. References and recommendations in this
manual of any specific operational or adjustment methods must be carefully weighed against newly
evolving technology and the latest manufacturer's recommendations. Other Corps regulations may dictate
mandatory requirements for processing, displaying, transferring, and archiving GPS survey data--e.g.,
Metadata archiving. These mandatory regulations will be referenced where applicable. As new GPS
survey instruments, technology, and procedures are developed, Districts are strongly encouraged to use
those innovations and recommend modifications to any criteria or technical guidance contained in this
manual--see Proponency and Waivers section at the end of this chapter.
1-8. Life Cycle Project Management Applicability
Project control established by GPS survey methods may be used through the entire life cycle of a project,
spanning decades in many cases. During initial reconnaissance surveys of a project, control established
by GPS should be permanently monumented and situated in areas that are conducive to the performance
or densification of subsequent surveys for contract plans and specifications, construction, and
maintenance. During the early planning phases of a project, a comprehensive survey control plan should
be developed which considers survey requirements over a project's life cycle, with a goal of eliminating
duplicative or redundant surveys to the maximum extent possible.
1-9. Metrics and Accuracy Definitions
Metric units are used in this manual. Metric units are commonly used in geodetic surveying applications,
including the GPS survey work covered in this manual. GPS-derived geographical or metric Cartesian
coordinates are generally transformed to English units of measurements for use in local project reference
and design systems, such as State Plane Coordinate System (SPCS) grids. In all cases, the use of metric
units shall follow local engineering and construction practices. English/metric equivalencies are noted
where applicable, including the critical--and often statutory--distinction between the US Survey Foot
(1,200/3,937 meters (m) exactly) and International Foot (30.48/100 m exactly) conversions. One-
dimensional (1-D), two-dimensional (2-D), and three-dimensional (3-D) accuracy statistics, standards,
and tolerances specified in this manual are defined at the 95% RMS confidence level. Unless otherwise
stated, GPS "positional accuracies" imply horizontal (2-D) RMS measures. The generic term "meter-
level GPS" generally refers to 2-D accuracies ranging between 0.5 m and 5 m. Likewise, "centimeter-
level GPS" typically refers to 1-D, 2-D, or 3-D GPS accuracies ranging between 1 cm and 10 cm.
1-10. Trade Name Exclusions
The citation or illustration in this manual of trade names of commercially available GPS products,
including other auxiliary surveying equipment, instrumentation, and adjustment software, does not
constitute official endorsement or approval of the use of such products.
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1-11. Abbreviations and Terms
Abbreviations and acronyms are listed at Appendix B. GPS surveying terms used in this manual are
explained in the Glossary at the end of this manual.
1-12. Mandatory Requirements
ER 1110-2-1150 (Engineering and Design for Civil Works Projects) prescribes that mandatory requirements
be identified in engineer manuals. Mandatory accuracy standards, quality control, and quality assurance
criteria are normally summarized in tables within each chapter, and these requirements are summarized at
the end of the chapter. If no mandatory requirements are listed, then the material in a particular chapter is
considered recommended guidance. The mandatory criteria contained in this manual are based on the
following considerations: (1) project safety assurance, (2) overall project function, (3) previous Corps
experience and practice, (4) Corps-wide geospatial data standardization requirements, (5) adverse economic
impacts if criteria are not followed, and (6) HQUSACE commitments to industry standards.
1-13. Governing Engineer Regulations and Related Standards
Spatial coordinates established using GPS techniques fall under the definition of geospatial data contained in
ER 1110-1-8156 (Policies, Guidance, and Requirements for Geospatial Data and Systems). Accordingly,
the guidance in ER 1110-1-8156, and its implementing manual EM 1110-1-2909 (Geospatial Data and
Systems), must be followed for disseminating and archiving GPS-derived data. This would include
preparing appropriate metadata files in accordance with the guidance in EM 1110-1-2909. Federal
standards for reporting survey accuracy, geodetic control survey standards, and topographic survey
standards are published by the Federal Geographic Data Committee (FGDC). These FGDC "Geospatial
Positioning Accuracy Standards" are listed in Appendix A. USACE commands shall comply with these
FGDC standards. This manual also references a number of Corps technical manuals listed in Appendix A.
These referenced manuals contain guidance relating to performing GPS surveys for more specific
applications.
1-14. Proponency and Waivers
The HQUSACE proponent for this manual is the Engineering and Construction Division, Directorate of
Civil Works. Technical development and compilation of the manual was coordinated by the US Army
Topographic Engineering Center (CEERD-TR-A). Comments, recommended changes, or waivers to this
manual should be forwarded through MSC to HQUSACE (ATTN: CECW-EE).
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Chapter 2
Operational Theory of GPS
2-1. General
This chapter provides a general overview of the basic operating principles and theory of the NAVSTAR
GPS. Much of the material is synopsized from the following references: NAVSTAR GPS User Equipment
Introduction (DoD 1996) and the Global Positioning System Standard Positioning Service Performance
Standard (DoD 2001). These two sources, along with other references listed in Appendix A, should be
consulted for more detailed coverage on all the topics covered in this chapter.
2-2. Global Positioning System (GPS) Overview
GPS is a passive, all-weather, 24-hour global navigation satellite system (GNSS) operated and maintained
by the Department of Defense (DoD). It consists of a nominal constellation of 24 satellites in high-
altitude orbits. Its primary mission is to provide passive, real-time, 3-D positioning, navigation and
velocity data for land, air, and sea-based strategic and tactical forces operating anywhere in the world. A
secondary--and most predominant--application is a wide range of civil positioning and time transfer. A
ground-based static or roving GPS receiver is simply a range measurement device: distances are measured
between the receiver antenna and four to ten satellites in view, and the position is determined from the
adjusted intersections of the range vectors--equivalent to a trilateration solution in terrestrial surveying.
These distances are determined in the GPS receiver by precisely measuring the time it takes a coded
signal to travel from the satellites to the receiver antenna. The critical components in the system are the
precisely synchronized atomic clocks in the satellites. In addition, many GPS receivers can also measure
the phase difference of the satellite signal's 19 and 24 cm carrier waves, allowing for sub-centimeter
distance resolution of the range to the satellite. This phase resolution measurement process is similar to
that used in conventional electronic distance measurement (EDM) land surveying equipment.
2-3. NAVSTAR GPS Program Background
A direct product of the "space race" of the 1960's, the GPS is actually the result of the merging of two
independent programs that were begun in the early 1960's: the US Navy's TIMATION Program and the
US Air Force's 621B Project. Another system similar in basic concept to the current GPS was the US
Navy's TRANSIT program, which was also developed in the 1960's. Currently, the entire system is
maintained by the US Air Force NAVSTAR GPS Joint Program Office (JPO), a North Atlantic Treaty
Organization (NATO) multi-service type organization that was established in 1973. DoD initially
designed the GPS for military use only, providing sea, air, and ground troops of the United States and
members of NATO with a unified, high-precision, all-weather, worldwide, real-time positioning system.
The first US pronouncement regarding civil use of GPS came in 1983 following the downing of Korean
Airlines Flight 007 after it strayed over territory belonging to the Soviet Union. As a result of this
incident, in 1984, President Reagan announced the Global Positioning System would be made available
for international civil use once the system became operational. In 1987, DoD formally requested the
Department of Transportation (DoT) to establish and provide an office to respond to civil users needs
and to work closely with the DoD to ensure proper implementation of GPS for civil use. Two years later,
the US Coast Guard became the lead agency for this project. On December 8, 1993, the DoD and DoT
formally declared Initial Operational Capability (IOC), meaning that the NAVSTAR GPS was capable of
sustaining the Standard Positioning Service (SPS). On April 27, 1995, the US Air Force Space Command
formally declared GPS met the requirements for Full Operational Capability (FOC), meaning that the
constellation of 24 operational satellites had successfully completed testing for military capability.
Mandated by Congress, GPS is freely used by both the military and civilian public for real-time absolute
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positioning of ships, aircraft, and land vehicles, as well as highly precise differential point positioning and
time transferring.
2-4. NAVSTAR System Configuration
The NAVSTAR GPS consists of three distinct segments: the space segment (satellites), the control
segment (ground tracking and monitoring stations), and the user segment (air, land, and sea-based
receivers). See Figure 2-1 for a representation of the basic GPS system segments.
Figure 2-1. NAVSTAR GPS System Segments
a. Space segment. The space segment consists of all GPS satellites in orbit. The initial space
segment was designed with four satellites in each of six orbital planes inclined at 55 degrees to the
equator. The actual number of operational satellites and their locations varies at any given time as
satellites are constantly being replaced, realigned, and upgraded--see Table 2-1. The average life of a
GPS satellite is approximately eight years. For example, Table 2-1 indicates 29 functioning satellites on
the date shown. The satellites are located at average altitudes of 20,200 km (10,900 nautical miles), and
have 11-hour 58-minute orbital periods. They are positioned in orbit such that at least four geometrically
suitable satellites will be available for navigation. The first generation of satellites launched between
1978 and 1985 were the Block I (research and development). None of these are still operational. The
second series of launches (the Block II or production satellites--Figure 2-2) was begun in 1989. The GPS
constellation was declared fully operational in 1995 (prior to this time, GPS positioning was intermittent
due to lack of full coverage). Launching of Block IIR (R is for replenishment) satellites began in 1997
and is still underway. Future launches of a Block IIF (Follow-on) series, along with related GPS
modernization initiatives (i.e. GPS III), will keep the system operational for at least the next two decades.
NAVSTAR GPS is not the only global navigation satellite system (GNSS). Russia maintains a similar
global orbiting satellite navigation system (GLONASS) of nominally 24 satellites. Some high-end
receivers can acquire and process both the GPS and GLONASS satellites simultaneously. This capability
will be further expanded when the proposed European Union 30-satellite navigation system (GALILEO)
is implemented in a decade or so. Japan and China are also considering development of their own GNSS.
The ability to track more "satellites-in-view" from different GNSS enhances the accuracy and reliability
of the observations.
Space Segment
User Segment
Control Segment
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Table 2-1. Satellite Constellation Status Report (5 May 2002)
Source: US Coast Guard Navigation Center (www.navcen.uscg.gov)
SVN PRN Block- Launch Slot Operational Months Years IRON
No No Mission No Date Date Operat'al Operat'al No
1 4 I-1 22-Feb-78 ** 29-Mar-78 21.9 1.825000 5111
2 7 I-2 13-May-78 ** 14-Jul-78 25.5 2.125000 5112
3 6 I-3 06-Oct-78 ** 09-Nov-78 161.3 13.441667 5113
4 8 I-4 11-Dec-78 ** 08-Jan-79 93.6 7.800000 5114
5 5 I-5 09-Feb-80 ** 27-Feb-80 45 3.750000 5117
6 9 I-6 26-Apr-80 ** 16-May-80 126.8 10.566667 5118
7 ** I-7 18-Dec-81 ** ** 0 0.000000 5115
8 11 I-8 14-Jul-83 ** 10-Aug-83 116.8 9.733333 9794
9 13 I-9 13-Jun-84 ** 19-Jul-84 115.2 9.600000 9521
10 12 I-10 08-Sep-84 ** 03-Oct-84 133.5 11.125000 9783
11 3 I-11 09-Oct-85 ** 30-Oct-85 99.9 11.783333 6374
14 14 II-1 14-Feb-89 ** 14-Apr-89 141.4 11.783333 6142
13 2 II-2 10-Jun-89 B3 12-Jul-89 138.6 11.550000 2567
16 16 II-3 17-Aug-89 ** 13-Sep-89 136.4 11.366667 6738
19 19 II-4 21-Oct-89 A5 14-Nov-89 134.5 11.208333 2272
17 17 II-5 11-Dec-89 D3 11-Jan-90 132.6 11.050000 4373
18 18 II-6 24-Jan-90 ** 14-Feb-90 127.5 10.625000 3028
20 20 II-7 25-Mar-90 ** 19-Apr-90 72.7 6.058333 3310
21 21 II-8 02-Aug-90 E2 31-Aug-90 125 10.416667 470
15 15 II-9 01-Oct-90 D5 20-Oct-90 123.3 10.275000 8639
23 23 II-10 26-Nov-90 E4 10-Dec-90 121.6 10.133333 8896
24 24 II-11 03-Jul-91 D1 30-Aug-91 113 9.416667 5681
25 25 II-12 23-Feb-92 A2 24-Mar-92 106.2 8.850000 1920
28 28 II-13 09-Apr-92 ** 25-Apr-92 101.1 8.425000 2941
26 26 II-14 07-Jul-92 F2 23-Jul-92 102.2 8.516667 3055
27 27 II-15 09-Sep-92 A4 30-Sep-92 100 8.333333 2524
32 1 II-16 22-Nov-92 F4 11-Dec-92 97.6 8.133333 6809
29 29 II-17 18-Dec-92 F5 05-Jan-93 96.8 8.066667 3659
22 22 II-18 02-Feb-93 B1 04-Apr-93 93.8 7.816667 8800
31 31 II-19 30-Mar-93 C3 13-Apr-93 93.5 7.791667 4780
37 7 II-20 13-May-93 C4 12-Jun-93 91.6 7.633333 5689
39 9 II-21 26-Jun-93 A1 21-Jul-93 90.3 7.525000 9631
35 5 II-22 30-Aug-93 B4 20-Sep-93 88.3 7.358333 7948
34 4 II-23 26-Oct-93 D4 01-Dec-93 85.9 7.158333 9802
36 6 II-24 10-Mar-94 C1 28-Mar-94 82 6.833333 4715
33 3 II-25 28-Mar-96 C2 09-Apr-96 57.7 4.808333 3365
40 10 II-26 16-Jul-96 E3 15-Aug-96 53.5 4.458333 8006
30 30 II-27 12-Sep-96 B2 01-Oct-96 51.9 4.325000 3320
38 8 II-28 06-Nov-97 A3 18-Dec-97 37.4 3.116667 3722
42 12 IIR-1 17-Jan-97 ** ** 0 0.000000 **
43 13 IIR-2 22-Jul-97 F3 31-Jan-98 36 3.000000 8456
46 11 IIR-3 06-Oct-99 D2 03-Jan-00 12.9 1.075000 1597
51 20 IIR-4 10-May-00 E1 01-Jun-00 7.9 0.658333 1436
44 28 IIR-5 16-Jul-00 B5 17-Aug-00 5.40 0.450000 443
41 14 IIR-6 10-Nov-00 F1 10-Dec-00 1.60 0.133333 1423
54 18 IIR-7 30-Jan-01 E4 15-Feb-01 -- --- ---
Note: Obtain current satellite constellation reports from the US Coast Guard Navigation Center web site
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Figure 2-2. NAVSTAR GPS Block IIA Satellite
b. Control segment. The GPS control segment consists of Master Control Stations and six
monitoring stations located throughout the world (Figure 2-3). The Master Control Station is located at
Schriever Air Force Base, Colorado with a backup station in Gaithersburg, Maryland. The information
obtained from the monitoring stations that track the satellites is used in controlling the satellites and
predicting their orbits. All data from the tracking stations are transmitted to the Master Control Station
where it is processed and analyzed. Ephemerides, clock corrections, and other message data are then
transmitted back to the monitoring stations with ground antennas for subsequent transmittal back to the
satellites. The Master Control Station is also responsible for the daily management and control of the
GPS satellites and the overall control segment.
Figure 2-3. GPS Control Station Network (1994)
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c. User segment. The user segment represents the ground-based GPS receiver units that process
the NAVSTAR satellite signals and compute the position and/or velocity of the user. Most GPS receivers
perform these functions automatically, in real-time, and often provide visual and/or verbal positional
guidance information. Users consist of both military and civil activities, for an almost unlimited number
of applications in a variety of air, sea, or land-based platforms. Geodetic surveying applications represent
a small percentage of current and potential GPS users. Typical user receivers are shown in Figure 2-4.
Figure 2-4. Hand-held GPS receiver (PLGR) for general navigation and positioning (left)
and a geodetic quality GPS receiver for precise control surveying (right)
2-5. GPS Broadcast Frequencies and Codes
Each NAVSTAR satellite transmits ranging signals on two L-band frequencies, designated as L1 and L2.
The L1 carrier frequency is 1575.42 megahertz (MHz) and has a wavelength of approximately 19
centimeters (cm). The L2 carrier frequency is 1227.60 MHz and has a wavelength of approximately 24
cm. The L1 signal is modulated with a 1.023 MHz Coarse/Acquisition Code (C/A-code) and a 10.23
MHz Precision Code (P-code). The L2 signal is modulated with only the 10.23 MHz P-code. Both codes
can be used to determine the range between the user and a satellite. The P-code is normally encrypted
and is available only to authorized users. When encrypted, it is termed the Y-code. Table 2-2 below
summarizes the carrier frequencies and codes on a Block IIR satellite. Each satellite carries precise
atomic clocks to generate the timing information needed for precise positioning. A 50 Hz navigation
message is also transmitted on both the P(Y)-code and C/A-code. This message contains satellite clock
bias data, satellite ephemeris data, orbital information, ionospheric signal propagation correction data,
health and status of satellites, satellite almanac data for the entire constellation, and other general
information.
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Table 2-2. NAVSTAR GPS Signal Codes and Carrier Frequencies (Block IIR)
Codes
Civilian Military
Carrier (L-Band) C/A-Code P(Y)-Code Satellite Messages
L1
1575.42 MHz Present Present
19 cm wavelength 293 m wavelength 29.3 m wavelength user messages
satellite constants
satellite positions
L2
1227.60 MHz Not Present Present
24 cm wavelength 29.3 m wavelength
a. Pseudo-random noise. The modulated C/A-code is referred to as pseudo-random noise
(PRN). This pseudo-random noise is actually a 1023 bit code with a clock rate of 1.023 MHz that repeats
every 1 millisecond. The 10.23 MHz P(Y)-code PRN has a coded sequence of 267 days. This sequence
of very precise time marks permits the ground receivers to compare and compute the time of transmission
between the satellite and ground station. From this transmission time, the range to the satellite can be
derived. This is the basis behind GPS range measurements. Each satellite has a different PRN. The C/A-
code pulse intervals are approximately every 293 m in range and the more accurate P-code every 29 m--
see Table 2-2.
b. Pseudoranges. A pseudorange is the time delay between the satellite clock and the receiver
clock, as determined from C/A- or P-code pulses. This time difference equates to the range measurement
but is called a "pseudorange" since at the time of the measurement, the receiver clock is not synchronized
to the satellite clock. In most cases, an absolute 3-D real-time navigation position can be obtained by
observing at least four simultaneous pseudoranges. The Standard Positioning Service (SPS) uses the less
precise L1 C/A-code pseudoranges for real-time GPS navigation. The L2 signal is not used in SPS
positioning. The Precise Positioning Service (PPS) is the fundamental military real-time navigation use
of GPS. Pseudoranges are obtained using the higher pulse rate (i.e. higher accuracy) P-code on both
frequencies (L1 and L2). P-codes are encrypted to prevent unauthorized civil or foreign use. This
encryption requires a special key.
c. Carrier phase measurements. Carrier frequency tracking measures the phase differences
between the Doppler shifted satellite and receiver frequencies. Phase measurements are resolved over the
relatively short L1 and L2 carrier wavelengths (19 cm and 24 cm respectively). This allows phase
resolution at the mm level. The phase differences are continuously changing due to the changing satellite
earth geometry. However, such effects are resolved in the receiver and subsequent data post-processing.
When carrier phase measurements are observed and compared between two stations (i.e. relative or
differential mode), baseline vector accuracy between the stations below the centimeter level is attainable
in three dimensions. Various receiver technologies and processing techniques allow carrier phase
measurements to be used in real-time centimeter positioning.
2-6. GPS Broadcast Messages and Ephemeris Data
Each NAVSTAR GPS satellite periodically broadcasts data concerning clock corrections, system/satellite
status, and most critically, its position or ephemerides data. There are two basic types of ephemeris data:
broadcast and precise.
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a. Broadcast ephemerides. The broadcast ephemerides are actually predicted satellite positions
within the navigation message that are transmitted from the satellites in real-time. The ephemerides can
be acquired in real-time by a receiver capable of acquiring either the C/A or P-code. The broadcast
ephemerides are computed using past tracking data of the satellites. The satellites are tracked
continuously by the monitor stations to obtain more recent data to be used for the orbit predictions. This
data is analyzed by the Master Control Station and new parameters for the satellite orbits are transmitted
back to the satellites. This upload is performed daily with new predicted orbital elements transmitted
every hour by the Navigation Message. The broadcast navigation message consists of 25 frames of data,
each data frame consisting of 1,500 bits. Each frame is divided into 5 sub-frames. At the 50 Hz
transmission rate, it takes six seconds to receive a sub-frame, or 12.5 minutes to receive all 25 frames of
data. The following information is broadcast from the satellite to the user's GPS receiver:
Satellite time-of-transmission
Satellite position
Satellite health
Satellite clock correction
Propagation delay effects
Time transfer to UTC (USNO)
Constellation status
b. Precise ephemerides. The precise ephemerides are based on actual orbital tracking data that is
post-processed to obtain the more accurate satellite positions. These ephemerides are available at a later
date and are more accurate than the broadcast ephemerides because they are based on actual orbital
tracking data and not predicted data. The reference frame used is the International Earth Rotation Service
Terrestrial Reference Frame (ITRF). NASA's International GPS Service (IGS) is the agency that
coordinates the precise orbital tracking and disseminates this information to Global Data Centers for
public use. In addition, an informational summary file is provided to document the computation and to
convey relevant information about the observed satellites, such as maneuvers or maintenance. NOAA's
National Geodetic Survey (NGS) has been designated as the Federal agency responsible for providing
precise orbital ephemerides to the general public. Since the precise orbits are a combination of several
orbit production centers around the globe, it does lag behind in its availability until all centers have
reported in. Also, it is not made available until a full GPS week has been completed--the NGS Precise
Orbits generally are available seven or eight days after the date of observation. The IGS also supplies a
predicted Ultra-Rapid Orbit, which is updated twice daily, and a Rapid Orbit which is updated daily--see
Table 2-3 for a summary of satellite orbital data availability. NGS provides satellite orbit positions in
SP3 format every 15 minutes--in the current ITRFxx reference frame. For most USACE surveying,
mapping, and navigation applications, the broadcast ephemerides are adequate to obtain the needed
accuracies. For high-precision USACE control survey applications (especially vertical control
densification) the final precise ephemerides should be used. Most baseline reduction software provides
options for inputting precise orbital data--see Chapter 10. Details on orbital latencies, formats, and
downloading instructions can be obtained at the NGS web site listed in Table 2-3.
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Table 2-3. Summary of GPS Satellite Ephemerides Information (International GPS Service)
Ephemeris Orbital Latency Updates Sample
Accuracy (approx)
Broadcast 260 cm Real-time -- daily
Predicted (Ultra-Rapid 25 cm Real-time twice daily 15 min/15 min
Rapid < 5 to 10 cm (14 to 17 hours) daily 15 min/5 min
Final < 5 cm (13 days) weekly 15 min/5 min
Sources: International GPS Service (2002) and National Geodetic Survey http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/GPS/GPS.html
2-7. GPS Status and Problem Reporting
The US Coast Guard Navigation Center (NAVCEN) provides notification of changes in constellation
operational status that affect the service being provided to GPS users, or if the US Government anticipates
a problem in supporting performance standards established in the GPS Standard Positioning Service
Performance Standard (DoD 2001). Through operation of the Navigation Information Service (NIS),
NAVCEN provides the public with information on the GPS status. The current mechanism for
accomplishing this notification is through the Notice: Advisory to Navigation Users (NANU). NANUs
are a primary input in the generation of GPS-related Notice to Airmen (NOTAM) and US Coast Guard
Local Notice to Mariners (LNM). In the case of a scheduled event affecting service provided to GPS
users, the NIS will issue an appropriate NANU at least 48 hours prior to the event. In the case of an
unscheduled outage or problem, notification will be provided as soon as possible after the event. USACE
users performing high-order GPS control surveys or DGPS-controlled dredging measurement and
payment surveys should closely monitor NANUs for potential problems. The NIS may be accessed
through any of the following media:
Internet: http://www.navcen.uscg.gov
E-Mail: nisws@navcen.uscg.mil
GPS Status Recording: Telephone (703) 313-5907
WWV/WWVH Radio Broadcast or Telephone (303) 499-711:
14-15 minutes past hour (WWV) and 43-44 minutes past hour (WWVH)
Frequencies: 2.5, 5, 10, 15, and 20 MHz
Write or Call: Commanding Officer (NIS)
US Coast Guard Navigation Center
7323 Telegraph Road
Alexandria, VA 22315-3998
Telephone: (703) 313-5900
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A typical GPS Status Report and a NANU disseminated by the NAVCEN is shown below. The NANU
provides notice that a particular satellite (SVN 17) is unusable. GPS users can subscribe to automated
receipt of these GPS Status Reports and NANUs.
UNCLASSIFIED
GPS OPERATIONAL ADVISORY 281.OA1
SUBJ: GPS STATUS 08 OCT 2002
1. SATELLITES, PLANES, AND CLOCKS (CS=CESIUM RB=RUBIDIUM):
A. BLOCK I : NONE
B. BLOCK II: PRNS 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 14, 15
PLANE : SLOT F4, B5, C2, D4, B4, C1, C4, A3, A1, E3, D2, F3, F1, D5
CLOCK : CS, CS, CS, RB, CS, CS, RB, RB, CS, CS, RB, RB, RB, CS
BLOCK II: PRNS 17, 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31
PLANE : SLOT D3, E4, E1, E2, B1, E5, D1, A2, F2, A4, B3, F5, B2, C3
CLOCK : RB, RB, RB, CS, RB, CS, CS, CS, RB, RB, RB, RB, RB, RB
2. CURRENT ADVISORIES AND FORECASTS :
A. FORECASTS: FOR SEVEN DAYS AFTER EVENT CONCLUDES.
NANU MSG DATE/TIME PRN TYPE SUMMARY (JDAY/ZULU TIME START - STOP)
2002121 111648Z SEP 2002 22 FCSTMX 261/1100-261/2300
2002122 181306Z SEP 2002 22 FCSTSUMM 261/1123-261/1300
B. ADVISORIES:
2002123 251818Z SEP 2002 21 UNUSUFN 268/1830-/
2002124 070107Z OCT 2002 17 UNUSUFN 280/0110-/
C. GENERAL:
3. REMARKS:
A. THE POINT OF CONTACT FOR GPS MILITARY OPERATIONAL SUPPORT IS THE GPS
SUPPORT CENTER AT (719)567-2541 OR DSN 560-2541.
B. CIVILIAN: FOR INFORMATION, CONTACT US COAST GUARD NAVCEN AT
COMMERCIAL (703)313-5900 24 HOURS DAILY AND INTERNET
HTTP://WWW.NAVCEN.USCG.GOV
C. MILITARY SUPPORT WEBPAGES CAN BE FOUND AT THE FOLLOWING
WWW.SCHRIEVER.AF.MIL/GPS OR WWW.PETERSON.AF.MIL/USSPACE/GPS_SUPPORT
NOTICE ADVISORY TO NAVSTAR USERS (NANU) 2002124 SUBJ: SVN17 (PRN17) UNUSABLE JDAY 280/0110 - UNTIL FURTHER
NOTICE
1. NANU NUMBER: 2002124
NANU DTG: 070107Z OCT 2002
NANU Type: UNUSUFN
REFERENCE NANU: N/A
REF NANU DTG: N/A
SVN: 17
PRN: 17
START JDAY: 280
START TIME ZULU: 0110
START CALENDER DATE:Monday, October 07, 2002
STOP JDAY: UFN
STOP TIME ZULU: N/A
STOP CALENDER DATE: N/A
2. CONDITION: GPS SATELLITE SVN17 (PRN17) WILL BE UNUSABLE ON JDAY 280 (07 OCT 2002) BEGINNING 0110 ZULU UNTIL
FURTHER NOTICE. 3. POC: CIVILIAN - NAVCEN AT (703)313-5900, HTTP://WWW.NAVCEN.USCG.GOV MILITARY - GPS Support
Center, DSN 560-2541, COMM 719-567-6616, GPS@SCHRIEVER.AF.MIL, HTTP://WWW.SCHRIEVER.AF.MIL/GPS
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2-8. GPS User Operating and Tracking Modes
There are basically two general operating modes from which GPS-derived positions can be obtained: (1)
absolute positioning, and (2) differential (or relative) positioning. Within each of these two modes, range
measurements to the satellites can be performed by tracking either the phase of the satellite's carrier signal
or the pseudo-random noise (PRN) codes modulated on the carrier signal. In addition, GPS positioning
can be performed with the receiver operating in either a static or dynamic (kinematic) environment. This
variety of operational options results in a wide range of accuracy levels that may be obtained from the
NAVSTAR GPS. These options are discussed in detail in subsequent chapters of this manual. Positional
accuracies can range from 100 m down to the sub-centimeter level. Increased accuracies to the
centimeter level usually require additional observing time; however, many dynamic applications can now
provide this accuracy in real-time. Selection of a particular GPS operating and tracking mode (i.e.
absolute, differential, code, carrier, static, kinematic, real-time, post-processed, and/or combinations
thereof) depends on the user application, accuracy requirement, and resources. Most USACE project
control survey applications typically require differential positioning using carrier phase tracking. Dredge
control and hydrographic survey applications typically use meter-level accuracy differential code
measurements. GIS feature mapping applications may use either differential code or carrier
measurements, depending on the desired accuracy. Non-differential absolute positioning modes are
adequate for lesser accuracy requirements but are rarely used for geodetic surveying applications;
however, they may be used for some small-scale mapping projects. In general, the cost of a particular
operating system and tracking mode will exponentially increase as a function of accuracy--e.g., a 30 m
point accuracy can be obtained with a $100 GPS receiver, meter-level accuracy for $5,000 to $15,000,
and sub-centimeter accuracy requires differential GPS equipment (or systems) in the $15,000 to $50,000
range.
2-9. Absolute GPS Positioning Techniques
The most common GPS positioning technique is "absolute positioning." Most commercial hand-held
GPS receivers provide absolute (i.e. non-differential) positioning, with real-time horizontal or vertical
accuracies in the 10 m to 30 m range, depending on the receiver quality and numerous other factors--see
Global Positioning System Standard Positioning Service Performance Standard (DoD 2001) for a detailed
analysis of GPS positional accuracies. These receivers are typically used for real-time vehicle or vessel
navigation. When operating in this passive, real-time navigation mode, ranges to GPS satellites are
observed by a single receiver positioned on a point for which a position is desired. This receiver may be
positioned to be stationary over a point or in motion (i.e. kinematic positioning, such as on a vehicle,
aircraft, missile, or backpack).
a. GPS absolute positioning services. Two levels of absolute positioning accuracy are obtained
from the GPS. These are called the (1) Standard Positioning Service and (2) Precise Positioning Service.
(1) Standard Positioning Service (SPS). The SPS is the GPS positioning service that the DoD
authorizes to civil users. This service consists of the C/A-code and navigation message on the L1 signal.
The L2 signal is not part of the SPS, nor is the P(Y)-code on L1. The DoD may deliberately degrade the
GPS signal for national security reasons. When it is deliberately degraded, as it was prior to 2000,
horizontal accuracies were in the range of 75 to 100 m. Since May 2000, when this degradation was
suspended, horizontal accuracies down to the 10 to 30 m level may be achieved with a quality single
frequency receiver. (DoD 2001 reports average global SPS accuracies are 13 m horizontal and 22 m
vertical, with worst case accuracies 36 m horizontal and 77 m vertical). DoD degradation of the GPS
signal is referred to as "Selective Availability" or S/A. DoD also implements AntiSpoofing (A/S) which
will deny the SPS user the more accurate P-code. S/A and A/S will be discussed further in Chapter 4.
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(2) Precise Positioning Service (PPS). Use of the PPS requires authorization by DoD to have a
decryption device capable of deciphering the encrypted GPS signals. USACE is an authorized user;
however, actual use of the equipment has security implications. Real-time 3-D absolute positional
accuracies of better than 10 m are attainable through use of the PPS with dual-frequency receivers.
b. Applications. Absolute point positioning is suitable for many USACE surveying applications
where 10 to 30 m accuracy levels are acceptable, e.g., rough reconnaissance work, general vessel
navigation, wetland delineation, small-scale mapping. They are also useful for some military topographic
surveying applications (e.g., artillery surveying). Typical USACE applications are summarized in
Chapter 6. With certain specialized GPS receiving equipment, data processing refinements, and long-
term static observations, absolute positional coordinates may be determined to accuracy levels less than a
meter. Future GPS modernizations and receiver enhancements are expected to improve positional
accuracies down to the 3-meter level, a level that is now only achievable with differential observations
described below. Refer to Chapter 4 for more information on absolute GPS positioning techniques.
2-10. Differential or Relative GPS Positioning Techniques
Differential GPS (DGPS) positioning is simply a process of determining the relative differences in
coordinates between two receiver points, each of which is simultaneously observing/measuring satellite
code ranges and/or carrier phases from the NAVSTAR GPS satellite constellation. The process actually
involves the measurement of the difference in ranges between the satellites and two or more ground
observing points. Typically, one GPS receiver is located at a known "reference" station and the other
remote or "rover" receiver is positioned (or dynamically traverses) over an unknown point that requires
georeferencing. Both receivers simultaneously acquire GPS data for later computation (post-processing),
or, alternatively, the reference receiver transmits data to the rover receiver for "real-time" position
computation. The range measurement is performed by a phase difference comparison, using either the
carrier phase or code phase. The basic principle is that the absolute positioning errors at the two receiver
points will be approximately the same for a given instant in time. The resultant accuracy of these
coordinate differences is at the meter level for code phase observations and at the centimeter level for
carrier phase tracking. These relative coordinate differences are usually expressed as "3-D baseline
vectors," which are comparable to conventional survey azimuth/distance measurements. Differential GPS
positioning can be performed in either a static or dynamic (kinematic mode). Most USACE precise
control surveys are performed in a static (post-processing) mode while dredge and survey boat positioning
is performed dynamically in real-time--see Chapter 6 for typical applications. Detailed information on
differential GPS survey techniques can be found in Chapter 5.
2-11. NAVSTAR GPS Modernization Initiatives (2003-2014)
GPS Modernization is a proposed multi-phase effort to be executed over the next 15+ years--refer to
Figure 2-5. Full implementation is contingent on funding availability through the program outyears. The
GPS Modernization effort focuses on improving position and timing accuracy, availability, integrity
monitoring support capability, and enhancement to the control system. Additional signals are planned to
enhance the ability of GPS to support civil users and provide a new military code. The first new signal
will be the C/A-code on the L2 frequency (1227.60 MHz). This feature will enable dual channel civil
receivers to correct for ionospheric error. A third civil signal will be added on the L5 frequency
(1176.45 MHz) for use in safety-of-life applications. L5 can serve as a redundant signal to the GPS L1
frequency (1575.42 MHz) with a goal of assurance of continuity of service potentially to provide
precision approach capability for aviation users. In addition, a secure and spectrally separated Military
Code (M-Code) will be broadcast on the L1 and L2 frequencies enabling the next generation of military
receivers to operate more fully in an electronic jamming environment. At least one satellite is planned to
be operational on orbit with the new C/A on L2 and M-Code capability no later than 2003. Initial
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operating capability (IOC) (18 satellites on orbit) is planned for 2008 and full operational capability
(FOC) (24 satellites on orbit) is planned for 2010. At least one satellite is planned to be operational on
orbit with the new L5 capability no later than 2005, with IOC planned for 2012 and FOC planned for
2014. As these system enhancements are introduced, users will be able to continue to use existing
compliant receivers, as signal backward compatibility is an absolute requirement for both the military and
civil user communities. Although current GPS users will be able to operate at the same, or better, levels
of performance than they enjoy today, users will need to modify existing user equipment or procure new
user equipment in order to take full advantage of any new signal structure enhancements. Reference also
the 2001 Federal Radio Navigation Plan (FRP 2001).
Figure 2-5. GPS Modernization Timelines
2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014
YEAR
C/A on L2 (IOC)
C/A on L2 (FOC)
L5 (IOC)
L5 (FOC)
GPS Modernization
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Chapter 3
GPS Reference Systems
3-1. General
In order to understand GPS and its positional information, it is important to understand the reference
system on which it is based, and how that reference system relates to the user's local system. The GPS
satellites are referenced to the World Geodetic System of 1984 (WGS 84) ellipsoid. For surveying
purposes, this earth-centered WGS 84 coordinate system must be converted (i.e. transformed) to a user-
defined ellipsoid and datum, such as the North American Datum of 1983 (NAD 83), NAD 27, the North
American Vertical Datum of 1988 (NAVD 88), or the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929
(NGVD 29). Differential positioning partially provides this transformation by locating one of the
receivers at a known point on the user's reference datum or frame. However, for more precise
applications, the reference datum cannot be considered as absolutely rigid in time. This chapter
summarizes reference systems and datums to which GPS coordinates can be transformed.
3-2. Geodetic Coordinate Systems
The absolute positions obtained directly from GPS pseudorange measurements are based on the 3-D,
earth-centered WGS 84 ellipsoid (Figure 3-1). Coordinate outputs are on a Cartesian system (X-Y-Z)
relative to an Earth-Centered Earth-Fixed (ECEF) rectangular coordinate system having the same origin
as the WGS 84 ellipsoid, i.e. geocentric. This geocentric X-Y-Z coordinate system should not be
confused with the X-Y plane coordinates established on local grids; local systems usually have entirely
different definitions, origins, and orientations which require certain transformations to be performed.
WGS 84 geocentric X-Y-Z Cartesian coordinates can easily be converted into WGS 84 ellipsoid
coordinates (i.e. , , and h--geodetic latitude, longitude, and ellipsoidal height, respectively). GPS
baseline distances are computed on the geocentric coordinate system, not ellipsoidal coordinates. It is
critical to note that the WGS 84 ellipsoidal height (h) is not the orthometric elevation used for civil works
projects. Performing these transformations (also known as "site calibrations") from WGS 84 to local
reference systems is a critical, and sometimes complicated, part of GPS surveying.
Figure 3-1. WGS 84 reference ellipsoid
Meridian at P
P=X,Y,Z or
Lat, Long, Ellip Ht
WGS 84 Reference
Ellipsoid
Greenwich Meridian
Lat
Long
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3-3. WGS 84 Reference Ellipsoid
a. The origin of the WGS 84 Cartesian system is the earth's center of mass. The Z-axis is
parallel to the direction of the Conventional Terrestrial Pole (CTP) for polar motion, as defined by the
Bureau International Heure (BIH), and equal to the rotation axis of the WGS 84 ellipsoid. The X-axis is
the intersection of the WGS 84 reference meridian plane and the CTP's equator, the reference meridian
being parallel to the zero meridian defined by the BIH and equal to the X-axis of the WGS 84 ellipsoid.
The Y-axis completes a right-handed, earth-centered, earth-fixed orthogonal coordinate system, measured
in the plane of the CTP equator 90 degrees east of the X-axis and equal to the Y-axis of the WGS 84
ellipsoid. This system is illustrated in Figure 3-1 above. The DoD continuously monitors the origin,
scale, and orientation of the WGS 84 reference frame and references satellite orbit coordinates to this
frame. Updates are shown as WGS 84 (GXXX), where "XXX" refers to a GPS week number starting on
29 September 1996.
b. Prior to the development of WGS 84, there were several reference ellipsoids and interrelated
coordinate systems (datums) that were used by the surveying and mapping community. Table 3-1 lists
just a few of these reference systems along with their mathematical defining parameters. Transformation
techniques are used to convert between different datums and coordinate systems. Most GPS software has
built in transformation algorithms for the more common datums.
Table 3-1. Reference Ellipsoids and Related Coordinate Systems
Reference Coordinate System Semimajor axis Shape
Ellipsoid (Datum/Frame) (meters) (1/flattening)
Clarke 1866 NAD 27 6378206.4 1/294.9786982
WGS 72 WGS 72 6378135 1/298.26
GRS 80 NAD 83 (XX) 6378137 1/298.257222101
WGS 84 WGS 84 (GXXX) 6378137 1/298.257223563
ITRS ITRF (XX) 6378136.49 1/298.25645
3-4. Horizontal Datums and Reference Frames
A major USACE application of differential GPS surveying is densifying military construction and civil
works project control. This densification is usually done relative to an existing horizontal datum
(NAD 27, NAD 83, or local). Even though GPS measurements are made relative to the WGS 84
ellipsoidal coordinate system, coordinate differences (i.e. baseline vectors) on this system can, for
practical engineering purposes, be used directly on any local user datum. Thus, a GPS-coordinated
WGS 84 baseline can be directly used on an NAD 27, NAD 83, or even a local project datum. Minor
variations between these datums will be minimal when GPS data are adjusted to fit between local datum
stations. Such assumptions may not be valid when high-order National Geodetic Reference System
(NGRS) network densification work is being performed or where coordinates are developed relative to
distant reference stations. The following paragraphs describe some of the reference systems used by the
Corps for military construction and civil works projects. Much of it is extracted from Modern Terrestrial
Reference Systems, (Snay & Soler 1999). Far more detailed descriptions of these reference systems can
be found in the referenced publication (Professional Surveyor Magazine).
a. North American Datum of 1927 (NAD 27). NAD 27 is a horizontal datum based on a
comprehensive adjustment of a national network of traverse and triangulation stations. NAD 27 is a best
fit for the continental United States. The fixed datum reference point is located at Meades Ranch, Kansas.
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The longitude origin of NAD 27 is the Greenwich Meridian with a south azimuth orientation. The
original network adjustment used 25,000 stations. The relative precision between initial point monuments
of NAD 27 is by definition 1:100,000, but coordinates on any given monument in the network contain
errors of varying degrees. As a result, relative accuracies between points on NAD 27 may be far less than
the nominal 1:100,000. The reference units for NAD 27 are US Survey Feet. This datum is no longer
supported by NGS, and USACE commands are gradually transforming their project coordinates over to
the NAD 83 described below. Approximate conversions of points on NAD 27 to NAD 83 may be
performed using CORPSCON, a transformation program developed by ERDC/TEC--see
EM 1110-1-1004. Since NAD 27 contains errors approaching 10 m, transforming highly accurate GPS
observations to this antiquated reference system is not the best approach.
b. North American Datum of 1983 (NAD 83). The nationwide horizontal reference network was
redefined in 1983 and readjusted in 1986 by the National Geodetic Survey. It is known as the North
American Datum of 1983, adjustment of 1986, and is referred to as NAD 83 (1986). NAD 83 used far
more stations (250,000) and observations than NAD 27, including a few satellite-derived coordinates, to
readjust the national network. The longitude origin of NAD 83 is the Greenwich Meridian with a north
azimuth orientation. The fixed adjustment of NAD 83 (1986) has an average precision of 1:300,000.
NAD 83 is based upon the Geodetic Reference System of 1980 (GRS 80), an earth-centered reference
ellipsoid which for most (but not all) practical purposes is equivalent to WGS 84. With increasingly more
accurate uses of GPS, the errors and misalignments in NAD 83 (1986) became more obvious (they
approached 1 meter), and subsequent refinements outlined below have been made to correct these
inconsistencies.
c. High Accuracy Reference Networks (HARN). Within a few years after 1986, more refined
GPS measurements had allowed geodesists to locate the earths center of mass with a precision of a few
centimeters. In doing so, these technologies revealed that the center of mass that was adopted for
NAD 83 (1986) is displaced by about 2 m from the true geocenter. Similarly, it was found that the
orientation of the NAD 83 (1986) Cartesian axes is misaligned by over 0.03 arc seconds relative to their
true orientation, and that the NAD 83 (1986) scale differs by about 0.0871 ppm from the true definition of
a meter. These discrepancies caused significant concern as the use of highly accurate GPS measurements
proliferated. Starting with Tennessee in 1989, each state--in collaboration with NGS and various other
institutions--used GPS technology to establish regional reference frames that were to be consistent with
NAD 83. The corresponding networks of GPS control points were originally called High Precision
Geodetic Networks (HPGN). Currently, they are referred to as High Accuracy Reference Networks
(HARN). This latter name reflects the fact that relative accuracies among HARN control points are better
than 1 ppm, whereas relative accuracies among pre-existing control points were nominally only 10 ppm.
The NGS opted to introduce a new scale that would be consistent with the scale of the then current global
reference system known as the International Terrestrial Reference Frame of 1989 (ITRF 89). The
ITRF 89 scale was based on a combination of GPS, Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI), and
Lunar-Laser-Ranging (LLR) measurements. The resulting scale change, equal to -0.0871 ppm, altered
existing NAD 83 latitudes and longitudes insignificantly, but it systematically decreased all ellipsoidal
heights by about 0.6 m. Nevertheless, this change to a more accurate scale facilitated the migration
toward using GPS technology for deriving accurate orthometric heights. Positional differences between
NAD 83 (1986) and NAD 83 (HARN) can approach 1 meter.
d. Continuously Operating Reference Stations (CORS). The regional HARNs were subsequently
further refined (or "realized") by NGS into a network of Continuously Operating Reference Stations, or
CORS. This CORS network was additionally incorporated with the International Terrestrial Reference
System (ITRS), i.e. the ITRF. CORS are located at fixed points throughout CONUS and at some
OCONUS points--see Figure 3-2. This network of high-accuracy points can provide GPS users with
centimeter level accuracy where adequate CORS coverage exists. Coordinates of CORS stations are
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designated by the year of the reference frame, e.g., NAD 83 (CORS 96). Positional differences between
NAD 83 (HARN) and NAD 83 (CORS) are less than 10 cm. More importantly, relative positional
differences between two NAD 83 (CORSxx) points is typically less than 2 cm. Thus, GPS connections to
CORS stations will be of the highest order of accuracy. USACE commands can easily connect and adjust
GPS-observed points directly with CORS stations using a number of methods, including the NGS on-line
program OPUS (On-Line Positioning User Service), which is described more completely in Chapter 10.
OPUS provides centimeter-level adjustment connections with three nearby CORS stations, and outputs
adjusted coordinates in the latest epochs of NAD 83 and ITRF systems.
Figure 3-2. Continuously Operating Reference Stations (NGS)
e. International Terrestrial Reference Frame (ITRF). The ITRF is a highly accurate geocentric
reference frame with an origin at the center of the earth's mass. The ITRF is continuously monitored and
updated by the International Earth Rotation Service (IERS) using very-long-baseline-interferometry
(VLBI) and other techniques. These observations allow for the determination of small movements of
fixed points on the earth's surface due to crustal motion, rotational variances, tectonic plate movement,
etc. These movements can average 10 to 20 mm/year in CONUS (see Figure 3-3 below), and may
become significant when geodetic control is established from remote reference stations. These
refinements can be used to more accurately determine GPS positions observed on the basic WGS 84
reference frame. NAD 83 coordinates are defined based on the ITRF year/epoch in which it is defined,
e.g., ITRF 89, ITRF 96, ITRF 2000. For highly accurate positioning where plate velocities may be
significant, users should use the same coordinate reference frame and epoch for both the satellite orbits
and the terrestrial reference frame. USACE requirements for these precisions would be rare.
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Figure 3-3. ITRF horizontal velocities in mm/year (NGS)

3-5. Transforming between Horizontal Survey Datums
Differential GPS observations routinely provide horizontal baseline accuracies on the order of 1 ppm.
This far exceeds the stated 1:300,000 accuracy for NAD 83 and (approximately) 1:100,000 for NAD 27.
Distortions in NAD 27 can be as much as 10 m, up to 1 m in NAD 83 (1986), and a few centimeters in
NAD 83 (HARN) points. Thus, approximate transformations (e.g., CORPSCON) will retain the original
distortions in the networks. Even though GPS has such a high degree of precision, it provides only
coordinate differences; therefore, ties to the national network to obtain coordinates of all GPS stations
must be done without distorting the established project control network (i.e. the GPS-derived vectors are
"degraded" during the adjustment to "fit" the local network). Generally, on mid-size survey projects,
three or more horizontal control stations from the national network can be used during the GPS
observation scheme. Direct connections to CORS stations can also be made in order to update a project's
control scheme to the National network. These highly accurate CORS connections will often be more
accurate than the original project control scheme, and can be referenced to the latest NGS NAD/ITRF
time-dependent reference frame if needed. NGS has developed a software package that provides time-
related transformations between the varied NAD 83 and ITRF reference frames--"Horizontal Time-
Dependent Positioning" or HTDP. This software transforms positions and velocities between ITRF xx,
WGS 84 (Gxxx), and NAD 83. It updates and predicts displacements between dates (epochs) due to
crustal motion. In order to facilitate a tie between GPS and existing networks for horizontal control, a re-
adjustment of the whole local project network scheme (all control and GPS-derived points) should be
performed. There are many commercial software packages that can be used to perform this adjustment.
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Once a network adjustment meets the accuracy requirement, those values should not be readjusted with
additional points or observations unless a complete readjustment is performed.
a. Transforming to local project datums. Corps construction and navigation projects are often
based on local project datums. Usually, but not always, these local station-offset datums are referenced to
the NGRS. They may also have SPCS coordinates of uncertain origin. These local datums might be
accurate within a small area, but can become distorted over larger areas. When local project datums are
not connected to any regional datum, GPS ties can be observed to outside control in order to transform the
local datum to an established reference datum. GPS receiver vendors usually provide software
transformation options for converting WGS 84 coordinates to local datums. For small survey areas, a
Three-Parameter Transformation is adequate. For larger areas, a Seven-Parameter Transformation should
be performed. In addition, local horizontal control coordinates must be "calibrated" to the WGS 84
scheme used by GPS. This is termed "site calibration" in Trimble software. Although only two points are
required, at least three established control points should be occupied (and connecting baselines observed)
to perform a datum transformation. These observations provide horizontal translation, rotation, and scale
parameters between the two grids. Thus, with these datum translations and calibrations, observed GPS
data is "best-fit" onto the local grid system. Many least squares adjustment packages also contain datum
transformation routines that can be used to convert local datums to regional networks.
b. State Plane Coordinate System (SPCS). The State Plane Coordinate System (SPCS) was
developed by the NGS to provide a planar representation of the earth's surface. Most USACE civil and
military projects require project coordinates in a SPCS format, or occasionally in the military Universal
Transverse Mercator (UTM) plane coordinate system. To properly relate spherical coordinates (,) to a
planar system (Northings and Eastings), a developable surface must be constructed. A developable
surface is defined as a surface the can be expanded without stretching or tearing. The two most common
developable surfaces or map projections used in surveying and mapping are the cone and cylinder. The
projection of choice is dependent on the north-south or east-west extent of the region. Areas with limited
east-west dimensions and elongated north-south extent utilize the cylindrical Transverse Mercator
projection. Areas with limited north-south dimensions and elongated east-west extent utilize the conical
Lambert projection. SPCS are different for the NAD 27 and NAD 83 reference systems. Figure 3-4
below shows the layout for the various SPCS (NAD 83) zones. For further information on the State Plane
Coordinate System see EM 1110-1-1004.
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Figure 3-4. State plane coordinate zones (NAD 83)
c. Practical considerations in USACE. Few, if any, USACE civil works and military
construction projects require high-precision geodetic control referenced to the latest ITRF time epoch to
account for polar motion, tectonic plate movement, etc. These refinements require additional observation
and office adjustment and analysis time, and can significantly increase project costs. Requirements for
high precision geodetic control are a function of project function and size. For example, a major
watershed with significant hydraulic complications may require high-accuracy CORS connections for
vertical control purposes. However, a small, shallow-draft navigation project that is dredged once every 3
years would not need these high-order framework references. In addition, repeated transforms and
readjustments of project control can result in mixed reference schemes, and can cause construction
claims. This may occur if subsequent users performing topographic or GIS mapping use superseded
coordinate systems. Thus, project managers and surveyors need to consider the project function and
future developments in determining the framework accuracy.
3-6. Orthometric Elevations
Orthometric elevations are those corresponding to the earth's irregular geoidal surface, as illustrated in
Figure 3-5 below. Measured differences in elevation from spirit leveling are generally relative to the
local geoidal surface--a spirit level bubble (or pendulum) positions the instrument normal to the direction
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of gravity, and thus parallel with the local slope of the geoid. The orthometric height of a point is the
distance from the geoid (or a related reference surface) to the point on the earth's surface, measured along
the line perpendicular to every equipotential surface in between. A series of equipotential surfaces can be
used to represent the gravity field. One of these surfaces, the geoid, is specified as the reference system
from which orthometric heights are measured. The geoid itself is defined as an equipotential surface.
Natural variations in gravity induce a smooth, continuous, curvature to the plumb line, and therefore
physical equipotential surfaces which are normal to gravity do not remain geometrically parallel over a
given vertical distance (i.e. the plumb line is not quite parallel to the ellipsoidal normal). Elevation
differences between two points are orthometric differences, a distinction particularly important in
river/channel hydraulics. Orthometric heights for the continental United States (CONUS) are generally
referenced to the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 (NGVD 29) or the updated North American
Vertical Datum of 1988 (NAVD 88); however, other vertical datums may be used in some projects (e.g.,
the International Great Lakes Datum of 1955 (IGLD 55) and the revised International Great Lakes Datum
of 1985 (IGLD 85). Hydraulic-based "dynamic" elevation datums, such as IGLD, differ from orthometric
elevations in that elevation differences are based on hydraulic head (i.e. work) differences. The
NGVD 29 reference datum approximates mean sea level--the NAVD 88 does not. Tidal reference datums
(e.g., MLLW) vary geographically over short distances and must be accurately related to NAVD 88
and/or NGVD 29 orthometric heights. River systems may have local flow/discharge referenced datums--
see EM 1110-2-1003. GPS derived ellipsoidal heights shown in Figure 3-5 below must be converted to
local orthometric elevations in order to have useful engineering and construction value. This
transformation is usually done by a form of "site calibration" using known orthometric elevations of fixed
benchmarks and/or geoid undulation models for the project area. These transforms are further explained
below.
Figure 3-5. Ellipsoid, geoid, and earth's surface definitions and relationships
Geoid Undulation N
distance between
ellipsoid and geoid
ELLIPSOID eg, WGS 84
EARTHS SURFACE
GEOID
approximates
mean sea level
Orthometric Height H
distance between
earths surface and
geoid
(normal to geoid)
Ellipsoidal Height h
height of earths
surface above or
below the ellipsoid
90
h = H + N
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3-7. WGS 84 Ellipsoidal Heights
In the US, final positions from DGPS are established with respect to NAD 83. Since NAD 83 is based on
the GRS 80 ellipsoid, ellipsoid heights obtained from GPS surveying using NAD 83 control are based on
the GRS 80 ellipsoid. These heights are referred to as NAD 83 GPS ellipsoidal heights. Unlike the
WGS 84 ellipsoid, the GRS 80 ellipsoid is not exactly geocentric, which can create problems (i.e. large
errors) when converting NAD 83 GPS ellipsoid heights to orthometric heights using some geoid models.
GPS-determined heights (or height differences) are referenced to an idealized mathematical ellipsoid that
differs significantly from the geoid; thus, GPS heights are not the same as the orthometric heights needed
for standard USACE projects (i.e. local engineering, construction, and hydraulic measurement functions).
Accordingly, any WGS 84 referenced ellipsoidal height obtained using GPS must be transformed or
calibrated to the local orthometric vertical datum. This requires adjusting and interpolating GPS-derived
heights relative to fixed orthometric elevations. Over short distances--less than 1 km--elevation
differences determined by GPS can usually be assumed to be orthometric differences. These elevation
differences would then be of sufficient accuracy for topographic site plan mapping, such as those acquired
using RTK total station methods. However, when GPS is used to establish primary vertical control
benchmarks for a project, special procedures and cautions must be observed, e.g., measurements should
be made relative to higher-order NGRS benchmarks in order to develop the best model for a project.
Such a process may or may not be of suitable accuracy (i.e. reliability) for establishing primary control on
some engineering and construction work--see Chapter 8.
3-8. Orthometric Height and WGS 84 Ellipsoidal Elevation Relationship
Geoidal heights represent the geoid-ellipsoid separation distance measured along the ellipsoid normal and
are obtained by taking the difference between ellipsoidal and orthometric height values. Knowledge of
the geoid height enables the evaluation of vertical positions in either the geodetic (ellipsoid based) or the
orthometric height system. The relationship between a WGS 84 ellipsoidal height and an orthometric
height relative to the geoid can be obtained from the following equation, as depicted graphically in Figure
3-5 above.
h = H + N (Eq 3-1)
where
h = ellipsoidal height (WGS 84)
H = elevation (orthometric--normal to geoid)
N = geoidal undulation above or below the WGS 84 ellipsoid
and by convention the geoid undulation "N" being a positive height when above the ellipsoid.
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Figure 3-6. Geoid undulation model of North America--depicts geoid undulation "N"
relative to the WGS 84 ellipsoid
3-9. Geoid Undulations and Geoid Models
Due to significant variations in the geoid, sometimes even over small distances, elevation differences
obtained by GPS cannot be directly equated to orthometric (or spirit level) differences. This geoid
variation is depicted as a surface model in Figure 3-6 above. Geoid modeling techniques are used to
obtain the parameter "N" in Equation 3-1, from which ellipsoidal heights can be converted to orthometric
elevations. These geoid models (e.g., Geoid 90, Geoid 93, Geoid 96, Geoid 99, etc.) are approximations
based on observations by the NGS. Each successive geoid model is more accurate. In time, these models
may improve to centimeter-level accuracy. On some small project areas where the geoid stays fairly
constant, elevation differences obtained by GPS can be directly used without geoid correction. Geoid
models are not compatible with the superseded NGVD 29.
a. Geoid height values at stations where either only " h "or " H " is known can be obtained from
geoid models that are mathematical surfaces representing the shape of the earth's gravity field. The geoid
model is constructed from a truncated functional series approximation using a spherical harmonics
expansion and an extensive set of globally available gravity data. The model is determined from the
unique coefficients of the finite series representing the geoid surface. Its accuracy depends on the
coverage and accuracy of the gravity measurements used as boundary conditions. Former geoid models
produced for general use limit absolute accuracies for geoid heights to no less than 1 meter. More recent
geoid models have shown a significant increase in geoid height absolute accuracy--down to the centimeter
level.
b. In practice, the shape of the geoid surface is estimated globally as a function of horizontal
coordinates referenced to a common geocentric position. Specific geoid height values are extracted from
the model surface at the node points of a regular grid (i.e. a 2-minute x 2-minute grid spacing).
Biquadratic interpolation procedures can be used within a grid cell boundary to approximate the geoid
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height at a given geodetic latitude and longitude. For example, the NGS GEOID 96 model for the United
States indicates geoid heights (N) range from a low of (-) 51.6 meters in the Atlantic to a high of (-) 7.2
meters in the Rocky Mountains. For more information on geoid modeling, see the references listed in
Appendix A.
c. GPS surveys can be designed to provide elevations of points on any local vertical datum. This
requires connecting to a sufficient number of existing orthometric benchmarks from which the elevations
of unknown points can be "best-fit" or "site calibrated" by some adjustment method--usually a least-
squares minimization. This is essentially an interpolation process and assumes linearity in the geoid slope
between two established benchmarks. If the geoid variation is not linear--as is typically the case--then the
adjusted (interpolated) elevation of an intermediate point will be in error. Depending on the station
spacing, location, local geoid undulations, and numerous other factors, the resultant interpolated/adjusted
elevation accuracy is usually not suitable for construction surveying purposes; however, GPS-derived
elevations may be adequate for small-scale topographic mapping control.
3-10. North American Vertical Datum of 1988 (NAVD 88)
The NAVD 88 datum is the product of a vertical adjustment of leveled height difference measurements
made across North America. This reference system supersedes the NGVD 29 vertical reference
framework. NAVD 88 was constrained by holding fixed the orthometric height of a single primary tidal
benchmark at Father's Point / Rimouski, Quebec, Canada and performing a minimally constrained general
adjustment of US-Canadian-Mexican leveling observations. The vertical reference surface is therefore
defined by the surface on which the gravity values are equal to the control point value. NAVD 88
elevations are published orthometric heights that represent the geometric distance from the geoid to the
terrain measured along the plumb line. Orthometric height corrections were used to enforce consistency
between geopotential based vertical coordinates and measured leveled differences. NAVD 88 is the most
compatible vertical reference frame available to relate GPS ellipsoidal heights to orthometric heights.
Note also that NGVD 29 is no longer supported by NGS; thus, USACE commands should be
transitioning all older project vertical control to NAVD 88. The differences in orthometric elevations
between the superseded NGVD 29 and NAVD 88 references are significant--upwards of 1.5 meters in
places, as depicted in Figure 3-7 below. Therefore, it is important that these two reference systems not be
confused. Given the local variations shown in Figure 3-7, there is no direct transformation between the
two systems, and a site calibration/transformation must be performed as explained in subsequent sections.
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Figure 3-7. NGVD 29-NAVD 88 elevation differences in mm
3-11. Using GPS to Densify Orthometric Elevations
DGPS observation sessions produce 3-D geodetic coordinate differences that establish the baseline
between two given stations. The expected accuracy of ellipsoidal height difference measurements is
based on several factors, such as GPS receiver manufacture type, observation session duration, and the
measured baseline distance, but it does not depend greatly on prior knowledge of the absolute vertical
position of either occupied station. Dual-frequency, carrier phase measurement based GPS surveys are
usually able to produce 3-D relative positioning accuracies under 30 mm at the 95% confidence level over
baseline distances less than 20 km, depending on the type of GPS surveying method used. This situation
exists mainly because GPS range biases are physically well correlated over relatively short distances and
tend to cancel out as a result of forming double differences for carrier phase data processing. In contrast,
GPS absolute code positioning accuracy will contain the full effects of any GPS range measurement
errors. Geoidal height differences describe the change in vertical position of the geoid with respect to the
ellipsoid between two stations. These relative geoidal heights can be more accurate than the modeled
absolute separation values within extended areas because the relative geoidal height accuracy is based on
the continuous surface characteristics of the geoid model, where only small deviations between closely
spaced points would be expected. The regional trend or slope of the geoid at a given point will not be
highly sensitive to local gravity anomalies especially in non-mountainous areas. Differential GPS can
fairly accurately measure ellipsoidal height differences from GPS satellites. GPS surveys output vertical
positions in geodetic coordinates defined with respect to the WGS 84 reference ellipsoid. The ellipsoidal
height value at a given point is based on the distance measured along the normal vector from the surface
of the reference ellipsoid to the point. The practical accuracy of WGS 84 as a vertical reference frame for
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collecting elevation data depends on the actual ellipsoidal height values assigned to benchmarks or other
physically defined control points.
3-12. GPS Vertical Site Calibration
A calibration is needed in real-time surveying in order to relate GPS positions that are measured in terms
of WGS-84 to local grid coordinate projections, such as SPCS, UTM, or a local station-offset-elevation
system. In addition, a vertical calibration is needed to adjust the observed GPS ellipsoid elevations to a
local vertical datum, and account for undulations in the local geoid over the project area. A calibration
should be used on a project whenever new points are to be established. A calibration is based on a set of
points that have 3-D coordinates in both WGS-84 and the local grid coordinate projection system. The
quality of the calibration will be affected by the accuracy and consistency of the GPS coordinates of the
points. Points tied to the NGRS are recommended as the basis of a calibration. The number of points that
can be used in a calibration is manufacturer and software dependent. Smaller sized projects may be
calibrated with one 3-D point. However, for larger sized projects, three or four 3-D points are
recommended. Calibration points should be well distributed around the project exterior. Projects may be
calibrated by two methods: (1) in the field in the survey data collector or (2) in the network adjustment.
The latter procedure is recommended for large projects. The calibration computation summary should be
examined for reasonable results in the horizontal scale, maximum vertical adjustment inclination, and the
maximum horizontal and vertical residuals.
a. Figure 3-8 below illustrates the varied requirements for vertical site calibrations. This figure
depicts a typical contour plot of a geoid model--height differences between the geoid relative to the
WGS 84 ellipsoid. In the large (8 km x 8 km) Area A, the geoid undulation varies from 0.80 to 1.27 m--
nearly a 50 cm variation. In order to determine accurate orthometric elevations from GPS ellipsoid
elevation observations, this variation in the geoid must be accurately accounted for. In addition, the
published orthometric elevations at each of the 7 established control benchmarks may not fit exactly with
the geoid model--the geoid model may have been approximated from other NGRS points. Therefore,
GPS observations over the 7 established control network points must be adjusted to further refine the
geoid model so that subsequent GPS observations to any point in the project area can be "best-fitted" to
the local vertical datum. Solely relying on a published geoid model is not recommended--connections
with existing control should always be observed to refine the model. GPS adjustment software must be
able to compensate for both the variations in the geoid model and variations in the established control
benchmarks. In order to accomplish this, GPS observations need to be connected between the fixed
control benchmarks, as shown in Area A.
b. The small (1 km x 1 km) Area B in Figure 3-8 is more typical of local RTK topographic
survey projects. The geoid model shows a minimal undulation over this area--from 0.72 m to 0.75 m.
This 3 cm variation may or may not be significant, depending on the required elevation accuracy of the
survey. If this 3 cm geoid variation is not considered significant, then the geoid undulation at the selected
reference station could be used over the entire area, and no geoid model correction used. Alternatively,
the 2 control benchmarks could be calibrated and the geoid model included in the adjustment. When 2
control benchmarks are available, as shown around Area B, then a GPS check between the benchmarks is
recommended. If the geoid model is not used, the geoid correction could be interpolated from the check
baseline observation results, holding the 2 control points fixed.
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3-14
Figure 3-8. Plot of geoid undulation contours over a local survey area (Leica)
c. Figure 3-9 below illustrates vertical calibrations over small local survey areas, which is typical
of Corps topographic survey applications. This area contains two fixed benchmarks with local datum
elevations. A GPS reference receiver is set up over one benchmark and baseline hubs are staked out
relative to this point, using kinematic techniques. The second fixed benchmark is used as a check point.
A local geoid model shows estimated geoid heights varying between -11.23 and -11.25 m. Orthometric
elevations on the individual baseline hubs are computed by correcting the observed ellipsoidal elevation
differences with the local geoid undulation differences. This local geoid elevation difference (- 2 cm)
could have been ignored if this error is acceptable to project accuracy requirements. This would, in
effect, assume observed ellipsoidal elevation differences are equal to orthometric elevation differences
and no geoid model corrections are applied to the observations.
d. In Figure 3-9, a check point GPS elevation difference of +12.40 m is observed. The published
orthometric elevation difference between these points is +12.42 m. This confirms the geoid model is
accurate over this area since the computed geoid undulation difference (N) is - 0.02 m (+12.40-12.42).
Had a large misclosure existed at the check point, then either the published elevations are inaccurate or
the geoid model is inaccurate, or both. A GPS baseline check to a third benchmark would be required, or
conventional levels could be run between the two fixed points to resolve the problem.
Project Area B
approx 1 km x 1 km
Project Area A
approx 8 km x 8 km
Fixed Control/Benchmarks
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3-15
Figure 3-9. Geoid elevation corrections for localized surveys
e. For further references on GPS site calibrations, refer to Trimble's Real-Time Surveying
Workbook (Trimble 2000b).
3-13. GPS Time References
Time used for most purposes is based on an astronomic (solar) time measure, or "universal time"--UT.
UT is based on the earth's rotation. Other time references include UT 0 (which is based on astronomical
observations), UT 1 (UT 0 corrected for polar motion and equals Greenwich Mean Time--GMT), and
Atomic Time (AT). GPS satellites have atomic clocks which output a time base that is not related to
astronomic time measures. However, these different time scales can be coordinated. GPS time is
accurately maintained and monitored by the DoD. GPS time is usually maintained within 30
nanoseconds of Universal Coordinated Time (US Naval Observatory), or UTC (USNO). GPS time is
based on a reference "GPS epoch" of 000 hours (UTC) 6 January 1980. From DoD (1996), the
relationship between GPS time and UTC is:
GPS time = UTC + number of leap seconds + [GPS-to-UTC bias]
observed GPS elev (ellipsoid) = + 8.22
REFERENCE STATION
Ortho Elev H
REF
= 13.30 m
H
ANT
= H
REF
+ HI = 13.30 + 1.5 = 14.80 m
Geoid undulation N = -11.23
Ellip elev: h
REF
= H + N = + 2.07
REMOTE POINT ELEVATION
Ellip elev: h = + 8.22
Geoid undulation N - 0.02
Ortho Elev: H
REM
= H
ANT
+ ( h - N) - HI
= 14.80 + (8.22 + 0.02) - 2.0 = 21.04 m
N = -11.23
N = -11.25
N = -11.24
Baseline stakeout hubs
HI = 1.5 m
HI = 2.0 m
Check point
GPS elev = + 12.40
ortho elev = + 12.42
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3-16
GPS receivers obtain time corrections from the broadcast data messages and can thus output UTC
(USNO) time increments. UTC is the time used for many USACE surveying applications where time is
transferred from a GPS receiver in order to coordinate data streams from some peripheral sensing device--
e.g., inertial measurement units (IMU), cameras, acoustic depth recorders, etc. It is especially critical to
determine any latencies between the GPS satellite acquisition and the time tag of the subsequent position
computation, and to correlate this time tag latency with other peripheral sensors.
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4-1
Chapter 4
GPS Absolute Point Positioning Determination Concepts, Errors, and Accuracies

4-1. General

As outlined in Chapter 2, the NAVSTAR GPS was originally conceived and designed to provide point
positioning and velocity of a user with a single, usually low-cost, hand-held GPS receiver. This is termed
"absolute" point positioning, as distinguished from "relative" positioning when a second receiver is
employed. GPS absolute positioning is the most widely used military and commercial GPS positioning
method for real-time navigation and location. It is usually not sufficiently accurate for precise surveying,
mapping, or hydrographic positioning uses--horizontal accuracies are typically only in the 10 to 30 m
range. However, there are numerous other Corps applications where absolute point positioning is
sufficiently accurate: vessel/vehicle/personnel navigation, emergency operations, reconnaissance
mapping, dredge disposal monitoring, etc. This chapter discusses the general concepts of performing
absolute point positioning, and some of the basic errors inherent in the process.

Figure 4-1. Point positioning range measurements from a passive hand-held GPS receiver

4-2. Absolute Point Positioning

Absolute positioning involves the use of only a single passive receiver at the user's location to collect data
from multiple satellites in order to determine the user's georeferenced position--see Figure 4-1. GPS
determination of a point position on the earth actually uses a technique common to terrestrial surveying
called trilateration--i.e. electronic distance measurement resection. The user's GPS receiver simply
measures the distance (i.e. ranges) between the earth and the NAVSTAR GPS satellites. The user's
EM 1110-1-1003
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4-2
position is determined by the resected intersection of the observed ranges to the satellites. At least 3
satellite ranges are required to compute a 3-D position. In actual practice, at least 4 satellite observations
are required in order to resolve timing variations. Adding more satellite ranges will provide redundancy
(and more accuracy) in the position solution. The resultant 3-D coordinate value is relative to the
geocentric reference system. The GPS receiver may be operated in a static or dynamic mode. The
accuracies obtained by GPS absolute positioning are dependent on the user's GPS receiver quality,
location, and length of observation time, DOP, and many other factors. Accuracies to less than a meter
can be obtained from static, long-term absolute GPS measurements when special equipment and post-
processing techniques are employed. Future GPS satellite modernization upgrades, enhanced code and
carrier processing techniques, and other refinements are expected to significantly improve the accuracy of
absolute positioning such that meter-level navigation accuracies may be available in real-time.

4-3. GPS Absolute Position Solution Process--Pseudoranging

When a GPS user performs a navigation solution, only an approximate range, or "pseudorange," to
selected satellites is measured. In order for the GPS user to determine his precise location, the known
range to the satellite and the position of those satellites must be known. By pseudoranging, the GPS user
measures an approximate distance between the GPS antenna and the satellite by correlation of a satellite-
transmitted code and a reference code created by the receiver. This measurement does not contain
corrections for synchronization errors between the clock of the satellite transmitter and that of the GPS
receiver. The distance the signal has traveled is equal to the velocity of the transmission multiplied by the
elapsed time of transmission. The signal velocity is affected by tropospheric and ionospheric conditions
in the atmosphere. Figure 4-2 illustrates this pseudoranging concept.

Figure 4-2. Pseudoranging technique

a. The accuracy of the positioned point is a function of the range measurement accuracy and the
geometry of the satellites, as reduced to spherical intersections with the earth's surface. A description of
the geometrical magnification of uncertainty in a GPS determined point position is termed "Dilution of
Satellites (known X-Y-Z)
Range errors
Adjusted
position
Pseudorange observation R:
R = P
t
+ c (dt) + d
Unknowns:
P
t
= true range
c = velocity of propagation
(speed of light)
dt = clock biases
d = propagation delays
With Four Observed Pseudoranges:
4 equations and 4 unknowns can
be solved to obtain adjusted
position
Pseudorange
observations
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4-3
Precision" (DOP), which is discussed in a later section. Repeated and redundant range observations will
generally improve range accuracy. However, the dilution of precision remains the same. In a static mode
(meaning the GPS receiver antenna stays stationary), range measurements to each satellite may be
continuously remeasured over varying orbital locations of the satellites. The varying satellite orbits cause
varying positional intersection geometry. In addition, simultaneous range observations to numerous
satellites can be adjusted using weighting techniques based on the elevation and pseudorange
measurement reliability.

b. Four pseudorange observations are needed to resolve a GPS 3-D position. (Only three
pseudorange observations are needed for a 2-D location.) In practice there are often more than four
satellites within view. A minimum of four satellite ranges are needed to resolve the clock biases
contained in both the satellite and the ground-based receiver. Thus, in solving for the X-Y-Z coordinates
of a point, a fourth unknown (i.e. clock bias--t) must also be included in the solution. The solution of
the 3-D position of a point is simply the solution of four pseudorange observation equations containing
four unknowns, i.e. X, Y, Z, and t.

c. A pseudorange observation is equal to the true range from the satellite to the user plus delays
due to satellite/receiver clock biases and other effects.

R = p
t
+ c (t ) + d (Eq 4-1)
where
R = observed pseudorange
p
t
= true range to satellite (unknown)
t = clock biases (receiver and satellite)
d = propagation delays due to atmospheric conditions

Propagation delays (d) are usually estimated from atmospheric models.

The true range " p
t
" is equal to the 3-D coordinate difference between the satellite and user.

p
t
= [ ( X
s
- X
u
)
2
+ ( Y
s
- Y
u
)
2
+ ( Z
s
- Z
u
)
2
]

(Eq 4-2)

where

X
s
, Y
s
, Z
s
= known satellite geocentric coordinates from ephemeris data

X
u
, Y
u
, Z
u
= unknown geocentric coordinates of the user which are to be determined.

When four pseudoranges are observed, four equations are formed from Equations 4-1 and 4-2.

( R
1
- c t - d
1
)
2
= ( X
1
s
- X
u
)
2
+ (Y
1
s
- Y
u
)
2
+ ( Z
1
s
- Z
u
)
2
(Eq 4-3)
( R
2
- c t - d
2
)
2
= ( X
2
s
- X
u
)
2
+ (Y
2
s
- Y
u
)
2
+ ( Z
2
s
- Z
u
)
2
(Eq 4-4)
( R
3
- c t - d
3
)
2
= ( X
3
s
- X
u
)
2
+ (Y
3
s
- Y
u
)
2
+ ( Z
3
s
- Z
u
)
2
(Eq 4-5)
( R
4
- c t - d
4
)
2
= ( X
4
s
- X
u
)
2
+ (Y
4
s
- Y
u
)
2
+ ( Z
4
s
- Z
u
)
2
(Eq 4-6)

In these equations, the only unknowns are X
u
, Y
u
, Z
u
, and t. Solving these four equations for the four
unknowns at each GPS update yields the user's 3-D position coordinates--X
u
, Y
u
, Z
u
. These geocentric
coordinates can then be transformed to any user reference datum. Adding more pseudorange observations
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4-4
provides redundancy to the solution. For instance, if seven satellites are simultaneously observed, seven
equations are derived and still only four unknowns result.

d. This solution quality is highly dependent on the accuracy of the known coordinates of each
satellite (i.e. X
s
, Y
s
, and Z
s
), the accuracy with which the atmospheric delays " d " can be estimated
through modeling, and the accuracy of the resolution of the actual time measurement process performed
in a GPS receiver (clock synchronization, signal processing, signal noise, etc.). As with any measurement
process, repeated and long-term observations from a single point will enhance the overall positional
reliability.

4-4. GPS Point Positioning Accuracies

Determining the accuracy of a point position derived from GPS observations is a complex and highly
variable process. Any specified accuracy (or claimed accuracy) is subject to many qualifications and
interpretations--see Global Positioning System Standard Positioning Service Performance Standard
(DoD 2001). This is due to the numerous components that make up the "error budget" of a GPS
observation. Thus, resultant horizontal positional accuracies for absolute point positioning typically range
between 10 m and 30 m, and much larger for elevation measurements. Some of the more significant
components of the error budget include:

Receiver and antenna quality and type--signal processing characteristics
Receiver platform dynamics--static or dynamic
Reference frames--satellite and user
Geographic location of user--user latitude and longitude
Satellite configuration relative to user
Satellite characteristics--frequency stability and health
Satellite constellation and service availability
Satellite-User range determination accuracy
Atmospheric conditions--signal propagation delays in ionosphere and troposphere
Solar flux density--11-year solar cycle
Observation length
Multipath conditions at receiver
Receiver noise
Receiver mask angles
Position computation solution algorithms

In general, there are two main components that determine the accuracy of a GPS position solution:

Geometric Dilution of Precision (GDOP)
User Equivalent Range Error (UERE)

GDOP is the geometric effect of the spatial relationship of the satellites relative to the user. In surveying
terms, it is the "strength of figure" of the trilateration position computation. GDOP varies rapidly with
time since the satellites are moving. UERE is the accuracy of the individual range measurement to each
satellite. UERE also varies between different satellites, atmospheric conditions, and receivers. The
absolute range accuracies obtainable from absolute GPS are largely dependent on which code (C/A or
P-Code) is used to determine positions. These range accuracies (UERE), when coupled with the
geometrical relationships of the satellites during the position determination (GDOP), result in a 3-D
confidence ellipsoid that depicts uncertainties in all three coordinates. Given the continuously changing
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4-5
satellite geometry, and other factors, GPS accuracy is time/location dependent. Error propagation
techniques are used to define nominal accuracy statistics for a GPS user.

4-5. Positional Accuracy Statistics--Root Mean Square

Two-dimensional (2-D) horizontal GPS positional accuracies are normally estimated and reported using a
root mean square (RMS) radial error statistic. RMS error measures are approximations to error ellipses
that are computed for measured points. This RMS error statistic is related to (and derives from) the
positional variance-covariance matrix, which is described more fully in Chapter 11. RMS statistics can
have varying confidence levels. A 1- RMS error equates to the radius of a circle in which there is a 63%
probability that the computed position is within this area. A circle of twice this radius (i.e. 2- RMS or
2DRMS) represents (approximately) a 98 percent positional probability circle. This 97 percent
probability circle, or 2DRMS, is a common positional accuracy statistic used by GPS manufacturers. In
some instances, a 3DRMS, or 99+ percent probability is used. The Federal Geographic Data Committee
(FGDC) and the Corps of Engineers require horizontal and vertical geospatial accuracies to be reported at
the 95% RMS confidence level. For all practical purposes, the 95% RMS and 2DRMS statistics are
equivalent (Note also that a RMS error statistic represents the radius of a circle and therefore is not
preceded by a sign.)

a. Probable error measures. 3-D GPS accuracy measurements are sometimes expressed by
Spherical Error Probable, or SEP. This measure represents the radius of a sphere with a 50% confidence
or probability level. This spheroid radial measure only approximates the actual 3-D ellipsoid representing
the uncertainties in the geocentric coordinate system. In 2-D horizontal positioning, a Circular Error
Probable (CEP) statistic is commonly used, particular in military targeting. CEP represents the radius of
a circle containing a 50% probability of position confidence.

b. Accuracy comparisons. It is important that GPS accuracy measures clearly identify the
statistic from which they are derived. A "100-meter" or "3-meter" accuracy statistic is meaningless unless
it is identified as being either 1-D, 2-D, or 3-D, along with the applicable probability or confidence level.
For example, if a nominal SPS 2-D accuracy is specified as 7 meters CEP (i.e. 50%), then this equates to
15 meters at the 95% 2-D confidence level, and roughly 13.5 meters SEP (3-D 50%). See Table 4-1 for a
comparison of the most commonly used error statistics. In addition, absolute GPS point positioning
accuracies are defined relative to an earth-centered coordinate system/datum--WGS 84. This coordinate
system may differ significantly from the user's local project or construction datum. Thus, any position
derived from GPS observations is dependent on the accuracy of the reference datum/frame relative to
WGS 84. Nominal GPS accuracies may also be published as design or tolerance limits and accuracies
achieved can differ significantly from these values.
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4-6

Table 4-1. Representative Statistics used in Geospatial Positioning

Probability Relative Nominal SPS Point
Distance Positioning Accuracy
Error Measurement Statistic (%) ()
(1 )
meters
(2)

LINEAR MEASURES N or E U

Probable Error 50 0.6745 4 m 9 m
Average Error 57.51 0.7979 5 m 11 m
One-Sigma Standard Error/Deviation 68.27 1.00 6.3 m 13.8 m
90% Probability (Map Accuracy Standard) 90 1.645 10 m 23 m
95% Probability/Confidence
(3)
95 1.96 12 m 27 m
2-Sigma Standard Error/Deviation 95.45 2.00 12.6 m 27.7 m
99% Probability/Confidence 99 2.576 16 m 36 m
3-Sigma Standard Error (Near Certainty) 99.73 3.00 19 m 42 m

TWO-DIMENSIONAL MEASURES CIRCULAR RADIUS

1-Sigma Standard Error Circle ( c)
(4)
39 1.00 c 6 m
Circular Error Probable (CEP)
(5)
50 1.177 c 7 m
1 Deviation Root Mean Square (1DRMS)
(6)
63 1.414 c 9 m
Circular Map Accuracy Standard 90 2.146 c 13 m
95% 2-D Positional Confidence Circle 95 2.447 c 15 m
2-Dev. Root Mean Square Error (2DRMS)
(7)
98
+
2.83 c 17.8 m
99% 2-D Positional Confidence Circle 99 3.035 c 19 m
3.5 Sigma Circular Near-Certainty Error 99.78 3.5 c 22 m
3 Dev. Root Mean Square Error (3DRMS) 99.9
+
4.24 c 27 m

THREE-DIMENSIONAL MEASURES SPHERICAL RADIUS

1- Spherical Standard Error ( s)
(8)
19.9 1.00 s 9 m
Spherical Error Probable (SEP)
(9)
50 1.54 s 13.5 m
Mean Radial Spherical Error (MRSE)
(10)
61 1.73 s 16 m
90% Spherical Accuracy Standard 90 2.50 s 22 m
95% 3-D Confidence Spheroid 95 2.70 s 24 m
99% 3-D Confidence Spheroid 99 3.37 s 30 m
Spherical Near-Certainty Error 99.89 4.00 s 35 m

NOTES:

MOST COMMONLY USED STATISTICS SHOWN IN BOLD
ESTIMATES NOT APPLICABLE TO DIFFERENTIAL GPS POSITIONING
CIRCULAR/SPHERICAL ERROR RADII DO NOT HAVE SIGNS

Absolute positional accuracies are derived from GPS simulated user range errors/deviations and resultant geocentric
coordinate (X-Y-Z) solution covariance matrix, as transformed to a local datum (N-E-U or --h). GPS accuracy will vary
with GDOP, UERE, and other numerous factors at time(s) of observation. The 3-D covariance matrix yields an error
ellipsoid. Transformed ellipsoidal dimensions given (i.e. N- E- U) are only average values observed under nominal
GDOP conditions. Circular (2-D) and spherical (3-D) radial measures are only approximations to this ellipsoid, as are
probability estimates.

(Table 4-1 continued on next page)

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4-7

Table 4-1. Representative Statistics used in Geospatial Positioning (continued)

(1) Valid for 2-D & 3-D only if N = E = U. (min/max) generally must be 0.2. Relative distance used unless otherwise
indicated.

(2) Representative accuracy based on nominal (assumed) SPS 1-D accuracies shown in italics, and that N E. SPS
may have significant short-term variations from these nominal values. In table, N = E = 6.3 m and U = 13.8 m.

(3) FGDC reporting statistic for positions, elevations and depths, including USACE hydrographic survey position and
depth measurement accuracy criteria.

(4) c 0.5 (N + E) -- approximates standard error ellipse

(5) CEP 0.589 (N + E) 1.18 c

(6) 1DRMS (N
2
+ E
2
)
1/2

(7) 2DRMS 2 (N
2
+ E
2
)
1/2

(8) s 0.333 (N + E + U)

(9) SEP 0.513 (N + E + U)

(10) MRSE (N
2
+ E
2
+ U
2
)
1/2

Source: Topographic Engineering Center

4-6. GPS Range Error Budget

There are numerous sources of measurement error that influence GPS performance. The sum of all
systematic errors or biases contributing to the measurement error is referred to as range bias. The
observed GPS range, without removal of biases, is referred to as a biased range--i.e. the "pseudorange."
Principal contributors to the final range error that also contribute to overall GPS error are ephemeris error,
satellite clock and electronics inaccuracies, tropospheric and ionospheric refraction, atmospheric
absorption, receiver noise, and multipath effects. Other errors may include those that were deliberately
induced by DoD before 2000--Selective Availability (S/A), and Anti-Spoofing (A/S). In addition to these
major errors, GPS also contains random observation errors, such as unexplainable and unpredictable time
variation. These errors are impossible to model and correct. The following paragraphs discuss errors
associated with absolute GPS positioning modes. Many of these errors are either eliminated or
significantly minimized when GPS is used in a differential mode. This is due to the same errors being
common to both receivers during simultaneous observing sessions. For a more detailed analysis of these
errors, consult (DoD 2001) or one of the technical references listed in Appendix A.

a. Ephemeris errors and orbit perturbations. Satellite ephemeris errors are errors in the
prediction of a satellite position which may then be transmitted to the user in the satellite data message.
Typically these errors are less than 8 m (95%). Ephemeris errors are satellite dependent and very difficult
to completely correct and compensate for because the many forces acting on the predicted orbit of a
satellite are difficult to measure directly. Because direct measurement of all forces acting on a satellite
orbit is difficult, it is nearly impossible to accurately account or compensate for those error sources when
modeling the orbit of a satellite. Ephemeris errors produce equal error shifts in calculated absolute point
positions. More accurate satellite orbit data can be obtained at later periods for post-processing; however,
this is not practical for real-time point positioning applications.

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4-8
b. Clock stability. GPS relies very heavily on accurate time measurements. GPS satellites carry
rubidium and cesium time standards that are usually accurate to 1 part in 10
12
and 1 part in 10
13
,
respectively, while most receiver clocks are actuated by a quartz standard accurate to 1 part in 10
8
. A
time offset is the difference between the time as recorded by the satellite clock and that recorded by the
receiver. Range error observed by the user as the result of time offsets between the satellite and receiver
clock is a linear relationship and can be approximated by the following formula:

R
E
= T
O

.
c (Eq 4-7)
where
R
E
= range error due to clock instability
T
O
= time offset
c = speed of light

(1) The following example shows the calculation of the user equivalent range error (UERE)

T
O
= 1 microsecond (s) = 10
-06
seconds (s)
c = 299,792,458 m/s

From Equation 4-7:

R
E
= (10
-06
s) * 299,792,458 m/s = 299.79 m = 300 m

(2) In general, unpredictable transient situations that produce high-order departures in clock time
can be ignored over short periods of time. Even though this may be the case, predictable time drift of the
satellite clocks is closely monitored by the ground control stations. Through closely monitoring the time
drift, the ground control stations are able to determine second-order polynomials which accurately model
the time drift. The second-order polynomial determined by the ground control station to model the time
drift is included in the broadcast message in an effort to keep this drift to within 1 millisecond (ms). The
time synchronization between the GPS satellite clocks is kept to within 20 nanoseconds (ns) through the
broadcast clock corrections as determined by the ground control stations and the synchronization of GPS
standard time to the Universal Time Coordinated (UTC) to within 100 ns. Random time drifts are
unpredictable, thereby making them impossible to model.

(3) GPS receiver clock errors can be modeled in a similar manner to GPS satellite clock errors.
In addition to modeling the satellite clock errors and in an effort to remove them, an additional satellite
should be observed during operation to simply solve for an extra clock offset parameter along with the
required coordinate parameters. This procedure is based on the assumption that the clock bias is
independent at each measurement epoch. Rigorous estimation of the clock terms is more important for
point positioning than for differential positioning. Many of the clock terms cancel when the position
equations are formed from the observations during a differential survey session.

c. Ionospheric delays. GPS signals are electromagnetic signals and as such are nonlinearly
dispersed and refracted when transmitted through a highly charged environment like the ionosphere--
Figure 4-3. Dispersion and refraction of the GPS signal is referred to as an ionospheric range effect
because dispersion and refraction of the signal results in an error in the GPS range value. Ionospheric
range effects are frequency dependent.

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4-9

Figure 4-3. Atmospheric delays in received GPS signals

(1) The error effect of ionosphere refraction on the GPS range values is dependent on sunspot
activity, time of day, and satellite geometry. Ionospheric delay can vary from 40-60 m during the day and
6-12 m at night. GPS operations conducted during periods of high sunspot activity or with satellites near
the horizon produce range results with the most error. GPS operations conducted during periods of low
sunspot activity, during the night, or with a satellite near the zenith produce range results with the least
amount of ionospheric error.

(2) Resolution of ionospheric refraction can be accomplished by use of a dual-frequency receiver
(a receiver that can simultaneously record both L1 and L2 frequency measurements). During a period of
uninterrupted observation of the L1 and L2 signals, these signals can be continuously counted and
differenced, and the ionospheric delay uncertainty can be reduced to less than 5 m. The resultant
difference reflects the variable effects of the ionosphere delay on the GPS signal. Single-frequency
receivers used in an absolute and differential positioning mode typically rely on ionospheric models that
model the effects of the ionosphere. Recent efforts have shown that significant ionospheric delay removal
can be achieved using dual-frequency receivers.

d. Tropospheric delays. GPS signals in the L-band level are not dispersed by the troposphere,
but they are refracted due to moisture in the lower atmosphere. The tropospheric conditions causing
refraction of the GPS signal can be modeled by measuring the dry and wet components. The dry
component is best approximated by the following equation:

D
C
= ( 2.27
.
0.001 )
.
P
O
(Eq 4-8)
where
D
C
= dry term range contribution in zenith direction in meters
P
O
= surface pressure in millibar (mb)

Ionosphere
150 km
Troposphere
10 km
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4-10
(1) The following example shows the calculation of average atmospheric pressure P
O
= 1013.243
mb:

From Equation 4-8:

D
C
= (2.27
.
0.001)
.
1013.243 mb

= 2.3 m, the dry term range error contribution in the zenith direction

(2) The wet component is considerably more difficult to approximate because its approximation
is dependent not just on surface conditions, but also on the atmospheric conditions (water vapor content,
temperature, altitude, and angle of the signal path above the horizon) along the entire GPS signal path.
As this is the case, there has not been a well-correlated model that approximates the wet component.

e. Multipath. Multipath describes an error affecting positioning that occurs when the signal
arrives at the receiver from more than one path--see Figure 4-4. Multipath normally occurs near large
reflective surfaces, such as a metal building or structure. GPS signals received as a result of multipath
give inaccurate GPS positions when processed. With the newer receiver and antenna designs, and sound
prior mission planning to reduce the possible causes of multipath, the effects of multipath as an error
source can be minimized. Averaging of GPS signals over a period of time (i.e. different satellite
configurations) can also help to reduce the effects of multipath.

Figure 4-4. Multipath signals impacting GPS observations

f. Receiver noise. Receiver noise includes a variety of errors associated with the ability of the
GPS receiver to measure a finite time difference. These include signal processing, clock/signal
synchronization and correlation methods, receiver resolution, signal noise, and others.

Direct
Signals
Multipath Reflections
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4-11
g. Selective Availability (S/A) and Anti-Spoofing (A/S). Before 2000, S/A was activated to
purposely degrade the satellite signal to create position errors. This is done by dithering the satellite clock
and offsetting the satellite orbits. Prior to 2000, the effects of S/A were eliminated by using differential
techniques. DoD always reserves the right to reimplement S/A should a major military conflict require
this action for national security. However, it is the stated intent of the US Government not to implement
S/A globally but to develop regional GPS denial capabilities that will not impact GPS users globally. A/S
is implemented by interchanging the P code with a classified Y code. This denies users who do not
possess an authorized decryption device. Manufactures of civil GPS equipment have developed methods
such as squaring or cross correlation in order to make use of the P code when it is encrypted.

4-7. User Equivalent Range Error

The previous sources of errors or biases are principal contributors to overall GPS range error. There are
many others in the total error budget model. This total error budget is often summarized as the User
Equivalent Range Error (UERE), or as User Range Error (URE). To distinguish between the satellite-
dependent errors and that of the user's receiver, a Signal-in-Space (SIS) URE is defined by (DoD 2001).
This SIS URE does not include the receiver's noise and multipath effects. As mentioned previously,
many of these range errors can be removed or at least effectively suppressed by developing models of
their functional relationships in terms of various parameters that can be used as a corrective supplement
for the basic GPS information. Differential techniques also eliminate many of these errors. Table 4-2
lists the more significant error sources for a single-frequency receiver, as observed globally by DoD on
the given date. The resultant URE does not include multipath effects.

Table 4-2. Estimate of Standard Positioning System User Range Error
Single Frequency Receiver (8 June 2000)

Error Source User Range Error Contribution
( meters)

Navigation Message Curve Fit 0.20
Tropospheric Model 0.25
C/A Code Phase Bias 0.27
Orbit 0.57
Receiver Noise 0.80
Satellite Clock 1.43
Ionospheric Model (global average) 7.00
1

URE (95%) 7.22 m
1
Ionospheric model ranged from 1.30 m (best) to 7.00 m (worst)

Source: Figure A-5-12, (DoD 2001)

Globally, the URE for a single frequency ranged from 2.2 m to 14.6 m. A dual-frequency receiver had a
far more accurate URE: 1.4 m to 2.3 m, with a global average of 1.7 m. If receiver multipath and other
effects are added, say 2 to 4 m, then the UERE for a single-frequency receiver would be in the 10-15 m
range.

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4-12

4-8. Satellite Geometry Effects on Accuracy--Geometrical Dilution of Precision

The final positional accuracy of a point determined using absolute GPS survey techniques is directly
related to the geometric strength of the configuration of satellites observed during the survey session.
GPS errors resulting from satellite configuration geometry can be expressed in terms of GDOP. In
mathematical terms, GDOP is a scalar, dimensionless quantity used in an expression of a ratio of the
positioning accuracy. It is the ratio of the standard deviation of one coordinate to the measurement
accuracy. GDOP represents the geometrical contribution of a certain scalar factor to the uncertainty
(i.e. standard deviation) of a GPS measurement. GDOP values are a function of the diagonal elements of
the covariance matrices of the adjusted parameters of the observed GPS signal and are used in the point
formulations and determinations.

a. In a more practical sense, GDOP is a scalar quantity of the contribution of the configuration of
satellite constellation geometry to the GPS accuracy, in other words, a measure of the "strength" of the
geometry of the satellite configuration. In general, the more satellites that can be observed and used in
the final solution, the better the solution. Since GDOP can be used as a measure of the geometrical
strength, it can also be used to selectively choose four satellites in a particular constellation that will
provide the best solution. Satellites spread around the horizon will provide the best horizontal position,
but the weakest vertical elevation. Conversely, if all satellites are at high altitudes, then the precision of
the horizontal solution drops but the vertical improves. This is illustrated in Figure 4-5. The smaller the
GDOP, the more accurate the position.

Figure 4-5. Satellite geometry and GDOP--"Good" GDOP and "Poor" GDOP configurations

b. GDOP values used in absolute GPS positioning is a measure of spatial accuracy of a 3-D
position and time. The GDOP is constantly changing as the relative orientation and visibility of the
SVs bunched together
SVs spread out through sky
Poor
GDOP
Good
GDOP
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satellites change. GDOP can be computed in the GPS receivers in real-time, and can be used as a quality
control indicator. GDOP is defined to be the square root of the sum of the variances of the position and
time error estimates.

GDOP = [
E
2
+

N
2
+
U
2
+

R
2
+
(

c
*
T
)

2

]
0.5

.
[ 1 /
R
] (Eq 4-9)
where

E
= standard deviation in east value, m

N
= standard deviation in north value, m

U
= standard deviation in up direction, m
c = speed of light (299,338,582.7 m/s)
T
= standard deviation in time, seconds

R
= overall standard deviation in range in meters, i.e. the UERE at the one-sigma (68%) level

The GDOP value is easily estimated by assuming the UEREs are all unity and then pulling the standard
deviations directly from the variance-covariance matrix of the position adjustment. Thus GDOP (and its
derivations) can be recomputed at each position update (e.g., every second). Large jumps (increases) in
GDOP values are poor performance indicators, and typically occur as satellites are moved in and out of
the solution.

c. Positional dilution of precision (PDOP). PDOP is a measure of the accuracy in 3-D position,
mathematically defined as:

PDOP = [
E
2
+

N
2
+
U
2
]
0.5

.
[ 1 /
R
] (Eq 4-10)

where all variables are equivalent to those used in Equation 4-9. PDOP is simply GDOP less the time
bias.

(1) PDOP values are generally developed from satellite ephemerides prior to conducting a survey.
When developed prior to a survey, PDOP can be used to determine the adequacy of a particular survey
schedule.

(2) The key to understanding PDOP is to remember that it represents position recovery at an
instant in time and is not representative of a whole session of time. When using pseudorange techniques,
PDOP values in the range of 4-5 are considered very good, while PDOP values greater than 10 are
considered very poor. For static surveys it is generally desirable to obtain GPS observations during a
time of rapidly changing GDOP and/or PDOP.

(3) When the values of PDOP or GDOP are viewed over time, peak or high values (>10) can be
associated with satellites in a constellation of poor geometry. The higher the PDOP or GDOP, the poorer
the solution for that instant in time. This is critical in determining the acceptability of real-time
navigation and photogrammetric solutions. Poor geometry can be the result of satellites being in the same
plane, orbiting near each other, or at similar elevations.

d. Horizontal dilution of precision (HDOP). HDOP is a measurement of the accuracy in 2-D
horizontal position, mathematically defined as:

HDOP = [
E
2
+

N
2
]
0.5

.
[ 1 /
R
] (Eq 4-11)

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This HDOP statistic is most important in evaluating GPS surveys intended for densifying horizontal
control in a project. The HDOP is basically the RMS error determined from the final variance-covariance
matrix divided by the standard error of the range measurements. HDOP roughly indicates the effects of
satellite range geometry on a resultant position.

e. Vertical dilution of precision (VDOP). VDOP is a measurement of the accuracy in standard
deviation in vertical height, mathematically defined as:

VDOP = [
U

]
.
[ 1 /
R
] (Eq 4-12)

f. Acceptable DOP values. In general, GDOP and PDOP values should be less than 6 for a
reliable solution. Optimally, they should be less than 5. GPS performance for HDOP is normally in the
2 to 3 range. VDOP is typically around 3 to 4. Increases above these levels may indicate less accurate
positioning. In most cases, VDOP values will closely resemble PDOP values. It is also desirable to have
a GDOP/PDOP that changes during the time of GPS survey session. The lower the GDOP/PDOP, the
better the instantaneous point position solution is.

4-9. Resultant Positional Accuracy of Point Positioning

The relationship between positional solution, the range error, and DOP can be expressed as follows
(Leick, 1995):

Positional solution ( ) =
R

.
DOP (Eq 4-13)
where
= horizontal or vertical positional accuracy

R
= range error (95% UERE)

For example, if the observed HDOP of a point position is displayed as 2.0 assuming unity a priori
deviations, and the estimated 95% UERE is 4 m, then the estimated horizontal positional accuracy would
be 8 m. Since the UERE and HDOP (PDOP/HDOP/VDOP) values are so variable over short periods of
time, there is little practical use in estimating a positional accuracy in this manner. Positional accuracy is
best estimated by statistically comparing continuous observations at some known reference point,
typically over a 24-hour period, and computing the 95% deviations.

a. From actual DoD worldwide observations, the results of actual horizontal and vertical
positional accuracies of single- and dual-frequency GPS point positioning observed on two different dates
are summarized in Table 4-3 below.
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4-15

Table 4-3. GPS All-in-View Performance--95%

Single Frequency Dual Frequency

Horizontal Vertical Horizontal Vertical
m m m m

3 June 2000
1

Global average 8.3 16.8 3.1 5.6
Worst site 19.7 44.0 5.0 9.2

8 June 2000
1

Global average 7.8 16.2 2.6 4.3
Worst site 19.2 39.3 4.2 7.1

Predictable Accuracy
2
13 22 -- --
Worst case 36 77

Sources:

1 Tables A-5-1 through A-5-4 (DoD 2001)

2 2001 Federal Radionavigation Plan/Systems Predicted Accuracy (FRS Table 3-1--GPS System Characteristics)

b. Table 4-3 shows that single-frequency receivers are capable of achieving around 10 m (95%)
positional accuracy and that the vertical component is significantly poorer. The 2001 Federal
Radionavigation Plan/System (FRP 2001) advertises a predictable SPS accuracy of 13 m (horizontal) and
22 m (vertical), with a global service availability of 99%. This predictable accuracy estimate does not
include error contributions due to ionospheric contributions, tropospheric contributions, or receiver noise.
There would be few applications for using GPS point positioning methods for elevation determination
given the 20+ m error. The results also clearly show the accuracy improvements when dual-frequency
receivers are used. There are many GIS database development applications where a horizontal accuracy
in the 10 to 30 m range is sufficiently accurate; thus point positioning with a single- or dual-frequency
receiver is a reliable, fast, and economical procedure for those applications. These point positioning
accuracy levels are obviously not suitable for USACE design and construction purposes; thus, relative or
differential positioning techniques are required.
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Chapter 5
Differential or Relative Positioning Determination Concepts
5-1. General
Absolute point positioning, as discussed earlier, will not provide the accuracies needed for most USACE
mapping and control projects due to existing and induced errors in the measurement process. In order to
minimize these errors and obtain higher accuracies, GPS can be used in a relative or differential
positioning mode--i.e. Differential GPS. Throughout this manual, the terms "relative" and "differential"
positioning have similar meaning. This chapter covers the basic theory and concepts of differential GPS
positioning as it applies to engineering and construction surveys.
Figure 5-1. Differential or Relative GPS positioning
5-2. Differential Positioning Concepts
As stated in Chapter 2, differential GPS positioning is simply a process of determining the relative
differences in coordinates between two receiver points, each of which is simultaneously
observing/measuring satellite code ranges and/or carrier phases from the NAVSTAR GPS satellite
constellation. These differential observations, in effect, derive a differential baseline vector between the
two points, as illustrated in Figure 5-1. This method will position two stations relative to each other--
hence the term "relative positioning"--and can provide the higher accuracies required for project control
surveys, topographic surveys, and hydrographic surveys. There are basically two general types of
differential positioning:
Code phase pseudorange tracking
Carrier phase tracking
Reference Station Receiver
located at known point on datum
User (Remote) Receiver
at unknown location
Differential Baseline
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5-2
Both methods, either directly or indirectly, determine the distance, or range, between a NAVSTAR GPS
satellite and a ground-based receiver antenna. These measurements are made simultaneously at two
different receiver stations. Either the satellite's carrier frequency phase, or the phase of a digital code
modulated on the carrier phase, may be tracked--depending on the type of receiver. Through various
processing techniques explained below, the distances between the satellites and receivers can be resolved,
and the relative positions of the two receiver points are derived. From these relative observations, a
baseline vector between the points is generated. The resultant positional accuracy is dependent on the
tracking method used--carrier phase tracking being far more accurate than code phase tracking.
5-3. Differential Positioning (Code Pseudorange Tracking)
Code pseudorange tracking is the most widely used differential GPS positioning technique. It can deliver
"meter-level" positional accuracies that typically range between 0.5 m to 5 m, depending on the code
DGPS reference network and user receiver type. It is the technique used for maritime navigation,
including USACE hydrographic surveying and dredge location applications. It is also used for air and
land navigation where meter-level accuracy is required. Differential positioning using code pseudoranges
is performed similarly to the Absolute Positioning techniques described in Chapter 4; however, some of
the major clock error and atmospheric uncertainties are effectively minimized when simultaneous
observations are made at two receiver stations. Errors in satellite range measurements are directly
reflected in resultant coordinate errors. Differential positioning is not so concerned with the absolute
position of the user but with the relative difference between two user positions who are simultaneously
observing the same satellites. Since errors in the satellite position (X
s
, Y
s
, and Z
s
) and atmospheric delay
estimates ( d ) are effectively the same (i.e. highly correlated) at both receiving stations, they cancel each
other to a large extent. Equation 4-1, which represents a general pseudorange observation, is repeated as
Equation 5-1 below.
R = p
t
+ c (t ) + d (Eq 5-1)
where
R = observed pseudorange
p
t
= true range to satellite (unknown)
t = clock biases (receiver and satellite)
d = propagation delays due to atmospheric conditions
The clock biases ( t ) and propagation delays ( d ) in the above equation are significantly minimized
when code phase observations are made with two receivers. This allows for a relatively accurate
pseudorange correction ( R - p
t
) to be computed at the receiver station set over a known point. This is
because the true range ( p
t
) to the satellite can be determined from inversing between the ground station's
coordinates and the broadcast satellite coordinates. If the pseudorange correction ( R - p
t
) is computed
for 4 or more satellites, these pseudorange corrections can be transmitted to any number of user receivers
to correct the raw pseudoranges originally observed. If 5 or more pseudorange corrections are observed,
then a more reliable and redundant position computation is obtained. If more than one "reference station"
is used to obtain pseudorange corrections, then the corrections may be further refined using the network
of reference stations. Networks of stations transmitting differential GPS code correctors are termed as
"augmented" GPS, or a wide area augmented system. Pseudorange corrections are broadcast by standard
RF, satellite link, cell phone, or other transmission media. Satellite communications links are typically
used for wide area augmentation networks. An alternate differential correction technique computes the
position coordinate differences at the reference station and broadcasts these coordinate differences as
correctors. This method is not widely used.
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5-3
Figure 5-2. Determining pseudorange correction at a differential GPS reference station. Corrections are
computed for satellites in view and broadcast to remote receivers.
a. For a simplified example, if the true range from a "known" GPS reference control point to a
satellite is 20,000,000m and the observed or measured pseudorange distance was 19,999,992 m, then the
pseudorange error or correction is + 8 m (20,000,000-19,999,992) for that particular satellite. A similar
pseudorange correction (or PRC) can be generated for each satellite being observed from the known GPS
reference station, as illustrated in Figure 5-2. If a second "rover" receiver is observing at least four of the
same satellites as the reference receiver, and is within a reasonable distance (say 300 kilometers) from the
reference receiver, it can use these same PRCs to correct the rover receiver's observed pseudoranges since
the range errors will be similar at both points. If the rover receiver is located equidistant between two
reference stations (i.e. a wide area GPS network), and the second reference station observed a PRC of
+ 10 m on the same satellite, then an adjusted PRC of 9 m ((8+10)/2) could be used at the rover receiver.
Additional wide area reference stations provide better modeling of the PRCs at the rover receiver,
although the density and distance from reference stations is still critical for accuracy improvements.
b. This differential code pseudoranging process results in coordinates of the user on the earth's
surface that are relative to the datum of the reference station. For example, if the reference station is
computing PRCs using NAD 83 (1996) coordinates, then the resolved coordinates at the rover receiver
will be in this same system. These NAD 83 (1996) coordinates can be transformed to another datum and
coordinate system (e.g., NAD 27 SPCS) using known local transformation differences, such as those
obtained from CORPSCON. This is commonly done on Corps navigation projects that are still
referenced to NAD 27. Code phase positions relative to an NAD 83 (1996) network (e.g., the USCG
radiobeacon system) are converted back to NAD 27 for use in automated hydrographic survey data
acquisition software. This is done in real-time. Therefore, GPS coordinate differences can be applied to
any type of local project reference datum (i.e. NAD 27, NAD 83, or any local project grid reference
system).
Remote or
Rover Receiver
Known Range
Measured Range
Pseudorange Correction
Sat #1 Sat #2 Sat #3 Sat #4 Sat #1 Sat #2 Sat #3 Sat #4
Reference or
Base Station
Receiver
Pseudorange
corrections transmitted
Known X-Y-Z
coordinates
Unknown coordinates
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5-4
c. Code pseudorange tracking has primary application to real-time navigation systems where
accuracies at the 0.5 to 5 m level are tolerable. Given these tolerances, USACE engineering survey
applications for code pseudorange tracking GPS are hydrographic surveying, dredge positioning, and
some GIS feature mapping work. Newer hand-held receivers capable of acquiring government or
commercial wide area network PRCs will provide accuracies at the 5 to 10 m level, and can be used for
populating GIS databases. Descriptions of real-time code phase tracking systems used for hydrographic
surveying and dredge positioning are contained in EM 1110-2-1003.
5-4. Differential Positioning (Carrier Phase Tracking)
Differential positioning using carrier phase tracking uses a formulation of pseudoranges similar to that
done in code or absolute GPS positioning. However, the process becomes somewhat more complex when
the carrier signals are tracked such that range changes are measured by phase resolution. The modulated
codes are removed from the carrier, and a phase tracking process is used to measure the differences in
phase of the received satellite signals between the reference receiver and the user's receiver at an
unknown point. The transmitted satellite signal is shifted in frequency due to the Doppler effect. The
phase is not changed. GPS receivers measure what is termed the carrier phase "observable"--usually
symbolized by " ". This observable represents the frequency difference between the satellite carrier and
that generated in the receiver, or a so-called "beat" phase difference. This phase measurement
observation can be shown in the following expression for the carrier phase observable (Kaplan 1996):

k
P
(t) =
k
P
(t) -
P
(t) + N
k
P
+ S
k
+
P
+
k
-
iono
+
tropo
(Eq 5-2)
where

k
P
(t) = length of propagation path between satellite "P" and receiver "k" ... in cycles

k
P
(t) = received phase of satellite "P" at receiver "k" at time "t"

P
(t) = transmitted phase of satellite "P"
N
k
P
= integer ambiguity
S
k
= measurement noise (multipath, GPS receiver, etc.)
= carrier frequency (Hz)

P
= satellite clock bias

k
= receiver clock bias

iono
= ionospheric advance (cycles)

tropo
= tropospheric delay (cycles)
For more details on these carrier phase observation models, see also Remondi (1985), Leick (1995), Van
Sickle (2001), and other texts listed at Appendix A.
a. Typically, two receivers will be involved in carrier phase observations, and 4 or more satellites
will be measured from both receivers. One of the receivers will be placed at a known reference point--the
"reference" receiver. The other receiver is usually referred to as the "remote" or "rover" receiver--and is
located a point where a map feature or project control point coordinate is required. This "rover" receiver
may be stationary over the unknown point--i.e. "static"--or it may be roving from unknown point to
unknown point--i.e. "kinematic."
b. Interferomic "differencing" techniques are used to resolve carrier phase observations made at
two receivers. Differencing involves forming linear combinations between phase observations. To
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5-5
eliminate clock errors in the satellite, a "single difference" between phase measurements of the reference
and remote receivers is performed. Single differencing between receivers eliminates the satellite clock
error. This single differencing "between receivers" procedure is performed for all the mutually observed
satellites, and the resultant single differences are subsequently differenced "between satellites"
(i.e. "double differenced"), thus eliminating the receiver clock error. Double-differenced measurements
on three pairs of satellites will yield the difference between the reference and remote locations. "Triple
differencing" is the difference of two double differences performed over two different epochs. Triple
differencing "between epochs" is used to indirectly resolve the number of whole carrier cycles between
the satellite and receiver. There are a number of methods used to determine the integer ambiguity (the
number of unknown integer cycles). These range from physical placement of the remote receiver a
known distance from the reference receiver to automated Kalman filtering and searching methods. These
differencing techniques are more fully described in Chapter 10.
5-5. Carrier Phase Survey Techniques
Carrier phase tracking provides an accurate satellite-receiver range resolution due to the short carrier
wavelengths (approximately 19 cm for L1 and 24 cm for L2) and the ability of a receiver to resolve the
carrier phase down to about 2 mm. This technique, therefore, has primary application to engineering,
construction, topographic, and geodetic surveying, and may be employed using either static or kinematic
methods. There are several techniques that use the carrier phase in order to determine the position of a
remote receiver. These generally break down to static and kinematic methods; however, both methods
have similar observation and initialization requirements, and differ mainly in their initialization
procedures and whether the positional computations are performed in real-time or post-processed. In
practice, some "kinematic" methods actually observe baselines in a "static" mode. Different receiver
manufacturers have varying terminologies and techniques for these methods. The basic concepts of some
of the most common survey techniques are explained below, and field procedures for some of these
methods can be found in Chapter 9. Table 5-1 summarizes these techniques, their associated accuracies,
applications, and required components.
Figure 5-3. (Left) GPS surveys at Corps Huntsville, AL Training Center--Survey IV PROSPECT Course (2002)
and (right) New Orleans District GPS control surveys along Mississippi River at District Office base
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5-6
a. Static. Static surveying (Figure 5-3) is the most widely used differential technique for precise
control and geodetic surveying. It involves long observation times (30 minutes to 6+ hours, depending on
the number of visible satellites, baseline length, accuracy, etc.) in order to resolve the integer ambiguities
between the satellite and the receiver. Accuracies in the sub-centimeter range can be obtained using the
static surveying methods. Either single-frequency or dual-frequency receivers may be used.
b. Rapid Static. The concept of Rapid Static is similar to Pseudo Kinematic described below. It
is used to measure baselines and determine positions at the centimeter-level with short, static observation
times--e.g., 5-20 minutes. The observation time is dependent on the length of the baseline and number of
visible satellites. Loss of lock, when moving from one station to the next, can also occur since each
baseline is processed independent of each other. Unlike Pseudo Kinematic, stations are occupied only
once. Dual-frequency receivers are required.
c. Kinematic. Kinematic surveying is a GPS carrier phase surveying technique that allows the
user to rapidly and accurately measure baselines while moving from one point to the next, stopping only
briefly at the unknown points, or in dynamic motion such as a survey boat or aircraft. A reference
receiver is set up at a known station and a remote, or rover, receiver traverses between the unknown
points to be positioned. The data is collected and processed (either in real-time or post-time) to obtain
accurate positions to the centimeter level. Kinematic survey techniques require some form of
initialization to resolve the carrier phase ambiguities. This can be done by setting the remote receiver on
a known baseline relative to the reference receiver, by performing an "antenna swap" procedure between
the two receivers, and other techniques such as "On-the-Fly" or OTF.
d. Stop & Go Kinematic. Stop and Go Kinematic involves collecting static data for several
minutes (i.e. 10-30 minutes) at each station after a period of initialization to gain the integers. This
technique does not allow for loss of satellite lock during the survey. If loss of satellite lock does occur, a
new period of initialization must take place. This method can be performed with two fixed or known
stations in order to provide redundancy and improve accuracy.
e. Pseudo Kinematic. This technique is similar to Stop and Go Kinematic procedures. The main
difference is that there is no static initialization. Unknown points must be double-occupied
(approximately 5-10 minutes), and each unknown point must be revisited after about an hour. Unlike
Stop and Go Kinematic, loss of satellite lock is acceptable.
f. Real-Time Kinematic (RTK). The RTK positioning methods will yield sub-decimeter
accuracies in real-time. This method has become widely used for accurate engineering and construction
surveys, including topographic site plan mapping, construction stake out, construction equipment
location, and hydrographic surveying. This GPS technique determines the integer number of carrier
wavelengths between the GPS antenna to the GPS satellite while the rover receiver is in motion and
without static initialization. RTK typically uses an "On-the-Fly" (OTF) integer initialization process
whereby initialization can be performed while the roving receiver is moving. Periodic loss of satellite
lock can be tolerated and no static initialization is required to regain the integers. This differs from other
GPS techniques that require static initialization while the user is stationary. A communication link
between the reference and rover receivers is required. A number of techniques have been developed to
increase RTK accuracies over local areas, such as placing simulated GPS satellite receivers at fixed
ground locations (pseudolites). These have application in obscured areas (underground, tunnels, inside
buildings, etc.) or for accurate aircraft landing elevation measurement.
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Table 5-1. Carrier Phase Tracking Techniques
Concept Minimum Requirements Applications Accuracy
Static L1 or L1/L2 GPS receiver Control surveys Sub-centimeter
(Post-processed) 30 min to 1 hour minimum (high-accuracy)
observation time Slow point positioning
Rapid Static L1/L2 GPS receiver Control surveys Sub-centimeter
(Post-processed) 5-20 min observation time (medium to high accuracy)
Single occupation only
No continuous satellite lock required
Stop-and-Go Kinematic L1 GPS receiver Control surveys Centimeter +
(Post-processed) Initialization required (Medium accuracy)
1-2 minute baseline occupation Fast point positioning
Continuous satellite lock required
Pseudo Kinematic L1 GPS receiver Control surveys Few centimeters
(Post-processed) 5-10 minutes static observations (Medium accuracy)
Double occupations required
between 1 and 4 hours
No initialization required
Loss of satellite lock permitted
Real-Time Kinematic L1/L2 GPS Receiver Real-time hydro tides Centimeter +
(Real-time) Data-Link required and heave corrections
Baselines should be < 10 km Location surveys
OTF initialization or Photo control (ABGPS)
conventional initialization Real-time topo
Maintain satellite lock Construction stake out
(Medium to high accuracy)
5-6. Real-time Kinematic (RTK) GPS
The basic practical concept for real-time kinematic GPS surveying was developed in the early 1980's by Ben
Remondi of the National Geodetic Survey. In 1989, the Corps' Topographic Engineering Center
(ERDC/TEC) began development of algorithms to enable RTK observation of tides for hydrographic survey
and dredge elevation corrections in offshore environments. Today, nearly all GPS receiver manufacturers
provide RTK survey options for engineering, construction, and boundary surveying applications.
a. RTK equipment. A RTK carrier phase positioning system is very similar to code phase tracking
technology described earlier. Two GPS receivers (reference and remote) are needed for RTK positioning.
These receivers must meet the requirements to process real-time carrier phase tracking information. The
user equipment on the ground, construction platform, survey vessel, or dredge typically consists of a
geodetic-quality, dual-frequency, full wavelength L1/L2 tracking GPS receiver. The GPS reference station
must be located over a known survey monument (a benchmark if precise elevation densification is being
performed). The reference receiver must be capable of collecting both pseudorange and carrier phase data
from the NAVSTAR satellites. A geodetic quality GPS antenna is required to minimize multipath. The
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receivers should be capable of at least a 1-sec update rate. The processor used at the reference station will
compute the pseudorange and carrier phase corrections and format the data for the communications link.
The corrections will be formatted for transmission to the remote user; from which accurate, georeferenced
coordinates are determined in real-time. As in code phase applications, the user datum must be correlated
with the reference station datum, including accounting for geoid undulations that may occur between the
stations. For hydrographic and dredging applications, the position output for the helmsman is code phase
tracking using pseudoranges (accurate at the meter level)--for vessel navigation in real-time. The decimeter-
level carrier phase DGPS data will be used to compute the vessel position and/or antenna elevation. The
antenna elevation must be related to the water surface and vessel draft in order to reference GPS time-tagged
depth soundings. GPS elevation data must also be transformed to the local reference datum--e.g., Mean
Lower Low Water, Low Water Reference Plane.
b. Communications link. The communications link for a real-time carrier phase positioning system
differs from the code phase tracking DGPS system in the amount of data that has to be transmitted. The
carrier phase positioning system may require a minimum data rate of 4800 baud, as compared to a baud rate
of 300 for the code phase tracking DGPS system. This high data rate eliminates many of the low-frequency
broadcast systems and limits the coverage area for high-frequency broadcast systems. VHF and UHF
frequency communications systems are well suited for this data rate, as are satellite links. Frequency
approval may be necessary for communication link broadcasts using a power source in excess of 1 watt.
RTK is rarely used for surveys in excess of 20 km from the reference station.
5-7. Differential GPS Error Sources
The error sources encountered in the position determination using differential GPS positioning techniques
are the same as those outlined for Absolute Positioning in Chapter 4. However, many of the errors
inherent in Absolute Positioning are effectively minimized when differential code or carrier tracking
techniques are employed--especially when short baseline distances are observed with high-quality dual-
frequency receivers. The errors that are minimized or eliminated include:
Selective Availability (S/A). When S/A was activated prior to 2000, differential positioning
techniques eliminated this intentionally induced error.
Ionospheric and Tropospheric Delays. When the reference and remote stations are close together,
these atmospheric delays are effectively eliminated. However as distance between the differential
receivers increases, these delays can become significant. For example, USCG code tracking
radiobeacon systems are fairly accurate out to about 150 km. Beyond that distance, differing
atmospheric conditions add to the range errors. In some cases, localized weather patterns at even
shorter distances can effect the code tracking measurements.
Ephemeris Error. Ephemeris errors are significantly reduced with differential techniques.
Processing baseline data with a precise ephemeris will further reduce this error.
Satellite Clock Error. Compensated as long as both the reference and remote differential
receivers use the same satellite clock correction data.
Table 5-2 below shows the nominal range error budget for a differential code phase tracking system
where the common error sources from the space and control segments have been eliminated.
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Table 5-2. Error Budget for Differential Positioning Systems (Code Phase)
Segment Source Error User Range Error Contributions
( meters)
Near Far (>350 km)
Space Clock and NAV subsystem stability 0.0 0.0
Predictability of SV perturbations 0.0 0.0
Other 1.0 1.0
Control Ephemeris prediction model implementation 0.0 0.0
Other 1.8 1.8
User (P(Y)-Code Ionospheric delay compensation 0.0 4.5
Tropospheric delay compensation 0.0 3.9
Receiver noise and resolution 4.1 4.1
Multipath 3.4 3.4
Other 1.0 1.0
UERE (95%) 5.8 8.3
Source: Table 10-1, (DoD 1996)
In addition to these error sources, the user must ensure that the receiver maintains lock on at least three
satellites for 2-D positioning, four satellites for 3-D positioning, and five or more satellites when RTK
methods are employed. In performing carrier phase GPS static surveys, if lock is not maintained,
positional results may be degraded, resulting in incorrect formulations. When loss of lock occurs, a cycle
slip (a discontinuity of an integer number of cycles in the measured carrier beat phase as recorded by the
receiver) may occur. Sometimes, in static GPS control surveying, if the observation period is long
enough, post-processing software may be able to average out loss of lock and cycle slips over the duration
of the observation period and formulate positional results that are adequate. If this is not the case,
reoccupation of the stations may be required. In all differential surveying techniques, if loss of lock does
occur on some of the satellites, data processing can continue easily if a minimum of four satellites have
been tracked. Generally, the more satellites tracked by the receiver, the more insensitive the receiver is to
loss of lock. In general, cycle slips can be repaired.
5-8. Differential GPS Accuracies
There are two levels of accuracies obtainable from GPS using differential techniques. The first level is
based on pseudorange code formulations, while the other is based on carrier phase formulations. All
accuracy assessments are highly dependent on the type and quality of the GPS receivers used--see Global
Positioning System Standard Positioning Service Performance Standard (DoD 2001).
a. Pseudorange code accuracies. Pseudorange formulations can be developed from either the
C/A-code or the more precise P-code. Pseudorange accuracies are generally accepted to be 1 percent of
the period between successive code epochs. Use of the P-code where successive epochs are
0.1 microsecond apart produces results that are around 1 % of 0.1 microsecond, or 1 ns. Multiplying this
value by the speed of light gives a theoretical resultant range measurement of around 30 cm. If using
pseudorange formulations with the C/A-code, one can expect results ten times less precise or a range
measurement precision of around 2 to 3 m. (Note that the DoD only commits to providing
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a 6 m UERE; however, PPS Signal-in-Space UEREs have been consistently less than 2 m--see Chapter
4 and DoD 2001). Point positioning accuracy for a differential pseudorange formulated solution is
generally found to be in the range of 0.5 m to 5 m at the 95% confidence level. Sub-meter accuracy is
easily achievable if code tracking receiver distances are short, e.g., less than 50 km, and PDOP is < 5. As
always, these accuracy estimates are largely dependent on the type of GPS receivers being used and the
distance from the reference station.
b. Carrier phase formulations. Carrier phase formulations can be based on the L1, L2, or both
carrier signals. Accuracies achievable using carrier phase measurement are generally accepted to be 1 %
of the wavelength. Using the L1 frequency where the wavelength is around 19 cm, one can expect a
theoretical resultant range measurement that is 1 % of 19 cm, or about 2 mm. The L2 carrier can only be
used with receivers that employ cross-correlation, squaring, or some other technique to get around the
effects of A/S. Some of the factors that enter into the error budget of a differential carrier phase solution
are:
Distance between reference and remote station.
Receiver quality. Low-end, inexpensive hand-held or geodetic quality--usually directly related to
receiver cost which can range from $100 to $20,000 or more.
Receiver signal processing methods.
Single or dual-frequency tracking. L1 C/A-code, L1 P-code, L2 P-code, and/or L2 Y-code.
Number of satellites receiver can track. Varies from 1 to "all-in-view." Less expensive, hand-
held receivers typically track only 8 satellites. Most high-end geodetic quality receivers can track
up to 12 or 24 satellites. Some receivers also track GLONASS satellites.
Satellite tracking channels in receiver. Varies from 1 to 40--12 channels being typical.
Baseline reduction and analysis methods. Also relates to number of epochs observed or length of
observation--e.g., 1-hour or 6-hour static baseline observation.
Real-time kinematic or post-processing solution.
Integer ambiguity solution techniques.
Antenna design.
Redundant observations. Redundant baseline observations and connections from different
network points will improve the computed positional accuracy of a point when the observations
are processed through standard geodetic network adjustment routines.
The final positional accuracy of a point (or the derived baseline vector between two points) determined
using differential carrier phase GPS survey techniques is directly related to the geometric strength of the
configuration of satellites observed during the survey session. GPS errors resulting from satellite
configuration geometry can be expressed in terms of DOP. Positional accuracy for a differential carrier
phase baseline solution is generally found to be in the range of 1-10 mm. On extremely short baselines
used for structural deformation monitoring surveys (i.e. less than 1,000 m) accuracies at the 1 mm level
are typically observed. Elevation difference accuracies tend to be larger--around the 5 mm level over
short baselines. Real-time dynamic GPS measurements have even larger accuracy estimates due to
velocities of the moving platform.
c. Accuracy estimates for differential GPS systems. The resultant accuracy of a differential
carrier phase baseline solution is widely variable and depends on the factors listed in the above
paragraphs. In addition, accuracies are difficult to quantify, given the variety of GPS receivers. Many
organizations have performed independent testing of GPS receivers; however, these tests are often dated
and may not be representative of "real-world" observing conditions. Likewise, receiver manufacturer's
claimed accuracies are subject to unknown observing conditions and caveats--often similar grade
receivers have widely varying accuracy claims by different manufacturers. Typically, code tracking
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receivers report positional accuracies as 2-D horizontal RMS statistics. Carrier tracking accuracies are
usually reported as a function of the baseline distance, which includes both a fixed quantity and a parts
per million (ppm) ratio of the baseline length. Accuracy estimates can also be indirectly derived from the
results of network adjustments or comparisons with higher-accuracy baselines. The general accuracy
values shown in Table 5-3 below are based on such comparisons and are believed to be representative of
the current technology. In some cases, resultant horizontal and vertical accuracies can only be estimated
because there is no independent method to accurately verify the data, e.g., offshore sea level or tidal
elevation measurements using RTK techniques.
Table 5-3. Nominal Positional or Baseline Accuracies for Differential Positioning Systems
(Single baseline observation)
GPS Receiver or Tracking System Estimated Accuracy (95%)
Code Carrier
Low-cost resource grade receivers (L1 only)
Baselines < 100 km 3 to 5 m n/a
Geodetic-quality 24 channel, L1-L2
(Static long-term baseline observations)
Short baseline length (< 1 km) 0.3 to 1 m 2 mm 1 ppm
Baseline length < 10 km 0.3 to 1 m 5 to 10 mm 1 ppm
Baseline length < 100 km 1 m n/a
Baseline length < 500 km > 1 m n/a
USCG radiobeacon receivers
Short baseline length (< 1 km) 0.3 to 1 m n/a
Baseline length < 10 km 0.3 to 1 m n/a
Baseline length < 100 km 1 to 2 m n/a
Baseline length < 500 km 3 to 10 m n/a
World-wide wide-area networks with atmospheric modeling 0.5 to 2 m n/a
Real-time Kinematic Observations with Geodetic-quality
receiver (baselines less than 10 km)
Horizontal position accuracy n/a 10 to 30 mm
Vertical accuracy n/a 30 to 100 mm
Adjusted positional accuracy using multiple CORS stations
Horizontal n/a 10-20 mm
Vertical n/a 100 mm
Real-time Kinematic offshore tidal & heave modeling n/a 100 mm
5-9. Differential GPS Augmentation Systems
A number of differential GPS augmentation systems are available from both government and commercial
sources. Most real-time augmentation systems are code tracking. However, more emphasis is being
placed on developing accurate carrier tracking augmentation networks. The following material on
Federal augmentation systems is extracted from the 2001 Federal Radio Navigation Plan (FRP 2001).
Description of some commercial augmentation systems is covered in later chapters.
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a. Maritime Differential GPS (MDGPS). The USCG Maritime DGPS Service provides terrain-
penetrating medium-frequency signals, optimized for surface applications, for coastal coverage of the
continental US, the Great Lakes, Puerto Rico, portions of Alaska and Hawaii, and portions of the
Mississippi River Basin. Maritime DGPS uses fixed GPS reference stations that broadcast pseudorange
corrections and provide GPS integrity information using radionavigation beacons. The Maritime DGPS
Service provides radionavigation accuracy better than 10 meters (95% RMS) for US harbor entrance and
approach areas. The system is operated to International Telecommunications Union and Radio Technical
Commission for Maritime Services (RTCM) standards and has been implemented by more than 40 other
maritime nations. The USCG declared FOC of the Maritime DGPS Service on March 15, 1999. Steps
are being taken to include DGPS as a system that meets the carriage requirements of the Navigation
Safety Regulations (33 CFR 164), for vessels operating on the navigable waters of the US.
b. Nationwide Differential GPS (NDGPS). A Nationwide DGPS (NDGPS) Service is being
established under the authority of Section 346 of the Department of Transportation and Related Agencies
Appropriation Act, 1998 PL 105-66 U.S.C. 301. This service is an expansion of the MDGPS to cover
areas of the country where service from MDGPS is not available. When complete, this service will
provide uniform differential GPS coverage of the continental US and selected portions of Hawaii and
Alaska regardless of terrain, man made, and other surface obstructions. This is achieved by using a
terrain-penetrating medium-frequency signal optimized for surface application. This service, along with
MDGPS, provides a highly reliable GPS integrity function to terrestrial and maritime users. NDGPS
accuracy is specified to be 10 meters or better. Typical system performance is better than 1 m in the
vicinity of the broadcast site. Achievable accuracy degrades at an approximate rate of 1 m for each 150
km distance from the broadcast site. When each site is brought online, it meets all FOC requirements as
set forth by the USCG for their MDGPS service. This includes integrity, availability, and accuracy. The
NDGPS Service will achieve FOC when it provides dual coverage of the continental US and selected
portions of Hawaii and Alaska with single coverage elsewhere. Given the current funding environment,
FOC is expected by the end of calendar year 2007. The service is operated to the RTCM SC-104
broadcast standard. This standard has also been adopted by the international community as ITU-R 823
and has been implemented in over 40 countries, maritime and non-maritime, worldwide.
c. FAA Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS). The FAA is developing the WAAS to
augment GPS. WAAS is designed primarily for aviation users. The WAAS provides a signal-in-space to
enable WAAS users to navigate the en route through precision approach phases of flight. The signal-in-
space provides three services: (1) integrity data on GPS and Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO) satellites,
(2) differential corrections of GPS and GEO satellites to improve accuracy, and (3) a ranging capability to
improve availability and continuity. The FAA announced in August 2000 that WAAS is continuously
broadcasting differential corrections and is available for non-safety applications. WAAS initial
operational capability for safety applications (as a supplemental means of navigation), expected in 2003,
will support en route through approach with vertical guidance operations. The long-term plans for
navigation architecture are based on a WAAS primary means of navigation determination in 2009. To
that end, as well as to improve performance, a key recommendation is to utilize the new GPS civil signal
at L5 (1176.45 MHz) when it is available to provide a more robust, interference resistant, and available
service to users equipped with L5 receivers. The result of these incremental improvements will enable
aircraft equipped with WAAS avionics to execute all phases of flight except Category II and III precision
approaches.
d. FAA Local Area Augmentation System (LAAS). LAAS augments GPS by providing
differential corrections to users via a VHF data broadcast. Suitably equipped aircraft will be able to
conduct precision approaches at airfields where LAAS Category I ground facilities are installed.
Category I LAAS is currently in development with installation of the first of 46 federal systems expected
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in 2003. Research and specification development are currently underway to support Category II and III
LAAS. The first public use Category II and III LAAS system is planned in 2006.
e. The National Continuously Operating Reference Station (CORS) System. The National
Geodetic Survey is establishing a national CORS system to support non-navigation, post-processing
applications of GPS. The national CORS system provides code range and carrier phase data from a
nationwide network of GPS stations for access by the Internet. As of October 2001, data were being
provided from about 232 stations.
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Chapter 6
GPS Applications in USACE
6-1. General
This chapter outlines some of the varied uses of GPS by USACE surveyors and its contractors. GPS
applications apply to all the Corps' civil works, military construction, and environmental missions. These
applications include real estate surveys, regulatory enforcement actions, horizontal and vertical control
densification, structural deformation studies, airborne photogrammetry, dynamic positioning and
navigation for hydrographic survey vessels and dredges, hydraulic study/survey location, river/flood plain
cross-section location, core drilling location, environmental studies, emergency operations, levee
overbank surveys, and levee profiling. Construction uses of real-time GPS include levee grading and
revetment placement, disposal area construction, stakeout, etc. Additionally, GPS has application in
developing various levels of Geographic Information System (GIS) spatial data, such as site plan
topography, facilities, utilities, etc. In effect, GPS has application for any USACE project requiring
georeferenced spatial data. Given the variety of GPS accuracies and operating modes, a particular project
application may involve one or more types of equipment and data acquisition methods. Suggested GPS
techniques are shown in Table 6-1 for different types of Corps projects.
Table 6-1. Summary of Typical GPS Applications on USACE Civil and Military Construction Projects
USACE Project/Functional Absolute GPS Code Differential GPS Carrier DGPS
Application 10 to 30 m 0.5 to 3 m 1 to 10 cm
General Project Mapping Control (Military & Civil)
Reference benchmark elevations Static PP
Reference horizontal positions Static PP
Facility Mapping (Site Plans & GIS)
Building & structure location RTK or PPK
Utility location RTK or PPK
Roads, streets, airfields, etc. RTK or PPK
Grading & Excavation Plans RTK or PPK
Recreational Plans RTK or PPK
Training Range Plans RT
Airfield obstruction mapping RT
Training range mapping/location RT or RT
Utility Location & As-Builts RT or RTK
Environmental Mapping RT or RTK
Flood Control Projects
Floodplain Mapping RT or RT
Soil/Geology Classification Maps RT or RT
Cultural/Economic Classifications RT or RT
Land Utilization Mapping RT or RT
Wetland/Vegetation Delineation RT or RT
Levee Profiling RTK
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Table 6-1 (Contd). Summary of Typical GPS Applications on USACE Civil and Military Construction Projects
USACE Project/Functional Absolute GPS Code Differential GPS Carrier DGPS
Application 10 to 30 m 0.5 to 3 m 1 to 10 cm
Navigation Projects
Primary Project Control Surveys Static PP
Dredge Control:
Horizontal position RT
Disposal area monitoring RT
Vertical reference RTK
Hydrographic Survey Control:
Project condition RT
Measurement & payment RT
Accurate tidal monitoring RTK
General Vessel Navigation RT
Shoreline Mapping RT or RTK
MHW line Delineation RTK
Hydraulic & Hydrology Studies
Horizontal reference RT or RT
Vertical reference RTK or Static PP
Geotechnical Investigations
Boring location (horizontal) RT or RT
Boring reference elevation RTK or Static PP
Structural Deformation Surveys
Network monitoring points Static PP
Periodic monitoring surveys Static PP
Continuous deformation monitoring RTK or PPK
Construction
Layout and alignment Static PP or RTK
Material placement (horizontal) RT or RTK
Placement & grading (vertical) RTK
Coastal Engineering
Primary Baseline Control Static PP or RTK
Dune/Beach Topo Sections RTK
Photogrammetric Mapping
Camera/LIDAR positioning (ABGPS) PPK
Ground control surveys Static PP
Emergency Operations
Personnel location RT
Facility location RT RT
Real Estate
Tract, Plat & Parcel Mapping RTK
Boundary Monuments Static PP or RTK
Condemnation Maps RTK
General Location Maps RT
HTRW Site Control & Mapping
Site Plan Control Static PP
Geotoxic Data Mapping/Modeling RT or RTK
RT: Real-time RTK: Real-time Kinematic PP: Post-processed PPK: Post-Processed Kinematic
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6-2. Project Control Densification
Establishing or densifying primary project control is one of the major uses of GPS technology. GPS is
often more cost-effective, faster, accurate, and reliable than conventional (terrestrial) survey methods.
The quality control statistics and large number of redundant measurements in GPS networks help to
ensure reliable results. Primary horizontal and vertical control monuments are usually set using static
GPS survey methods, although some post-processed kinematic methods may also be employed. These
primary monuments are typically connected to NGRS horizontal and vertical reference datums. From
these primary monuments, supplemental site plan mapping or vessel/aircraft positioning is performed
using RTK techniques. Field operations to perform a GPS static control survey are relatively efficient
and can generally be performed by one person per receiver. GPS is particularly effective for establishing
primary control networks as compared with conventional surveys because intervisibility is not required
between adjacent stations. Figure 6-1 below shows a portion of a GPS project planning network for static
GPS control surveys along the Mississippi River in Memphis District. Other examples of typical USACE
project control surveys are found in the appendices to this manual. These include setting control for a
navigation project, a flood control project, and a dam deformation monitoring reference network.
Figure 6-1. Control survey observing scheme on Mississippi River and control point baseline occupation at
Memphis District Ensley Boatyard (Memphis District and 3001, Inc.)
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6-3. Facility Site Plan Topographic Mapping and GIS Surveys
Real-time and post-processed techniques can be used to perform topographic mapping surveys and GIS
base mapping. Depending on the accuracy, either code or carrier phase techniques may be employed--see
Table 6-1. In general, most topographic mapping is performed using real-time kinematic methods using
carrier phase accuracy. Post-processed fast-static methods may be used to set temporary mapping control
or aerial mapping targets. Figure 6-2 below depicts equipment used on a typical fast-static survey at the
Corps' Huntsville, AL training center. Real-time topographic or GIS feature data is usually collected
from portable range pole or backpack antenna mounts, as shown in Figure 6-3. Data are logged on
standard data collectors similar to those used for terrestrial total stations. Data collector software is
designed to assign topographic and GIS mapping features and attributes, and to perform standard
construction stakeouts. Code differential techniques may be used for GIS mapping features requiring
only meter-level accuracy. If only approximate mapping accuracy in needed, hand-held GPS receivers
with absolute (10-30 m) positioning may be used.
Figure 6-2. Fast-Static control survey of topographic reference monument at Huntsville Bevill Center
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Figure 6-3. GPS real-time kinematic topographic surveys using backpack and range pole antenna mount
6-4. Shallow Wetland Mapping
Carrier and code differential GPS can be employed for surveys of shallow wetland areas. These GPS
techniques are significantly more effective and accurate than terrestrial methods in these inaccessible
areas. Real-time kinematic methods can provide decimeter-level (or better) elevation accuracies, which
are critical in flat, low-flow areas. GPS topographic shot points can be observed in clear areas to
minimize vegetation clearing in environmentally sensitive areas. These data points can then be input into
a terrain model of the area. GPS equipment can be mounted on airboats, swamp tractors, or other
platforms, as shown in Figure 6-4 below. Higher antenna pole mounts may be needed to reach over taller
grass.
Figure 6-4. GPS RTK surveys from airboat operating in shallow wetland areas
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6-5. Flood Control Projects--Levee Assessments
Post-processed or real-time kinematic methods may be used to rapidly measure levee profile elevations,
using platforms such as those shown in Figure 6-5. Similar RTK methods may be used to run levee
cross-sections at selected intervals along the levee baseline--eliminating the need to stakeout individual
hubs on the baseline. These "overbank" sections can also be extended into the water for hydrographic
depth measurement, with the RTK system providing the reference elevation.
Figure 6-5. New Orleans District levee profiling using real-time kinematic GPS methods
(New Orleans District and 3001, Inc.)
6-6. Navigation Project Survey Vessel and Dredge Control
Both code and carrier phase DGPS methods are used to control most in-house and contracted dredging
and surveying operations on Corps navigation projects. Code-phase differential GPS is typically used for
dynamic, meter-level accuracy positioning of survey boats and dredges. Centimeter-level accuracy
carrier phase differential GPS is used for real-time tidal or river stage modeling during hydrographic
surveys. The following figures (6-6 through 6-8) are representative of Corps platforms utilizing code and
carrier phase GPS navigation and positioning. For details on marine platform positioning, refer to
EM 1110-2-1003 (Hydrographic Surveying).
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Figure 6-6. Typical USCG Maritime DGPS controlled Corps hopper dredge at Southwest Pass, LA
(New Orleans District)
Figure 6-7. Typical Corps hydrographic survey vessel equipped with carrier phase DGPS and IMU for
measuring vessel position, roll, pitch, and heave parameters during real-time surveys (New York District)
DredgeWheeler
New Orleans District
New York District
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Figure 6-8. Use of carrier phase DGPS for real-time modeling offshore tides at
Kings Bay FBM Entrance Channel
(Jacksonville District and ERDC Topographic Engineering Center)
6-7. Hydraulic and Hydrology Studies
River hydraulic measurements and studies can be positioned using meter-level code phase techniques.
RTK methods can be used if accurate cross-sections are required. Overbank and flood plain topography
can be obtained from a variety of terrestrial and airborne survey methods--all controlled using DGPS. A
typical Corps survey boat designed to obtain river hydraulic and hydrologic data is shown in Figure 6-9
below. This vessel is capable of obtaining acoustic topographic elevation models of the riverbed, Doppler
current data, and sub-bottom material classification. These datasets are georeferenced using either real-
time code or kinematic GPS observations aboard the boat.
Figure 6-9. St. Louis District hydraulics and hydrology survey boat
SB Florida, Jacksonville District
Reference Ellipsoid
Ellipsoid Height (measured with GPS)
MLLW chart datum
Ellipsoid - Chart Datum
Separation (determined
with tidal study)
Height of tide above
chart datum
Height of GPS
antenna
above water (fixed)
SV Boyer - St Louis District
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6-8. Structural Deformation Surveys
GPS survey techniques can be used to monitor the motion of points on a structure relative to stable
reference monuments. This can be done with an array of antennae positioned at selected points on the
structure and on the reference monuments. Baselines are formulated between the occupied points to
monitor differential movement. Given the typically short baselines (< 500 m), the relative precision of
the measurements is on the order of 2 to 5 mm. Measurements can be made on a continuous basis. A
GPS structural deformation system can operate unattended and is relatively easily installed and
maintained. Alternatively, periodic monitoring observations are taken using RTK or post-processed
kinematic techniques, as illustrated in Figure 6-10. Prior to performing structural monitoring surveys, the
stable reference network must be accurately positioned. Long-term static GPS observations are typically
used to perform this task. Detailed procedures on these surveys are covered in EM 1110-2-1009
(Structural Deformation Surveying).
Figure 6-10. Real-time kinematic structural deformation surveys of locks and dams--St. Lucie Lock
(Jacksonville District and Arc Surveying & Mapping, Inc.)
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6-9. Construction Stakeout and Grading
Survey-grade GPS receivers are now designed to perform all traditional construction stakeouts--e.g., lots,
roads, curves, grades, etc. Typical Corps applications include staking out baselines for beach
renourishment projects, levee baselines, boring rig placement, and facility or utility construction
alignment. An example stakeout survey for a beach renourishment construction baseline is found in an
appendix to this manual. GPS can also be used to control and monitor earth-moving operations, such as
grading levees or beach construction--Figure 6-11. For further information on typical construction
stakeout and laser alignment techniques with GPS, see Trimble Survey Controller Reference Manual/Field
Guide (Trimble 2001a).
Figure 6-11. Construction grading and core drill location GPS applications
6-10. Coastal Engineering Surveys
Differential GPS positioning and elevation measurement techniques have almost replaced conventional
survey methods in performing beach surveys and studies. Depth measurement sensors (physical or
acoustical) are typically positioned with RTK methods. DGPS is used to control the "sounding rod"
attached to the "CRAB," "LARC," and sled platforms shown in Figure 6-12. Vessels and other platforms
usually merge RTK observations with inertial measurement units in order to reduce out surf heave. Land
sections of beach profile surveys are usually controlled using RTK topographic methods, as shown in
Figure 6-12 where beach profiles are merged with offshore hydrographic profiles. See also
EM 1110-2-1003 (Hydrographic Surveying) for more details on coastal engineering surveys.
GPS Surveys to Monitor
Sand Placement on Beach
GPS control of
offshore drill rig
GPS control of
pile driving placement
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Figure 6-12. Differential GPS controlled beach survey platforms--for coastal engineering surveys
(ERDC/Coastal & Hydraulics Lab, Jacksonville District, Arc Surveying & Mapping, Inc.)
6-11. Photogrammetric Mapping Control
The use of an airborne GPS (ABGPS) receiver, combined with specialized inertial navigation, LIDAR,
and photogrammetric data processing procedures, can significantly reduce the amount of ground control
for typical photogrammetric projects. In effect, each camera image or LIDAR scan is accurately
positioned and oriented relative to a base reference station on the ground, as shown in Figure 6-13. In the
past, the position and orientation of the camera was back-computed from ground control imagery.
Traditionally, these mapping projects required a significant amount of manpower and monetary resources
for the establishment of the ground control points. Therefore, the use of ABGPS technology significantly
lessens the production costs associated with wide-area mapping projects. Tests have shown that ground
control coordinates can be developed from an airborne platform using adapted GPS kinematic techniques
to centimeter-level precision in all three axes if system related errors are minimized and care is taken in
conducting the ABGPS and photogrammetric portions of the procedures. ABGPS has been used
extensively in St. Louis and Jacksonville Districts for photo and LIDAR mapping projects. ABGPS is
also used to control the Mobile District's airborne LIDAR hydrographic survey system--Figure 6-14.
Detailed coverage of ABGPS is given in EM 1110-1-1000 (Photogrammetric Mapping).
CRAB and sled-ERDC Coastal Lab(Duck, NC)
LARC used for towing sled
RTK Beach Profile Surveys--Jacksonville District
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6-12
Figure 6-13. Airborne GPS control for photogrammetric mapping projects
Figure 6-14. USACE GPS-controlled SHOALS hydrographic surveying system (Mobile District)
SHOALS
Airborne LIDAR Hydrographic
Surveys Joint Corps - NOAA -
John E. Chance & Assoc
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Chapter 7
GPS Receiver and Equipment Selection
7-1. General
Selection of the right GPS receiver for a particular project is critical to its success. Receiver selection
must be based on a sound analysis of the following criteria: applications for which the receiver is to be
used (e.g., static or dynamic, code or carrier), accuracy requirements, power consumption requirements,
operational environment, signal processing requirements, and cost. GPS receivers range from high-end,
high-cost, high-accuracy "geodetic quality" to low-end, low-cost, low-accuracy "resource grade" or
"recreational" models. Moderate cost, meter-level accuracy "mapping grade" receivers are also available.
Dozens of vendors produce GPS receivers and there are hundreds of models and options available. This
chapter presents only a brief overview on GPS survey equipment and selection criteria. References to
specific brands, models, prices, and features in this chapter will be rapidly out of date. Current
comparative information on GPS receivers and options is readily available in various trade magazines,
such as GPS World, POB, and Professional Surveyor. Prior to initiating procurement, USACE
commands are also advised to consult ERDC/TEC or other commands for technical guidance on GPS
instrumentation options.
7-2. Types of GPS Receivers
There are two general types of GPS receivers: Code Phase and Carrier Phase. Geodetic quality receivers
process both code and carrier phases. Geodetic quality receivers (and auxiliary equipment) can cost
between $10,000 and $25,000. Resource grade (recreational navigation) receivers typically process only
the L1 C/A-code and perform absolute positioning. These receivers cost between $100 and $1,000.
Some moderate cost ($1,000 to $5,000) hand-held mapping grade receivers can process either differential
code or carrier observations. Within these types there are C/A and P-code receivers, one- or two-channel
sequential receivers, multi-channel receivers, codeless receivers, single- and dual-frequency receivers,
all-in-view receivers, continuous tracking, code-correlation, cross-correlation, squaring, and a variety of
other signal processing techniques. Reference NAVSTAR GPS User Equipment Introduction (DoD 1996)
or (Kaplan 1996) for further details on receiver signal processing methods.
a. Code Phase receivers. A code receiver is also called a "code correlating" receiver because it
requires access to the satellite navigation message of the P- or C/A-code signal to function. This type of
receiver relies on the satellite navigation message to provide an almanac for operation and signal
processing. Because it uses the satellite navigation message, this type of receiver can produce real-time
navigation data. Code receivers have "anywhere fix" capability and consequently, a quicker start-up time
at survey commencement. Once locked onto the GPS satellites, an anywhere-fix receiver has the unique
capability to begin calculations without being given an approximate location and time.
b. Carrier Phase receivers. A carrier phase receiver utilizes the actual GPS signal itself to
calculate a position. There are two general types of carrier phase receivers: (1) single frequency and
(2) dual frequency.
(1) Single-Frequency receivers. A single-frequency receiver tracks the L1 frequency signal. A
single-frequency receiver can be used effectively to develop relative positions that are accurate over
baselines of less than 20 km or where ionospheric effects can generally be ignored.
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(2) Dual-Frequency receivers. The dual-frequency receiver tracks both the L1 and L2 frequency
signal. A dual-frequency receiver will more effectively resolve baselines longer than 20 km where
ionospheric effects have a larger impact on calculations. Dual-frequency receivers eliminate almost all
ionospheric effects by combining L1 and L2 observations. All geodetic quality receivers are multi-
channel, in which a separate channel is tracking each satellite in view. Most manufacturers of dual-
frequency receivers utilize codeless techniques, which allow the use of the L2 during anti-spoofing.
Other signal processing techniques include squaring, code-aided squaring, cross-correlation, and
z-tracking. Receivers that utilize a squaring technique are only able to obtain 1/2 of the signal wavelength
on the L2 during anti-spoofing and have a high 30 dB loss. Receivers that use a cross-correlation
technique have a high 27 dB loss but are able to obtain the full wavelength on the L2 during A/S.
7-3. GPS Receiver Selection Considerations
There are numerous factors that need to be considered when purchasing a GPS receiver (or system) for
project control or mapping purposes. The following factors and features should be reviewed during the
selection process.
a. Project applications. Current USACE applications include land-based, water-based, and
airborne positioning, with a wide range of accuracy requirements. Land applications include real-time
topographic surveying, geodetic control, resource mapping, navigation, survey control, boundary
determination, deformation monitoring, and transportation. Most of these applications require carrier
phase, geodetic-quality receivers. Water or marine applications include navigation and positioning of
hydrographic surveys, dredges, and drill rigs--typically using meter-level differential code phase
positioning techniques. GIS development applications are commonly performed with low cost, resource-
grade, hand-held, GPS receivers--using either absolute positioning or code differential techniques.
Airborne applications include navigation and positioning of photogrammetric-based mapping and require
high-end geodetic GPS receivers along with inertial measurement units (IMU). Some receivers can be
used for all types of applications and accuracies--e.g., a GPS receiver may contain capabilities for
performing code, carrier, RTK, GLONASS, FAA WAAS, or USCG positioning. Generally, the more
applications a receiver must fulfill, the more it will cost. It is important for the receiver's potential project
applications be defined in order to select the proper receiver and the necessary options, and to avoid
purchase of a $50,000 GPS system when a $10,000 system would have sufficed.
b. Accuracy requirements. A firm definition of the point positioning accuracy requirements is
essential when deciding on the type of GPS receiver that will be required. Receiver cost typically
increases as accuracy is increased. For example, a "geodetic-quality" receiver is usually specified for
high-quality Corps project control work, particularly when precise vertical control is being established.
Accuracy requirements will further define procedural requirements (static or kinematic), signal reception
requirements (whether use of either C/A- or L1/L2 P-codes is appropriate), and the type of measurement
required (pseudorange or carrier phase measurements). If only meter-level GIS feature mapping is
involved, inexpensive, single-frequency GPS receivers are adequate, if combined with differential
corrections.
c. Power requirements. The receiver power requirements are an important factor in the
determination of receiver type. Receivers currently run on a variety of internal and external power
sources from 110 VAC to 9 to 36 VDC systems. Most systems operate on small rechargeable internal
batteries and draw some 1 to 5 watts. A high-end GPS receiver can operate only a few hours on its
internal batteries, whereas a low-end, resource grade receiver that draws less power may operate 1 to 2
days on a set of flashlight (AA) batteries. Use of external gel-cell batteries should be also considered as a
power source. If continuous structural monitoring or navigation is performed, then the receiver must have
an external power option.
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d. Operational environment. The operational environment of the survey is also an important
factor in the selection of antenna type, antenna and receiver mounting device, receiver dimension and
weight, and durability of design. For example, the harsher the environment (high temperature and
humidity variability, dirty or muddy work area, etc.), the sturdier the receiver and mount must be. Most
receivers are designed to operate over wide temperature ranges and in 100% humidity conditions. Many
Corps applications require receivers to be mounted in small workboats exposed to harsh sea conditions
and salt water spray. The operational environment will also affect the type of power source to be used.
e. Baseline length. For static control surveys, the typical baseline lengths encountered will
determine the type of receiver that is required. Single-frequency receivers are usually adequate for
baseline lengths of less than 20 km. Beyond 20 km lengths, dual-frequency receivers are recommended.
Real-time kinematic operations require geodetic quality, dual-frequency receivers over all baseline
lengths. Precision vertical work may also require dual-frequency receivers.
f. Data logging. Most geodetic quality receivers log data to an external logging device--e.g., a
Survey Controller or directly to a laptop computer. Some geodetic quality receivers can also log data
internally for later downloading through a communications port. Resource grade hand-held type receivers
can collect, process, and display data internally. The amount of storage required is a function of the
typical project, data logging rate--1-sec, 5-sec, etc. Most high-end units use memory cards for additional
storage requirements. Quality receivers will have 2 to 4 RS-232 ports, with high data transfer rates
(e.g., 9,600 to 115,200 baud).
g. Operator display. Most modern receivers and data controllers contain simple icon-based
displays for selecting GPS survey modes and data logging options. Costs and options will vary with the
size of a LCD display on the receiver or controller. Quality receivers provide audible and visual warnings
when data quality is poor.
h. Satellites and channels tracked. Most quality receivers are designed to track 12 or more
channels in parallel mode. Many receivers can track 12 or more satellites--some can track "all-in-view."
i. Time to start and reacquire satellites. GPS receivers vary in the time required to cold start
(1 to 3 minutes) and warm start (< 1 minute). OTF initialization (and reinitialization) time is also varied.
These criteria may be significant for some Corps topographic RTK surveying applications where loss of
lock is common due to structures or canopy cover.
j. Size and weight. Size and weight are important if receivers are used for RTK topographic
surveys or mapping type work. Most geodetic quality and hand-held receivers weigh from 1 to 5 pounds.
RTK remote systems approach 10 pounds when all auxiliary equipment is included.
k. FAA WAAS, USCG, and commercial provider DGPS capability. Receivers with varied code
DGPS capabilities are needed in some remote or mountainous areas--especially when one of the DGPS
provider signals is poor or unreceivable. Some receivers are designed to acquire commercial, FAA
WAAS, and USCG DGPS pseudorange corrections.
l. GLONASS capability. The ability to acquire and process Russian GLONASS satellites (and
other future GNSS systems) would be advantageous in mountainous or urban areas where NAVSTAR
GPS satellites are partially blocked. The acquisition of additional satellites also provides higher
geometric accuracy.
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m. Antenna type. A wide variety of antennas are available from GPS receiver manufacturers. In
addition, optional antenna types can be ordered with the same receiver. Some antennas are built into the
receiver and others are external. Multipath minimization will require more expensive antennas for static
control survey applications. These include antennas configured with ground planes and choke rings. For
high accuracy work, antenna reference points should be modeled, as illustrated in Figure 7-1.
Figure 7-1. Typical antenna reference and offset diagram
n. Processing requirements. Operational procedures required before, during, and after an
observation session are manufacturer dependent and should be thoughtfully considered (and tested) before
purchase of a receiver. Often, a receiver may be easy to operate in the field, requiring very little user
interface, but a tremendous amount of time and effort may be required after the survey to download the
data from the receiver and process it (i.e. post-processing software may be complicated, crude, or
underdeveloped). Also, whether a post-processed or real-time solution is desired represents a variable
that is critical in determining the type of receiver to use.
o. Cost. Cost is a major factor in determining the type of receiver the user can purchase.
Receiver hardware and software costs are a function of development costs, competition among
manufacturers, and product demand. Historically, costs for the acquisition of GPS equipment have
steadily fallen to the current range of prices seen today. Cost estimates must include full GPS systems
along with auxiliary equipment, software, training, etc. A sample schedule for many of these cost items is
shown at the end of this chapter.
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p. Data exchange formats. In order to transfer data, a common exchange format is required.
GPS vendors usually have their own proprietary data formats. However, most GPS receiver data can be
put into a common text format, such as the Receiver Independent Exchange (RINEX) format, which is
used for post-processed data. RINEX is more fully described in a later section. Real-time data exchange,
such as that used on RTK surveys, is typically handled using the RTCM SC-104 format standard.
Vendors often allow for optional outputs, such as ASCII, DXF, ArcInfo, DGN, NMEA 0183, etc.
7-4. Military Grade GPS Receivers
Military Grade GPS receiver systems provide high accuracy positioning for real-time and post-processed
military survey applications. These applications include precise positioning and orientation of artillery,
ground-based surveys, and surface navigation. Military receivers use the Precise Positioning Service
(PPS) providing advanced P(Y) Code positioning technologies accurate to approximately 4 16 meters
(SEP). Using the secure (Y-code) differential GPS (SDGPS) can increase the accuracies to the sub-meter
level. PPS receivers require a crypto key to decode the encrypted P-Code and typically have to be re-
keyed each year.
a. PLGR. The Precise Lightweight GPS Receiver (PLGR), manufactured by Rockwell Collins,
is a hand-held receiver designed to operate as a stand-alone unit, providing position, navigation
information, velocity and time. Figure 7-2 depicts the PLGR+96 on the left and PLGR II on the right.

Figure 7-2. PLGR+96 (left) and PLGR II (right)
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b. MSGR. Trimble Navigation offers the 4000 Military Survey GPS Receiver (MSGR) that is a
dual-frequency geodetic-quality PPS receiver, providing all the capabilities of high-quality C/A-Code
receivers, including the ability to perform RTK and differential (DGPS) surveys.
Figure 7-3. Trimble Navigation 4000 MSGR
7-5. GPS Receiver Manufacturers
Up-to-date listings of manufacturers are contained in various surveying trade publications and are listed
on the ERDC/TEC web site. Contact should be made directly with representatives of each vendor to
obtain current specifications, price, availability, material, or other related data on their products. Prior to
purchase, it is recommended that receivers be tested to ensure they meet performance requirements and
will efficiently transfer positional and feature data to post-processing devices and/or CADD/GIS
platforms. Most GPS equipment required for USACE applications is listed on the GSA Supply Schedule
and can be obtained directly off that schedule without competition--see FAR 8.4, Section 8.404.
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7-6. Other Auxiliary Equipment
A significant amount of auxiliary equipment may need to be acquired when making a GPS receiver
selection. Some of this equipment is discussed below.
Figure 7-4. Miscellaneous auxiliary equipment needed for a GPS survey
a. Data link equipment for real-time positioning. The type of data link needed for real-time
positioning (i.e. code or carrier RTK) should be capable of transmitting digital data. The specific type of
data link will depend on the user's work area and environment. Most manufacturers of GPS equipment
can supply or suggest a data link that can be used for real-time positioning. Depending on the type and
wattage of the data link, a frequency authorization may be needed in order to transmit digital data over
radio frequencies (RF). Frequency authorization requires coordination with the frequency coordinator in
the District and HQUSACE, and is a difficult and involved process. Some radio and GPS manufacturers
produce low-wattage spread spectrum transmitters that do not require frequency authorization. These
low-wattage broadcasts are normally only useful for topographic RTK surveys not exceeding 1 km from
the reference station. The data link may be built into the receiver or in an external unit. Some Corps
districts have obtained approval to broadcast RTK correctors on approved frequencies in the VHF range--
162-174 MHz. Local VHF broadcasts have been used to transmit RTK corrections out to 10-15 miles
offshore--for controlling hydrographic surveys on dredging projects. Use of wireless technology (e.g.,
local and satellite cell phones) may prove to be more effective and efficient data links than VHF links,
especially if frequency authorizations cannot be obtained. Many commercial vendors are now using
wireless satellite links to transmit DGPS correctors to users.
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Figure 7-5. Common data links for code and RTK GPS receivers
b. USCG radiobeacon receivers. The USCG provides a real-time pseudorange corrections
broadcast over medium frequency (270-320 kHz marine band) from a radiobeacon transmitter tower.
These towers exist in most coastal areas, the Mississippi River Basin, and the Great Lakes regions. The
range from each tower is approximately 120 to 300 km. These corrections can be received by using a
radiobeacon receiver and antenna tuned to the nearest tower site. USCG beacon receivers are usually
contained in one unit that contains the antennas and GPS processing/display features--see Figure 7-5.
Similar configurations are made for wide area, commercial-provider, differential GPS services.
c. Computer equipment. Most manufacturers of GPS receivers include computer specifications
needed to run their downloading and post-processing software. Most high-end desktop and
notebook/laptop computers are capable of processing GPS data. Portable laptop computers are essential
for performing near real-time data post-processing--especially in remote locations. An internal CD-RW
drive is also recommended for archiving the large amounts of data that will be collected.
d. Antenna types. There are three basic types of GPS antennas. These are (1) ground plane
antennas, (2) no ground plane, and (3) choke ring antennas. Both the ground plane and the choke rings
are designed to reduce the effect of multipath on the antenna.
e. Associated survey equipment. There are several accessories needed to support the GPS
receiver and antenna. These include backpacks, tripods, tribrachs, and tribrach adapters, to name a few.
Calibrated fixed height (usually 2 meter) range poles can be used to eliminate the need to measure
antenna heights. Most of the other equipment needed is similar to what is used on a conventional survey.
7-7. Resource Grade GIS Mapping Receivers
Dozens of hand-held resource grade GPS receivers are produced that can display and log geospatial
positional data in real-time. USACE applications for these inexpensive receivers are varied. They will
GPS antenna
and separate
Differential
Corrections
antenna
Combined
GPS/USCG/
Satellite Diff
Corrections
antenna
Combined GPS/USCG
beacon antenna
Combined
GPS/Satellite
Diff Corrections
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provide sufficient accuracy for vessel, vehicle, and personal real-time navigation. They may also be used
for building GIS databases where 10-30 meter horizontal accuracy is adequate for a feature, e.g., land use,
point features, flood inundation limits, emergency operations, dredge disposal monitoring, etc. The
following descriptions for some representative receivers were obtained from a 2000 US Forest Service
report entitled Performance Testing of the Garmin eTrex, Garmin GPSIII Plus, Magellan GPS 2000XL,
and Magellan Blazer Recreation Type Global Positioning System Receivers, and from other similar USFS
test reports. In these reports, testing indicated that all the receivers were capable of meeting USGS
quadrangle map accuracy standards (14.8 meters at 95%) in open areas. The following list is not
representative of all the resource grade receivers on the market, nor does it include other models by the
same vendor--those listed are only representative of the receivers tested by the USFS. For updated
information on testing of resource grade receivers, consult the USFS GPS web site by linking through the
ERDC/TEC web site.
Garmin eTrex: This is a very small, lightweight, field-ruggedized with some armoring, and
waterproof unit that stores 500 waypoints. Battery life is about 22 hours for 2 AA batteries. This
receiver has PC communications with an optional data cable allowing uploading of waypoints.
Weight is 6 ounces. Display is 64 x 128 characters. The cost of this unit is approximately $120.
Garmin GPS III Plus : This is a small, lightweight, and waterproof unit that stores 500
waypoints. It has a 4-color grayscale background map display and can store up to 1.44 mg of
Garmin format map data. No other map formats are supported. These maps are on an optional
CD at 100,000 scale, the cost is an additional $120. A data upload cable is supplied for uploading
maps and waypoints. Display is 100 x 160 characters. Weight is 9 ounces. The cost of this unit
is approximately $380.
Magellan GPS 2000XL: This is a slightly larger unit which is waterproof, field ruggedized with
wraparound rubber armoring, and scratch-proof display. The GPS 2000 XL receiver stores 200
waypoints. This unit offers NMEA data output for PC communication. The battery life is about
24 hours for 4 AA batteries. Weight is 10 ounces. Cost is approximately $150.
Magellan Blazer 12: This is a small, lightweight, and waterproof unit that stores 100 waypoints.
Battery life on this receiver is about 20 hours for 2 AA batteries. No NMEA data output. The
Blazer 12 shares the same receiver and quadrifilar antenna with the other Magellan 300 series
receivers; however the user interface menus, number of waypoints, the availability of NMEA
ports, and many other features, vary. The accuracy of other 300 series receivers should be similar
to the Blazer. Weight is 6.8 ounces. The cost of the Blazer12 is approximately $110.
Trimble GeoExplorer: Trimble Navigation GeoExplorer 3c is a 12-channel Global Positioning
System (GPS) receiver. The manufacturer's list price for the GeoExplorer 3c (without map
background) is $3,780; the GSA price is $3,495. The manufacturer's list price for the
GeoExplorer 3 (with map background) is $4,495; the GSA price is $4,090. The external antenna
is an optional item for the GeoExplorer 3c. The manufacturer's list price for the antenna is an
additional $195 and the GSA price is currently $177.
Trimble Pathfinder Pro XR. The Trimble Navigation Pathfinder Pro XR is a 12-channel
Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver. The Pathfinder Pro XR version 3.24 has an integrated
GPS and DGPS radio beacon antenna. The TSC1 data collector can be used with the Asset
Surveyor version 4.3 Software. The manufacturer's list price is $10,995; the GSA price for the
Pathfinder Pro XR is $10,005.
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7-8. Common Data Exchange Formats
a. RINEX. The Receiver INdependent EXchange (RINEX) format is an ASCII type format that
allows a user to combine data from different manufacturer's GPS receivers. Most GPS receiver
manufactures supply programs to convert raw GPS data into a RINEX format. However, one must be
careful since there are different types of RINEX conversions. Currently, the NGS distributes software
that converts several receiver's raw GPS data to RINEX. NGS will distribute this software free of charge
to any government agency. Portions of typical RINEX data files are shown below. For each satellite
tracked, the code distance and L1/L2 phases and Doppler count values are listed.
SAMPLE RINEX DATA FILE (San Juan, PR Jacksonville District, Ashtech Z-12 Receiver)
2IU OBSERVATION DATA G (GPS) RINEX VERSION / TYPE
ASHTORIN 28 - JUN - 02 10:04 PGM / RUN BY / DATE
COMMENT
0003 MARKER NAME
MARKER NUMBER
OBSERVER / AGENCY
ASHTECH Z-XII P3 5J00 1C63 REC # / TYPE / VERS
ANT # / TYPE
2453884.6500 -5532961.0300 2004535.4500 APPROX POSITION XYZ
2.03800 0.0000 0.0000 ANTENNA: DELTA H/E/N
1 1 WAVELENGTH FACT L1/2
7 L1 L2 C1 P1 P2 D1 D2 # / TYPES OF OBSERV
15.0000 INTERVAL
LEAP SECONDS
2002 6 25 14 53 30.000000 GPS TIME OF FIRST OBS
2002 6 25 16 24 30.000000 GPS TIME OF LAST OBS
END OF HEADER
02 6 25 14 53 30.0000000 0 9G30G29G26G04G05G24G23G07G10 0.000824454
-53922.08817 -40565.76855 24455490.816 24455491.4555 24455501.0845 244.850 190.792
-661208.301 9 -483872.18747 22216675.275 22216675.4604 22216683.1604 3159.150 2461.675
-820204.442 9 -618074.31947 22985123.892 22985124.3594 22985133.6494 3935.982 3066.999
128043.142 9 93257.10846 23165282.101 23165282.0234 23165290.6074 -623.838 -486.108
153403.432 9 116423.82546 23937298.328 23937298.3884 23937308.7384 -768.304 -598.678
-166500.297 9 -125905.16547 22117555.722 22117555.8774 22117562.4454 793.354 618.198
-264887.037 9 -197951.30346 22994119.533 22994119.7104 22994129.0024 1453.557 1132.642
631877.719 9 456127.79446 23737042.567 23737042.5564 23737055.5554 -3149.638 -2454.263
60447.345 9 43299.05948 21136470.357 21136469.9054 21136476.3494 -330.782 -257.752
02 6 25 16 24 15.0000000 0 8G29G26G04G24G23G08G10G06 0.000647879
-9746894.726 9 -7563623.36248 20487724.730 20487724.5844 20487730.9614 53.897 41.998
-15098913.388 9 -11744332.87548 20267971.265 20267971.3024 20267977.8754 975.770 760.340
7481368.270 9 5823092.22845 24564595.467 24564595.5644 24564609.5154 -2091.033 -1629.376
-1518814.840 9 -1179665.38447 21860226.133 21860225.8804 21860234.9044 -476.719 -371.469
-2944679.055 9 -2286098.15047 22484172.149 22484171.6184 22484179.9644 -68.190 -53.135
-4418906.717 7 -3437358.05045 24462270.403 24462269.6634 24462286.6644 -294.665 -229.609
5736700.177 9 4466347.01547 22216631.531 22216630.7024 22216638.0044 -1310.212 -1020.944
-10589645.118 9 -8230960.83247 22710603.800 22710603.6414 22710611.8954 1959.993 1527.267
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SAMPLE RINEX DATA FILE (New Orleans District, Trimble 4000SSE receiver)
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b. Real-time data transmission formats. There are two common types of data formats used most
often during real-time surveying. They are (1) RTCM SC-104 and (2) NMEA.
(1) Transmission of data between GPS receivers. The Radio Technical Commission for Maritime
Services (RTCM) is the governing body for transmissions used for maritime services. The RTCM
Special Committee 104 (SC-104) has defined the format for transmission of GPS corrections. The
RTCM SC-104 standard was specifically developed to address meter-level positioning requirements. The
current transmission standard for meter-level DGPS is the RTCM SC-104. This standard enables
communications between equipment from various manufacturers. It should be noted that not all
manufacturers fully support the RTCM SC-104 format and careful consideration should be made to
choose one that does. RTCM SC-104 can also be used as the transfer format for centimeter-level DGPS,
and will support transmission of raw carrier phase data, raw pseudorange data, and corrections for both.
Some GPS receiver manufacturers also have their own proprietary transfer formats--e.g., Trimble's
Compact Measurement Record (CMR).
(2) Transmission of data between a GPS receiver and a device. The National Maritime
Electronics Association (NMEA) Standard for Interfacing Marine Electronic Devices covers the format
for GPS output records. The standard for corrected GPS output records at the remote receiver is found
under NMEA 0183, Version 2.xx. NMEA 0183 output records can be used as input to whatever system
the GPS remote receiver is interfaced. For example, GPS receivers with an NMEA 0183 output can be
used to provide the positional input for a hydrographic survey system or an Electronic Chart Display and
Information System (ECDIS). These are evolving standards and newer versions are being developed for
different data types. The NMEA 0183 Version 2.00 (1992) "GGA" standard for GPS "fix data" is
outlined below. This version has been subsequently updated--users need to ensure NEMA version
compatibility between devices. Other NEMA 0183 standards include: GST (Position error statistics),
GSV (Number of satellites in view, PRN, etc.), PTNL (Local coordinate position output), and ZDA (UTC
day-month-year).
GGA--Global Positioning System Fix Data (Time, Position, and Fix Related Data for a GPS Receiver)
[Version 2.00]
Differential reference station ID (0000-1023)
Age of differential GPS data
Units of geoidal separation
Geoidal separation
Units of antenna altitude (m)
Antenna altitude
Horizontal dilution of precision
$--GGA, hhmmss.ss, llll.ll, a, yyyyy.yy, a, x, xx, x.x, x.x, M, x.x, M, x.x, xxxx*<CR.<LF>
Number of satellites in use (00-12)
GPS quality indicator (0, 1, 2)
Longitude (E/W)
Latitude (N/S)
UTC of position
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7-9. GPS Training and Operation Manuals
Training should be included in the purchase of any GPS receiver system, especially if the equipment is
new to a District. In addition to receiver operation, training should include baseline reduction, and
network adjustment. The Corps PROSPECT program provides a one-week training course on code and
carrier GPS surveying. This course covers all chapters contained in this engineer manual. Major GPS
vendors offer training in all facets of GPS surveying unique to their equipment or software. In addition,
continued technical support should be included to cover all software and firmware upgrades.
7-10. Guide Specifications for Procuring Geodetic Quality GPS Receivers
The following guide specification is intended for procuring geodetic-quality GPS receivers and auxiliary
equipment. These specifications would have application where "commercial-off-the-shelf" receivers
available on GSA Schedules would not meet a particular application, and detailed specifications are
needed. These specifications are intended to include GPS receivers, supplemental GPS equipment
(antennas, tripods, power, etc.), baseline reduction software, adjustment software, real-time data links,
and personnel training. These specifications may be modified for meter-level code phase receivers if
required; however, code only receivers rarely require such detailed specifications. These guide
specifications were originally developed in the late 1980s. They were first published as a USACE Guide
Specification in 1991 and later incorporated into the 1996 edition of this manual. They have been
modified to reflect 2002 technology. Guidance comments are shown in blue text and outlined by
asterisks. Optional and/or selectable specifications are noted by asterisks and brackets.
********************************************************************************************
NOTE: The sample below represents a typical schedule for procurement of GPS instrumentation and related equipment.
This schedule must be tailored based on the specific technical requirements outlined in Section C of the contract.
********************************************************************************************
Supplies/Services and Prices
Item
No. Description Quantity U/M U/P Amt
0001 Geodetic quality GPS survey receiver system, *[___] EA ___ ___
related equipment, software, data link,
and other components, in accordance
with the technical specifications found
in Section C.
0002 * [GPS baseline reduction software] ___ ___ ___ ___
0003 * [Network adjustment software] ___ ___ ___ ___
0004 * [Data link for real-time applications] ___ ___ ___ ___
0005 * [GPS receiver system, data reduction, ___ ___ ___ ___
processing and adjustment software
training]
0006 * [ other items ]
********************************************************************************************
NOTE: Add other items to the schedule as necessary. These may include tripods, range poles, tribrachs, spare batteries,
data storage devices, laptop computers, communication/modem devices, software/hardware for navigation (e.g., survey
vessel positioning and guidance control). Hardware/software interface requirements to existing survey systems (e.g.,
hydrographic systems) may also be separately scheduled.
********************************************************************************************
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Section C
Description / Specifications
C.1. General DGPS Description.
The geodetic-quality differential Global Positioning System (DGPS) to be procured under this solicitation is intended
for use in *[static and/or kinematic] positioning applications using the GPS carrier phase as the principle observable.
The system will yield 3-dimensional vectors between a reference and "rover" station to an accuracy of *[10 mm + 2
ppm or better on baselines of 1 to 100 km when operating in a static mode] [and] *[3 cm or better on baselines up to
25 km when operating in a kinematic mode]. *[The system is intended to operate in real time with the incorporation of
a communications link, as specified further in Section C of this solicitation.] *[The system will have the capability to
resolve the initial integer cycle ambiguity in a robust manner, automatically, while the rover is constantly in motion,
known as on-the-fly (OTF), with no more than 60 sec of data, on baselines up to 25 km in length.] *[The OTF
ambiguity resolution software will operate in *[real time] *[and/or] *[post-processing applications].
C.2. Receiver Requirements.
Unless otherwise specified, the performance requirements given below shall be met by the GPS receivers in
conjunction with the antenna assembly and antenna cable.
C.2.1. GPS Signal Levels. GPS receivers delivered shall acquire and track GPS signals and otherwise perform as
specified herein.
C.2.2. Cryptographic Keys. *[Unless otherwise specified,] GPS receivers shall perform as specified herein without
requiring cryptographic keys, whether or not GPS selective availability (S/A) and/or anti-spoofing (A/S) are activated.
********************************************************************************************
NOTE: Two versions of C.2.3. are given. L1 only receivers are adequate for static geodetic survey operations. Robust
kinematic operations and OTF ambiguity resolution requires more capable hardware observing the full wavelength L1 and
full wavelength L2 carrier phase. Choose one of the two clauses.
********************************************************************************************
*[C.2.3. GPS Observables. The GPS receivers delivered shall provide, at a minimum, the following time-tagged
observables: full L1 C/A-code, L1 P-code, continuous full wavelength L1 carrier phase, L2 P-code, and continuous full
wavelength L2 carrier phase.]
*[C.2.3. GPS Observables. The GPS receivers delivered shall provide, at a minimum, the following time-tagged
observables: full L1 C/A-code and continuous full wavelength L1 carrier phase.]
(1) Measurement Time Tags. Signal measurements (observables) shall be time tagged with the time of
receipt of the signal referenced to the receiver clock. Time tags shall have a resolution of 1 microsec or
better. Time tags shall be within 1 microsec with respect to GPS time.
(2) Carrier Phase Accuracy. The receiver shall have L1 {the following is required for OTF operation}*[and L2
full wavelength] carrier-phase measurement accuracies of 0.75 cm (RMS) or better, exclusive of the receiver
clock offset.
********************************************************************************************
NOTE: The following C.2.3. (3) is for RTK/OTF operation only.
********************************************************************************************
*[(3) Code Accuracy. The receiver shall have an L1 C/A-code phase measurement accuracy of 30 cm
(RMS) or better, exclusive of receiver clock time and frequency offsets.]
C.2.4. Receiver Output. The GPS receiver shall be able to output the GPS observables as described in C.2.3. with a
latency of less than 1 sec *[and, simultaneously, a differential code position and the timing information stated in 2.6].
The GPS receiver shall be able to output the information from the full GPS navigation message. This shall include
ephemeris data, almanac data, ionospheric parameters, and coordinated universal time (UTC) parameters. The UTC
and ephemeris data shall be available by request or if a change has occurred in those parameters.
C.2.5. Receiver Data Rate. The GPS observable data described above shall be available at a minimum of a 1 Hz
rate.
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C.2.6. 1 Pulse Per Second (PPS) Output. GPS receivers delivered shall have a 1 PPS time strobe and its associated
time tag. The 1 PPS pulse and time tag shall be accessible through a port (or ports) on the GPS receiver so that
external system components can be time synchronized to UTC time.
C.2.7. Internal Receiver Testing. The receiver shall perform a self-test and checks to detect electronic malfunctions
and/or faulty data collection, including cycle slips. The receiver shall provide immediate *[audio]*[visual] notification
of failures. The receiver shall perform any needed calibrations automatically.
C.2.8. Reinitialization. The receiver shall be capable of reinitializing itself and resume normal operation after a power
interruption without operator assistance. The data collected by the GPS receiver shall not be lost due to power
interruption but stored in the receiver or other archiving media.
C.2.9. Multiple Satellite Tracking. The receiver must be capable of tracking and observing all signals previously
stated on a minimum of *[______] [all satellites in view] satellites simultaneously, each on an independent channel.
C.2.10. Operating Conditions. The GPS receivers delivered shall meet the following criteria:
(1) Successfully acquire and track unobstructed GPS satellites, visible 5 deg and higher above the horizon,
in all weather conditions.
(2) Operate at humidity ranges of 0 to 100 percent.
(3) Operate within the temperature range of -20 o C to +50 o C.
*[(4) Be waterproof and able to operate in an ocean environment aboard open survey launches.]
*[(5) Operate in heavy rain, 50.8 mm/day (2 in./day).]
*[(6) Operate in fog.]
*[(7) Operate in and resist corrosion in salty air conditions.]
C.2.11. Receiver Power Requirements. The GPS receivers delivered shall meet the following criteria:
(1) Be self-protecting from power surges, spikes, and reverse polarity.
(2) Allow the operator to switch power sources (AC, DC, or battery) while maintaining receiver operation and
without loss of stored data.
(3) Provide a *[visual] *[audible] warning for low power.
(4) Be capable of operating using *[a battery pack] *[and] *[or] *[AC power] *[and] *[or] *[12-VDC] *[24-VDC]
*[external DC power].
*[(5) The battery pack shall meet the following criteria:]
*[(a) Contain rechargeable battery/batteries that can operate the receiver for at least *[____] hr on a
single (re)charge.]
*[(b) Be *[either] *[internal] *[or] *[external] to the receiver.]
*[(c) Include all cables, hardware, etc. necessary to connect/install the battery pack. The batteries shall
be water and dust tight and be protected from damage and inadvertent shorting of the terminals.]
*[(6) For operation using *[AC] *[and] *[external DC] *[power.]
*[(a) When operating under *[AC] *[or] *[DC] power, the unit shall be capable of simultaneously charging
the battery pack. The battery pack shall power the receiver if the normal power supply is interrupted.]
*[(b) The AC power supply *[shall be internal] *[may be internal or external] to the receiver.]
*[(c) The power supply/battery charger shall provide all voltages necessary to operate the receiver and
(re)charge the battery pack.]
*[(d) The power supply/battery charger shall be designed to automatically protect the battery pack from
overcharging.]
*[(e) All cables and connectors needed to connect the power supply/battery charger to the power line
*[and receiver] shall be included.]
*[(f) The AC power supply/battery charger shall operate from *[115-V] *[and 230-V] AC ( 10 percent)
*[50/] 60 Hz, single phase power.]
*[(g) The unit shall operate from external *[12-VDC] *[24-VDC] *[9 to 32-VDC] power.]
********************************************************************************************
NOTE: Not all manufacturers provide a battery that is internal to the receiver. Moving the battery pack external to the
receiver does not affect the functioning; it is a matter of design. For example, doing this could substantially decrease the
size of the unit. Different manufacturers have different setups for the batteries. The District is encouraged to know what
will work best for them based upon District requirements and determine the necessary battery life. Note also if redundant
battery packs should be procured.
********************************************************************************************
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C.2.12. Manuals. At least *[one set] [two sets] of complete operation and maintenance manuals shall be included
with each receiver and shall cover all auxiliary components furnished with each receiver. *[Updates shall be
furnished as they become available.]
*[C.2.13. Field Planning. The receiver shall have internal software that, as a minimum, is capable of computing the
availability and positions of satellites for any given time and the current position of the GPS receiver *[and terrestrial
position] using data gathered by the GPS receiver.]
*[C.2.14. Dimensions. The dimensions of the receiver shall not exceed *[___] length by *[___] width by *[___] height,
all such that one person can easily transport the unit.]
*[C.2.15. Weight. The receiver shall be transportable by one person. [One complete field station consisting
of receiver, battery pack, antenna, and antenna cable shall not exceed * [___] kg * ( __) lbs.]
*[C.2.16. Data Collector. The *[receiver] [external survey data collector] shall be capable of recording and controlling
data on an *[internal]*[external] storage device. This device shall be capable of storing a minimum of *[___]
megabytes (mb) of data.]
*[C.2.17. Additional Options for Meter-level DGPS Operations.]
********************************************************************************************
NOTE: The following section is optional. It is possible for "geodetic type" GPS receivers as described previously to
perform differential code (meter-level) positioning using standard broadcast messages from systems such as the US
Coast Guard radio beacon network, FAA WAAS networks, or commercial provider networks. If this type of positioning is
required, then the following options should be included in the solicitation.
********************************************************************************************
*[(1) Format. The reference station receiver shall output DGPS pseudorange correction data in the RTCM
SC-104 format, Version x.x and US Coast Guard Broadcast Standard] *[FAA WAAS] [commercial provider
network].
*[(2) Format. The remote station receiver shall accept and apply correction data in RTCM SC-104
format, version 2.1.]
*[(3) Accuracy. Real time positioning accuracy relative to the reference station shall be *[2] [__] m 95%
within a range of at least 100 miles from the reference station.]
*[(4) Waypoints. The receivers shall have the ability to accept up to *[___] waypoints that can be selected
by the helmsman.]
*[(5) Position Rate. The receiver shall be capable of providing output position fixes at rates within the range
of [__] Hz to [__] Hz.]
*[(6) Velocity. The receiver shall be capable of determining *[velocity and] position while moving at speeds
of up to [5.14] * [___] meters per sec (*[10] *[___] knots).]
*[C.2.18. Additional Options for Geodetic Grade Static Survey Operations.]
*[(1) Accuracy Specification. The GPS reference receiver shall be capable, when used in conjunction with a
remote GPS receiver, of 10 mm + 2 ppm accuracy or better on baselines of 1 to 100 km in length when used
in the static differential mode. The receivers shall have an accuracy of 5 mm or better on baselines less
than 1 km.]
C.2.19. GPS Antenna Assembly.
(1) Antenna Mount. The GPS antenna shall be capable of being mounted on a standard surveyors tripod
*[and or range pole] with a 5/8-in. by 11-in. threaded stud *[or to a standard wild type tribrach].
(2) Antenna Phase Center. The center instability of the 3-dimensional phase center of the GPS antenna
shall be no greater than 3 mm.
(3) Receiver/Antenna Separation. The system shall allow the antenna to be located at least *[30] *[___] m
from the receiver so that it can be operated remotely from the receiver with no system degradation.
(4) Antenna Cables. *[One] *[___] antenna cable(s) shall be furnished with each receiver. *[[One] *[each] of
these cables should be at least *[__] m,] * [and the other cable should be at least *[__] m.] All appropriate
connectors should already be attached to the cable ends. *[These cables shall be capable of being
cascaded for a total length of *[___] m of cable for setup flexibility.]
(5) GPS Survey Antenna. Survey antennas shall receive GPS signals at the L1 *[and L2] frequency
*[frequencies] and provide these signals to the GPS receiver. The antenna shall have an omnidirectional
horizontal pattern and shall incorporate *[choke ring] features that minimize multipath error.
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*[(6) Antenna Assembly. The antenna assembly shall include the following items:
*[(a) A method to minimize ice and snow buildup.]
*[(b) A method to reduce bird nesting capability.]
*[(c) The ability to withstand strong winds up to * [___] meters per sec (*[___] knots).]
*[(d) A method to orient (to north) after mounting.]
*[(e) A mechanical mark for height measurement with known offset from phase center.]
*[(f) Operation within the temperature range of -40 o C to +65 o C.]
*[(g) Dimensions. The dimensions of the antenna shall not exceed *[45 cm] in length by *[45 cm] in
width by *[15 cm] in height, all so that one person can easily transport the unit.]
*[(h) A method to reduce the effects of multipath.]
*[(i) A method to amplify the signal for cable lengths in excess of 15 m.]
*[(7) Each antenna shall be 100 percent sealed/watertight. *[One] *[___] GPS antenna shall be provided with
each GPS receiver unit.]
*[(8) Antenna Pole. An antenna pole shall be provided for use during survey operations. It shall be *[a fixed
height pole of 2 m] *[extendible from a length of 1 m (+/- 0.2 m) to 2 m (with a variance of 0.5 m)] and shall
allow rapid attachment and detachment of the GPS survey antenna. The pole shall include a built-in leveling
device and legs that are *[collapsible and attached] *[detachable].]
*[(9) Tribrach. A standard tribrach (with adapters) shall be provided with each antenna. The tribrach shall
allow the antenna to be mounted atop the tripod. The tribrach shall be able to be mounted on top of a
standard surveyors tripod with a 5/8-in. threaded stud and shall include adapters to allow mounting of
standard target sets.]
*[(10) Vehicular Antenna Mount. A survey antenna mount shall be provided that can easily be attached or
detached from the vehicle. This mount shall be designed so that it remains firmly in place at speeds of up to
88.5 km/h (55 mph) on a level roadway. The mount shall be designed so that its use does not require
vehicle modification.]
C.2.20. Input and Output (I/O) Ports.
(1) Standards. All I/O ports will be compatible with the RS-232 standard.
(2) I/O Ports. *[I/O ports shall be compatible with any processor, data terminal, or storage devices used in
the positioning system.] *[The vendor shall provide complete documentation of the I/O ports including
connector, signal descriptors, connector pin outs, communications protocols, command and message
descriptions, need to set up the receiver and extract and decode the observed data.]
********************************************************************************************
NOTE: The following options [C.2.20(3) and C.2.20(4)] are not required for the OTF system operation. They would be used
for differential code position interface to marine systems such as electronic charts or hydrographic survey systems.
********************************************************************************************
*[(3) Real time positional data out of the remote receiver will adhere to the NMEA 0183 data sentences
format and will be output over an RS-232 compatible port.]
*[(4) The receiver shall have the capability to output the data, position fixes, and calibration data through
a RS-232 compatible serial port.]
[C.3. Not Used]
C.4. GPS Baseline Processing and Reduction Software.
C.4.1. General. The GPS baseline processing software must be fully compatible with the receivers listed in
Paragraph C.2.
********************************************************************************************
NOTE: If the computer processing system is NOT included as part of this solicitation, then the type of processor must be
given to verify software compatibility.
********************************************************************************************
C.4.2. Data Computations. The baseline reduction software shall compute, at a minimum, *[the carrier-phase integer
cycle ambiguity using static and kinematic techniques, including those commonly known as "known baseline," "rapid
static," "antenna swap," "stop-and-go," and "OTF"] *[and subsequently] the 3-dimensional differential baseline
components between observation stations, within the accuracy specifications given in Paragraph C.1.
C.4.3. Ephemerides. The baseline computations must include options for using both the broadcast and precise
ephemerides.
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C.4.4. Output Data. The results of the baseline processing shall be in any user-selected form, such as *[geocentric
coordinates,] *[state plane coordinates based on the North American Datum of ____,] *[state plane coordinates based
on the North American Datum of 1983,] *[and] *[or] *[Universal Transverse Mercator projection coordinates].
C.4.5. Batch Processing. The software shall have the capability to post-mission process data sets unattended in a
batch mode.
C.4.6. Multiple Copies. The Government shall be allowed to operate the software simultaneously on *[_____]
computer platforms.
C.4.7. Absolute Point Positioning. The software shall be capable of processing pseudorange data to obtain single
point positions of a single receiver.
*[C.4.8. Real-Time Capability. The software shall be capable of resolving carrier cycle integer ambiguities in real
time when the observing stations are connected via a communications link *[as specified elsewhere in this
solicitation] using the computational procedure given in Paragraph C.4.2., and subsequently compute 3-dimensional
differential baseline components.]
*[C.4.9. Real-Time Output. The results of the real-time baseline processing shall be in any user-selected form, such
as geocentric coordinates, state plane coordinates based on the North American Datum of 19XX, or Universal
Transverse Mercator projection coordinates. The results will be time tagged with an accuracy of 50 msec, at the time
of signal reception at the antenna. The results will be written to a memory device *[both]*[internal and] external to the
device performing the computations and shall be sent to an external computer system, at the selection of the user.]
C.4.10. Updates. All baseline processing software updates shall be provided for a period of *[4] years from the date
of delivery.
C.5. Network Adjustment Software.
C.5.1. The network adjustment software shall allow for the direct input of data from the post-mission processing
software specified in Paragraph C.4. The adjustment software shall include routines to easily edit, correct,
manipulate, and output results. The software shall have the capability of simultaneously adjusting a minimum of
*[1,000] [____] observations.
C.5.2. The network adjustment software shall be based on the theory of least-squares. It shall be capable of
performing both minimally and fully constrained adjustments. Output statistics shall include relative line (distance)
accuracies between all points in the network and point confidence limits for each point in the network. Normalized
residuals shall be displayed for all input vectors.
C.5.3. The network adjustment software shall transform geocentric coordinates and geographic coordinates to any
user defined projection, such as the North American Datum of 1983 and 1927 state plane coordinate system.
C.5.4. Multiple Copies. The Government shall be allowed to operate the software simultaneously on *[_____]
systems.
C.5.5. Updates. All baseline processing software updates shall be provided for a period of *[4] years from the date of
delivery.
C.5.6. Geoid Modeling. The software shall include the *[Geoid xx] [most recent geoid] model available to the public
from the National Geodetic Survey.
*[C.5.7. The network adjustment software shall accept and incorporate data from conventional survey methods such
as angles, distance, and elevation differences.]
C.6. Data Link for Real-Time Applications.
C.6.1. The data link shall be completely functionally integrated with the receivers and processors procured under this
solicitation. This includes the incorporation of modems for the complete interface of radio to processor/receiver.
C.6.2. The data link shall provide data from the reference station to the "roving" station to allow the system to
compute positions of the roving station using a kinematic processing technique, as specified in Paragraph C.1. of this
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solicitation, at a rate of at least one position per second, with no more than one (1) percent loss of position data. The
data link equipment shall be identical at both stations to allow transmission from the "roving" station to the reference
station. The kinematic processing technique shall not be a function of the data link used. The data link shall transmit
all receiver raw observables, as specified in Paragraph C.2. of this solicitation, to the other receiver used in the
differential GPS system.
C.6.3. *[ The data link system shall operate at the *[frequency of _____]*[frequencies of ___ ___ ___]]. *[The data
link shall operate at a frequency that does not require license for use.] *[The data link shall utilize a commercially
available carrier phase broadcast that follows the criteria found elsewhere in Section C of this specification. The
proposal will include a fee schedule for prescription and monthly service.]
********************************************************************************************
NOTE: The frequency used for a VHF broadcast must be coordinated with the FOA frequency manager. Modulation rates
and/or channel bandwidth requirements also may have to be specified. The unlicensed frequency will also be low power,
hence, very short range. Optional cellular phone or geostationary satellite data links may also be specified.
********************************************************************************************
*[C.6.4. The data link shall have an omnidirectional broadcast range of *[8]*[16]*[24]*[32]*[40] km
(*[5]*[10]*[15]*[20]*[25] miles) and maintain the positioning capability stated in Paragraph C.6.2.]
*[C.6.5. A mounting kit shall be included to mount the data link antenna to a mast or range pole.]
*[C.6.6. The data link antenna shall be *[suitable for installation on small hydrographic survey launches (less than 7
m)] *[and]*[have an antenna cable of at least *[____] m]].
*[C.6.7. Power Supply. The data link (including modem) shall operate on the same power source as the GPS
receiver.]
C.7. Training.
C.7.1. Upon delivery, the vendor shall provide training of at least *[4] days at *[location] *[to *[4] persons] on the
operation of all software and hardware delivered as part of this contract.
*[C.7.2. At a future date, determined by the contracting officer based on coordination with the vendor, and not
exceeding 6 months after delivery, the vendor will give an additional *[2] days training at *[location].]
C.8. Miscellaneous Requirements.
C.8.1. All power cables, computer cables, and any other item not mentioned in these specifications needed to make
this equipment fully operable shall be furnished as part of this contract.
*[C.8.2. Ruggedized shipping containers shall be furnished for all hardware delivered under this solicitation.]
*[C.8.3. Survey Planning. Survey planning software shall be provided that, as a minimum, includes the following
items: tabular and graphic satellite rise/set times, elevations, and azimuths for user-specified geographic locations
and times; sky plots of SV positions with provisions for plotting satellite obstructions on the screen; listing of GDOP,
PDOP, HDOP, and VDOP; and the selection of specific SV constellations to support in-depth kinematic survey
planning.
*[C.8.4. All *[hardware]*[and]*[software] updates will be provided to the Government for a period of * [___] years from
the date of delivery, free of charge or delivery cost.]
*[C.8.5. The vendor shall provide repair and maintenance of all hardware delivered under this solicitation for a period
of *[___ (--)] years, free of charge.]
********************************************************************************************
NOTE: At this point, other unique items may be added to the requirements if called for and/or requiring specification in
Section B. Any specific vessel installation requirements for receivers, data links or antenna should be added. As-built
vessel drawings or installation sketches should be attached to the contract. If DGPS is to be integrated with an existing
navigation and/or survey system, manuals, drawings, etc. associated with that system should be referenced and attached
at the appropriate contract section. Both hardware and software connections and modifications to the existing system
must be detailed if such effort is to be an item of work under this contract.
********************************************************************************************
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Section D
Packaging and Marking
D.1. Preparation for Delivery. The system shall be packaged for shipment in accordance with the suppliers standard
commercial practice.
D.2. Packaging and Marking. Packaging shall be accomplished so that the materials will be protected from handling
damage. Each package shall contain a properly numbered, dated, and signed transmittal letter or shipping form, in
duplicate, listing the materials being transmitted. Shipping labels shall be marked as follows:
US Army Engineer District, _________________
ATTN: {include office symbol and name}
Contract No. _______________________________
[Street/PO Box] {complete local mailing address}
Section E
Inspection and Acceptance
*E.1. Acceptance Test. All equipment and related components obtained under these specifications shall be fully
certified prior to contract award as meeting the performance and accuracy in Section C. *[Any test previously
performed for the Federal Geodetic Control Subcommittee (FGCS) will be acceptable for such certification by the
vendor; otherwise the vendor shall be required to demonstrate, at the vendors expense, the acceptability of the
system in the manner prescribed in Paragraph E.2. If the FGCS test is to be used in lieu of a demonstration
acceptance test, all results from the FGCS test shall be supplied to the contracting officer for evaluation by technical
personnel.]
*E.2. Final Acceptance Test. At the option of the Government, a final acceptance test will be performed to
demonstrate total system conformance with the technical specifications and requirements in Section C.
E.2.1. The acceptance test will be conducted with the system operating in the modes stated in Paragraph
C.1. of this solicitation.
E.2.2. The DGPS positional accuracy will be tested against the accuracy and ranges specified in Paragraph
C.1. of this solicitation. The resultant DGPS accuracy will be evaluated with the 95% error statistic.
Inaccuracies in the comparative testing network / system will be properly allowed for in assessing the test
results.
E.2.3. Final acceptance testing will be performed at *[the point of delivery indicated in Section D]
*[_______________], and will be performed within *[____] days after delivery. The supplier will be notified
of the results within *[____] days after delivery. If the equipment fails to meet the acceptance test(s), the
supplier will be given *[____] days after notification thereof to make any modification(s) necessary to enable
retesting. The supplier will be notified of the place, date, and time of testing and, at his option, may send a
representative to attend such tests.
E.2.4. If after a second test, the system fails to perform in accordance with the technical specifications, the
Government will *[_____________].
E.3. Warranty Provisions. For *[1] year after delivery by the vendor, all equipment failures, other than those due to
abuse, shall be corrected free of charge. Equipment shall be repaired within 5 working days of receipt at the repair
facility, or loaner equipment will be provided at no expense to the Government until repairs are completed and the
equipment has been returned to the district. The cost of shipping equipment to the vendor for repair shall be paid by
the Government while the vendor will pay for returning the equipment to the District.
Section F
Deliveries or Performance
F.1. Delivery and final acceptance of all equipment shall be made within *[___] days after contract award. Delivery
shall be made at the USACE facilities at the address identified in Paragraph D.2. of this solicitation. Final acceptance
will depend upon all equipment meeting all requirements specified in this contract.
F.2. The contractor shall deliver all material and articles for shipment in a manner that will ensure arrival at the
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specified delivery point in satisfactory condition and that will be acceptable to carriers at the lowest rates. The
contractor shall be responsible for any and all damage until the equipment is delivered to the Government.
********************************************************************************************
NOTE: The following is a list of hardware and software items/options that should be provided by bidders to determine their
capability of providing an adequate DGPS-based positioning system. These items should be tailored to specific system
requirements as developed in Section C of this solicitation, and would be used only when technical proposals are being
evaluated.
********************************************************************************************
GPS Receivers.
Signal levels .
Operation without cryptographic keys.
Observables.
Measurement time tags.
Carrier phase signals and accuracy.
Code phase signals and accuracy.
Receiver output.
Receiver data rate.
PPS output.
Internal receiver testing.
Reinitialization.
Multiple satellite tracking.
Operating conditions.
5 deg SV acquisition.
Humidity range.
Temperature range.
Waterproof.
Corrosion resistance.
Power requirements.
Surge protection.
Power transfer from AC to DC and reverse.
Low power warning.
External power source.
Battery pack.
Charge/recharge capacity.
Battery connections/cables.
Manuals.
Field planning software.
Dimensions.
Weight.
Data logging device.
RTCM output.
RTCM input.
Waypoints.
Position update rate.
Velocity output.
Antenna.
5/8-in. by 11-in. mounting.
Phase center stability.
Cable length and quantity.
Frequency reception.
Environmental considerations.
Waterproof.
Antenna pole.
Tribrach.
Vehicle mount.
Input/Output ports.
RS-232 standard.
Compatibility with other components.
NMEA position string.
Serial port.
Computer Processing Systems.
Software/hardware compatibility.
Operating system.
Processor chip.
Clock speed.
Hard drive capacity and access speed.
Random access memory.
CD-RW drive.
VGA graphics adapter.
Power source.
Four extra serial ports (in addition to a mouse port).
Baseline Processing Software.
Compatibility with receivers and computers.
Data computations.
Ephemerides.
Output data.
Batch processing.
Multiple copies.
Absolute point positioning.
Real-time output.
Updates.
Network Adjustment Software.
Compatibility with other software supplied.
100 station minimum.
Theory of Least-Squares.
Transformation capability.
Multiple copies.
Updates.
Conventional survey data input.
Data Link for Real-Time Application.
Compatibility with receivers and computers.
1-sec update rate.
Transmission of raw observables.
Frequency.
Broadcast range.
Data loss (less than 1 percent).
Mounting kit.
Power supply.
Training and Technical Support.
At delivery.
At future date.
Software upgrades.
Miscellaneous Requirements.
Cables, etc.
Shipping containers.
Survey planning software.
Hardware and software updates.
Maintenance and repair.
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8-1
Chapter 8
Planning Data Collection with GPS
8-1. Scope
GPS surveying techniques are used to establish primary control and topographic feature mapping for
USACE civil and military projects. Operational and procedural specifications for performing GPS
surveys are a function of the accuracy required for a specific project or map product. To accomplish
these surveys in the most efficient and cost-effective manner, and ensure that the required accuracy
criteria are obtained, a detailed survey planning phase is essential. This chapter primarily focuses on
survey design criteria (and related observing specifications) required to establish accurate horizontal and
vertical control for USACE military construction and civil works projects. Planning considerations for
mapping grade surveys using resource grade receivers are also covered; however, since these types of
surveys are usually performed in near real-time or real-time, they require less mission planning.
8-2. General Planning Considerations for GPS Surveys
A number of factors need to be considered during the planning phase of a proposed GPS data collection
survey. These include:
Project Application--Purpose of Data Collection Survey
- establishing primary control for subsequent location, topographic,
hydrographic, or utility survey
- general site plan, feature mapping, or GIS densification survey
- number of horizontal points or benchmarks required or to be occupied
- datum -- horizontal and vertical
Accuracy Requirements
- horizontal and vertical
- will GPS provide the necessary accuracy
Equipment Resources
- In-house or contract
- GPS receiver availability
- other auxiliary equipment availability
GPS Procedure
- high accuracy--use centimeter-level static or kinematic carrier phase
- medium accuracy--use meter-level code phase
- low Accuracy--use 10-30 meter-level absolute positioning
- RTK options for topographic mapping
Network Design and Connections
- static baseline connections to local project control
- connections to NGRS/CORS points
- code phase connections with wide-area commercial, USCG, or FAA WAAS
networks
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8-2
Data Collection and Adjustment Techniques
- feature, attribute, and format requirements
- data collection session time
- GPS initialization and calibration requirements
- multiple/repeat baseline requirements
- loop requirements
- other quality control requirements
- adjustment criteria and accuracy standards
- metadata requirements
- final survey report format
Site Access and Restrictions
- reconnaissance survey required
- potential visibility restrictions or multipath problems
Funding Considerations (impacts many of the above factors)
The above list is not exhaustive--numerous other project-specific conditions need to be considered. The
following sections in this chapter attempt to address most of these planning considerations.
8-3. Project Control Function and Accuracy
The first step in planning GPS control surveys is to determine the ultimate accuracy requirements.
Survey accuracy requirements are a direct function of specific project functional needs; that is, the basic
requirements needed to support planning, engineering design, maintenance, operations, construction, or
real estate. This is true regardless of whether GPS or conventional surveying methods are employed to
establish project control. Most USACE military and civil works engineering/construction activities
require relative accuracies (i.e. accuracies between adjacent control points) ranging from 1:1,000 to
1:50,000, depending on the nature and scope of the project. Few USACE projects demand relative
positional accuracies higher than the 1:50,000 level (Second-Order, Class I). Since the advent of GPS
survey technology, there has been a tendency to specify higher accuracies than necessary. Specifying
higher accuracy levels than those minimally required for the project can unnecessarily increase project
costs. Guidance on project accuracy requirements can be found in Table 8-1. This table provides
recommended accuracies for features on various types of military and civil works projects. Similar
guidance is also found in Part 4 of the FGDC Geospatial Positioning Accuracy Standards (FGDC 2002).
Feature tolerances are abbreviated as metric (SI) or English inch-pound (IP) units.
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8-3
Table 8-1. Recommended Accuracies and Tolerances for Engineering, Construction,
and Facility Management
Target Feature Position Tolerance Contour
Map Scale Horizontal Vertical Interval
Project or Activity SI/IP SI/IP SI/IP SI/IP
DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, OPERATION & MAINTENANCE OF MILITARY FACILITIES
Maintenance and Repair (M&R)/Renovation of Existing Installation Structures, Roadways, Utilities, Etc
General Construction Site Plans & Specs: 1:500 100 mm 50 mm 250 mm
Feature & Topographic Detail Plans 40 ft/in 0.1-0.5 ft 0.1-0.3 ft 1 ft
Surface/subsurface Utility Detail Design Plans 1:500 100 mm 50 mm N/A
Elec, Mech, Sewer, Storm, etc 40 ft/in 0.2-0.5 ft 0.1-0.2 ft
Field construction layout 0.1 ft 0.01-0.1 ft
Building or Structure Design Drawings 1:500 25 mm 50 mm 250 mm
40 ft/in 0.05-0.2 ft 0.1-0.3 ft 1 ft
Field construction layout 0.01 ft 0.01 ft
Airfield Pavement Design Detail Drawings 1:500 25 mm 25 mm 250 mm
40 ft/in 0.05-0.1 ft 0.05-0.1 ft 0.5-1 ft
Field construction layout 0.01 ft 0.01 ft
Grading and Excavation Plans 1:500 250 mm 100 mm 500 mm
Roads, Drainage, Curb, Gutter etc. 30-100 ft/in 0.5-2 ft 0.2-1 ft 1-2 ft
Field construction layout 1 ft 0.1 ft
Recreational Site Plans 1:1,000 500 mm 100 mm 500 mm
Golf courses, athletic fields, etc. 100 ft/in 1-2 ft 0.2-2 ft 2-5 ft
Training Sites, Ranges, and 1:2,500 500 mm 1,000 mm 500 mm
Cantonment Area Plans 100-200 ft/in 1-5 ft 1-5 ft 2 ft
General Location Maps for Master Planning 1:5,000 1,000 mm 1,000 mm 1,000 mm
AM/FM and GIS Features 100-400 ft/in 2-10 ft 1-10 ft 2-10 ft
Space Management Plans 1:250 50 mm N/A N/A
Interior Design/Layout 10-50 ft/in 0.05-1 ft
As-Built Maps: Military Installation 100 mm 100 mm 250 mm
Surface/Subsurface Utilities (Fuel, Gas, 0.2-1 ft 0.2 ft 1 ft
Electricity, Communications, Cable,
Storm Water, Sanitary, Water Supply, 1:1000 or 50-100 ft/in (Army)
Treatment Facilities, Meters, etc.) 1:500 or 50 ft/in (USAF)
Housing Management GIS (Family Housing, 1:5,000 10,000 mm N/A N/A
Schools, Boundaries, and Other Installation 100-400 ft/in 10-15 ft
Community Services)
Environmental Mapping and Assessment 1:5,000 10,000 mm N/A N/A
Drawings/Plans/GIS 200-400 ft/in 10-50 ft
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
8-4
and Facility Management (continued)
Emergency Services Maps/GIS 1:10,000 25,000 mm N/A N/A
Military Police, Crime/Accident Locations, 400-2000 ft/in 50-100 ft
Post Security Zoning, etc.
Cultural, Social, Historical Plans/GIS 1:5000 10,000 mm N/A N/A
400 ft/in 20-100 ft
Runway Approach and Transition Zones: 1:2,500 2,500 mm 2,500 mm 1,000 mm
General Plans/Section 100-200 ft/in 5-10 ft 2-5 ft 5 ft
Approach maps 1:5,000 (H) 1:1,000 (V)
Approach detail 1:5,000 (H) 1:250 (V)
DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, OPERATIONS AND MAINTENANCE OF CIVIL
TRANSPORTATION & WATER RESOURCE PROJECTS
Site Plans, Maps & Drawings for Design Studies, Reports, Memoranda, and Contract Plans and
Specifications, Construction plans & payment
General Planning and Feasibility Studies, 1:2,500 1,000 mm 500 mm 1,000 mm
Reconnaissance Reports 100-400 ft/in 2-10 ft 0.5-2 ft 2-10 ft
Flood Control and Multipurpose
Project Planning, Floodplain Mapping, 1:5,000 10,000 mm 100 mm 1,000 mm
Water Quality Analysis, and Flood 400-1000 ft/in 20-100 ft 0.2-2 ft 2-5 ft
Control Studies
Soil and Geological Classification Maps 1:5,000 10,000 mm N/A N/A
400 ft/in 20-100 ft
Land Cover Classification Maps 1:5,000 10,000 mm N/A N/A
400-1,000 ft/in 50-200 ft
Archeological or Structure Site Plans & Details
(Including Non-topographic, Close Range, 1:10 5 mm 5 mm 100 mm
Photogrammetric Mapping) 0.5-10 ft/in 0.01-0.5 ft 0.01-0.5 ft 0.1-1 ft
Cultural and Economic Resource Mapping 1:10,000 10,000 N/A N/A
Historic Preservation Projects 1000 ft/in 50-100 ft
Land Utilization GIS Classifications 1:5,000 10,000 mm N/A N/A
Regulatory Permit Locations 400-1000 ft/in 50-100 ft
Socio-Economic GIS Classifications 1:10,000 20,000 mm N/A N/A
1000 ft/in 100 ft
Grading & Excavation Plans 1:1,000 1,000 mm 100 mm 1,000 mm
100 ft/in 0.5-2 ft 0.2-1 ft 1-5 ft
Flood Control Structure Clearing & Grading 1:5,000 2,500 mm 250 mm 500 mm
Plans (e.g., revetments) 100-400 ft/in 2-10 ft 0.5 ft 1-2 ft
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8-5
Federal Emergency Management 1:5,000 1,000 mm 250 mm 1,000 mm
Agency Flood Insurance Studies 400 ft/in 20 ft 0.5 ft 4 ft
Locks, Dams, & Control Structures 1:500 25 mm 10 mm 250 mm
Detail Design Drawings 20-50 ft/in 0.05-1 ft 0.01-0.5 ft 0.5-1 ft
Spillways & Concrete Channels 1:1,000 100 mm 100 mm 1,000 mm
Design Plans 50-100 ft/in 0.1-2 ft 0.2-2 ft 1-5 ft
Levees and Groins: New Construction or 1:1,000 500 mm 250 mm 500 mm
Maintenance Design Drawings 100 ft/in 1-2 ft 0.5-1 ft 1-2 ft
Construction In-Place Volume Measurement 1:1,000 500 mm 250 mm N/A
Granular cut/fill, dredging, etc. 40-100 ft/in 0.5-2 ft 0.5-1 ft
Beach Renourishment/Hurricane 1:1,000 1,000 mm 250 mm 250 mm
Protection Project Plans 100-200 ft/in 2 ft 0.5 ft 1 ft
Project Condition Survey Reports
Base Mapping for Plotting Hydrographic 1:2,500 10,000 mm 250 mm 500 mm
Surveys: line maps or aerial plans 200-1,000 ft/in 5-50 ft 0.5-1 ft 1-2 ft
Dredging & Marine Construction Surveys
New Construction Plans 1:1,000 2,000 mm 250 mm 250 mm
100 ft/in 6 ft 1 ft 1 ft
Maintenance Dredging Drawings 1:2500 5,000 mm 500 mm 500 mm
Hydrographic Project Condition Surveys 1:2500 5,000 mm 500 mm 500 mm
Hydrographic Reconnaissance Surveys - 5,000 mm 500 mm 250 mm
15 ft 2 ft 2 ft
Offshore Geotechnical Investigations - 5,000 mm 50 mm N/A
Core Borings /Probings/etc. 5-15 ft 0.1-0.5 ft
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8-6
Structural Deformation Monitoring
Studies/Surveys
Reinforced Concrete Structures: Large-scale 10 mm 2 mm N/A
Locks, Dams, Gates, Intake Structures, vector 0.03 ft 0.01 ft
Tunnels, Penstocks, Spillways, Bridges movement (long term)
diagrams
or tabulations
Earth/Rock Fill Structures: Dams, N/A (same as 30 mm 15 mm
Floodwalls above)
Levees, etc. -- slope/crest stability & 0.1 ft 0.05 ft
alignment (long term)
Crack/Joint & Deflection Measurements: tabulations 0.2 mm N/A N/A
piers/monoliths--precision micrometer 0.01 inch
REAL ESTATE ACTIVITIES: ACQUISITION, DISPOSAL, MANAGEMENT, AUDIT
Maps, Plans, & Drawings Associated with Military and Civil Projects
Tract Maps, Individual, Detailing
Installation or Reservation Boundaries, 1:1,000 10 mm 100 mm 1,000 mm
Lots, Parcels, Adjoining Parcels, and 1:1,200 (Army)
Record Plats, Utilities, etc. 50-400 ft/in 0.05-2 ft 0.1-2 ft 1-5 ft
Condemnation Exhibit Maps 1:1,000 10 mm 100 mm 1,000 mm
50-400 ft/in 0.05-2 ft 0.1-2 ft 1-5 ft
Guide Taking Lines/Boundary Encroachment 1:500 50 mm 50 mm 250 mm
Maps: Fee and Easement Acquisition 20-100 ft/in 0.1-1 ft 0.1-1 ft 1 ft
General Location or Planning Maps 1:24,000 10,000 mm 5,000 mm 2,000 mm
2,000 ft/in 50-100 ft 5-10 ft 5-10 ft
GIS or LIS Mapping, General
Land Utilization and Management, Forestry 1:5,000 10,000 mm N/A N/A
Management, Mineral Acquisition 200-1,000 ft/in 50-100 ft
Easement Areas and Easement 1:1,000 50 mm 50 mm -
Delineation Lines 100 ft/in 0.1-0.5 ft 0.1-0.5 ft
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8-7
and Facility Management (concluded)
HAZARDOUS, TOXIC, RADIOACTIVE WASTE (HTRW) SITE INVESTIGATION,
MODELING, AND CLEANUP
General Detailed Site Plans 1:500 100 mm 50 mm 100 mm
HTRW Sites, Asbestos, etc. 5-50 ft/in 0.2-1 ft 0.1-0.5 ft 0.5-1 ft
Surface Geotoxic Data Mapping 1:500 100 mm 500 mm 500 mm
and Modeling 20-100 ft/in 1-5 ft 1-2 ft 1-2 ft
Contaminated Ground Water 1:500 1,000 mm 500 mm 500 mm
Plume Mapping/Modeling 20-100 ft/in 2-10 ft 1-5 ft 1-2 ft
General HTRW Site Plans & 1:2,500 5,000 mm 1,000 mm 1,000 mm
Reconnaissance Mapping 50-400 ft/in 2-20 ft 2-20 ft 2-5 ft
a. Project functional requirements. Project functional requirements must include planned and
future design, construction, and mapping activities. Specific control density and accuracy are designed
from these functional requirements.
(1) Density of control within a given project is determined from factors such as planned
construction, site plan mapping scales, master plan mapping scale, and dredging and hydrographic survey
positioning requirements.
(2) The relative accuracy for project control is also determined based on mapping scales,
design/construction needs, type of project, etc., using guidance in Table 8-1 above. Most site plan
mapping for design purposes is performed and evaluated relative to FGDC or American Society of
Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing (ASPRS) standards--see references in Appendix A. These
standards apply to photogrammetric mapping, total station mapping, and site plan mapping performed
with GPS RTK techniques. Network control must be of sufficient relative accuracy to enable hired-labor
or contracted survey forces to reliably connect their supplemental mapping work.
b. Minimum accuracy requirements. Project control surveys shall be planned, designed, and
executed to achieve the minimum accuracy demanded by the project's functional requirements. In order
to utilize USACE resources most efficiently, control surveys shall not be designed or performed to
achieve accuracy levels that exceed the project requirements. For instance, if a Third-Order, Class I
accuracy standard (1:10,000) is required for dredge/survey control on a navigation project, field survey
criteria shall be designed to meet this minimum standard.
c. Achievable GPS accuracy. As stated previously, GPS survey methods are capable of
providing significantly higher relative positional accuracies with only minimal field observations, as
compared with conventional triangulation, trilateration, or EDM traverse. Although a GPS survey may be
designed and performed to support lower accuracy project control requirements, the actual results could
generally be several magnitudes better than the requirement. Although higher accuracy levels are
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
8-8
relatively easy to achieve with GPS, it is important to consider the ultimate use of the control on the
project in planning and designing GPS control networks. Thus, GPS survey adequacy evaluations should
be based on the project accuracy standards, not those theoretically obtainable with GPS.
(1) For instance, an adjustment of a pair of GPS-established points may indicate a relative
distance accuracy of 1:800,000 between them. These two points may be subsequently used to set a
dredging baseline using 1:2,500 construction survey methods; and from 100-ft-spaced stations on this
baseline, cross sections are projected using 1:500 to 1:1,000 relative accuracy methods (typical
hydrographic surveys). Had the GPS-observed baseline been accurate only to 1:20,000, such a closure
would still have easily met the project's functional requirements.
(2) Likewise, in topographic (site plan) mapping or photogrammetric mapping work, the
difference between 1:20,000 and 1:800,000 relative accuracies is not perceptible at typical USACE
mapping/construction scales (1:240 to 1:6,000), or ensuring supplemental compliance with ASPRS
Standards. In all cases of planimetric and topographic mapping work, the primary control network shall
be of sufficient accuracy such that ASPRS Standards can be met when site plan mapping data are derived
from such points. For most large-scale military and civil mapping work performed by USACE, Third-
Order relative accuracies are adequate to control planimetric and topographic features within the extent of
a given sheet/map or construction site. On some projects covering large geographical areas (e.g.,
reservoirs, levee systems, installations), this Third-Order mapping control may need to be connected
to/with a higher-order NGRS network to minimize scale distortions over longer reaches of the project.
(3) In densifying control for GIS databases, the functional accuracy of the GIS database must be
kept in perspective with the survey control requirements. Performing 1:100,000 accuracy surveys for a
GIS level containing 1-acre cell definitions would not be cost-effective; sufficient accuracy could be
obtained by scaling relative coordinates from a US Geological Survey (USGS) quadrangle map.
d. Vertical accuracy. Establishing primary (i.e. monumented) vertical control benchmarks using
carrier phase differential GPS methods requires considerable planning if traditional vertical accuracy
standards are to be met. Since most Corps projects involve hydraulic flow of water in rivers, streams,
pools, wetlands, etc., precise vertical control is essential within a project area; especially if construction is
planned. Densification of vertical elevations with GPS requires sufficient control checks using
conventional differential leveling, along with accurate geoid modeling. Therefore, an early evaluation
needs to be made to determine if GPS-derived elevations will be of sufficient accuracy to meet project
needs. Usually, a combination of GPS and conventional differential spirit leveling will be required. GPS
standards and specifications needed to establish and densify vertical control network points are discussed
in a later section of this chapter.
8-4. Selection of a GPS Survey Technique
Once a control project's accuracy requirement has been established, then the basic survey technique
needed to meet this accuracy can be specified. The technique may or may not include GPS methods, or
may require a combination of terrestrial (e.g., leveling and total station) methods and GPS. Depending on
the accuracy requirements, either carrier phase or code phase GPS techniques may be selected. In
general, monumented control points should be tied in using carrier phase methods--typically using static
baseline connections to NGRS points. Some kinematic survey techniques (e.g., stop-and go, pseudo-
kinematic) may also be employed to establish primary control when centimeter-level accuracy is required.
External network connections and internal connections between monuments within the project area shall
be performed using the network design guidance contained in the following sections of this chapter.
Code phase techniques are more applicable to real-time, lower-order accuracy (meter-level) mapping
projects, such as hydrographic surveying, GIS mapping, wetland delineation, shoreline delineation, etc.
EM 1110-1-1003
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8-9
8-5. Planning Differential Code Phase GPS Surveys
Meter-level accuracy code phase observations may be suitable for lower accuracy surveys, such as
topographic feature mapping or real-time hydrographic surveys. Code phase observations should not be
used for placing control on project monuments, nor should it be used for elevation measurement. Wide
area differential code phase observations are easily achieved relative to NGRS stations that have
supplemental communications to broadcast pseudorange corrections. These include FAA WAAS, USCG,
and commercial systems. Since the distance from the broadcast points can significantly effect the
ultimate positional accuracy, one should consult maps or web sites from the code phase provider to
determine whether the distance is within acceptable limits (e.g., less than 150 miles for USCG sites and
greater for systems that model over multiple stations).
a. DGPS providers. A real-time dynamic code-phase DGPS positioning system includes a
reference station (master), communications link, and user (remote) equipment. If results are not required
in real-time, the communications link could be eliminated and the positional information post-processed;
however, such an operation is not practical for most construction support activities where immediate
results are necessary. Since there are several DGPS services (USCG, FAA WAAS, and commercial
subscription services) that provide real-time pseudorange corrections, it is recommended that these
services be used before installing or using a local DGPS system. Only in circumstances where these
services do not provide coverage should a local DGPS system be used.
b. Reference station. The reference station measures timing and ranging information broadcast
by the satellites and computes and formats pseudorange corrections (PRC) for broadcast to the remote
equipment. The reference station system typically consists of a GPS receiver, antenna, and processor.
Using differential pseudoranging, the position of the user is found relative to the reference station. The
pseudoranges are collected by the GPS receiver and transferred to the processor where pseudorange
corrections are computed and formatted for data transmission. Many manufacturers have incorporated the
processor within the GPS receiver, eliminating the need for an external processing device. The reference
station processor computes the PRC and formats the corrections for the communications link to transmit
to the remote unit or a survey vessel. The data transmission format is typically the Radio Technical
Commission for Maritime Services Special Committee 104 (RTCM SC-104). The reference station
processor may also be designed to perform quality assurance and integrity functions. This routine is
required to determine the validity and quality of the computed PRCs. The reference station processor
should be capable of computing and formatting PRC every 1 to 3 sec.
c. Reference station placement. The reference station is placed on a known survey monument in
an area having an unobstructed view of the sky for at least 10 deg above the horizon. The antenna should
not be located near objects that will cause multipath or interference. Areas with antennas, microwave
towers, power lines, and reflective surfaces should be avoided.
d. Communications link. The communications link is used as a transfer media for the differential
corrections. The main requirement of the communications link is that transmission be at a minimum rate
of 200 bits per second (bps). Higher rates are required for wide-area networks. The type of
communications system is dependent on the user's requirements.
e. Ultra high frequency (UHF) and very high frequency (VHF). Communications links operating
at UHF and VHF are viable systems for the broadcast of DGPS corrections. VHF and UHF can extend
out some 20 to 50 km, depending on local conditions. The disadvantages of UHF and VHF links are their
limited range to line of sight and the effects of signal shadowing (from islands, structures, and buildings),
multipath, and licensing issues.
EM 1110-1-1003
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8-10
f. Frequency authorization. Most RF communications links necessitate a reserved frequency for
operation to avoid interference with other activities in the area. Transmitters with power outputs below
100 milliwatts (mW) do not require a frequency allocation and license for operation in the United States.
Frequency authorization for the USACE must be obtained through the National Telecommunications and
Information Administration (NTIA) of the US Department of Commerce for transmissions that exceed
100 mW. A district's frequency manager handles authorization and allocation of a frequency. No
transmission can occur over a frequency until the frequency has been officially authorized for use. This
procedure applies to all government agencies.
g. Satellite communications. There are several companies that sell satellite communications
systems that can be used for the transmission of the PRCs. These systems are not as limited in range as a
UHF/VHF system can be, but are usually higher in price.
h. User equipment. The user equipment is the most flexible facet of real-time code phase
tracking DGPS. The remote receiver should be, at minimum, a multi-channel single-frequency (L1)
C/A-code GPS receiver. The receiver must be able to accept the differential corrections from the
communications link in the RTCM SC-104 format (see Chapter 7), and then apply those corrections to the
measured pseudorange. The critical portion of the user equipment is the receiver update rate. Specific
requirements will vary with different manufacturers and with the distance from the reference station. The
output from the rover receiver should be in the NMEA 0183 format (see Chapter 7), because it is the most
widely used standard for input into external devices, such as a hydrographic survey software package.
For hydrographic applications, the user equipment also must be capable of maintaining positional
tolerances for surveys at speeds of 7 to 10 knots. A DGPS receiver must not bias the position during
vessel turns due to excess filtering.
i. Separation distances. In order to maintain meter-level positional accuracy tolerances, the
maximum separation distance between a reference and remote station should generally not exceed 300
km, provided that differential tropospheric and ionospheric corrections are used. These corrections are
not always applied to internal solutions on GPS receivers. The unaccounted tropospheric and ionospheric
errors can contribute to horizontal position error on an average of 0.7 to 1.0 m per 100 km. A limiting
factor of the separation distance is the type of data link used. If a DGPS is procured for hydrographic
surveying, the reference station should be capable of being moved from one point to another. This will
allow the user to move the reference station so that the minimum distance separation requirements are
maintained.
j. Satellite geometry. In code phase DGPS, the Horizontal Dilution of Position (HDOP) is the
critical geometrical component. The HDOP should be < 4 for most types of real-time meter-level
positioning applications. The GPS constellation will maintain a HDOP of approximately 2 to 3 most of
the time. In addition, quality control procedures need to be developed to ensure that systematic biases are
not present in code phase positioning systems. These quality control procedures are spelled out in
EM 1110-2-1003 (Hydrographic Surveying).
8-6. Field Reconnaissance for GPS Surveys
A good advance reconnaissance of all marks and features within the project is crucial to the expedient and
successful completion of a GPS survey. The site reconnaissance should ideally be completed during the
planning stage. The surveyor should also prepare a site sketch and brief description on how to reach the
point since the individual performing the site reconnaissance may not be the surveyor that returns to
occupy the known or unknown station.
EM 1110-1-1003
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8-11
a. Project sketch. A project sketch should be developed before any site reconnaissance is
performed. The sketch should be on a 7-1/2-minute USGS quadrangle map, or other suitable drawing.
Drawing the sketch on the map will assist the planner in determination of site selections and travel
distances between stations.
b. Station descriptions and recovery notes. Station descriptions for all new monuments will be
developed as the monumentation is performed. The format of these descriptions will follow that stated in
EM 1110-1-1002 (Survey Markers and Monumentation). Station "Recovery Notes" should be written for
existing NGRS network stations and Corps project control points, as detailed in EM 1110-1-1002.
Estimated travel times to all stations should be included in the description. Include road travel time,
walking time, and GPS receiver breakdown and setup time. These times can be estimated while
performing the initial reconnaissance. A site sketch shall also be made on the description/recovery form.
Examples of site reconnaissance reports are shown in Figures 8-1 and 8-2. A blank reconnaissance report
form is included as Worksheet 8-1 (Figure 8-3), which may be used in lieu of a standard field survey
book.
c. Waypoint reconnaissance navigation. Waypoint navigation is an option on most receivers,
allowing the user to enter a geodetic position (usually latitude and longitude) of points or existing control
monuments the user may wish to locate. The GPS antenna/receiver, fastened to a vehicle, range pole, or
backpack, can then provide the user with real-time navigational information. The navigational
information may include the distance and bearing to the point of destination (stored in the receiver), the
estimated time to destination, and the speed and course of the user. The resultant message produced can
then be used to guide the user to the point of interest. Waypoint navigation is an option that, besides
providing navigation information, may be helpful in the recovery of control stations that do not have
descriptions. If the user has the capability of real-time code phase positioning, the way point navigational
accuracy can be in the range of 0.5 - 5 m.
d. Site obstruction/visibility sketches. The individual performing the site reconnaissance of a
potential GPS point to be occupied should record the azimuth and vertical angle of all obstructions. The
azimuths and vertical angles should be determined with a compass and inclinometer. Because
obstructions such as trees and buildings cause the GPS signal transmitted from the GPS satellite to be
blocked, the type of obstruction is also an important item to be recorded. The type of obstruction is also
important to determine if multipath may be a problem. Buildings with reflective surfaces, chain-link
fences, and antenna arrays are objects that may cause multipath. The site obstruction data are used to
determine if the survey site is suitable for GPS observations. Obstruction data should be plotted on a
"Station Visibility Diagram," such as that shown in Figure 8-4. A blank copy of this form is provided as
Worksheet 8-2 (Figure 8-5). Ideally all GPS stations should have an unobstructed view 15 degrees above
the horizon. Satellites below 10 degrees from the horizon should not be observed.
e. Suitability for kinematic observations. Clear, obstruction-free projects may be suitable for
kinematic GPS surveys, as opposed to less-productive static methods. The use of kinematic observations
will increase productivity by a factor of 5 to 10 over static methods, while still providing adequate
accuracy levels. On many projects, a mixture between both static and kinematic GPS observations may
prove to be most cost-effective.
f. Monumentation. All monumentation should follow the guidelines of EM 1110-1-1002 (Survey
Markers and Monumentation).
g. On-site physical restrictions. The degree of difficulty in occupying points due to such factors
as travel times, site access, multipath effects, and satellite visibility should be anticipated. The need for
redundant observations, should reobservations be required, must also be considered.
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h. Checks for disturbed existing control. Additional GPS baselines may need to be observed
between existing NGRS or Corps project control points to verify their accuracy and/or stability.
i. Satellite visibility limitations. For most of CONUS, there are at least 4-5 satellites in view at
all times--usually more. However, some areas my have less during times of satellite maintenance,
unhealthy satellites, or DoD realignments for tactical purposes. Satellite visibility charts, available in
most mission planning software, play a major part in optimizing network configurations and observation
schedules.
j. Station intervisibility requirements. Project specifications may dictate station intervisibility for
azimuth reference. This may constrain minimum station spacing.
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Figure 8-1. Field reconnaissance sketch in a standard field survey book format
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Figure 8-2. Reconnaissance survey sketch on notebook format
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Figure 8-3. Worksheet 8-1, Site Reconnaissance Report
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Figure 8-4. Typical example of a station visibility plot
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Figure 8-5. Worksheet 8-2, Station Visibility Diagram
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8-7. Technical Criteria for Carrier Phase GPS Horizontal Control Surveys
Once a determination is made that high accuracy points are to be established on monumented project
control, then, by default, carrier phase techniques are required. The National Geodetic Survey, in
conjunction with the FGDC, has developed standards and specifications for performing static carrier
phase DGPS surveys. One of these standards is universally recognized for performing DGPS surveys,
namely:
"Geometric Geodetic Accuracy Standards and Specifications for using GPS Relative
Positioning Techniques," (Version 5.0 dated 11 May 1988, Corrected to 1 August 1989),
published by the Federal Geodetic Control Committee (FGCC), which now falls under
the Federal Geographic Data Committee (FGDC)
Although this standard was developed for static GPS methods in 1988 before a full GPS constellation was
available, many of the recommended techniques and criteria are still valid. Table 8-2 below contains
recommended USACE standards for precise horizontal GPS surveys. It applies to both static and some
kinematic techniques. It is synopsized from the FGCC 1988 standard but addresses Corps-specific DGPS
techniques and criteria that are more relaxed and practical than the rigid FGCC 1988 standards. In
addition, many of the higher-order NGRS network densification criteria in FGCC 1988 are not applicable
to Corps military and civil works project control surveys. The following sections provide guidance for
some, but not all, of the factors to be considered in designing a GPS network and planning subsequent
observing procedures. The FGCC 1988 standard contains a more detailed discussion of many of these
network design factors--this standard should be thoroughly reviewed by those involved in such a process.
More detailed explanations of the FGCC 1988 criteria can also be found in various GPS textbooks listed
in Appendix A--e.g., Van Sickle 2001.
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Table 8-2. Minimum Standards for Horizontal Control Survey Design, Geometry, Connection,
and Observing Criteria--Carrier Phase Differential GPS Surveys
Classification Order
Criterion 1st 2nd, I 2nd, II 3rd, I 3rd, II
Relative Accuracy ppm 10 20 50 100 200
1 part in 100k 50k 20k 10k 5k
General Criteria

Required connections to existing NGRS network Yes Yes W/F/P W/F/P W/F/P
Baseline observation check required over existing control Yes Yes W/F/P W/F/P No
Number of connections with existing network (NGRS or Local)
Minimum 3 2 2 2 2
Optimum 3+ 3 3 3 3
Vertical [ see Table 8-4 ]
Max distance from network to nearest point in project (km) 50 50 50 50 50
Maximum distance to nearest CORS point [ no specified limit ]
Field Observing Criteria
Repeat baseline occupations--not less than 10% or at least 2 2 2 2 2
Loop closure requirements:
Maximum number of baselines/loop 10 10 20 20 20
Maximum loop length, km, not to exceed 100 100 200 N/R N/R
Loop misclosure, ppm, not more than 10 20 50 100 200
Spur baseline observations:
Number of sessions/baseline 2 2 2 2 2
Required antenna height measurement per session 2 2 2 2 2
Dual-frequency L1/L2 observations required: < 20-km lines Yes No No No No
> 20-km lines Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Recommended elevation mask above horizon, degrees 15 15 15 15 15
Notes:
1. Abbreviations used in this table are explained as follows:
W/F/P--Where feasible and practical
N/R--No requirement for this specification--usually indicates variance with provisional FGCC GPS specifications
2. Classification orders refer to intended survey precision for USACE application, not necessarily FGDC standards
designed to support national network densification.
a. Project size. The extent of the project will affect the GPS survey network shape. Many civil
works navigation and flood control projects are relatively narrow in lateral extent but may extend for
many miles longitudinally. Alternatively, military installations or reservoir/ recreation projects may
project equally in length and breadth. The optimum GPS survey design will vary considerably for these
different conditions. For higher-order surveys, Table 8-2 recommends that the project area shall be
surrounded by optimally 3 connections to NGRS control, or more if precise vertical densification is being
performed. For projects extending along linear waterway systems, far more NGRS connections will be
required. Given the high density of NGRS/CORS stations in CONUS, this requirement is easily achieved
for most projects other than coastal navigation sites. See also FGCC 1988 for further discussion.
b. Required density of control. The spacing of new points on a civil or military installation
project needs to be assessed for each control survey, based on the supplemental purposes of the control
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points (photogrammetric mapping control, GIS mapping control, construction, etc.). The type of GPS
survey scheme used will depend on the number and spacing of points to be established, which again is a
project-specific requirement. Often, a combination of static GPS, RTK GPS, and conventional survey
densification will prove to be the most cost-effective approach.
c. Absolute GPS reference datums. Coordinate data for GPS baseline observations are
referenced and reduced relative to WGS 84, an earth-centered (geocentric) coordinate system. As stated
in Chapter 3, this system is not directly referenced to, but is closely related to (for all practical
engineering survey purposes) GRS 80, upon which NAD 83 is related. GPS data reduction and
adjustments are normally performed using the WGS 84 coordinate system (X-Y-Z), with baseline vector
components (X,Y,Z) measured relative to this coordinate system. Although baseline vectors are
measured relative to the WGS 84 system, for most USACE engineering and construction applications
these data may be used in adjustments on NAD 27 (Clarke 1866 spheroid).
(1) If the external network being connected (and adjusted to) is the published NAD 83, the GPS
baseline coordinates may be directly referenced on the GRS 80 ellipsoid since they are nearly equal. All
supplemental control established is therefore referenced to the GRS 80/ NAD 83 coordinate system.
(2) If a GPS survey is connected to NAD 27 (State Plane Coordinate System of 1927, or SPCS
27) stations that were not adjusted to the NAD 83 datum, then these fixed points may be transformed to
NAD 83 coordinates using high-level geodetic transformation routines, or approximately transformed
using USACE program CORPSCON (see EM 1110-1-1004), and the baseline reductions and adjustment
performed relative to the GRS 80 ellipsoid.
(3) Alternatively, GPS baseline connections to NAD 27 (SPCS 27) project control may be
reduced and adjusted directly on that datum with resultant coordinates on the NAD 27. Refer to
EM 1110-1-1004 regarding state plane coordinate transforms between SPCS 27 and SPCS 83 grids.
Conversions of final adjusted points on the NAD 27 datum to NAD 83 may also be performed using
CORPSCON. It is strongly recommended that all existing NAD 27 control be transformed to NAD 83 by
direct baseline connection to NGRS points
(4) Ellipsoid heights " h " referenced to the GRS 80 ellipsoid differ significantly from the
orthometric elevations " H " on NGVD 29, NAVD 88, or dynamic/hydraulic elevations on the IGLD 55-
IGLD 85 systems. This difference (geoid separation, or " N ") can usually (but not always) be ignored for
horizontal control surveys. This implies " N " is assumed to be zero and " h = H " where the elevation
may be measured, estimated, or scaled at the fixed point(s).
(5) Datum systems other than NAD 27/NAD 83 will be used in OCONUS locations. Selected
military operational requirements in CONUS may also require non-NAD datum references. It is
recommended that GPS baselines be directly adjusted on the specific project datum. Most survey-grade
GPS receivers and adjustment software is capable of working in any worldwide ellipsoid or datum.
d. Connections to existing control. A variety of methods are available for making accurate
connections and adjustments to the NGRS, such as OPUS, Auto-GIPSY, and SCOUT, which are
described in Chapter 10. For most static and kinematic GPS horizontal control work, at least two (and
preferably three) existing control points should be connected for referencing and adjusting a new GPS
survey (Table 8-2). For higher-order NGRS densification, Table 2 of FGCC 1988 contains additional
network connection criteria. Programs such as OPUS will adjust observations to three nearby
NGRS/CORS stations. Existing points may be part of the NGRS (e.g., CORS stations) or in-place project
control that has been adequately used for years. Additional points may be connected if practical. In some
instances, a single existing point may be used to generate spurred baseline vectors for supplemental
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construction control. For higher-order work, Table 8-2 recommends a baseline check connection between
existing control points. This would not apply to NGRS CORS stations.
(1) Connections with local project control. The first choice for referencing new GPS surveys is
the existing project control. This is true for most surveying, not just GPS, and has considerable legal
basis. Unless a newly authorized project is involved, long-established project control reference points
should be used, or at a minimum, connected with the overall scheme. If the project is currently on a local
datum, then a supplemental tie to the NGRS should be considered as part of the project.
(2) Connections with NGRS. Connections with the NGRS are preferred where prudent and
practical. As with conventional USACE surveying, such connections to the NGRS are not mandatory. In
many instances, accurate connections with the NGRS CORS points may be easily (and economically)
performed using NGS OPUS software methods--see Chapter 10. When existing project control is known
to be of poor accuracy, then ties (and total readjustment) to the NGRS may be warranted. Sufficient
project funds should have been programmed to cover the additional costs of these connections, including
data submittal and review efforts if such work is intended to be included in the NGRS.
(3) Mixed NGRS and project control connections. On existing projects, NGRS-referenced points
should not be arbitrarily mixed with existing project control. This is especially important if existing
project control was poorly connected with the older NAD 27 control, or if the method of this original
connection is uncertain. Since NGRS control has been readjusted to NAD 83 (including subsequent high-
precision HARNS readjustments of NAD 83), and most USACE project control has not, problems may
result if these schemes are mixed indiscriminately. If a decision is made to establish and/or update
control on an existing project, and connections with the NGRS (NAD 83 (xxxx)) are required, then all
existing project control points must be resurveyed and readjusted. Mixing different reference systems can
result in different reference datums, with obvious adverse impacts on subsequent construction or
boundary reference. It is far preferable to use "weak" existing (long-established) project control (on
NAD 27 or whatever datum) for reference than to end up with a mixture of different systems or datums.
See EM 1110-1-1004 for further discussion.
(4) Accuracy of connected reference control. Ideally, connections should be made to control of a
higher order of accuracy than that intended for the project. In cases where NGRS/CORS control is
readily available, this is usually the case. However, when only existing project control is available,
connection and adjustment will have to be performed using that reference system, regardless of its
accuracy. GPS baseline measurements should be performed over existing control to assess its accuracy
and adequacy for adjustment, or to configure partially constrained adjustments.
(5) Connection constraints. Although Table 8-2 requires only a minimum of two existing stations
to reliably connect GPS static and kinematic surveys, it may often be prudent to include additional NGRS
and/or project points, especially if the existing network is of poor reliability. Adding more NGRS points
provides redundant checks on the surrounding network. This allows for the elimination of these points
should the final constrained adjustment indicate a problem with one or more of the fixed points. Use of
NGS OPUS adjustment techniques allows DGPS connection and adjustment with multiple high-accuracy
CORS stations, with positional accuracies within the 2 cm level. Table 8-2 also indicates the maximum
allowable distance GPS baselines should extend from the existing network. FGCC 1988 standards also
require connections to be spread over different quadrants relative to the survey project. This is
recommended if possible; however, such requirements are usually unnecessary for most USACE work.
e. Multiple/Repeat/Independent baseline connections. FGCC 1988 lists recommended criteria
for baseline connections between stations, repeat baseline observations, and multiple station occupations.
Many of these standards were developed by NGS for performing high-precision geodetic control surveys
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such that extensive redundancy will result from the collected data. Since the purpose of these geodetic
densification surveys is markedly different from USACE control densification, the need for such high
observational redundancy is also different. Therefore, Table 8-2 recommends not less than two repeat
baseline occupations in a project--or at least 10% of the baselines in a project be double observed--
whichever is less. Adding redundant baseline occupations may prove prudent on some remote projects
where accessibility is difficult. In addition, observing the same baselines at different times and satellite
configurations provides a good quality control check. When vertical control densification is performed,
then all baselines shall be observed at least twice.
f. Independent baselines. When 3 or more receivers simultaneously occupy stations on a
network, baselines can be formed from each pair of receivers. However, not all of these baselines are
independent or "nontrivial." The "dependent" baselines are considered as "trivial" since they do not
provide a unique solution. For example, if 4 receivers are deployed, 6 baselines are formed by these
receivers. Only 3 of these lines are "independent"--the other 3 are "trivial" or dependent. The number of
total baselines and independent baselines can be computed from the following:
Number of Baselines per Session = N ( N - 1 ) / 2
Number of Independent Baselines per Session = N - 1
where N = number of receivers deployed on network. If only 2 receivers are used, then all the baselines
will be independent. If 4 receivers are used over 10 sessions, then 30 independent baseline sessions
would result. During the baseline processing and adjustment phase, the surveyor must identify the
independent baselines when trivial observations are present, and ensure the adjustment statistics do not
double count (or erroneously over weight) trivial baselines.
g. Loop requirements. Loops (i.e. traverses) made from GPS baseline observations provide the
mechanism for performing field data validation as well as a final adjustment accuracy analysis. Since
loops of GPS baselines are comparable to terrestrial EDM traverse routes, misclosures and adjustments
can be handled similarly. Most GPS survey nets (static or kinematic) end up with one or more
interconnecting loops that are either internal from a single fixed point or external through two or more
fixed network points. Loops should be closed off within the maximum number of station intervals
indicated in Table 8-2. Loop closures should meet the criteria specified in Table 8-2, based on the total
loop length that should also be kept within the maximum lengths shown in Table 8-2. Loops must not
include trivial baselines.
(1) GPS control surveys should be conducted by forming loops between two or more existing
network control points, with adequate cross-connections within the loops where feasible. Such alignment
procedures are usually most practical on civil works navigation projects, which typically require control
to be established along a linear path, e.g., river or canal embankments, levees, beach renourishment
projects, and jetties. Connections to existing control should be made as opportunities exist and/or as often
as practical.
(2) When establishing control over relatively large military installations, civil recreation projects,
flood control projects, and the like, a series of redundant baselines forming interconnecting loops is
usually recommended. When densifying Second- and Third-Order control for site plan design and
construction, extensive cross-connecting loop and network configurations recommended by the
FGCC 1988 for geodetic surveying are not necessary.
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(3) On all projects, maximum use of combined static and kinematic GPS observations should be
considered, both of which may be configured to form pseudo-traverse loops for subsequent field data
validation and final adjustment.
8-8. Recommended Static Baseline Occupation Times for Horizontal Control Surveys
Station occupation time is dependent on baseline length, number of satellites observed, GDOP, and the
GPS equipment used. Occupation must be long enough to reliably fix the integer ambiguity in the
baseline solution; thus, the more satellites in view the more reliable and faster the integers can be fixed.
In general, a 20-minute to 2-hour occupation is required for lines less than 50 km. A rough guideline for
estimating static baseline occupation time is shown in Table 8-3 below. From a statistical perspective,
lengthier occupation times may not necessarily improve the accuracy once the integers have been reliably
fixed. Reobserving the baseline on a different day/time (i.e. over a different satellite configuration) will
provide better redundancy.
Table 8-3. Guidelines for Determining Static Baseline Occupation Time versus Satellite Visibility and
Baseline Length--Single- and Dual-Frequency Horizontal GPS Control Surveys
Recommended Minimum Observation Time (minutes)
Satellites in View/Single- or Dual-Frequency Receiver
4 5 6 or more satellites in view
Baseline Length
(km) Single Dual Single Dual Single Dual
1-10 km 60 min 20 min 36 min 12 min 24 min 8 min
10-20 km 75 min 25 min 45 min 15 min 30 min 10 min
20-50 km
1
105 min 35 min 75 min 25 min 60 min 20 min
> 50
1
180 min 60 min 135 min 45 min 90 min 30 min
1
Dual-frequency receivers are recommended for baselines greater than 20 km
Source: USACE GPS Field Review Group (September 2002)
Some software vendors recommend shorter observation times when conditions are ideal (i.e. clear,
unobstructed horizons, good quality measurements, dual-frequency geodetic quality receivers, and good
geometry). For example, Waypoint Consulting recommends the following "rule-of-thumb" for
determining the observation time on a baseline:
Baseline Observation Time = 10 minutes + 1 minute/km (Single frequency)
Baseline Observation Time = 5 minutes + 0.5 minute/km (Dual frequency)
The above guideline presumes expected horizontal accuracies of 10 mm, clear visibility, and clean data.
Thus for a 40 km line, a dual-frequency minimum observation time would be 25 minutes. Alternatively,
when precise vertical control is being densified using GPS, then session lengths may need to be
increased--including observation of redundant baselines on different days.
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a. Caveats. Due to the multitude of variables inherent in GPS surveying, there is no exact
formula for determining the required baseline occupation time. The values shown in Table 8-3 are only
general guidelines. The results from the baseline reduction (and subsequent adjustments) will govern the
adequacy of the observation irrespective of the actual observation time. The most prudent policy is to
exceed the minimum recommended times, especially for lines where reoccupation would be difficult or
field data assessment capabilities are limited. Local conditions, manufacturer recommendations, and
personal experience with specific receiver capabilities and baseline reduction results should also be
factored into baseline occupation time requirements.
b. Dual-frequency receivers. For baselines greater than 10 km in length, the ionosphere usually
has an adverse effect on the solution. Adverse ionosphere effects for baselines of this length can be
reduced by using a dual-frequency GPS receiver, resulting in a more accurate ionospheric-free fixed
solution than the less accurate float solution that might result from a single-frequency receiver.
Accordingly, Table 8-3 recommends that dual-frequency receivers be used for baselines over 20 km in
length. This is because fixed solution integers become more difficult to solve as the baselines lengthen.
The dual-frequency receiver also provides "wide laning," which is a combination of the L1 and L2
frequencies. Wide laning is used to search and resolve the integer ambiguities.
8-9. Network Design and Layout for Carrier Phase GPS Horizontal Control Surveys
A wide variety of survey configuration methods may be used to densify project control using static and/or
kinematic GPS survey techniques. Unlike terrestrial triangulation, trilateration, and EDM traverse
surveying, the shape, or geometry, of the GPS network design is usually not as significant. The following
guidelines for planning and designing proposed GPS surveys are intended to support lower order
(Second-Order, Class I, or 1:50,000 or less accuracy) control surveys applicable to USACE civil works
and military construction activities. An exception to this would be GPS surveys supporting structural
deformation monitoring projects where relative accuracies at the centimeter level or better are required
over a small project area.
a. NGRS connections. Newly established GPS control may or may not be incorporated into the
NGRS, depending on the adequacy of connection to the existing NGRS network, or whether it was tied
only internally to existing project control.
b. Project accuracy requirements. Of paramount importance in developing a network design is
to obtain the most economical coverage within the prescribed project accuracy requirements. The
optimum network design, therefore, provides a minimum amount of baseline/loop redundancy without an
unnecessary amount of "over-observation." Obtaining this optimum design (cost versus accuracy) is
difficult and constantly changing due to evolving GPS technology and satellite coverage.
c. GPS survey network schemes. Planning a GPS survey network scheme is similar to that for
conventional triangulation or traversing. The type of survey design adopted is dependent on the GPS
technique employed and the requirements of the user. A GPS network is developed to extend project
control over an area. The network design establishes the stations to be occupied (new and existing) and
specific baselines to be observed. The network design also includes the GPS observing sequence with a
given number of GPS receivers. In addition, the network design should be geometrically sound and meet
the criteria in Table 8-2. Triangles that are weak geometrically should be avoided, if possible. For lower-
order work, elaborate network design schemes are unnecessary and less work-intensive GPS survey
extension methods may be used. Care must be taken to avoid including trivial baselines in the final
network adjustment. For high-accuracy vertical densification projects, duplicate or redundant baseline
occupations may be required. The following figures depict examples of step-by-step methods to build a
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GPS survey network, with a given number of receivers. Other combinations of observing sessions could
be developed to accomplish the same results. The network consists of three fixed (known X-Y-Z) control
points shown by circled triangles. The three unknown points are shown by triangles. Solid connecting
lines are observed baselines in a session. Baselines marked by "t" are trivial baselines that should be
excluded in any network adjustment.
Figure 8-6. GPS observing sessions for 2 GPS receivers. If a check on the spurred positions is required,
then sessions 6 through 9 could be optionally added.
2 Receivers
Each baseline is independent
No trivial lines
SESSION 1
SESSION 6
SESSION 3
SESSION 4
SESSION 5
SESSION 2
SESSION 7
SESSION 8
SESSION 9
Optional Sessions
provides redundant checks
on each new point
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Figure 8-7. GPS network and observing session design given 3 GPS receivers
t
t
t
t
SESSION 1
SESSION 2
SESSION 3
SESSION 4
3 Receivers
2 independent
baselines/session
1 trivial line (t)/session
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Figure 8-8. GPS network and observing session design given 4 GPS receivers
t
t
t
SESSION 1
SESSION 2
SESSION 3
4 Receivers
6 independent baselines per
session
3 trivial lines (t) per session
t
t
t
t
t
t
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d. GPS Traversing. Traversing is the method of choice when the user has only two or three
receivers and required accuracies are 1:5,000-1:50,000. Traversing with GPS is done similar to
conventional methods. Open-end traverses are not recommended when 1:5,000 accuracies or greater are
required. A minimum of one fixed (or known) control point is required, although two or more are
preferred for redundancy. These points may or may not be part of the NGRS, or they may be existing
Corps project control monuments. A closed loop traverse between two points is always preferred, as
shown in Figure 8-9. When performing a loop traverse to/from a single point (open traverse or loop
traverse), the surveyor should observe a check angle or check azimuth at the known point using
conventional survey techniques to determine if the station has been disturbed.
Figure 8-9. GPS traversing and spur line observation schemes
e. GPS spur shots. Spurs (or radial observations) are an acceptable method when the user has
only two receivers or only a few lower-order project control points are to be established. Spur baselines
should be observed twice during two independent observing sessions. Once the first session is completed,
the receivers at each station must be turned off and the tripods moved and replumbed. Preferably, the
second session should be observed during a different phase of the satellite constellation. This procedure
is similar to performing a forward and backward level line. If this step is not implemented, the two
baselines cannot be considered independent. Figure 8-9 above shows an example of a double observation
over a spur line. The single spur shots shown in Figure 8-9 are not recommended for primary control;
however, they are acceptable for standard site plan topographic and feature mapping typically performed
with total station or RTK GPS methods.
OPEN GPS TRAVERSE
Fixed
control
point
LOOP GPS TRAVERSE
CLOSED GPS TRAVERSE
Fixed
control
point
Unknown
control
points
SINGLE SPUR LINE (NOT RECOMMENDED)
DOUBLE SPUR LINE (RECOMMENDED)
Fixed
control
point
Fixed
control
point
Unknown
points
Unknown
points
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8-10. Planning Vertical Control Surveys using Carrier Phase GPS
GPS can be used to extend and densify precise vertical control on USACE civil and military projects.
This GPS application requires far more exacting measurement procedures than that required for
horizontal control densification. This is due to: (1) GPS is less accurate in the vertical axis, (2) local
geoid undulations must be accounted for, (3) the variety of vertical datum definitions and local
readjustments, and (4) vertical orthometric datums can exhibit significant short-term local variations due
to settlement. Accordingly, planning considerations for vertical control surveys are more critical than
those required for horizontal surveys.
a. GPS positioning, whether operated in an absolute or differential positioning mode, can provide
heights (or height differences) of surveyed points. As outlined in Chapter 3, the height " h " or height
difference " h " obtained from GPS is in terms of height above or below the WGS 84 ellipsoid. These
ellipsoid heights are not the same as orthometric heights, or elevations, which would be obtained from
conventional differential/spirit leveling. This distinction between ellipsoid heights and orthometric
elevations is critical to USACE engineering and construction projects; thus, users of GPS must exercise
extreme care and caution in applying GPS height determinations to projects that are based on
conventional orthometric elevations.
b. GPS uses WGS 84 as the optimal mathematical model best describing the shape of the true
earth at sea level based on an ellipsoid of revolution. The WGS 84 ellipsoid adheres very well to the
shape of the earth in terms of horizontal coordinates, but differs somewhat with the established
definition(s) of orthometric height. The difference between ellipsoidal height, as measured by GPS, and
conventional leveled (orthometric) heights is required over an entire project area to adjust GPS heights to
orthometric elevations. In planning a vertical control project, appropriate geoid modeling software must
be used to convert ellipsoidal heights to approximate orthometric elevations. These approximate geoid
model conversions have improved with each release by NGS but should also be used with care and
caution. In practice, conventional spirit leveling is performed as a quality control process for these
geoidal adjustments.
c. Static or kinematic GPS survey techniques can be used effectively on a regional basis for the
densification of lower accuracy vertical control for mapping purposes. Existing benchmark data
(orthometric heights) and corresponding GPS-derived ellipsoidal values for at least three stations in a
small project area can be used in tandem in a minimally constrained adjustment program to reasonably
model the geoid in the local project area. More than three correlated stations are required for larger areas
to ensure proper modeling of the geoidal undulations in the area. The model from the benchmark data
and corresponding GPS data can then be used to derive the unknown orthometric heights of the remaining
stations occupied during the GPS observation period.
d. Step-by-step vertical control planning, observation, and adjustment procedures employed by
the NGS are described in the following sections and in some of the publications listed in Appendix A.
These procedures are recommended should a USACE field activity utilize GPS to densify vertical control
relative to an orthometric datum.
e. The criteria in the following sections do not apply to RTK topographic mapping surveys
performed over a relatively small distance (say 500 to 1,000 m) from an existing benchmark. Over these
short distances, geoid undulations are usually insignificant and observed ellipsoidal elevation differences
can be assumed as orthometric. This is not the case when RTK surveys are extended beyond these
distances, such as those typically encountered in determining elevations of dredge dragarms, core drilling
rigs, or hydrographic survey platforms in distant, offshore navigation projects. For these applications,
geoid modeling must be determined and applied.
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8-11. Technical Criteria for GPS Vertical Densification
The following sections provide technical guidance for using differential carrier-phase GPS observations
to determine elevations of survey benchmarks for wide-area mapping and GIS database development
applications. Recommended procedural specifications for field DGPS observation sessions are included.
These guidelines and specifications are intended for densifying vertical control over large project areas,
such as an entire military installation or watershed basin mapping project. The DGPS methods outlined
in this section are generally not intended, nor would be cost-effective, for small projects or any type of
construction lay out work where vertical grades or benchmarks require an accuracy better than 30
millimeters (mm). In such cases, conventional differential (spirit) leveling methods should be used.
Advances in geoid modeling have also led to more accurate conversions between NAD 83 GPS ellipsoid
heights and NAVD 88 orthometric height systems. Accuracies of 30 mm or better have been obtained
when converting ellipsoid heights from GPS surveys, based on NAD 83 control, to NAVD 88 orthometric
heights using the latest geoid model. The initial GPS survey data must be valid for the elevation transfer
method to be effective.
8-12. Orthometric Elevation Guidelines
The following paragraphs present the basic criteria standards for using GPS to determine NAVD 88
elevations. These criteria are also summarized in Table 8-4. These operational requirements are based on
field test results conducted by US Army Topographic Engineering Center (ERDC/TEC) and the National
Geodetic Survey (NGS) using several different GPS surveying methods and comparing these results to
conventional differential leveling networks. Additional standards and specifications for performing
precise GPS vertical control surveys are contained in Guidelines for Establishing GPS-Derived Ellipsoid
Heights (Standards: 2 cm and 5 cm) (NOAA 1997). Much of the guidance contained in this section is
derived from the material in this reference. USACE commands performing vertical densification surveys
with GPS should be thoroughly familiar with the contents of the NOAA 1997 reference.
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Table 8-4. Guidelines for Establishing GPS-Derived 30 mm Accuracy Orthometric Elevations
Occupation time for each baseline occupation (minimum):
Distance Time Update rate
< 10 km 30 min 5 sec intervals
10-20 km 60 min 10 sec intervals
> 100 km > 5 hours 15 sec intervals
Dual-frequency receiver required: Yes
Geodetic quality antenna with
ground plane required: Yes
Minimum number of existing
benchmarks required: 3
Minimum number of observations
per baseline: 2
Fixed-height tripods/poles: Recommended
Measure antenna height: 2 to 3 times
Satellite altitude mask angle: 15 degrees
Maximum allowable VDOP: 5
Number of days station occupied: 2 days
Over 40 km baselines: 3 days
Nominal distance between project
and fixed, higher-order benchmarks: within 20 km radius
Maximum distance between same
or higher-order benchmarks: 50 km
Collect meteorological data: Optional
Precise ephemeris baseline
reduction required: Yes
Recommended geoid model: Geoid 99 (or most recent)
Fixed integers required
for all baselines: Yes
Baseline resultant RMS less than: 2.5
Source: Table 1 of (NOAA 1997) with USACE revisions
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a. Baselines. GPS baselines are observed to determine ellipsoidal height differences across a
network of stations. A GPS precise ephemeris should be used in place of the broadcast ephemeris during
baseline data processing. Repeat baselines should be observed for all control surveys established with
DGPS. The average ellipsoid height from the repeat observations will be closer to the truth, with a few
exceptions, than the ellipsoid height value from a single observation. Table 8-4 recommends a minimum
of two repeat observations for each baseline. Baselines should be reobserved on different days with
significantly different satellite geometry. For topographic and location surveys (using kinematic
techniques), repeat occupations should be performed where feasible. It is important that the positions be
adjusted on NAD 83 since the most recent geoid models are also based on NAD 83.
b. NAVD 88 network connections. At least three or more established NAVD 88 First-Order
benchmarks should be occupied to serve as the GPS reference stations where accurate vertical coordinates
will be fixed for the network adjustment. It is suggested that at least one (preferably 2 or more) of these
benchmarks are also High Precision Geodetic Network (HPGN), High Accuracy Reference Network
(HARN), or CORS stations to ensure accurate geoid modeling. First-Order accuracy standards for
geodetic leveling ensure the relative vertical position of these reference monuments will agree.
Redundant vertical control within the project area will provide a check on the solution heights of the
unknown stations. The ideal condition would be to have all benchmarks with high-order vertical and
horizontal control surrounding and/or within the project area. Table 8-4 recommends the distance
between existing reference benchmarks should be kept within 50 km. If this value is exceeded, then
additional network connections should be added.
c. Geoid models. Geoid heights at the reference stations are determined from a published geoid
model, GEOID 96 or GEOID 99. The geoid height is added to the published orthometric height at the
GPS reference station to determine its ellipsoid height to the accuracy level of the geoid model. Once the
reference stations' ellipsoidal, orthometric and geoidal heights have been fully determined, elevations are
transferred from the reference stations to the remaining points in the network according to the following
relations:
From Equation 3-1 back in Chapter 3,
H
i
= h
i
- N
I
(where i is the station of unknown height)
H
ref
= h
ref
- N
ref
, (where ref is the station of known heights)
with measured difference in ellipsoid height (h = h
i
- h
ref
) from a DGPS survey, and computed
difference in geoid height (N = N
i
- N
ref
) from a known geoid model, then,
H
i
= H
ref
+ (H
i
- H
ref
)
H
i
= H
ref
+ (h
i
- N
i
) - (h
ref
- N
ref
)
H
i
= H
ref
+ (h
i
- h
ref
) - (N
i
- N
ref
)
Then,
H
i
= H
ref
+ (h - N) (Eq 8-1)
where in Equation 8-1 H
i
is the orthometric height of the i-th station, the quantity h is determined from
the measured GPS ellipsoidal height differences, and the quantity N is the geoidal height difference
computed from the geoid model. Over very small distances (< 1,000 m), N may be considered
negligible, and the ellipsoidal height difference h is added directly to the orthometric height of the
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reference station to obtain the orthometric height of the unknown point. This practice is commonly
employed for GPS RTK topographic site plan or construction surveys over small areas.
d. Elevation precision and accuracy. The expected precision of the orthometric height from
using GPS relative positioning, modeled geoid heights, and the above relation in Equation 8-1 can be
calculated by the summation of variance components corresponding to the accuracy of the published
orthometric height, the GPS relative height determination, and the computed geoid height differences.
Positional accuracy for orthometric heights on benchmarks must be obtained from published sources
based on the results of a vertical network adjustment. Without this information it is presumed that a fixed
vertical control point contributes no additional error to the height of the unknown stations. The
uncertainties in GPS relative heights are estimated from the vertical component error estimate that is
produced from the GPS data processing and adjustment software. An error estimate of 10 mm is
commonly seen as the minimum baseline error produced from static type surveys. Relative geoidal height
precision (
N
)

from geoid modeling can have an expected standard deviation of between 10 mm and
20 mm.
e. Elevation confidence. The aforementioned error values lead to an expected uncertainty in final
orthometric height at the unknown station of approximately 3 cm (at the 95% confidence level) relative to
the published elevation at the benchmark reference station. NOAA 1997 specifies procedures for two
potential levels of accuracy: 20 mm and 50 mm. NOAA procedures for "2 cm (20 mm)" ellipsoid
elevation accuracy should be followed if approximately 30 mm accuracy reduced orthometric elevations
are desired. A repeatable accuracy of 30 mm meets or exceeds most feature elevation tolerances
specified for many USACE surveying and mapping projects, excepting certain high precision surveys
such as for low flow hydraulic studies, construction stake out, or structural deformation monitoring
networks. In areas with obstructions, dense vegetation, or high relief between monuments or projects site,
GPS may be the most cost effective approach and may exceed spirit leveling accuracy. In some cases,
GPS elevation difference observations can be obtained more quickly than conventional differential
leveling observations.
f. Field testing results. Based on an evaluation of DGPS data and geoid modeling software
capabilities by ERDC/TEC, it was determined that higher accuracy elevations are obtained by the transfer
of ellipsoidal height differences and relative geoidal heights from a station with a known NAVD 88
elevation, than is possible from the direct application of absolute geoid heights to GPS networks. This
analysis was based on various methods used for determining NAVD 88 elevations from GPS ellipsoidal
height data. These methods were tested on a network of points having known First-Order leveled
orthometric heights that were tied to First-Order vertical control. Results of the testing indicated that
GPS-based surveys could determine NAVD 88 elevations to an accuracy of 30 mm when relative
heights and differences in geoid heights are applied. It is important to note that the accuracy of NAVD 88
elevations determined from DGPS-derived heights and geoid modeling is dependent on the accuracy of
the GPS coordinate solution and the geoid model.
8-13. Additional Guidelines and Recommendations for Planning GPS Vertical
Densification
In addition to the guidelines presented in the above section, the following procedures and methods are
recommended and should be implemented when planning to use GPS for elevation determination.
a. Keep project areas within a 20-kilometer radius of control points. GPS relative positioning
accuracy depends in part on the length of the measured baseline. Positioning errors grow in direct
proportion to baseline length at a rate of approximately 1 part per million. For networks with an area less
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than 20 km, the distance dependent error in the GPS vertical component (relative ellipsoid height) will be
limited. Occupation times of less than 1 hour (see Table 8-4) should produce good results for these
shorter baselines. For project areas greater than 20 km, the occupation times should be increased to a
minimum of 2 hours. Fixed control points should be spaced throughout (surrounding and within) the
project area.
b. Observe when VDOP is less than 5.0. Vertical Dilution of Precision (VDOP) is a measure of
vertical positioning accuracy (due mainly to satellite geometry) relative to the precision of the
measurements used to determine the position. Large VDOP values represent poor satellite geometry that
will generally produce weak positioning solutions.
c. Use fixed-height tripods/poles. Fixed-height tripods and range poles provide a consistent
station occupation method that can reduce the likelihood of antenna height measurement blunders.
d. Use dual-frequency receivers. Dual-frequency receivers can correct GPS measurements for
ionospheric-based range errors. This will extend the feasible baseline length and resolve integer
ambiguities reliably within 20 km. Dual-frequency receivers should be used on all baselines longer than
20 km.
e. Use identical geodetic quality antennas with ground plane. Different makes and models of
GPS antennas can have different phase centers. Mixing of different types of antennas can cause errors in
the vertical component up to 100 mm. Only if the processing software can account for the phase center
difference in the GPS antennas should mixing of antenna types occur. The ground plane on the antenna
(or choke ring antenna design) will reduce the amount of ground reflecting multipath.
f. Occupy points a minimum of twice with different satellite constellations and on different days.
The purpose of this criteria is to ensure different atmospheric conditions (different days) and significantly
different satellite geometry (different times) for the two occupations. For example, if the first day's
observation was made between 8:00 AM to 8:30 AM, the second 30-minute observation would be made
on the next day anytime between 11:30 AM and 5:30 PM. If the second observation is not made for a
couple of days or even a week, be sure to compensate for the daily 4-minute accumulative change in the
GPS satellite constellation. It has been shown that the average ellipsoid height of repeat observations is
closer to the truth, with a few exceptions, than the ellipsoid height of a single observation.
g. Process with a minimum elevation mask of 15 degrees. A 15-degree elevation mask will
reduce noise embedded in low elevation satellite data and also minimize potential multipath effects from
nearby objects surrounding the antenna. For obstructions low on the horizon, a 20-degree elevation mask
may be used during baseline processing.
h. Process GPS data with Precise Ephemeris. The broadcast ephemeris is the prediction of
where the satellites will be, but the precise ephemeris is the actual true orbit of the satellites. Use of a
precise ephemeris will reduce the error between predicted and actual satellite orbit and increase the
accuracy of the survey. The precise ephemeris is available approximately seven days after a survey
through the National Geodetic Survey.
i. Use only ionosphere free fixed baseline solutions for baselines greater than 10 k. Ionosphere-
free solutions indicate the use of dual-frequency receivers and processing can model and eliminate errors
due to signal delay in the ionosphere. Fixed baseline solutions indicate a statistically accurate integer
ambiguity was established from the GPS data. A normal, (not ionosphere-free) fixed baseline is sufficient
for baselines less than 10 km.
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j. Use relative geoid height values. Application of the geoid model to both reference and remote
stations will produce two absolute geoid heights. The relative geoid height value is determined from the
difference between the absolute geoid model height values taken at both ends of a given baseline.
Relative geoid heights, when added to measured ellipsoidal height differences, produces the best vertical
accuracy based on the ground truth test results.
k. Adjustments. A minimally constrained least-squares adjustment should be performed on the
vertical reference network to determine which of the "fixed" benchmarks are valid. Such a free
adjustment would hold one of the benchmarks fixed in X, Y, and Z in order to check the fit against the
other established benchmarks. Presuming no observational blunders, any benchmark with apparent
excessive movement would be discarded from the final (constrained) adjustment.
l. Geoid models. Different geoid models should not be mixed in the same project. Different
geoid models can vary by 5 cm or more. For example, if a project network was originally adjusted using
GEOID 93, do not mix in GEOID 96 or GEOID 99 with subsequent observations--unless the entire
project is readjusted using a later geoid model. GEOID 96 (or a more recent update) is recommended for
projects on NAVD 88 datum.
8-14. Cadastral Survey Standards and Guidelines using GPS
The Bureau of Land Management and the US Forest Service jointly developed GPS survey standards for
surveys of the public lands of the US-- Standards and Guidelines for Cadastral Surveys using Global
Positioning System Methods (USFS/BLM 2001). These standards and guidelines may prove useful when
Corps commands are required to connect military installation boundaries or reservoir boundaries with the
US Public Land Survey System (PLSS). Both static and kinematic survey techniques are covered in the
guidelines. They also cover field data acquisition methods, field survey operation and procedures, data
processing and analysis methodologies, and required documentation. Two types of GPS control surveys are
defined: (1) Cadastral Project Control, and (2) Cadastral Measurements.
a. Cadastral Project Control includes monuments established by direct connection with the primary
NGRS (HARN/HPGN/CORS) network. These monuments serve as the basis for all subsequent
connections by GPS Cadastral Measurements made to PLSS monuments. Cadastral Project Control must be
connected with at least two NGRS points. The reference datum shall be the latest epoch of NAD 1983
(1986)--e.g., Wyoming NAD 1983 (1993). Only Static or Fast-Static survey methods are allowed for these
connections. Points must be established by two or more independent baselines, loops must have a minimum
of three baselines, baseline solutions must be fixed double difference, and all stations must have at least two
independent occupations. Single radial (spur) baselines are not allowed.
b. Cadastral Measurements are used to define the location of PLSS corners and boundaries.
Cadastral Measurements must be connected with at least two Cadastral Project Control monuments or
NGRS monuments. Guidelines for these observations are similar to those required for Cadastral Project
Control, except all types of static and kinematic survey methods are acceptable, including real-time
kinematic RTK) techniques. The USFS/BLM guidelines contain extensive procedural and calibration
requirements for RTK surveys.
c. Positional accuracy standards for USFS/BLM cadastral surveys are defined relative to the 95%
confidence level, as outlined in Table 8-5 below.
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Table 8-5. USFS/BLM Cadastral Survey Standards for Positional Accuracy
95 % Confidence Level
Definition Cadastral Project Control Cadastral Measurements
Local Accuracy Average measure of the relative 0.050 m 0.100 m
accuracies of the coordinates for
a point with respect
to other adjacent points
Network Accuracy Relative to the NGRS network 0.100 m 0.200 m
The 95% positional accuracy of established points is assessed from the output of the network adjustment,
as explained in Chapter 11.
8-15. Field Planning Considerations for GPS Surveys
After a GPS horizontal and/or vertical densification network has been designed, specified, and laid out,
the logistics of performing the GPS field survey needs to be considered. The most efficient survey
method should be chosen in order to minimize time and cost while meeting the accuracy requirements of
a given survey project. Once a survey technique is developed, equipment requirements, personnel
assignments, observation schedules, and session designations can be identified.
a. General equipment requirements. The type of GPS instrumentation required for a survey
depends on the accuracy requirements of the project, GPS survey technique, project size, and economics.
Most USACE projects can be completed using a single-frequency receiver. Dual-frequency receivers are
recommended as baseline lengths approach or exceed 20 km. This length may also vary depending on the
amount of solar activity during the observation period. Using a dual-frequency receiver permits the user
to solve for possible ionospheric and troposphere delays, which can occur as the signal travels from the
satellite to the receiver antenna.
(1) Number of GPS receivers. The minimum number of receivers required to perform a
differential GPS survey is two. The actual number used on a project will depend on the project size and
number of available instruments/operators. Using more than two receivers will often increase
productivity and allow for more efficient field observations. For some post-processed kinematic
applications, two reference receivers (set at known points) and at least one rover are recommended.
(2) Personnel. Personnel requirements are also project dependent. Most GPS equipment is
compact and lightweight and only requires one person per station set-up. However, in some cases where
a station is not easily accessible or requires additional power for a data link, two individuals may be
required.
(3) Transportation. One vehicle is normally required for each GPS receiver used on a project. If
secure sites are available, GPS receivers may be left unattended. The survey vehicle should be equipped
to handle the physical conditions that may be encountered while performing the field observations. In
most cases, a two-wheel-drive vehicle should be adequate for performing all field observations. If
adverse site conditions exist, a four-wheel-drive vehicle may be required. Adequate and reliable
transportation is important when the observation schedule requires moving from one station to another
between observation sessions.
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(4) Auxiliary equipment. Adequate power should be available for all equipment (receivers,
computers, lights, etc.) that will be used during the observations. Computers, software, and data
storage/archiving devices should be available for on-site field data reduction use. Other survey
equipment should include tripods, tribrachs, tribrach adapters, radios, cell phones, measuring tapes,
flagging, flashlights, tools, equipment cables, compass, psychrometer, inclinometer, etc. If real-time
positioning is required, than a data link is also needed.
(5) Benchmarks. Special equipment is required to set deep-driven permanent benchmarks, as
illustrated in Figure 8-10.
Figure 8-10. Setting deep-driven benchmarks (Memphis District & 3001, Inc.)
b. Observation schedules. Planning a GPS survey requires that the surveyor determine when
satellites will be visible for the given survey area; therefore, the first step in determining observation
schedules is to plot a satellite visibility plot for days GPS observations are planned. If some sectors are
obstructed, at least 4 satellites may not be visible at all times. At least 5 satellites are required for RTK
OTF initialization.
(1) Most GPS manufacturers have software packages that predict satellite rise and set times.
Satellite predictions are also available on various web sites. A satellite plot will have the following
essential information: satellite azimuths, elevations, set and rise times, and PDOP for the desired survey
area. A typical visibility plot is shown at Figure 8-11. Satellite ephemeris data are generally required as
input for the prediction software.
(2) To obtain broadcast ephemeris information, a GPS receiver collects data during a satellite
window. The receiver antenna does not have to be located over a known point when collecting a
broadcast ephemeris. The data is then downloaded to a personal computer where it is used as input into
the software prediction program. Besides ephemeris data for the software, the user is generally required
to enter approximate latitude and longitude (usually scaled from a topographic map) and time offset from
UTC for the survey area. A current ephemeris file can be downloaded using various manufacturer's
planning software.
(3) From the satellite plot, the user can determine the best time to perform a successful GPS
survey by taking advantage of the best combination of satellite azimuths, elevations, and PDOP as
determined by the satellite visibility plot for the desired survey area. The number of sessions and/or
stations per day depends on satellite visibility, travel times between stations, and the final accuracy of the
survey. Often, a receiver is required to occupy a station for more than one session per day.
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(4) A satellite visibility plot and a PDOP versus time plot may be run prior to site reconnaissance.
The output files created by the satellite prediction software are used in determining if a site is suitable for
GPS surveying.
(5) Determination of session times is based mainly on the satellite visibility plan with the
following factors taken into consideration: time required to permit safe travel between survey sites; time
to set up and take down the equipment before and after the survey; time of survey; and possible time loss
due to unforeseeable problems or complications. Station occupation during each session should be
designed to minimize travel time in order to maximize the overall efficiency of the survey.
Figure 8-11. Visibility plot of satellites and PDOP versus Time
8-16. Mandatory Criteria
The guidelines in Table 8-2 and Table 8-4 shall be considered mandatory.
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Chapter 9
Conducting GPS Field Surveys
9-1. General
This chapter presents guidance to field personnel performing GPS surveys for typical USACE military
construction and civil works projects. The primary emphasis in this chapter is on performing static and
kinematic carrier phase differential GPS measurements. Absolute and differential code phase GPS
positioning and mapping techniques are also covered. Detailed field instructions for specific GPS
receivers are typically contained in the operating or reference manuals provided by the manufacturer.
Given the wide variety of GPS receivers, coupled with the different types of data collection, logging,
processing, and adjustment techniques that can be performed in the field, this chapter can only provide a
brief overview of some representative systems; and highlight observing criteria which is common to all
types of GPS equipment.
9-2. General GPS Field Survey Procedures
The following are some general GPS field survey procedures that should be performed at each occupied
point on a GPS survey. These general procedures apply to either static or kinematic observation methods,
and to either real-time or post-processed data collection.
a. Receiver set up. GPS receivers shall be set up in accordance with manufacturer's
specifications prior to beginning any observations. Base station antennas are typically mounted on a
tripod and kinematic rover receivers and antenna are mounted on fixed-height range poles. If real-time
kinematic observations are being collected, then radio or satellite communication links will need to be set
up. Newer GPS systems contain a separate data controller to record, coordinate, and process all GPS data
collection. Figure 9-1 depicts a typical data collector.
Figure 9-1. Typical GPS data collector used for static and real-time kinematic surveys
(Trimble Survey Controller, Trimble Navigation LTD )
b. Antenna setup. All tribrachs used on a project should be calibrated and adjusted prior to
beginning each project. Dual use of both optical plummets and standard plumb bobs is strongly
recommended since centering errors represent a major error source in all survey work, not just GPS
surveying. A reference line marked on the antenna should always be pointed or aligned in the same
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direction (e.g., north), using a magnetic compass. Tripods should be checked daily for tightness and
fixed-height tripods and range poles should be periodically calibrated.
c. Height of instrument measurements. Height of instrument (HI) refers to the correct
measurement of the distance of the GPS antenna above the reference monument over which it has been
placed. In actuality, the physical measurement is made to some fixed point on the antenna mounting
device from which the previously calibrated distance to the antenna phase center (APC) can be added.
This is shown for different types of fixed range pole mounts in Figure 9-2. HI measurements should be
made both before and after each observation session. The standard reference points for each antenna will
be established prior to the beginning of the observations so all observers will be measuring to the same
point. All HI measurements will be made in both meters and feet for redundancy and blunder detection.
HI measurements shall be determined to the nearest millimeter in metric units and to the nearest 0.01 ft
(or 1/16 in.). It should be noted whether the HI is vertical or diagonal. Each GPS receiver/antenna
manufacturer provides specific antenna height measuring guidance in their instrument operating manual.
Figure 9-2 depicts some of the measurement methods required for different types of Trimble antennas.
For some instruments (e.g., Trimble GPS Total Station 4800 and 4600LS Receiver) a special measuring
tape and instructions is provided by the manufacturer--see lower right example in Figure 9-2. When a
ground plane is used at a base receiver, direct distances are measured to different points on the antenna
and the average of these distances is entered into the controller as a slope distance for automatic
correction. The GPS survey controller will typically query input for the type of antenna and mount.
Figure 9-2. Antenna height measurements for various types of mounts
and antenna types (Trimble Navigation LTD)
GPS receiver mounted
on range pole
Ground Plane Antenna
Tripod mounted antenna
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d. Field GPS observation recording procedures. Field recording books, log sheets, log forms, or
full-text input data collectors will be completed for each station and/or session. Any acceptable recording
media may be used. For archiving purposes, standard bound field survey books are preferred; however,
USACE commands may specify written or automated logging media to be used in lieu of a survey book.
The amount of record keeping detail will be project dependent; low-order topographic mapping points
need not have as much descriptive information as would permanently marked primary control points. The
following typical data may be included on these field logging records:
(1) Project, construction contract, observer(s) name(s), and/or A-E or construction contractor firm
and contract/task order number
(2) Station designation
(3) Station file number
(4) Date, weather conditions, etc.
(5) Time start/stop session (local and UTC)
(6) Receiver, antenna, data recording unit, and tribrach make, model, and serial numbers
(7) Antenna height: vertical or diagonal measures in inches (or feet) and meters (or centimeters)
(8) Space vehicle (SV) designations of satellites observed during sessions
(9) Sketch of station location
(10) Approximate geodetic location and elevation
(11) Problems encountered
USACE commands may require that additional data be recorded. These will be contained in individual
project instructions or contract task order scopes. Samples of typical GPS recording forms are shown
later in this section.
e. Field calibrations and initializations. When kinematic surveys are performed, it may be
necessary to calibrate the base station to a known local coordinate point and reference datum. An
initialization process may also be required for some types of kinematic surveys. Check with
manufacturer's recommendations on specific techniques for calibrating RTK surveys to a local datum.
These calibrations should be clearly noted on log records for the survey.
f. Field processing and verification. It is strongly recommended that GPS data processing and
verification be performed in the field where applicable. This is to identify any problems that can be
corrected before returning from the field. Survey processing and verification are covered in Chapters 10
and 11.
g. Session designations. A survey session in GPS terminology refers to a single period of
observations. Sessions and station designations are usually denoted and input into the data collector using
alphanumeric characters, following format restrictions allowed by the receiver vendor. The station and
session designations should be clearly correlated with entries on the log forms so that there are no
questions during subsequent baseline processing. The date of each survey session should be recorded
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during the survey as calendar dates and Julian days and used in the station/session designation. Some
GPS software programs will require Julian dates for correct software operation. In addition to
determination of station/session designations before the survey begins, the crew chief may need to
consider or review some of the following factors:
Persons designated to occupy each station.
Satellite visibility for each station.
Site reconnaissance data for stations to be occupied. Remember the same person who performed
the initial site reconnaissance may not be the individual performing the survey; therefore,
previous site reconnaissance data may require clarification before survey commencement.
Project sketch.
Explicit instructions on when each session is to begin and end, and follow-up sessions.
Providing observers with data logging sheets for each occupied station.
h. GPS Station Log forms. The following figures contain samples of station logs used by various
USACE districts. Standard bound field survey books may be used in lieu of separate log/work sheets.
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Figure 9-3. Sample USACE GPS data logging sheet
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Figure 9-3. (Concluded)
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Figure 9-4. Worksheet 9-1, USACE GPS Data Logging Sheet
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Figure 9-4. (Concluded)
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Figure 9-5. Jacksonville District GPS Session Recording Form
GPS SESSION FORM CORPS OF ENGINEERS, JACKSONVILLE DISTRICT
1 2 3 AVG 1 2 3 AVG
1 2 3 AVG 1 2 3 AVG
e.g., bottom edge of notch in ground plane, Page 5, Figure 2
SLANT TRUE VERTICAL
Type of Measurement (circle one )
Ending Antenna Height in Meters Type of Measurement (circle one )
TRUE VERTICAL SLANT
End Date (UTC) End Time (UTC)
Antenna Reference Point (include and reference a dimensioned diagram in Survey Report )
Start Date (UTC) Start Time (UTC) Approx. Lat. (if available )
Starting Antenna Height Meters
Ending Antenna Height in Feet
Approx. Lon. (if available )
Jax Survey No.
Monument Name/Designation Exact Stamping (include photo in survey report )
Agency/AE Firm
Project Name
Operator Name Agency/AE Project No.
Date
Receiver Model Receiver Serial No.
Data Collector Model Data Collector Serial No.
Starting Antenna Height in Feet
Site Diagram
File Name (receiver generated ) Agency Cast in Disk
Antenna Part No. Antenna Model Antenna Serial No.
Describe any abnormalities and/or problems
encountered during the session, include time of
occurrence and duration.
Monument No./PID
Receiver Manufacturer
Data Collector Manufacturer
version 20020912
SUBMIT DIGITAL COPY OF ORIGINAL AND TYPED VERSIONS
ALL FIELDS REQUIRED UNLESS OTHERWISE NOTED
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Figure 9-6. NGS Station Observation Log (Page 1)
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Figure 9-6. (Concluded) NGS Station Observation Log (Page 2)
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Section I: Conducting Absolute GPS Positioning and Navigation Surveys
9-3. General
Absolute point positioning GPS receivers acquire and process satellite range data to provide 10-30 meter
horizontal accuracy positions. This real-time positional data is typically displayed on a hand-held
receiver screen, either in numeric or graphic (navigation) format, depending on the application.
Numerous hand-held receivers are available for real-time dynamic navigation uses. Although absolute
positional data are most often expressed in real time, some mapping-grade receivers can post-process data
if station occupation was static over a period of time--e.g., 6 to 24 hours. The post-processing produces a
best-fit point position and meter-level accuracy can be achieved--dual-frequency receivers using the
precise ephemeris can produce even better (sub-meter) absolute positional accuracies. Absolute positions
are based on the WGS 84 ellipsoid. Therefore, observed horizontal positions need to be transformed to a
local reference datum (e.g., NAD 83) and ellipsoid elevations need to be corrected for geoid undulation in
order to obtain approximate orthometric elevations on either NAVD 88 or NGVD 29.
9-4. Absolute Point Positioning Techniques
Absolute point positioning techniques are employed where differential techniques are impractical and a
new reference point is needed. This might occur in some OCONUS locations. Given the ready
availability of automated differential techniques in CONUS (e.g., FAA WAAS, USCG radiobeacon) there
is no longer any need to perform absolute point positioning. There are two techniques used for point
positioning in the absolute mode. They are long term averaging of positions and differencing between
signals.
a. In long-term averaging, a receiver is set up to store positions over a fixed period of time. The
length of observation time varies based upon the accuracy required. The longer the period of data
collection, the better the average position will be. This observation time can range between 1 and 24
hours. This technique can also be done in real-time (i.e. the receiver averages the positions as they are
calculated). For example, the military PLGR GPS receiver uses this technique in calculating a position at
a point. Positions can be stored at either 15, 30, or 60 second intervals, depending on storage capacity
and length of observation. Typically, a 24-hour observation period is used to obtain an absolute point
position accurate to the meter-level.
b. The process of differencing between signals can only be performed in a post-processed mode.
NIMA (formerly Defense Mapping Agency) has produced software that can perform this operation.
There are few USACE requirements for this technique.
9-5. Absolute GPS Navigation Systems
General vehicle and vessel navigation systems typically use inexpensive single-frequency GPS receivers.
Various types of these receivers are sold at prices ranging from $100 to $1,000, depending largely on the
display and software options. Operation of these receivers is simple and briefly explained in operating
manuals provided with the device. Some receivers can log feature data for subsequent download to a
GIS. Other receivers can log code and carrier phase data for post-processing adjustment to a reference
station such as CORS. A typical receiver is shown in Figure 9-7. This receiver weighs only 5.3 ounces
and has a high-contrast LCD display. It can save up to 500 waypoints and contains more than 100 map
datums.
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Figure 9-7. Garmin eTrex handheld differential-ready 12 parallel channel GPS receiver
9-6. Mapping Grade GPS Receivers
Figure 9-8. Real-time, meter-level accuracy, feature mapping-grade GPS backpack systems
A variety of mapping grade GPS receivers are available to collect and process real-time absolute and code
differential positional data, post-processed carrier differential positional data, and correlate these positions
with CADD/GIS map features. These georeferenced features can then be exported into a specific GIS
platform. These mapping grade receiver systems, including software, range in cost between $3,000 and
$10,000. Field operation of these receivers is fairly straightforward and is described in operating manuals
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referenced in the following sections. The following paragraphs briefly describe some of the operational
capabilities of two Trimble mapping grade receivers: the GeoExplorer 3 and the GPS Pathfinder.
a. Trimble GeoExplorer 3. The GeoExplorer 3 data collection system is an integrated GPS
receiver and data collector for mapping, relocating, and updating GIS and spatial data. The system is
used with the GPS Pathfinder Office software for mission planning, data transfer, data dictionary creation,
data import/ export, and post-processing. The GeoExplorer 3 data collection system can operate as a
rover receiver or as a base station--typically using meter-level accuracy code data acquired from USCG
radiobeacon stations or from commercial wide area providers. It can also collect high-precision data
using differential GPS carrier phase measurements. The data collector can navigate, collect data, view
system status and satellite availability, and control the GPS receiver. The GeoExplorer 3 data logger is
designed for handheld use in the field. It has an internal antenna and power source, and a high-
performance 12-channel GPS receiver. Accessories, such as external antennas or power kits, are
available. The primary functions of the GeoExplorer 3 data collection system are collecting geographic
data, using and updating existing GIS data, and navigating in the field. It can collect the feature attributes
and GPS position of geographic points, lines, and areas. This information is stored in one or more data
files that can later be transferred to Trimbles GPS Pathfinder Office software for postprocessing and
editing. Data can then be exported into a variety of CADD/GIS compatible formats. The GeoExplorer 3
can be configured to update data from an existing GIS or CADD database. It can also be used to navigate
to specific locations, using either absolute point positioning or real-time differential GPS, using the
optional Beacon-on-a-Belt (BoB) beacon receiver. Feature data dictionaries can be created or edited in
the office with the GPS Pathfinder Office software or in the GeoExplorer 3 data collection system.
Applications for the GeoExplorer 3 include utility mapping and locating, forestry mapping, environmental
and resource management, disaster assessment, and urban asset management. For further details on the
GeoExplorer 3 system refer to GeoExplorer 3 Operation Guide (Trimble 2001f).
b. Trimble Pathfinder Pro XR/XRS. The Pathfinder Pro XR/XRS 12-channel, dual-frequency
receivers are capable of processing absolute GPS positioning data, MSK radiobeacon DGPS code
corrections, and satellite differential corrections from commercial providers, such as Fugro OmniSTAR
and Thales LandSTAR. These systems can also process code differential corrections from an external
fixed reference receiver--such that decimeter-level and centimeter-levels can be obtained. The GPS and
radiobeacon antennas are combined into a single unit. Sub-meter positional accuracy is achieved if a
compatible Trimble reference station is used. More accurate differential carrier phase data can also be
collected for post-processing. Carrier phase data and mapped feature data can be exported to a post-
processing program such as Pathfinder Office. The Pathfinder system is typically configured in a
backpack assembly that contains the receiver, battery pack, antenna pole, and GPS/MSK beacon antenna.
For further details on this system, see GPS Pathfinder Systems Receiver Manual (Trimble 2001e).
c. GPS Pathfinder Office. GPS Pathfinder Office is typical of software designed to manage and
process data collected by mapping grade GPS receivers. It is especially designed to configure and export
feature data into GIS or CADD databases. Other features include: design or construction of feature data
dictionaries, CADD/GIS database format conversions, file transferring from handheld data collectors, and
differentially processing GPS data between a reference base station and a rover unit. This processing
software is described in GPS Pathfinder Office (Trimble 2002a).
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Section II: Conducting Differential GPS Code Phase Positioning and Mapping Surveys
9-7. General
Differential (or relative) GPS surveying is the determination of one location with respect to another
location. When using this technique with the C/A or P-code it is called differential code phase
positioning, as distinct from carrier phase positioning techniques covered in the next section. Differential
code phase positioning has limited application to detailed engineering control surveying and topographic
site plan mapping applications. However, it is widely used for general reconnaissance surveys,
hydrographic survey positioning, offshore core drilling rig positioning, dredge positioning, and some
operational military survey support functions. Additional applications for relative code phase positioning
have been on the increase as positional accuracies have improved. Real-time, meter-level DGPS
correctors can be obtained from the USCG radiobeacon navigation service or from a variety of
commercial wide-area augmentation systems. This section primarily focuses on the USCG radiobeacon
system; however, a number of commercial augmentation systems are also capable of providing
comparable (or better) survey positioning capability. Some of those commercial systems having USACE
application are described. Calibration guidance in this section is applicable to all these augmentation
systems.
9-8. USCG DGPS Radiobeacon Navigation Service
a. General. The USCG radiobeacon system is by far the most widely applied use of code phase
GPS in USACE--in fact, the Corps funds and operates some USCG radiobeacon stations at various points
along the Mississippi River and tributaries. This real-time positioning system is used for nearly all dredge
positioning and hydrographic survey operations in USACE. In the past, Loran-C and Omega systems
were used as the primary positioning tools for marine navigation. Today, the USCG is making use of the
full coverage from GPS for a more accurate positioning tool for marine navigation. Utilizing DGPS and
marine radiobeacon technology, the USCG has designed a real-time positioning system for the coastal
areas and Great Lakes regions of the US. The USCG has also partnered with USACE and other
government agencies to expand this coverage to inland waterways and eventually over the entire nation.
The system consists of a series of GPS reference stations with known coordinate values based on the
North American Datum of 1983 (NAD 83) datum. GPS C/A-code pseudorange corrections are computed
based on these known coordinate values and transmitted via a marine radiobeacon. A user with a marine
radiobeacon receiver and a GPS receiver with the ability to accept and apply pseudorange corrections can
obtain a relative accuracy of 0.5-3 meters. This accuracy is dependent on many factors including the
design and quality of the user's GPS receiver, distance from the reference station, and the satellite
geometry. This service can be used for all USACE hydrographic surveys and dredge positioning
requiring an accuracy of 0.5 to 3 meters.
b. Site set-up and configuration. Each USCG radiobeacon site consists of two GPS L1/L2
geodetic receivers (as reference station receivers) with independent geodetic antennas to provide
redundancy, and a marine radiobeacon transmitter with transmitting antenna. The site is also equipped
with two combined L1 GPS / Modulation Shift Key (MSK) receivers which are used as integrity
monitors. Each combined receiver utilizes an independent GPS antenna and a MSK near-field passive
loop antenna.
(1) Site Location. The location of the reference station GPS antennas are tied into the North
American Datum of 1983 (NAD 83) and the International Terrestrial Reference Frame (ITRF). The
geodetic coordinates for these positions were determined by NGS. DGPS pseudorange corrections are
based on measurements made by the reference receiver relative to the NAD 83 antenna coordinates.
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These pseudorange corrections are then transmitted via the marine radiobeacon to all users having the
necessary equipment.
(2) Data Transmission (data types). The corrections are transmitted using the Type 9-3 message
format designated by the Radio Technical Commission for Maritime Services Special Committee 104
(RTCM SC-104). Other RTCM SC-104 message types transmitted to the user include Type 3 (contains
the NAD 83 coordinates for the broadcast site), Type 5 (provides information if a GPS satellite is deemed
unhealthy), Type 7 (information on adjacent radiobeacons), and Type 16 (alerts the user of any outages).
More detailed descriptions of these message types can be downloaded from the USCG Navigation Center
(NAVCEN) web site.
(a) Pseudorange corrections are generated for a maximum of nine satellites tracked by the
reference station GPS receiver at an elevation angle of 5 degrees or higher above the horizon. Satellites
below a 5-degree elevation mask are highly susceptible to multipath and spatial decorrelation. If there are
more than nine satellites observed at the reference station above 5 degrees, then the corrections broadcast
are based on the nine satellites with the highest elevation angle.
(b) The sites transmit these corrections at a 100 or 200 baud rate. Since a Type 9-3 message is
210 bits (includes header information and corrections for three satellites), the latency of the data is 2.1
seconds for a site transmitting at 100 baud. For stations transmitting at 200 baud, the latency would be
half, or 1.05 seconds. The user can expect a latency of 2 to 5 seconds for all of the corrections for a group
of satellites observed at the reference station to reach them. A correction can be considered valid for a
period of 10 to 15 seconds from generation (the USCG limit is 30 seconds). Using corrections beyond
this period of time, especially for positioning of a moving platform, may cause spikes in the positional
results.
c. Availability and reliability of the system. The system was designed for and operated to
maintain a broadcast availability (i.e. transmitting healthy pseudorange corrections) that exceeds 99.7%
(in designed coverage areas) assuming a healthy and complete GPS constellation. The signal availability,
in most areas, will be higher due to the overlap of broadcast stations. The USCG monitors each site
within the entire system for problems or errors, and immediately alerts users of any problems. Each site
is equipped with two integrity monitors (i.e. a GPS receiver with a MSK radiobeacon) whose antennas are
mounted over known positions. The integrity monitors receive the pseudorange corrections from that site
and compute a check position. The computed or corrected position is compared to the known location to
determine if the corrections are within the expected tolerance. The corrected positions calculated by the
integrity monitors are sent via phone lines to the control monitoring stations. For the stations east of the
Mississippi River, this information is sent to USCG's NAVCEN in Alexandria, Virginia. Sites west of the
Mississippi River send their corrected positions to the NAVCEN Detachment in Petaluma, California.
Users are notified via the type 16 message of any problems with a radiobeacon site within 10 seconds of
an out-of-tolerance condition.
d. Coverage. The system was designed to cover all harbors and harbor approach areas and other
critical waterways for which USCG provides aids to navigation. Each site has a coverage area between
150 to 300 miles, depending on the transmitter power, terrain, and signal interference. Since the sites
utilize an omnidirectional transmitting antenna, some areas have overlapping coverage. Currently the
system covers all US coastal harbor areas, the Mississippi and part of the Missouri and Ohio Rivers, and
the Great Lakes Region. Additional areas within the Midwest and other non-coastal areas are being
added to provide nationwide coverage, under the Nationwide DGPS program (NDGPS). Figure 9-9
depicts existing and planned radiobeacon coverage as of 2002. An updated map of the coverage area can
be found at the NAVCEN web site under the DGPS section.
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e. User requirements and equipment. To receive and apply the pseudorange corrections
generated by the reference station, the user needs to have a MSK radiobeacon receiver with antenna and,
at a minimum, a L1 C/A-code GPS receiver with antenna. The MSK receiver demodulates the signal
from the reference station. Most MSK receivers will automatically select the reference station with the
strongest signal strength to observe from or allow the user to select a specific reference station. A MSK
receiver can be connected to most GPS receivers. The costs of radiobeacon receivers range from $500 to
$2000. The GPS receiver must be capable of accepting RTCM Type 9 messages and applying these
corrections to compute a "meter-level" position. Since the reference station generates corrections only for
satellites above a 7.5-degree elevation, satellites observed by the user's GPS receiver below a 7.5-degree
elevation will not be corrected. Some receiver manufacturers have developed a combined MSK
radiobeacon and GPS receiver with a combined MSK and GPS antenna. For a combined
radiobeacon/GPS receiver, prices range from $2,000 to $5,000.
Figure 9-9. USCG Radiobeacon MDGPS and NDGPS coverage--current (2002) and planned stations
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f. Position QC tolerance checks. Most precise DGPS augmentation systems are capable of
providing sub-meter accuracies at reasonable distances from the nearest reference station. However, at
increasing distances, spatial decorrelation errors (due to differing ionospheric/tropospheric conditions)
can induce systematic positional biases. In general, under nominal atmospheric conditions, a 2-meter
RMS (95%) positional accuracy may be achieved at distances upwards of 150 miles. To confirm a
positional accuracy is within this 2-meter tolerance, it is strongly recommended that a static check
position be obtained at some known survey point near the project. When operating with the USCG
radiobeacon system, static positions should be observed from different radiobeacon reference stations to
ascertain if positional systematic biases are present--and select the beacon with minimal biases. In
practice, this would normally be the closest beacon. If no fixed survey point is available, then a static
comparison of different beacon positions should be observed; however, any large biases between beacon
positions may be ambiguous. When large or ambiguous positional biases occur in a project area, it may
be necessary to establish a local DGPS network (code or RTK carrier) if high positional accuracy is
critical to the project. Commercial wide area DGPS systems should be checked in a similar manner.
9-9. FAA Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS)
The FAA's WAAS is a GPS-based navigation and landing system that will provide precision guidance to
aircraft at thousands of airports and airstrips where there is currently no precision landing capability.
Although still under development, this system will have potential USACE positioning, mapping, and
navigation applications; either as a primary or supplemental positioning system. Many GPS receivers
have been developed to acquire and process FAA WAAS signals--e.g., Garmin, Magellan, Trimble
ProXR/XRS. As with most augmentation systems, WAAS is designed to improve the accuracy and
ensure the integrity of information coming from GPS satellites.
Figure 9-10. Proposed FAA WAAS coverage in CONUS
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a. FAA WAAS is based on a network of ground reference stations that cover a very large service
area--see Figure 9-10. Signals from GPS satellites are received by wide area ground reference stations
(WRSs). Each of these precisely surveyed reference stations receives GPS signals and determines if any
errors exist. These WRSs are linked to form the US WAAS network. Each WRS in the network relays
the data to the wide area master station (WMS) where correction information is computed. The WMS
calculates correction algorithms and assesses the integrity of the system. A correction message is
prepared and uplinked to a geosynchronous satellite via a ground uplink system. The message is then
broadcast from the satellite on the same frequency as GPS (L1--1575.42 MHz) to receivers on board
aircraft (or ground-based hand-held receivers) that are within the broadcast coverage area and are capable
of receiving FAA WAAS corrections. These communications satellites also act as additional navigation
satellites for the aircraft, thus providing additional navigation signals for position determination. The
FAA WAAS will improve basic GPS accuracy to approximately 7 meters vertically and horizontally,
improve system availability through the use of geostationary communication satellites (GEOs) carrying
navigation payloads, and provide important integrity information about the entire GPS constellation.
b. At present there are two geostationary satellites serving the WAAS area (Inmarsat IIIs: POR
(Pacific Ocean Region) and AOR-W (Atlantic Ocean Region-West)--see Figure 9-11. The European area
will eventually be served by two Inmarsats, AOR-E (Atlantic Ocean Region-East) and IOR (Indian Ocean
Region) and the European Space Agency satellite, ARTEMIS. Europe's Geostationary Navigation
Overlay Service (EGNOS) is Europe's first venture into satellite navigation and is Europe's first stage of
the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS). EGNOS is a precursor to GALILEO, the full global
satellite navigation system under development in Europe. On the future ARTEMIS satellite, the
GPS/GLONASS augmentation is made directly from aircraft based equipment. In Asia, Japan is
developing the Multi-functional Satellite Augmentation System (MSAS).
c. EGNOS & WAAS do not currently share almanac information, and EGNOS is broadcasting a
"do not use" indication. So it is unlikely that users in Europe will see any response from EGNOS until
their systems share more information and allow use of the corrections.
d. Garmin WAAS receiver operation. Garmin is typical of receivers that have been configured to
receive FAA WAAS corrections. Garmin units can access 19 WAAS/EGNOS/MSAS unique GEO
satellites. They are depicted on the GPS as Satellite IDs 33-51, which is actually a NMEA convention.
Each WAAS/EGNOS/MSAS satellite will have its own unique PRN code assigned from the list of 19.
These satellites do not move on the screen as do the other GPS low-earth-orbit satellites. Garmin
receivers use one or two channels to track WAAS satellites and they will use the WAAS satellite in the
position solution, if the WAAS system indicates it is OK to use for navigation. Sometimes the WAAS
satellite is flagged as "do not use for navigation" but the corrections are still useful.
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Figure 9-11. Inmarsat global coverage
9-10. FAA Local Area Augmentation System (LAAS)
The FAA is also developing a Local Area Augmentation System (LAAS) for high accuracy aircraft
landing. This LAAS will include a ground facility that has four Reference Receivers (RR), RR antenna
pairs, redundant Very High Frequency Data Broadcast (VDB) equipment feeding a single VDB antenna,
and equipment racks. These sets of equipment are installed on the airport property where LAAS is
intended to provide service. The ground facility receives, decodes, and monitors GPS satellite
information and produces correction messages. To compute corrections, the ground facility calculates
position based on GPS, and then compares this position to their known location. Once the corrections are
computed, a check is performed on the generated correction messages to help ensure that the messages
will not produce misleading information for the users. This correction message, along with suitable
integrity parameters and approach path information, is then sent to the airborne LAAS user(s) using the
VDB from the ground-based transmitter. Airborne LAAS users receive this data broadcast from the
ground facility and use the information to assess the accuracy and integrity of the messages, and then
compute accurate Position, Velocity, and Time (PVT) information using the same data. This PVT is
utilized for the area navigation guidance and for generating Instrument Landing System (ILS)-look-alike
guidance to aid the aircraft on an approach. Although these FAA LAAS systems will not have any direct
USACE application, the technology developed by the FAA may have use on unique Corps projects where
high-accuracy real-time positioning is required, such as in obstructed areas.
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9-11. OmniSTAR Wide-Area Differential Positioning Service
OmniSTAR is typical of a commercial "fee-for-service" wide-area differential GPS system, using satellite
broadcast techniques to deliver accurate GPS correctors. Data from many widely spaced reference
stations is used in a proprietary multi-site solution to achieve sub-meter positioning over most land areas
worldwide. OmniSTAR is proprietary system operated by the Fugro group. Corps applications include
all mapping and navigation solutions where the USCG or FAA WAAS systems are not available or are
blocked.
a. OmniSTAR provides worldwide DGPS coverage with 70 reference stations around the globe
and 3 network control centers. The OmniSTAR service was developed to satisfy the need for an accurate
positioning system for new applications on land. The OmniSTAR service offers real-time, DGPS
positioning. The system is characterized by portable receiving equipment, suitable for vehicle mounting
or "back-pack" use. OmniSTAR supports applications across a wide range of industries including
agriculture (precision farming), mining, and land survey. Aerial applications include crop dusting and
geophysical surveys.
Figure 9-12. OmniSTAR concept. 1. GPS satellites. 2. Multiple OmniSTAR GPS monitor sites. 3. Send GPS
corrections via lease line to 4. Houston Network Control Center where data corrections are checked and
repackaged for uplink to 5. L-Band Geostationary Satellite. 6. GE Spacenet 3 broadcast footprint OmniSTAR
user area. 7. Correction data are received and applied real-time.
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OmniSTAR's "Virtual Base Station" technology generates corrections optimized for the user's location.
OmniSTAR receivers output both high quality RTCM SC-104 Version 2 corrections and differentially
corrected Lat/Long in NMEA format.
b. Technical description. The OmniSTAR system generates pseudorange corrections for
differential users. This is accomplished by the use of one or more "Base Stations" that measure the errors
in the GPS pseudoranges and generates corrections. The method of generating corrections is similar to
other DGPS service systems. The OmniSTAR DGPS System was designed with the following
objectives: (1) continental coverage; (2) sub-meter accuracy over the entire coverage area; and (3) a
portable system. The first objective dictated that transmission of the corrections had to be from a
geostationary satellite. The AMSC Satellite, located at 101 degrees West Longitude, has three individual
beams that together cover all of North America from 60 degrees North Latitude to the Southern border of
Mexico. It has sufficient power within that footprint that a small omnidirectional antenna may be used for
receiving. The frequency of the OmniSTAR Geostationary Satellite is sufficiently close to that of GPS
that in most instances, a common, single antenna, may be used. The methodology developed by
OmniSTAR consists of using multiple GPS base stations in a user's solution and reducing errors due to
the GPS signal traveling through the atmosphere. OmniSTAR was the first widespread use of a "Wide
Area DGPS Solution." The OmniSTAR solution uses data from a relatively small number of base
stations to provide consistent accuracy over large areas. A method of solving for atmospheric delays and
weighting of distant base stations achieves sub-meter capability over the entire coverage area--regardless
of the user's location relative to any base station. This achieves a wide-area system with consistent
characteristics. A user can take his equipment anywhere within the coverage area and get consistent
accuracy results, without any intervention or intimate knowledge of GPS or DGPS.
c. Network operation. The OmniSTAR network consists of ten permanent base stations in the
CONUS plus one in Mexico. These eleven stations track all GPS satellites above 5 degrees elevation and
compute corrections every 600 milliseconds. The corrections are in RTCM SC-104, Version 2 message
format. The corrections are then sent to the OmniSTAR Network Control Center (NCC) in Houston via
wire networks. At the NCC these messages are checked, compressed, and formed into packets for
transmission up to the OmniSTAR satellite transponder. This occurs approximately every few seconds.
A packet will contain the latest corrections from each of the North American base stations. All
OmniSTAR user sets receive these packets of data from the satellite transponder. The messages are first
decoded and uncompressed. At that point, the message is an exact duplicate of the data as it was
generated at each base station. Next, the atmospheric errors must be corrected as described below.
(1) Every base station automatically corrects for atmospheric errors at its location, because it is a
part of the overall range error; but the user is likely not at any of those locations, so the corrections are not
optimized for the user. Also, the OmniSTAR system has no information as to each individual's location.
If these corrections are to be automatically optimized for each user's location, then it must be done in each
user's OmniSTAR. For this reason, each OmniSTAR user set must be given an approximation of its
location. The approximation only needs to be within several miles of its true position. Given that
information, the OmniSTAR user set can use a model to compute and remove most of the atmospheric
correction contained in satellite range corrections from each Base Station message, and substitute a
correction for its own location. In spite of the loose approximation of the user's location, this information
is crucial to the OmniSTAR process. It makes the operation totally automatic and it is necessary for sub-
meter positioning. If it is totally ignored, errors of several meters can result.
(2) Fortunately, this requirement of giving the user's OmniSTAR an approximate location is
easily solved. OmniSTAR is normally purchased as an integrated GPS/DGPS System, and the problem is
taken care of automatically by using the position out of the GPS receiver as the approximation. It is wired
internally to do exactly that.
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(3) After the OmniSTAR processor has taken care of the atmospheric corrections, it then uses its
location in an inverse distance-weighted least-squares solution. The output of that least-squares
calculation is a synthesized RTCM SC-104 correction message that is optimized for the user's location. It
is always optimized for the user's location that is input from the user's GPS receiver. This technique of
optimizing the corrections for each user's location is called the "Virtual Base Station Solution." It is this
technique that enables the OmniSTAR user to operate independently and consistently over the entire
coverage area without regard to where he is in relation to the base stations.
(4) In most world areas, a single satellite is used by OmniSTAR to provide coverage over an
entire continent--or at least very large geographic areas. In North America, a single satellite is used, but it
needs three separate beams to cover the continent. The three beams are arranged to cover the East,
Central, and Western portions of North America. The same data is broadcast over all three beams, but the
user system must select the proper beam frequency. The beams have overlaps of several hundred miles,
so the point where the frequency must be changed is not critical. Most recent models will search and
select the strongest beam automatically, but older receivers must be manually set to the proper frequency.
An approximation for the changeover from Eastern to the Central beam would be at a line from Detroit to
New Orleans. The Central and Western Beams are divided at a line from Denver to El Paso. Again,
these are approximations. All of the eastern Canadian Provinces, the Caribbean Islands, Central America
(south of Mexico), and South America is covered by a single Satellite (AM-Sat). A single subscription
service is available for all the areas covered by this satellite.
(5) OmniSTAR currently has several high-powered satellites in use around the world. They
provide coverage for most of the world's land areas. Subscriptions are sold by geographic area. Any
regional OmniSTAR Service Center can sell and activate subscriptions for any area. They may be
arranged prior to traveling to a new area, or after arrival.
d. Equipment requirements. Several GPS manufacturers currently build models that combine
OmniSTAR and GPS in one unit, using a common antenna. These are geodetic quality GPS receivers
that have sub-meter capabilities. All are physically small and can be battery operated. They may be used
in backpack applications or mounted in vehicles or aircraft. OmniSTAR typically provides the user with
the GPS receiver equipment and subscription service for an annual lease fee.
e. STARFIX-Plus augmentation service. Fugro's STARFIX-Plus differential GPS augmentation
system utilizes dual-frequency receivers at reference stations to more accurately model ionospheric
activity within a survey region. It has application in distant offshore areas.
f. OmniSTAR URL contact. For additional details on the OmniSTAR system, contact
www.omnistar.com
9-12. LandStar Differential GPS Service (Thales)
LandStar-DGPS operates similarly to OmniSTAR described above. It likewise is a satellite delivered,
"fee-for-service" commercial DGPS correction service providing 24-hour real-time precise positioning in
over 40 countries. LandStar operates a series of reference stations throughout the world that support the
company's 24 hour manned control centers. LandStar-DGPS broadcasts correction data to users via the
L-Band satellites. The system operates on a common global standard allowing LandStar receivers (and
those that are compatible) to operate on any of the LandStar networks worldwide. Corrections are
derived from a wide-area network solution similar to that described for OmniSTAR. This allows real-
time positioning accuracies of one meter or less to be achieved throughout the LandStar coverage areas.
A broad range of data receivers may be leased from Thales or from third-party vendors. LandStar-DGPS
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applications include survey and mapping, agriculture, natural resources, land management, utilities,
pipeline transmission, engineering, land and air navigation and positioning. For additional information
contact Thales LandStar at www.racal-landstar.com.
9-13. Code and Carrier Phase Wide Area Augmentation Services
A number of commercial subscription augmentation systems are now available that are designed to
achieve sub-meter (and approaching decimeter) accuracy over wide areas by processing carrier phase
observables. These systems have application in Corps navigation projects where real-time, decimeter-
level vertical accuracy is required--e.g., water surface elevation measurement. These systems operate like
the wide-area code systems described above, but are functionally similar to RTK systems. They involve
multiple reference stations surrounding a project area, and adjust correctors at a central server to best
model the remote receiver's location. The main difference is that more accurate phase measurements are
observed at the reference stations and remote receiver, resulting in a more accurate real-time position.
Fugro's STARFIX-HP (High Performance) service claims a short real-time initialization period and 10 to
20 centimeter accuracy a few hundred km from the reference station network. It is designed for a variety
of offshore survey and geophysical applications, including dredging control. The Trimble Virtual
Reference Station (VRS) operates similarly to the Fugro STARFIX-HP. It uses a cellular phone network
to communicate between reference receivers and roving receivers. Code and carrier phase data from a
network of fixed reference stations are processed in a central server where quality checks are performed,
cycle slips are detected, and double difference solutions are computed. The central server communicates
with the remote user in order to model the location of the rover. Final corrector data are then transmitted
by cellular modem to the rover. Claimed accuracies for the VRS are at the centimeter-level for local
topographic applications. A primary advantage of all these systems is redundancy achieved from using
multiple reference stations to model the user's position, as opposed to having only a single reference
station. Another advantage is the clear satellite or cellular communication link, as opposed to less reliable
RF methods.
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Section III: Conducting Differential GPS Carrier Phase Surveys
9-14. General
Differential (or relative) GPS carrier phase surveying is used to obtain the highest precision from GPS
and has direct application to most USACE military construction and civil works engineering, topographic,
photogrammetric, and construction surveying support functions.
a. Differential survey techniques. There are a variety of differential GPS surveying techniques
used in the past or today. Some of the more common methods include:
Static
Kinematic
Post-Processed Kinematic
Pseudo-Kinematic
Pseudo-Static
Intermittent Static
Stop and Go Kinematic
Rapid Static Kinematic
Fast Static Kinematic
Continuous kinematic
Real-Time Kinematic (RTK)
Kinematic Ambiguity Resolution
"On-the-Fly" Initialized Real-Time Kinematic
Some of the above methods are identical or performed similarly, with minor differences depending on the
GPS receiver manufacturer. Procedurally, all these methods are similar in that each measures a 3-D
baseline vector between a receiver at one point (usually of known local project coordinates) and a second
receiver at another point, resulting in a vector difference between the two points occupied. The major
distinction between static and kinematic baseline measurements involves the method by which the carrier
wave integer cycle ambiguities are resolved; otherwise they are functionally the same process. General
procedures for performing some of these methods are described in this section. However, manufacturer's
recommended survey methods should be followed for conducting any GPS field survey.
b. Carrier phase data reduction. Most carrier phase surveying techniques, except OTF real-time
kinematic (RTK) techniques, require post-processing of the observed data to determine the relative
baseline vector differences. Post-processing of observed satellite data involves the differencing of signal
phase measurements recorded by the receiver. The differencing process reduces biases in the receiver and
satellite oscillators. It is also strongly recommended that all baseline reductions be performed in the field,
if possible, in order to allow an on-site assessment of the survey adequacy.
9-15. Ambiguity Resolution
Cycle ambiguity is the unknown number of whole carrier wavelengths between the satellite and receiver,
as was described in Chapter 5. Successful ambiguity resolution is required for baseline formulations.
Generally, in static surveying, ambiguity resolution can be achieved through long-term averaging and
simple geometrical calibration principles, resulting in solutions to a linear equation that produces a
resultant position. Thus, 30 minutes or more of observations may be required to resolve the ambiguities
in static surveys. A variety of physical and mathematical techniques have been developed to rapidly
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resolve the carrier phase ambiguities. The physical methods involve observations over known length
baselines or equivalent known points. The most reliable method is to set the base and remote receivers up
over known WGS 84 points, and collect data for at least 30 seconds. Initialization can also be
accomplished over extremely short baselines, such as those shown in Figure 9-13. Another method that
was more commonly used in the past was a reference-rover antenna swapping process. Most GPS
systems today can automatically resolve ambiguities mathematically "on-the-fly" (OTF)--the technique
used for many real-time kinematic (RTK) applications.
Figure 9-13. Ambiguity resolution of a Trimble 4600LS receiver using an Initializer Bar
(Trimble Navigation, LTD)
9-16. Static Carrier Phase Field Survey Techniques
Static GPS surveying is perhaps the most common method of densifying project network control. Two
GPS receivers are used to measure a GPS baseline distance. The line between a pair of GPS receivers
from which simultaneous GPS data have been collected and processed is a vector referred to as a baseline.
The station coordinate differences are calculated in terms of a 3-D, earth-centered coordinate system that
utilizes X-, Y-, and Z-values based on the WGS 84 geocentric ellipsoid model. These coordinate
differences are then subsequently shifted to fit the local project coordinate system.
a. General. GPS receiver pairs are set up over stations of either known or unknown location.
Typically, one of the receivers is positioned over a point whose coordinates are known (or have been
carried forward as on a traverse), and the second is positioned over another point whose coordinates are
unknown, but are desired. Both GPS receivers must receive signals from the same four (or more)
Initializer Bar (Notch Method)
0.35 m offset
Initializer Bar (Notch Method
0.25 m offset
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satellites for a period of time that can range from a few minutes to several hours, depending on the
conditions of observation and precision required. Guidance for planning static occupation times for
horizontal and vertical control surveys is covered in Chapter 8.
b. Satellite visibility requirements. The stations that are selected for GPS survey observations
should have an unobstructed view of the sky of at least 15 degrees or greater above the horizon during the
"observation window." An observation window is the period of time when observable satellites are in the
sky and the survey can be successfully conducted.
c. Common satellite observations. It is critical for a static survey baseline reduction/solution that
the receivers simultaneously observe the same satellites during the same time interval. For instance, if
receiver No. 1 observes a satellite set during the time interval 1000 to 1200 and another receiver, receiver
No. 2, observes that same satellite set during the time interval 1100 to 1300, only the period of common
observation, 1100 to 1200, can be processed to formulate a correct vector difference between these
receivers.
d. Data post-processing. After the observation session has been completed, the received GPS
signals from both receivers are then processed (i.e. "post-processed") in a computer to calculate the 3-D
baseline vector components between the two observed points. From these vector distances, local or
geodetic coordinates may be computed and/or adjusted. This baseline reduction process is explained in
Chapter 10.
e. Survey configuration. Static baselines may be extended from existing control using any of the
control densification methods described in Chapter 8. These include networking, traverse, spur
techniques, or combinations thereof. Specific requirements are normally contained in project instructions
(or scopes of work) provided by the District office.
f. Receiver operation and data reduction. Specific receiver operation and baseline data post-
processing requirements are very manufacturer dependent. The user is strongly advised to consult and
study manufacturer's operations manuals thoroughly along with the baseline data reduction examples
shown in this manual.
9-17. Rapid/Fast Static Field Surveying Procedures
Rapid or Fast Static surveying is a form of static surveying techniques. The rover or remote receiver
spends only a short time on each unknown point, loss of lock is allowed while the rover traverses between
points, and accuracies are similar to those of static survey methods. Observed rapid static data are post-
processed. Rapid static surveys are normally performed over small project areas. The rapid static
technique does require the use of dual-frequency (L1/L2) GPS receivers with either cross correlation or
squaring (or other techniques) to compensate for A/S.
a. Survey procedure. Rapid static surveying requires that one receiver be placed over a known
control point. A rover or remote receiver occupies each unknown station for 5-30 minutes, depending on
the number of satellites and their geometry. Because most receiver operations are manufacturer specific,
following the manufacturer's guidelines and procedures for this type of survey is important.
b. Rapid static data processing. Data collected in the rapid static mode should be post-processed
in accordance with the manufacturer's specifications and software procedures.
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c. Accuracy of rapid static surveys. Accuracies of rapid static surveys are similar to static
surveys of a centimeter or less. This method can be used for medium to high accuracy surveys up to
1/100,000.
d. Typical field observation instructions. The following instructions for Trimble 4000 series
receivers are representative of rapid (fast) static field survey observations. These procedures are used at
the Corps' PROSPECT training course in Huntsville, AL.
Field Instructions on "FAST STATIC" GPS Data Collection
Survey IV PROSPECT Course
1 Turn receiver on.
2 After receiver boots-up, select MORE option using side keys (above POWER key)
3 Select SETUP SURVEY CONTROLS
3a select MODIFY FAST STATIC CONTROLS
3b set elevation mask to 15 degrees
3c set minimum meas times to 5 min for each
3d set meas sync time to 10 sec
3e select accept using side keys
4 Press STATUS key to check # of satellites
5 Press LOG DATA key
6 Select START FAST STATIC OR KINEMATIC SURVEY using side keys
7 Select START FAST STATIC SURVEY using side keys
8 Once antenna is set-up and plumbed over point, select START using side keys
9 Enter mark id using key pad and side keys (usually first four letters of the station name) and press
ENTER key
10 Select INPUT/CHNGS from side keys
10a select CHANGES using side keys
10b select ANTENNA HEIGHT using side keys
10c enter antenna height (if fixed height pole is being
used at the reference and remote, enter 2.069 meters
and select MEAS TYPE as true vertical) and press
ACCEPT using side keys
10d select FILE NAME using side keys
10e enter file name (i.e. ROV1 or COE1) and make sure
session # is correct, (last # in file name) and
select ACCEPT. (This is only done once during a
survey at both the reference and remote stations)
10f press CLEAR or LOG DATA key to get back to fast static menu
11 If at reference station, nothing needs to be done, read a good book until rover unit returns. You
might however, press the STATUS key and then press MORE twice (using the side keys) to make sure data
is being logged. Pressing the LOG DATA button will return you to the fast static menu.
12 If at rover station, fill out field form, wait until the screen time is 0 and says press MOVE before
moving. (do not disconnect power or turn receiver off when moving)
12a press MOVE using the side keys
12b now move to next mark, satellite lock does not have to be maintained in-between stations
12c once plumb at next mark, press START
12d enter new mark id (just change 1
st
4 characters) and press ENTER key.
Repeat step 12 until finished with survey.
13 Pressing the STATUS key will give you UTC time. Then, pressing MORE twice (using the side keys)
will show if data is being logged on each satellite. Pressing the LOG DATA button will return you to the fast
static menu.
14 Once finished with survey, select END SURVEY using side keys, select YES and check antenna height
and accept if correct.
15 To turn off, hold POWER key in until screen goes out.
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9-18. Kinematic GPS Field Survey Techniques
Kinematic surveying using differential carrier phase tracking is similar to static carrier phase methods
because it also requires two receivers recording observations simultaneously. The reference receiver
remains fixed on a known control point while the roving receiver collects data on a constantly moving
platform (vehicle, vessel, aircraft, manpack, etc.), as illustrated in Figure 9-14. The observation data is
later post-processed to calculate relative vector/coordinate differences to the roving receiver. A kinematic
survey requires, at minimum, two GPS receivers. One receiver is set over a known point (reference
station) and the other is used as a rover (i.e. moved from point to point or along a path). Before the rover
receiver can collect positional data at an unknown point, a period of static initialization may be required.
(Alternatively, an OTF initialization technique may be used, as described below). This period of
initialization is dependent on the number of visible satellites. Once initialization is completed, the rover
receiver can move from point to point as long as satellite lock is maintained. If loss of satellite lock
occurs, a new period of static initialization may be required. Some of the field techniques for the more
common types of kinematic GPS surveying are described below. More detailed field procedures are
found in operator's manuals provided by the GPS receiver manufacturer.
Figure 9-14. Kinematic survey techniques
9-19. Stop-and-Go Kinematic Field Survey Techniques
Differential GPS surveying known as "stop-and-go" is typically used for setting accurate topographic
mapping or construction control points. It is similar to static surveying methods in that each method
requires at least two receivers simultaneously recording observations. Unlike static methods, an initial
calibration process is required prior to conducting the survey. A major difference between static and
stop-and-go surveying is the amount of time required for a roving receiver to stay fixed over a point of
CARRIER-PHASE KINEMATIC POSITIONING
Based on Carrier Phase Observations
Positions Determined With Respect to the Fixed (Known) Station
Traditional methods requires static initialization, OTF RTK does not
No Intermediate Stops Required for Moving Receiver
Either Real-Time or Post-mission Processing Possible
Roving Receiver
Roving Receiver
Known Station
Base Station Receiver
(

X
,

Y
,

Z
)
( X, Y, Z)
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unknown position. In stop-and-go surveying, the first receiver--the base station or reference receiver--
remains fixed on a known control point. The second receiver--the "rover" receiver--collects observations
statically on a point of unknown position for a period of time (usually a few minutes), and then moves to
subsequent unknown points to collect data for a short period of time. During the survey, at least four
common satellites (preferably five) need to be continuously tracked by both receivers. Once the rover
receiver has occupied all required points, the observations are then post-processed to calculate baseline
vector/coordinate differences between the known control point and points occupied by the rover receiver
during the survey session. The main advantage of this form of GPS surveying over static surveying is the
reduced occupation time required over the unknown points. Stop-and-go kinematic surveying requires
less occupation time over unknown points than static methods. Therefore, time and cost for the conduct
of a survey are significantly reduced. Achievable accuracies typically equal or exceed 10 mm.
a. Survey procedure. Stop-and-go surveying is performed similarly to a conventional electronic
total station radial survey. The system is initially calibrated by performing either an antenna swap with
one known point and one unknown point, by performing a static measurement over a known baseline, or
by observing static data at another known point on the network. This calibration process is performed to
resolve carrier phase cycle ambiguities. A known baseline may be part of the existing network or can be
established using static GPS survey procedures described above. The roving receiver then traverses
between unknown points as if performing a radial topographic survey. Typically, the points are double-
connected, or double-run, as in a level line. Optionally, two fixed receivers may be used to provide
redundancy on the remote points. With only a few minutes of data collection at a point, topographic
X-Y-Z coordinate production is high.
b. Satellite lock. During a stop-and-go survey, the rover receiver must maintain lock on at least 4
satellites during the period of survey. The reference station must also be observing at least the same 4
satellites. Loss of lock occurs when the receiver is unable to continuously record satellite signals or the
transmitted satellite signal is disrupted and the receiver is not able to record it. If satellite lock is lost, the
roving receiver must reobserve the last fixed point surveyed before loss of lock. The operator must
closely monitor the GPS receiver when performing the stop-and-go survey to ensure loss of lock does not
occur. Some manufacturers have now incorporated an alarm into their receiver that warns the user when
loss of lock occurs, thus making the operator's job of monitoring the receiver easier.
c. Site constraints. Survey site selection and the route between points to be surveyed are critical.
All observing points must have a clear view of satellites having a vertical angle of 15 degrees or greater.
The routes between rover occupation points must be clear of obstructions so that the satellite signal is not
interrupted. Each unknown station to be occupied should be observed for a minimum of at least 90
seconds. Remote points should be occupied two or three times to provide redundancy between
observations.
d. Antenna swap calibration procedure. The antenna swap initialization procedure requires that
two nearby points be occupied and that both points maintain an unobstructed view of the horizon. A
minimum of four satellites and constant lock are required; however, more than four satellites are
preferred. To perform an antenna swap, one receiver/antenna is placed over a point of known control and
the second, a distance of 10 to 100 m away from the other receiver. The receivers at each station collect
data for approximately 2 to 4 minutes. The receivers/antennae sets then swap locations: the
receiver/antenna at the known station is moved to the unknown site while the other receiver/antenna at the
unknown site is moved to the known site. Satellite data are again collected for 2 to 4 minutes. The
receivers are then swapped back to their original locations. This completes one antenna swap calibration.
If satellite lock is lost during the process, the calibration procedure must be repeated. The baseline data
are processed to determine and eliminate the carrier integer ambiguity. Although an antenna swap
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procedure is used to initialize a stop-and-go survey, the same technique can also be used to determine a
precise baseline and azimuth between two points.
e. Accuracy of stop-and-go surveys. Accuracy of stop-and-go baseline measurements will well
exceed 1 part in 5,000; thus, supplemental project/mapping horizontal control can be established using
this technique. For many USACE projects, this order of horizontal accuracy will be more than adequate;
however, field procedures should be designed to provide adequate redundancy for what are basically
"open-ended" or "spur" points. Good satellite geometry and minimum multipath are also essential in
performing acceptable stop-and-go surveys.
9-20. Pseudo-Kinematic Field Survey Techniques
Pseudo-kinematic GPS surveying is similar to stop-and-go kinematic techniques except that loss of
satellite lock is tolerated when the receiver is transported between occupation sites (in fact, the roving
receiver can be turned off during movement between occupation sites, although this is not recommended).
This feature provides the surveyor with a more favorable positioning technique since obstructions such as
bridge overpasses, tall buildings, and overhanging vegetation are common. Loss of lock that may result
due to these obstructions is more tolerable when pseudo-kinematic techniques are employed.
a. General. The pseudo-kinematic technique requires that one receiver be placed over a known
control station. A rover receiver occupies each unknown point or monument for 5-10 minutes.
Approximately 1 hour (but not longer than 4 hours) after the initial occupation, the same rover receiver
must reoccupy each unknown point.
b. Common satellite requirements. The pseudo-kinematic technique requires that at least four of
the same satellites be observed between initial unknown point occupations and the requisite
reoccupations. For example, the rover receiver occupies Station A for the first 5 minutes and tracks
satellites 6, 9, 11, 12, 13; then 1 hour later, during the second occupation of Station A, the rover receiver
tracks satellites 2, 6, 8, 9, 19. In this example, only satellites 6 and 9 are common to the two sets, so the
data cannot be processed because four common satellites were not tracked for the initial station
occupation and the requisite reoccupation.
c. Planning. Prior mission planning is essential in conducting a successful pseudo-kinematic
survey. Especially critical is the determination of whether or not common satellite coverage will be
present for the desired period of the survey. Also, during the period of observation, one receiver, the base
receiver, must continuously occupy a known control station.
d. Pseudo-kinematic data processing. Pseudo-kinematic survey satellite data records and
resultant baseline processing methods are similar to those performed for static GPS surveys. Since the
pseudo-kinematic technique requires each station to be occupied for 5 minutes and then reoccupied for 5
minutes approximately an hour later, this technique is not suitable when control stations are widely
spaced and transportation between stations within the allotted time is impractical.
e. Accuracy of pseudo-kinematic surveys. Pseudo-kinematic survey accuracies are at the
centimeter level.
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9-21. Real-Time Kinematic (RTK) Field Surveying Techniques
Unlike the static and kinematic methods previously covered, RTK methods provide real-time positioning
results. Real-time surveys are most useful for construction stakeout, setting project control, and
topographic mapping. To obtain real-time coordinates, a communication link (radio or satellite) is
required between the reference base station and the roving receiver. RTK surveying is similar to other
kinematic GPS survey methods in that it requires two receivers simultaneously recording observations.
Unlike other GPS methods, the rover receiver can be continuously moving. RTK surveys require dual-
frequency (L1/L2) GPS observations. Periodic losses of satellite lock can also be tolerated. Since RTK
uses the L2 frequency, the GPS receiver must be capable of tracking the L2 frequency during A/S. There
are several techniques used to obtain L2 during A/S. These include squaring and cross correlation
methods.
Figure 9-15. Real-Time kinematic survey reference and remote stations
a. Ambiguity resolution. As previously explained, carrier phase integer ambiguity resolution is
required for successful baseline formulations. RTK surveys can be initialized using the methods
previously described--e.g., at a known point. However, if the receiver is equipped with "on-the-fly"
(OTF) initialization technology, then the remote can initialize and resolve integers without a period of
static initialization. With OTF capability, if loss of satellite lock occurs, initialization can occur while in
motion. OTF integers can usually be resolved at the rover within 10-30 seconds, depending on the
distance from the reference station. This initialization is automatically performed by the survey controller
device. OTF makes use of the L2 frequency in resolving the integer ambiguity. At least 5 satellites are
required for OTF initialization, and after initialization, at least 4 satellites must be tracked. After the
integers are resolved, only the L1 C/A is used compute the positions. If no OTF capability is available,
then initialization should be made at a known point and 4 satellites must be kept in view at all times--loss
of lock requires reinitialization.
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b. Survey procedure. RTK/OTF surveying requires dual-frequency L1/L2 GPS receivers. One
of the GPS receivers is set over a known point and the other is placed on a moving or roving platform.
The survey controller will determine the amount of time required to lock in over each remote point. If the
survey is performed in real-time, a data link and a processor (external or internal) are needed. The data
link is used to transfer the raw data from the reference station to the remote. If the radio link is lost, then
post-processing techniques are available to compute the survey--e.g., Trimble's "Infill" option.
c. Accuracy of RTK surveys. RTK surveys are accurate to within 3-10 cm (in 3-D) when the
distance from the reference to the rover does not exceed 10 k.
Figure 9-16. Rover GPS receiver setup for RTK surveys--Trimble GPS Total Station 4700
and Trimble GPS Total Station 4800. (Trimble Navigation LTD)
GPS Total Station 4700
GPS Total Station 4800
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9-22. RTK Survey Field Procedures and Calibrations
The USFS and BLM Standards and Guidelines for Cadastral Surveys (USFS/BLM 2001) contains
guidance for performing RTK surveys that is directly applicable to USACE RTK topographic mapping
and construction control surveys. Some of the more significant field procedures recommended by the
USFS/BLM are outlined below. These generally reduce down to (1) system checks, (2) measurement
procedures, (3) and calibrations.
a. RTK system check. A RTK system check shall be made prior to any measurements. RTK
system checks may also be made at any time during the course of each RTK survey session or at any time
the base receiver(s) and rover receiver(s) are set up and initialized per the manufacturers recommended
procedures. This check is a measurement from the RTK base setup to another known project control
monument. The resulting observed position is then compared by inverse to the previously observed
position for the known point. This inverse should be within the manufacturers recommended values for
duplicate point tolerance measurements--typically within 2.5 cm in position and within 5 cm in
elevation. This RTK system check is designed to check the following system parameters:
The correct reference base station is occupied.
The GPS antenna height is correctly measured and entered at the base and rover.
The receiver antennas are plumb over station at base and rover.
The base coordinates are in the correct datum and plane projections are correct.
The reference base stations or the remote stations have not been disturbed.
The radio-communication link is working.
The RTK system is initialized correctly.
RMS values are within manufacturers limits.
b. RTK measurements. RTK topographic observations are usually made using one or more base
stations and one or more rover receivers. RTK measurements shall be made after the system setup check
procedures have been completed. Use manufacturers recommended observation times for the highest
level of accuracy when setting mapping or construction control points, for example, 180 seconds of time
or when the horizontal (e.g., 2 cm) and vertical (e.g., 5 cm) precision has been met for a kinematic control
point. Under optimal conditions a deviation from the manufacturer's suggested time is appropriate; for
example, a point may be observed using 30 seconds of time and 20 epochs of measurement data.
However, observation times should be set to account for field conditions, measurement methods
(i.e. Trimble topo point or kinematic control point) and the type of measurement checks being
performed.
c. Recommended methods for setting control points using RTK. One method is to observe the
unknown point two or more times with the same point name (e.g., 100700) and use a duplicate point
tolerance measurement criteria of 2.5 cm. When observing these measurements, the antenna shall be
inverted and the receiver reinitialized between observations. Another method is to observe two separate
baselines (M1 and M2) to the unknown point. The baseline data are stored to the data collector or
receiver for a specified number of seconds or epochs to meet a specified level of precision recommended
by the manufacturer for a kinematic control point. Observation time may be increased due to the
constraints of on-the-fly (OTF) post-processing kinematic (i.e. 200+ sec) if the field data is post-
processed as a check. Between the M1 and M2 baseline measurements the antenna should be inverted to
force a loss of satellite lock, which forces the system to reinitialize. The point values resulting from the
first baseline measurement are stored and labeled (e.g., 100700M1), and the point values resulting from
the second baseline measurement are stored and labeled (e.g., 100700M2). A field check of the level of
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accuracy between the measurements may be done by an inverse between M1 and M2. The resulting
inverse distances should agree within 2.5 cm.
d. Typical field observation instructions. The following instructions for Trimble 4000 series
receivers are representative of RTK/OTF static field survey observations. These procedures are used at
the Corps' PROSPECT training course in Huntsville, AL (see also Figure 9-17).
Instructions on "Real-Time Kinematic" GPS Data Collection
1 Turn receiver on
2 While receiver boots-up, you may need to select CLEAR key
3 Press CONTROL key
3a select Rover Control
Enable L1/L2 and press ENTER
3b select Power Control
select Power output ENABLED and press ENTER
4 Press STATUS key to check # of satellites
4a select POSITION to check for (RTK-moving/Fix/L1)
Move to first occupation station
5 Press LOG DATA key
6 Select START FAST STATIC OR KINEMATIC SURVEY using side keys
7 Select START KINEMATIC SURVEY using side keys
8 Once antenna is set-up and plumbed over point
8a enter POINT ID using keypad and side keys
MH for Manhole
LP for Lightpole
DG for Drainage Grate
SE for Spot elevation
TC for Top of Curb
BEVX for BEV check point (X=1-6)
COEX for COE check point (X=1-3)
8b to set or change HI or FILENAME, Select INPUT/CHNGS from side keys
8b1 select CHANGES using side keys
for antenna height, select ANTENNA HEIGHT using side keys
check/enter antenna height and MEAS TYPE and then press
ACCEPT and then CLEAR
For filename, select FILENAME using side keys
Enter filename (ONLY need to change this ONCE for entire
session) and then press ACCEPT and then CLEAR
8c select STATIC using side keys
8d observe STATIC WAIT until ROVE appears in upper right
8e wait until EPOCHS reaches 10 and then press ROVE
8f move to next occupation station
9 Repeat step 8 until done collecting occupations
10 When completed, press LOG DATA
10a select END SURVEY using side keys, select YES and check antenna height
and press ACCEPT
11 To turn off, hold POWER key in until screen goes out.
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Figure 9-17. RTK positioning of drainage basin at Huntsville, AL Tom Bevill Center
(PROSPECT GPS Training Course--2002)
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Chapter 10
Post-Processing Differential GPS Observational Data

10-1. General

GPS baseline solutions are usually generated through an iterative process. From approximate values of
the positions occupied and observation data, theoretical values for the observation period are developed.
Observed values are compared to computed values, and an improved set of positions occupied is obtained
using least-squares minimization procedures and equations modeling potential error sources. Observed
baseline data are also evaluated over a loop or network of baselines to ascertain the reliability of the
individual baselines. A generalized flow of the processes used in reducing GPS baselines is outlined
below. This chapter will cover the steps outlined in this process.

Create New Project File Area
Download/Import Baseline Data from Receivers or Survey Data Collectors
Download Precise Ephemeris Data if Required
Make Changes and Edits to Raw Baseline Data
Process all Baselines
Review, Inspect, and Evaluate Adequacy of Baseline Reduction Results
Make Changes and Rejects
Reprocess Baselines and Reevaluate Results
Note/Designate Independent and Trivial Baselines
[Review Loop Closures and Adjust Baseline Network--Chapter 11]

a. The ability to determine positions using GPS is dependent on the effectiveness of the user to
determine the range or distance of the satellite from the receiver located on the earth. There are two
general techniques currently operational to determine this range: differential code pseudoranging and
differential carrier phase measurement. This chapter will discuss general post-processing issues for
differential carrier phase reductions that provide centimeter-level accuracy suitable for controlling project
monuments. Post-processed differential code phase reductions, with accuracies ranging from 0.2 to 5
meters, are only briefly covered since these techniques are not intended for precise control surveys.

b. Baseline processing time is dependent on the required accuracy, processing software,
computer hardware speeds, data quality, and amount of data collected. The user must take special care
when processing baselines with observations from different GPS receiver manufacturers. It is important
to ensure that observables being used for the formulation of the baseline are of a common format (i.e.
RINEX).

10-2. General Differential Reduction Techniques

Differential reduction techniques basically involve the analysis of the Doppler frequency shifts that occur
between the moving satellites and ground-based receivers, one of which may be in motion (e.g., RTK
rover). Integration of the Doppler frequency offsets, along with interferometric processing and
differencing techniques, provides for a resultant baseline vector between the two ground-based points, or
velocity measurements on a moving receiver. Differencing and interferometric analysis techniques may
be performed on both carrier frequencies (L1 & L2), the frequency difference (wide-laning), and on the
code-phase observations. "Floating" and "Fixed" baseline solutions are computed from these
interferometric differencing techniques. A variety of algorithms and methods are used to perform the
reductions. Although these processes are relatively simple for static GPS observations, they become
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complicated when real-time (on-the-fly) integer ambiguity resolution is required. A variety of GPS data
reduction software can be obtained from government agencies or commercial vendors. The detailed
theory and derivations of these reductions are beyond the scope of this manual. The material presented in
the following sections should be considered as only an overview. Examples of baseline reduction
software will be limited to those software packages commonly used by Corps commands. Full
discussions on carrier phase reductions can be found in the references listed in Appendix A. Kaplan 1996
(Chapter 8--Differential GPS) is recommended along with Leick 1995, and Remondi 1985.

10-3. Carrier Phase Observables

The carrier "beat" phase observable is the phase of the signal remaining after the internal oscillated
frequency generated in the receiver is differenced from the incoming carrier signal of the satellite. The
carrier phase observable can be calculated from the incoming signal or from observations recorded during
a GPS survey. By differencing the signal over a period or epoch of time, one can count the number of
wavelengths that cycle through the receiver during any given specific duration of time. The unknown
number of cycles between the satellite and receiver antenna is known as the "integer cycle ambiguity."
There is one integer ambiguity value per each satellite/receiver pair as long as the receiver maintains
continuous phase lock during the observation period. The value found by measuring the number of cycles
going through a receiver during a specific time, when given the definition of the transmitted signal in
terms of cycles per second, can be used to develop a time measurement for transmission of the signal.
Once again, the time of transmission of the signal can be multiplied by the speed of light to yield an
approximation of the range between the satellite and receiver. The biases for carrier phase measurement
are the same as for pseudoranges, although a higher accuracy can be obtained using the carrier phase. A
more exact range between the satellite and receiver can be formulated when the biases are taken into
account during derivation of the approximate range between the satellite and receiver.

10-4. Baseline Solution by Linear Combination

The accuracy achievable by pseudoranging and carrier phase measurement in both absolute and relative
positioning surveys can be improved through processing that incorporates differencing of the
mathematical models of the observables. Processing by differencing takes advantage of correlation of
error (e.g., GPS signal, satellite ephemeris, receiver clock, and atmospheric propagation errors) between
receivers, satellites, and epochs, or combinations thereof, in order to improve GPS processing. Through
differencing, the effects of the errors that are common to the observations being processed are eliminated
or at least greatly reduced. Basically, there are three broad processing techniques that incorporate
differencing: single differencing, double differencing, and triple differencing. Differenced solutions
generally proceed in the following order: differencing between receivers takes place first, between
satellites second, and between epochs third (Figure 10-1).

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Figure 10-1. Carrier phase differencing techniques

a. Single differencing. There are three general single differencing processing techniques:
between receivers, between satellites, and between epochs.

(1) Between receivers. Single differencing the mathematical models for a pseudorange (P- or
C/A-code) or carrier phase observable measurements between receivers will eliminate or greatly reduce
satellite clock errors and a large amount of satellite orbit and atmospheric delays. This is illustrated in
upper left portion of Figure 10-1 where single differences are computed between the two receivers (k and
m) and the satellite "P."

(2) Between satellites. Single differencing the mathematical models for pseudorange code or
carrier phase observable measurements between satellites eliminates receiver clock errors. Single
differencing between satellites can be done at each individual receiver during observations as a precursor
to double differencing and in order to eliminate receiver clock errors.

(3) Between epochs. Single differencing the mathematical models between epochs takes
advantage of the Doppler shift or apparent change in the frequency of the satellite signal by the relative
motion of the transmitter and receiver. Single differencing between epochs is generally done in an effort
to eliminate cycle ambiguities. There are three forms of single differencing techniques between epochs:
Intermittently Integrated Doppler (IID), Consecutive Doppler Counts (CDC), and Continuously
Integrated Doppler (CID). IID uses a technique whereby Doppler count is recorded for a small portion of
Single Difference Between Receivers
Eliminates Satellite Clock Bias
Double Difference Between
Satellites and Receivers
Eliminates Receiver Clock Bias
Reduces Tropo & Iono Delay Errors
Triple Difference Between Satellites, Receivers and Epochs
Two Double Differences Over Time
Eliminates Phase Ambiguity
P
k m
k
k
m
m
P
P
Q
Q
R
S
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the observation period, the Doppler count is reset to zero, and then at a later time the Doppler count is
restarted during the observation period. CDC uses a technique whereby Doppler count is recorded for a
small portion of the observation period, reset to zero, and then restarted immediately and continued
throughout the observation period.

b. Double differencing. Double differencing is actually a differencing of two single differences
(as detailed above). There are two general double differencing processing techniques: receiver-time and
receiver-satellite. Double difference processing techniques eliminate clock errors.

(1) Receiver-time double differencing. This technique uses a change from one epoch to the next,
in the between-receiver single differences for the same satellite. Using this technique eliminates satellite-
dependent integer cycle ambiguities and simplifies editing of cycle slips.

(2) Receiver-satellite double differencing. There are two different techniques that can be used to
compute a receiver-satellite double difference. One technique involves using two between-receiver single
differences, as shown in the upper right of Figure 10-1. This technique also uses a pair of receivers,
recording different satellite observations during a survey session and then differencing the observations
between two satellites. The second technique involves using two between-satellite single differences.
This technique also uses a pair of satellites, but different receivers, and then differences the satellite
observations between the two receivers.

c. Triple differencing. There is only one triple differencing processing technique: receiver-
satellite-time (epoch). All errors eliminated during single- and double-differencing processing are also
eliminated during triple differencing. When used in conjunction with carrier beat phase measurements,
triple differencing eliminates initial cycle ambiguity. During triple differencing, the data is also
automatically edited by the software to delete any data that cannot be solved, so that the unresolved data
are ignored during the triple difference solution. This feature is advantageous to the user because of the
reduction in the editing of data required; however, degradation of the solution may occur if too much of
the data is eliminated during triple differencing.

d. Differencing equations. The expressions for single differences between receivers and
satellites can be formed from the general carrier phase observable given back in Chapter 5 as Equation
5-2 (Kaplan 1996), which is repeated below. Refer also to Figure 10-1.

k
P
(t) =
k
P
(t) -
P
(t) + N
k
P
+ S
k
+
P
+
k
-
iono
+
tropo
(Eq 10-1)

where

k
P
(t) = length of propagation path between satellite "P" and receiver "k" ... in cycles

k
P
(t) = received phase of satellite "P" at receiver "k" at time "t"

P
(t) = transmitted phase of satellite "P"
N
k
P
= integer ambiguity
S
k
= measurement noise (multipath, GPS receiver, etc.)
= carrier frequency (Hz)

P
= satellite clock bias

k
= receiver clock bias

iono
= ionospheric advance (cycles)

tropo
= tropospheric delay (cycles)

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For a second receiver "m" another equation can be written for the propagation path between satellite "P"
and the second receiver "m":

m
P
(t) =
m
P
(t) -
P
(t) + N
m
P
+ S
m
+
P
+
m
-
iono
+
tropo
(Eq 10-2)

Differencing the propagation path lengths between the two receivers "k" and "m" to the satellite "P"
(Equations 10-1 and 10-2) results in a "single difference between receivers."

SD
km
P
=
km
P
+ N
km
P
+ S
P
km
+
km
(Eq 10-3)

When a second satellite "Q" is added, a "single difference between receivers" can be formed for the
second satellite "Q":

SD
km
Q
=
km
Q
+ N
km
Q
+ S
Q

km
+
km
(Eq 10-4)

The "single difference" equations 10-3 and 10-4 can be differenced between themselves, thus creating a
"double difference" involving two separate receivers (k and m) and two separate satellites (P and Q).

DD
km
PQ
=
km
PQ
+ N
km
PQ
+ S
PQ

km
(Eq 10-5)

It is seen in the above "double difference" equation that most of the original unknown terms have been
eliminated by these differencing techniques, with only the integer ambiguity (N) and noise (S) remaining
to be determined. Additional "double difference" equations can be written for the two receivers between
other combinations of epochs of satellites in view, and these multiple double difference equations can be
again differenced (i.e. Triple Differenced) to remove the integer ambiguity term N
km
PQ
.

TD
km
PQ
= DD
km
PQ
( t + 1) - DD
km
PQ
( t ) (Eq 10-6)

where t and t + 1 are successive epochs.

The results of the Triple Difference baseline solution can then be input back into the Double Difference
equations in order to resolve, or "fix," the integers in the Double Difference solution. Fixing the integers
in a Double Difference solution constrains the integer ambiguity N to a whole number of cycles, and is
the preferred baseline solution--see Leick 1995.

10-5. Baseline Solution by Cycle Ambiguity Recovery

The resultant solution (baseline vector) produced when differenced carrier phase observations resolve the
cycle ambiguity is called a "fixed" solution. The exact cycle ambiguity does not need to be known to
produce a solution; if a range of cycle ambiguities is known, then a "float" solution can be formulated
from the range of cycle ambiguities. A floating baseline solution is a least-squares fit that may be
accurate to only a few integer wavelengths. It is always desirable to formulate a fixed solution.
However, when the cycle ambiguities cannot be resolved, which sometimes occurs when a baseline
distance is greater than 75 km in length, a float solution may actually be the best solution. Differences
between floating and fixed solutions can be calculated over all the epochs observed. The fixed solution
may be unable to determine the correct set of integers (i.e. "fix the integers") required for a solution.

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10-6. Field/Office Baseline Processing

It is strongly recommended that baselines should be processed daily in the field. This allows the user to
identify any problems that may exist. Once baselines are processed, the field surveyor should review
each baseline output file. Certain computational items within the baseline output are common among
software vendors, and may be used to evaluate the adequacy of the baseline observations in the field.
Baseline outputs may include triple difference, float double difference, and fixed double difference
distance vectors, variance and covariance statistics, and RMS accuracy estimates. The procedures used in
baseline processing are software dependent; however, the output statistics and analysis of reliability are
somewhat similar among different vendors. Discussion and examples in the following sections are
largely taken from Trimble Geomatics Office software user guide manuals that are referenced in
Appendix A.

Figure 10-2. Baseline processing (Huntsville, AL PROSPECT GPS Course--2002)

a. Baseline processing. Baseline processing software is now fairly automatic and user-friendly.
Most software automatically performs all the interferometric differencing operations needed to solve for
integer ambiguities, and displays the resultant baseline vectors along with adjustment and accuracy
statistics that can be used to evaluate the results. The following procedures are taken from Trimble
Navigation's "Weighted Ambiguity Vector Estimator" (WAVE) software (Trimble 2001d) and are
believed to be representative of most packages. Trimble's WAVE baseline processor involves performing
the following steps, in order:
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1. Load raw GPS observation DAT files
2. Select the display options
3. Set the processing style & baseline flow sequence
4. Edit occupations (station names, antenna heights, etc.)
5. Import a coordinate seed (approximate point positions)
6. Choose baselines for processing (identify independent baselines)
7. Process the baselines
8. Review the results

Where multiple baselines are observed in a network, the software will process the baselines sequentially.
Independent baselines should be identified during this phase. If a precise ephemeris is available, then it
should be downloaded and input into the baseline reduction program. Complete details on performing
each of these baseline processing steps is found in the Trimble Geomatics Office--WAVE Baseline
Processing Software User Guide (Trimble 2001d).

b. Downloading GPS data. The first step in baseline processing is transferring the observation
data from the GPS data collector device to a personal computer for processing and archiving. Various
types of file formats may be involved, depending on the GPS receiver--e.g., Trimble Receiver *.DAT
files, Trimble Survey Controller *.DC files, or RINEX ASCII files. Data adjustment software packages
have standard downloading options for transferring GPS data files, or routines to convert proprietary GPS
files to RINEX format. Trimble *.DAT files contain information on receiver type, antenna measurement
method, antenna type, raw carrier phase observations, antenna height, satellite ephemeris, and station
designation/name. RINEX files are also obtained for remote IGS tracking network stations or CORS base
stations.

c. Preprocessing. Once observation data have been downloaded, preprocessing of data can be
completed. Preprocessing procedures depend on the type of GPS data collected, e.g., static, RTK, Fast
static, etc., and the type of initialization performed (static, known point, OTF, etc.). Preprocessing
consists of smoothing/editing the data and ephemeris determination. Smoothing and editing are done to
ensure data quantity and quality. Activities done during smoothing and editing include determination and
elimination of cycle slips, editing gaps in information, and checking station names and antenna heights.
In addition, elevation mask angles should be set during this phase along with options to select
tropospheric and ionospheric models.

d. Ephemeris data. Retrieval of post-processed ephemerides may be required depending on the
solution and type of survey being conducted. Code receivers do not require post-processed ephemerides
since they automatically record the broadcast ephemerides during the survey. Most baseline reduction
software provides an option to select either a broadcast or precise ephemeris.

e. Baseline solutions. Carrier phase baseline processing is fairly automatic on commercial
software packages. Groups of baselines are processed in a defined or selected order. After an initial code
solution is performed, a triple difference, then double-difference, solution is performed. If the integer
ambiguities are successfully resolved, then a fixed solution can result. Solution types may include L1
Fixed, Ionospheric-Free Fixed, and Float. If all observed baselines are processed, any dependent
baselines should be removed so they will not be used in subsequent network adjustments. Commercial
baseline reduction software may have a variety of options that are automatically (or manually) set to
determine the most "optimum" solution. Most software packages attempt to perform the most accurate
fixed solution for short lines (e.g., less than 15 km for single-frequency and less than 30 km for dual-
frequency receivers). The ability to derive an accurate fixed solution (i.e. 5 to 10 mm) will also depend
on the length of time of noise-free data, good DOP, multipath, etc. For baselines longer than 30 to 50 km,
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if the fixed solution is not deemed to be reliable (based on various quality indicators discussed below),
then the default float solution may be used. Although not as accurate as the fixed solution, if the session
time is long enough (e.g., 1 to 2 hours) the float solution will be fairly accurate--e.g., 20 to 50 mm for
lines less than 75 km. Most processing software provides numerous statistical and graphical displays of
baseline solution results, allowing users to assess the reliability of a particular solution, and force an
alternate solution if necessary--see Figure 10-3 for a typical example.

10-7. Resultant Baseline Output and Quality Criteria

Baseline post-processing software outputs vary with the software package. Baseline output data are used
to evaluate the quality of the solution, and may be input into subsequent network adjustment criteria.
Typically, the following types of information may be selected for text output or graphical screen display:

number of processed baselines (in network)
number of accepted and rejected baselines
session time (date, time)
data logging time (start, stop)
station information: location (latitude, longitude, height), receiver serial number used, antenna
serial number used, ID numbers, antenna height
epoch intervals
number of epochs
meteorological data (pressure, temperature, humidity)
ephemeris file used for the solution formulation
listing of the filenames
elevation mask
minimum number of satellites used
type of satellite selection (manual or automatic)
triple difference solution
double difference fixed solution
double difference float solution
L1 only solution
Ionospheric-free solution (L1 & L2)
baseline vector length in meters
RMS of solution
Post-fit RMS by satellite vs. baseline
RMS--L1 phase
RMS-L1 Doppler
RMS--P-code
Cycle slips
reference variance
ratio of solution variances of integer ambiguity
phase ambiguities & drifts
phase residual plots--L1 & C/A
satellite availability and tracks during the survey for each station occupied
DOP, PDOP, VDOP, HDOP
solution files: x-y-z between stations, slope distance between stations, latitude and
longitude between stations, horizontal distance between stations, and height
covariance matrix

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For most Corps applications, only a few of the above parameters need be output in order to assess the
results and quality of a baseline solution. These parameters can best be assessed from graphical summary
plots, as shown in Figure 10-3 below. Some more sophisticated reduction software, such as Waypoint
Consulting's "GrafNav" and the NGS's "PAGES," provide considerably more statistical information than
most other baseline processing packages; however, this level of GPS accuracy assessment is usually not
applicable to most Corps engineering and construction control survey work. These detailed statistics may
have application in assessing the quality of airborne GPS (ABGPS) applications. For more information
on these high-level baseline reduction methods, see NGS 2000 (PAGE-NT User's Manual) and Waypoint
2001 (GrafNav/GrafNet, GrafNav Lite, GrafMov Operating Manual).

Figure 10-3. GrafNet baseline reduction output plots--some of the 28 selectable assessment options
that may be plotted (Waypoint Consulting, Inc.)

a. Variance Ratio--floating and fixed solutions. A fixed solution indicates that the integer
ambiguities have been successfully resolved. A floating solution may not have accurately resolved the
integers; however, this may still be the best solution for that particular baseline observation. Trimble's
WAVE solution computes the variances of each integer ambiguity solution and compares the solution
with the lowest variance with the next higher variance solutions. This comparison "ratio" of the solutions
should exceed 1.5 in order to accept the lowest variance as the fixed solution. If a variance ratio is less
than 1.5 the processor defaults to the floating solution since there is no statistical basis for assuming a
fixed solution has merit.

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b. Reference variance. The reference variance indicates how well the computed errors in the
solution compare with the estimated (a priori) errors for a typical baseline. A value of 1.0 indicates a
good solution. Variances over 1.0 indicate the observed data were worse than the norm. Baselines with
high reference variances and low variance ratios need to be checked for problems.

c. RMS. The RMS is a quality factor that helps the user determine which vector solution (triple,
float, or fixed) to use in an adjustment. The RMS is dependent on the baseline length and the length of
time the baseline was observed. RMS is a measurement (in units of cycles or meters) of the quality of the
observation data collected during a point in time. RMS is dependent on line length, observation strength,
ionosphere, troposphere, and multipath. In general, the longer the line and the more signal interference by
other electronic gear, ionosphere, troposphere, and multipath, the higher the RMS will be. A good RMS
factor (one that is low, e.g., between 0.01 and 0.2 cycles or less than 15 mm) may not always indicate
good results, but is one indication to be taken into account. RMS can generally be used to judge the
quality of the data used in the post-processing and the quality of the post-processed baseline vector.

d. Repeatability. Redundant lines should agree to the level of accuracy that GPS is capable of
measuring to. For example, if GPS can measure a 10 km baseline to 1 cm + 1 ppm, the expected ratio of
misclosure would be

( 0.01 m + 0.01m) / 10,000 = 1:500,000 (1 part in 500,000)

Repeated baselines should be near the corresponding ratio: ( 1 cm + 1 ppm ) / baseline. Table 10-1
shows an example computation of the agreement between two redundant GPS baselines.

Table 10-1. Sample Computation of GPS Baseline Repeatability

Baseline Observation X Y Z Distance
Date

Day 203 5000.214 4000.000 7680.500 9999.611
Day 205 5000.215 4000.005 7680.491 9999.607

Difference 0.001 0.005 0.009

Ratio = (0.001
2
+ 0.005
2
+ 0.009
2
)
/ 9999.6 = 0.010 / 9999.6 = 1:967,000 [acceptable]

Table 10-2 below provides additional guidelines for determining the baseline quality if the fixed versus
float solution is not readily assessed or available in the baseline processing software (i.e. Trimble variance
ratio technique). If the fixed solution meets the criteria in this table, the fixed vector should be used in the
adjustment. In some cases the vector passes the RMS test but after adjustment the vector does not fit into
the network. If this occurs, the surveyor should try using the float vector in the adjustments or check to
make sure stations were occupied correctly.
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Table 10-2. Fixed Solution Acceptance Criteria

RMS Criteria Formulation
Distance Between d = distance between Formulated RMS Formulated RMS
Receivers (km) receivers Range (cycles) Range (meters)

0 - 10 (0.02+(0.004*d)) 0.02 - 0.06 0.004 - 0.012
10 - 20 (0.03+(0.003*d)) 0.06 - 0.09 0.012 - 0.018
20 - 30 (0.04+(0.0025*d)) 0.09 - 0.115 0.018 - 0.023
30 - 40 (0.04+(0.0025*d)) 0.115 - 0.14 0.023 - 0.027
40 - 60 (0.08+(0.0015*d)) 0.14 - 0.17 0.027 - 0.032
60 - 100 0.17 0.17 0.032
> 100 0.20 0.20 0.04

Note:
1. These are only general post-processing criteria that may be superseded by GPS receiver/software manufacturer
guidelines; consult those guidelines when appropriate.
2. For lines longer than 20 km, dual-frequency GPS receivers are recommended to meet these criteria.

e. Residual plots. Residual plots depict the data quality of the individual satellite signals.
Typically the L1 phase residual error is plotted for all the satellites in view, or for as many that will fit on
a computer screen. The plot is developed relative to the satellite chosen for double differencing.
Variations about the x-axis are an indicator of noise for a particular satellite. If the satellite is used for
double differencing, then no residual error will be shown for that period. Residual plots typically vary
around 5 mm from the mean. Residual deviations exceeding 15 mm are suspect--see Table 10-3. A
sample residual plot from a baseline solution is shown in Figure 10-4.

Figure 10-4. Sample residual plot (Trimble Navigation LTD WAVE baseline processing software)

f. Resolving poor baseline data. When baseline statistical data (e.g., reference variance and
ratios, RMS, residual plots, etc.) does not meet the various quality checks outlined above, then a number
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of options are available. These include removing some or all baselines in a session (if possible), changing
the elevation mask, removing one or more satellites from the solution, or, if necessary, reobserving the
baseline. Eliminating multipath problems is not as easy. It may show up on the residual plot as a
sinusoidal wave over time. Multipath is best minimized by good site selection, choke ring antennas, and
long session times.

g. Baseline acceptance criteria (Trimble). Trimble Geomatics Office software has three levels of
acceptance to assist in evaluating the quality of a processed baseline. These acceptance levels are "Pass"
(passes all criteria), "Flag" (one or more quality indicators are marginal but within acceptable tolerances),
and "Fail" (one or more quality indicators do not meet acceptable criteria). The "quality indicators" used
are: RMS, Reference Variance, and Variance Ratio. The quality indicator Pass/Flag/Fail levels may be
modified from the default levels recommended by Trimble.

h. Table 10-3 below summarizes the quality control criteria discussed above that should be used
in assessing the adequacy of a baseline reduction.

Table 10-3. Summary of Baseline Processing Quality Control Criteria

Parameter Allowable Limit

Solution:
L1 Fixed preferred for baselines < 10 km
Iono-free fixed baselines 10 km to 75 km
Iono-free float acceptable for baselines > 75 km

Reference Variance:
Nominal value 1.0 to 10.0
Maximum NTE (L1 only) 10.0 (reject if > 20.0)
Maximum NTE (L1 & L2 iono free) 5.0 (reject if > 10.0)

RMS:
< 5 km baseline 10 mm
< 20 km baseline 15 mm
20-50 km baseline 30 mm
NTE (with precise ephemeris) 50 mm

Variance Ratio for Integer solution > 1.5 (fixed solution)
< 1.5 (float solution)
> 1.5 but < 3.0 (flag warning/suspect)

Satellite Residual Plot Deviation NTE 15 mm

Repeat baseline agreement per FGCS standards

10-8. Examples of Baseline Reduction Software Output

The following pages contain example outputs from two processed baselines--one being a medium-length
(26 km) ionospheric-free fixed solution and the second being a long (107 km) float solution. These
baselines were observed using Ashtech receivers and were processed using Trimble WAVE Version 2.35
software. Explanatory annotations have been added to the first solution, and are similar on the 107 km
solution.
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IONOSPHERIC FREE FIXED DOUBLE DIFFERENCE BASELINE SOLUTION
MEDIUM LENGTH 26 KM BASELINE LENGTH (San Juan, PR--Puerto Nuevo Flood Control Project--
Jacksonville District)
(Trimble Navigation LTD--WAVE 2.35)

Project Name: [PUERTO NUEVO FLOOD CONTROL] 02097base
Processed: Thursday, July 11, 2002 12:59
WAVE 2.35
Solution Output File (SSF): 00038752.SSF

From Station: COMERIO
Data file: ____1732.RNX
Antenna Height (meters): 2.122 True Vertical
Position Quality: Point Positioning

WGS 84 Position: 18 14' 08.746057" N X 2444052.950
66 12' 52.306905" W Y -5545217.951
150.797 Z 1983232.476

To Station: DRYDOCK
Data file: DRYD1732.RNX

WGS 84 Position: 18 26' 47.880251" N X 2452927.215
66 05' 28.532019" W Y -5533065.770
-41.244 Z 2005326.605

Start Time: 6/22/02 12:05:30.00 GPS (1171 561930.00)
Stop Time: 6/22/02 17:51:15.00 GPS (1171 582675.00)
Occupation Time Meas. Interval (seconds): 05:45:45.00 15.00

Solution Type: Iono free fixed double difference
Solution Acceptability: Passed ratio test

Ephemeris: Broadcast
Met Data: Standard

Baseline Slope Distance Std. Dev. (meters): 26731.603 0.000921

Forward Backward
Normal Section Azimuth: 29 09' 11.458111" 209 11' 31.087237"
Vertical Angle: -0 31' 55.911654" 0 17' 27.744089"

Baseline Components (meters): dx 8874.265 dy 12152.181 dz 22094.129
Standard Deviations (meters): 0.003151 0.006977 0.002847
dn 23344.248 de 13021.638 du -248.296
0.000927 0.000838 0.008072
dh -192.041 0.008073

Aposteriori Covariance Matrix:
9.931756E-006
-2.104302E-005 4.868030E-005
8.247290E-006 -1.865503E-005 8.107185E-006

Variance Ratio / Cutoff: 17.2 1.5
Reference Variance: 4.845
FROM Station
RINEX file
Antenna hgt to
L1 phase ctr

Lat
Lon
ellip hgt
TO Station
RINEX file
Antenna hgt to
L1 phase ctr

Lat
Lon
ellip hgt Observed 5 hr 45 min @ 15-sec intervals
Solution Type
Passed Variance Ratio Test
Broadcast ephemeris used
Slope distance and standard error
Forward & back
azimuths & vertical
angles
Geocentric
(x-y-z)
and N-E-Up
coordinates
and standard
errors
Covariance Matrix: variances & correlations in x-y-z coords
Variance Ratio >>> than 3.0 ... good
Reference Variance < 5.0 ... OK
Covariance Matrix
X
2
XY

XZ

YX

Y
2
YZ

ZX

ZY

Z
2

EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
10-14

IONOSPHERIC FREE FIXED DOUBLE DIFFERENCE BASELINE SOLUTION
MEDIUM LENGTH 26 KM BASELINE LENGTH (Continued)

Observable Count/Rejected RMS: Iono free phase
6904/10 0.024

Processor Controls:

[General]
Process start time: 6/22/02 00:02:00 GPS (1171 518520)
Process stop time: 6/23/02 00:01:30 GPS (1172 90)
Elevation mask: 15 degrees
Maximum iterations: 10
Maximum fixable cycle slip: 600 seconds
Residuals: Disabled
Antenna phase correction: Enabled

[Observables]
L1 phase Enabled
L2 phase Enabled
Squared L2 phase Enabled
L2 P code Enabled
L1 C/A code Enabled
L2 code (encrypted) Enabled

[Static Network]
Baseline generation: All baselines
Min baseline observation time 120 seconds

[Quality]
Observation editing: Edit multiplier 3.5
Ratio test: Cutoff 1.5
Reference variance test: Disabled

[Tropo Correction]
Model: Hopfield
Estimated zenith delay interval: 2 hours
Use observed mets: Enabled

[Iono Correction] Ambiguity Pass Final Pass
Correction: Iono free Iono free
Applied to: Static, Kinematic Static, Kinematic
Application threshold: 10 kilometers 5 kilometers

[Final Solution]
Final solution type: L1 Fixed

[Satellites]
Disabled:

RMS = 24 mm ... < 30 mm ...OK
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
10-15

IONO FREE FLOAT DOUBLE DIFFERENCE BASELINE SOLUTION
LONG 107 KM BASELINE LENGTH (San Juan, PR--Puerto Nuevo Flood Control Project-Jacksonville District)
(Trimble Navigation LTD--WAVE 2.35)

Project Name: 02097base
Processed: Thursday, July 11, 2002 12:20
WAVE 2.35
Solution Output File (SSF): 00038632.SSF

From Station: PUR 3
Data file: PUR3177L.RNX
Position Quality: Point Positioning

WGS 84 Position: 18 27' 46.670415" N X 2358177.597
67 04' 01.076161" W Y -5573621.134
90.397 Z 2007082.890

To Station: PN 007
Data file: 00071771.RNX

WGS 84 Position: 18 24' 00.838038" N X 2456974.099
66 03' 22.369643" W Y -5533057.526
-30.064 Z 2000457.530

Start Time: 6/26/02 15:06:40.00 GPS (1172 313600.00)
Stop Time: 6/26/02 19:01:30.00 GPS (1172 327690.00)
Occupation Time Meas. Interval (seconds): 03:54:50.00 30.00

Solution Type: Iono free float double difference
Solution Acceptability: Acceptable

Met Data: Standard
Baseline Slope Distance Std. Dev. (meters): 107004.909 0.005491

Forward Backward
Normal Section Azimuth: 93 33' 38.001101" 273 52' 48.487830"
Vertical Angle: -0 32' 41.904306" -0 24' 57.517184"

Baseline Components (meters): dx 98796.502 dy 40563.608 dz -6625.360
Standard Deviations (meters): 0.008147 0.011887 0.005161
dn -6645.072 de 106793.528 du -1017.770
0.001934 0.005522 0.014145
dh -120.461 0.014166

Aposteriori Covariance Matrix: 6.636701E-005
-6.583171E-005 1.413108E-004
2.961492E-005 -5.613399E-005 2.663405E-005

Reference Variance: 5.359

Observable Count/Rejected RMS: Iono free phase 2391/0 0.026

Ambiguity Summary (cycles): SV Ambiguity Error
Iono free 04 -39932607.484 0.251
04 -41411233.741 0.284
05 -19296720.802 0.357
06 -31002785.279 0.187
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
10-16

IONO FREE FLOAT DOUBLE DIFFERENCE BASELINE SOLUTION
LONG 107 KM BASELINE LENGTH (Continued)

09 -34051430.580 0.109
10 25.791 0.105
10 -31703542.767 0.157
15 -20292127.579 0.224
17 -28200241.402 0.178
18 -27143528.717 0.333
23 -25788558.784 0.112
24 -9579372.631 0.139
26 -297437.123 0.069
Processor Controls:
[General]
Process start time: 6/26/02 11:02:00 GPS (1172 298920)
Process stop time: 6/26/02 20:59:10 GPS (1172 334750)
Elevation mask: 15 degrees
Maximum iterations: 10
Maximum fixable cycle slip: 600 seconds
Residuals: Disabled
Antenna phase correction: Enabled
[Observables]
L1 phase Enabled
L2 phase Enabled
Squared L2 phase Enabled
L2 P code Enabled
L1 C/A code Enabled
L2 code (encrypted) Enabled
[Static Network]
Baseline generation: All baselines
Min baseline observation time 120 seconds
[Quality]
Observation editing: Edit multiplier 3.5
Ratio test: Cutoff 1.5
Reference variance test: Disabled
[Tropo Correction]
Model: Hopfield
Estimated zenith delay interval: 2 hours
Use observed mets: Enabled
[Iono Correction] Ambiguity Pass Final Pass
Correction: Iono free Iono free
Applied to: Static, Kinematic Static,
Kinematic
Application threshold: 10 kilometers 5 kilometers
[Final Solution]
Final solution type: L1 Fixed
[Satellites]
Disabled:

EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
10-17
10-9. Baseline Reduction Summaries

The following list is a typical report of baseline reductions performed over a network. For each baseline,
the report lists the solution type, slope distance, reference variance, and ratio (for fixed solutions). Such a
report is of value in assessing the overall quality of baselines in a network prior to performing rigorous
adjustments. Most of the baselines less than 5 km have fixed solutions. Iono free fixed solutions were
obtained in baselines up to and exceeding 100 km, most likely because observation times typically
exceeded 6 hours over these lines and the integers were reliably fixed, albeit with smaller ratios. Lines
not fixed had float solutions.

Sample Baseline Reduction Project Summary Report (Trimble Navigation LTD)
Puerto Nuevo, San Juan Puerto Rico--July 2002 (RLDA Inc.--Jacksonville District)

Station Solution Slope Ratio Reference Entered Ant Hgt
(From) (To) Type Dist (m) Variance (From) (To)

A 1001 MESAS Iono free fixed 20841.965 6.6 3.814 1.674 1.559
A 1001 SJH 44 L1 fixed 4426.843 13.3 11.994 2.125 1.714
COMERIO A 1001 Iono free float 28604.039 3.059 2.122 2.125
COMERIO DRYDOCK Iono free fixed 26731.603 17.2 4.845 2.122 1.683
COMERIO MESAS Iono free fixed 17436.970 20.4 3.522 2.122 1.504
COMERIO MP 1 Iono free fixed 26466.871 15.9 3.535 2.122 1.651
COMERIO SJH 44 Iono free fixed 26791.206 8.0 3.748 2.122 1.714
DRYDOCK A 1001 L1 fixed 2099.928 3.5 23.933 1.683 2.125
DRYDOCK SJH 44 L1 fixed 2986.722 4.1 19.858 1.683 1.714
MESAS A 1001 Iono free fixed 20841.967 1.5 3.761 1.504 2.125
MESAS DRYDOCK Iono free fixed 19984.666 16.6 5.558 1.504 1.683
MESAS SJH 44 Iono free fixed 21973.981 9.3 2.783 1.504 1.714
MP 1 A 1001 L1 fixed 2160.311 4.0 21.693 1.651 2.125
MP 1 PN 007 Iono free fixed 5114.381 19.0 4.801 1.775 2.143
MP 1 PN 030 L1 fixed 4609.931 8.5 27.470 1.775 1.656
MP 1 PUR 3 Iono free fixed 104015.014 2.3 9.541 2.125 0.000
MP 1 RRS 1 L1 fixed 3154.302 50.0 23.107 1.775 0.000
MP 3 TATI L1 fixed 2605.904 15.4 37.889 1.717 0.000
PN 007 A 1001 Iono free fixed 6568.337 4.3 3.786 2.143 1.674
PN 030 MESAS Iono free fixed 14465.715 11.5 5.609 1.715 1.559
PN 030 MP 3 L1 fixed 4721.907 30.6 44.769 1.656 1.717
PN 030 PN 007 L1 fixed 2845.129 21.9 34.393 1.656 2.143
PN 030 RRS 1 Iono free fixed 6624.379 14.0 3.073 1.656 0.000
PUR 3 A 1001 Iono free float 104825.284 2.262 0.000 1.674
PUR 3 A 1001 Iono free float 104825.202 2.859 0.000 2.125
PUR 3 COMERIO Iono free fixed 93542.150 4.3 13.202 0.000 2.122
PUR 3 DRYDOCK Iono free fixed 103078.898 2.4 19.846 0.000 1.683
PUR 3 MESAS Iono free fixed 109219.386 3.3 15.726 0.000 1.504
PUR 3 MP 1 Iono free fixed 104015.205 5.4 22.988 0.000 1.651
PUR 3 MP 3 Iono free fixed 105251.631 4.0 10.456 0.000 1.717
PUR 3 PN 007 Iono free float 107004.909 5.359 0.000 2.143
PUR 3 PN 030 Iono free fixed 104207.465 22.5 6.769 0.000 1.715
PUR 3 RRS 1 Iono free fixed 106835.866 7.8 5.010 0.000 0.000
PUR 3 SJH 44 Iono free fixed 100402.386 3.8 10.331 0.000 1.621
PUR 3 SJH 44 Iono free float 100402.461 2.740 0.000 1.714
PUR 3 SJH 44 Iono free fixed 100402.341 3.7 8.679 0.000 1.666
PUR 3 SJHL11RM Iono free float 101479.646 3.355 0.000 2.125
PUR 3 TATI Iono free fixed 104537.036 3.8 8.956 0.000 0.000
RRS 1 PN 007 Iono free fixed 5639.477 9.6 4.974 0.000 2.143
SJH 44 A 1001 L1 fixed 4426.901 4.8 12.273 1.621 1.674
SJH 44 MESAS Iono free fixed 21973.970 8.4 5.657 1.621 1.559
SJH 44 MP 1 L1 fixed 4201.519 2.9 21.210 1.611 2.125
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
10-18

Sample Baseline Reduction Project Summary Report (Trimble Navigation LTD)--Continued
Puerto Nuevo, San Juan Puerto Rico--July 2002 (RLDA Inc.--Jacksonville District)

Station Solution Slope Ratio Reference Entered Ant Hgt
(From) (To) Type Dist (m) Variance (From) (To)

SJH 44 MP 1 L1 fixed 4201.586 38.9 25.690 1.666 1.775
SJH 44 MP 3 Iono free fixed 5319.058 27.9 5.499 1.666 1.717
SJH 44 PN 007 Iono free fixed 9092.812 1.7 5.592 1.621 2.143
SJH 44 PN 030 Iono free fixed 7680.376 20.4 6.122 1.666 1.656
SJH 44 PUR 3 Iono free fixed 100402.358 8.0 6.727 1.611 0.000
SJH 44 RRS 1 Iono free fixed 6481.387 61.2 4.617 1.666 0.000
SJH 44 SJHL11RM L1 fixed 3556.239 2.1 11.339 1.621 2.125
SJH 44 TATI Iono free fixed 6204.031 8.0 5.361 1.666 0.000
SJHL11RM A 1001 L1 fixed 4682.576 10.0 7.149 2.125 1.674
SJHL11RM MESAS Iono free float 18419.372 5.138 2.125 1.559
SJHL11RM PN 007 Iono free fixed 6188.465 1.8 4.479 2.125 2.143
SJHL11RM PN 030 L1 fixed 4247.108 1.6 31.691 2.125 1.715
TATI PN 007 L1 fixed 2943.738 15.0 29.619 0.000 2.143
TATI RRS 1 L1 fixed 4586.193 17.5 36.664 0.000 0.000
**** End of Report *****

Other useful baseline reduction summaries include satellite tracking summaries depicting signal losses,
cycle slips, or residual plots for each satellite observed. These plots may be used to decide whether poor
satellites should be removed from the reduction. In addition, graphical summary plots are much easier to
review than pages of statistical text. A unique type of graphical baseline quality plot is shown in the
following figure from Waypoint Consulting, Inc. In this plot, a quality number (from one to six) is
computed using seven different baseline reduction statistics. A "good" quality value of "1" would
represent a fixed integer solution, while values of 5-6 indicate worse DGPS accuracies. Each epoch is
plotted with a certain color depending on its quality number, which allows for a quick visual inspection.
Waypoint GrafNAV baseline reduction software contains options for 26 different types of graphical plots
for use in assessing baseline quality. These include plots such as DOPs, L1 phase RMS, C/A-code RMS,
forward/reverse separation, quality number, standard deviation, L1 Doppler RMS, ambiguity drift
(i.e. solution stability), forward/reverse weighting, and satellite elevation and loss of lock plots for each
satellite being tracked. Other commercial baseline reduction software provides options for similar
graphical assessment features.

Figure 10-5. Typical quality factor plot for a baseline (Waypoint Consulting, Inc. GrafNAV)
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
10-19
10-10. Baseline Reduction in Mapping Grade GPS Receivers

Small hand-held, mapping grade GPS receivers are easy and efficient to operate, with minimal training.
They are capable of achieving decimeter-level accuracy when paired and post-processed with a nearby
CORS base station receiver. The software for performing the baseline reduction and position
computation is fairly simple to operate. The following listing is an example of GPS positions logged by a
hand-held Trimble GeoExplorer on points that potentially impact maintenance dredging limits. The
resultant accuracy of the points is about 2 feet (95% RMS), which is more than adequate for defining
dredging limits. The baseline reduction was performed using a nearby CORS reference station in
Miami, FL.

LOCATIONS OF DOCKS AND BULKHEADS ALONG THE MIAMI RIVER
Sample results from post-processed differential carrier observations using nearest CORS station in Miami, FL.
GeoExplorer carrier phase differential data--5-sec update rate. All Float solutions

Point Ref Point Description FL SP Coordinate Obs 95% Precision *
No. X Y Y X X-Y Z

38-1 38 Concrete Bulkhead, in line with 920,742.89 522,331.98 720 0.6 ft 0.6 ft 0.8 ft 0.9 ft
East edge of Building

38-2 38 Concrete Bulkhead, in line with 920,696.28 522,324.20 120 1.0 ft 1.0 ft 1.3 ft 1.6 ft
West edge of Building
94-3 94 Northeast corner of concrete 918,350.11 525,035.11 723 0.5 ft 0.5 ft 0.7 ft 0.8 ft
pier @ La Coloma Marina
94-4 94 Northwest corner of concrete 918,343.00 525,039.66 101 1.2 ft 1.2 ft 1.6 ft 2.7 ft
pier @ La Coloma Marina
110-5 110 Point on corrugated steel bulkhead 917,156.88 525,821.07 676 0.9 ft 0.9 ft 1.1 ft 1.6 ft

116-6 116 Northeast corner of wooden pier 916,946.64 525,963.01 724 0.5 ft 0.5 ft 0.6 ft 0.7 ft
@ Langer-Krell Marine Electronics
46-7 46 Northeast corner of wooden pier 919,868.69 522,728.61 794 0.5 ft 0.5 ft 0.7 ft 1.4 ft

46-8 46 Point on concrete bulkhead 919,736.36 522,881.29 200 1.8 ft 1.8 ft 2.3 ft 6.8 ft **

177-9 177 Southwest corner of finger pier 910,470.96 528,929.65 724 0.6 ft 0.6 ft 0.8 ft 0.8 ft
@ Hurricane Cove Marina

* computed by Trimble Pathfinder Office software
** apparent multipath problem at this point

EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
10-20
10-11. Field/Office Loop Closure Checks

Post-processing criteria are aimed at an evaluation of a single baseline. In order to verify the adequacy of
a group of connected baselines, one must perform a loop closure computation on the formulated
baselines. When GPS baseline traverses or loops are formed, their linear (internal) closure should be
determined in the field. If job requirements are less than Third-Order (1:10,000 or 1:5,000), and the
internal loop/traverse closures are very small, a formal (external) adjustment may not be warranted.

a. Loop closure software packages. The internal closure determines the consistency of the GPS
measurements. Internal closures are applicable for loop traverses and GPS networks. It is required that
one baseline in the loop be independent. An independent baseline is observed during a different session
or different day. Today, most post-processing software packages come with a loop closure program, such
as the example in Figure 10-6. These loop closure routines allow for a graphical selection of baselines in
a network from which a loop closure is automatically computed in real-time. Refer to the individual
manufacturer post-processing user manuals for a discussion on the particulars of the loop closure program
included with the user hardware.

Figure 10-6. Loop closure diagram (Waypoint GrafNet)

b. General loop closure procedure. If the user post-processing software package does not
contain a loop closure program, the user can perform a loop closure as shown below.

EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
10-21
(1) List the x-y-z differences and length of the baseline being used in a table of the form
shown in Table 10-4.

Table 10-4. Loop Closure Procedure

Julian
Baseline Day Session x y z Distance

Baseline #1 Day # x #1 y #1 z #1 Distance #1

(2) Sum up the x -y- z differences and distance components for all baselines used in the loop
closure. For instance, for the baselines in Table 10-4, the summation would be x, y, z, and
Distances or (x#1 + x#2 + x#3), (y#1 + y#2 + y#3), (z#1 + z#2 + z#3), and (Distance#1 +
Distance#2 + Distance#3), respectively.

(3) Once summation of the x, y, z, and Distance components has been completed, the
square of each of the summations should be added together and the square root of this sum then taken.
This resultant value is the misclosure vector for the loop. This relationship can be expressed in the
following manner:

m = [ ( x
2
) + ( y
2
) + ( z
2
) ]
1/2
(Eq 10-7)

where

m = misclosure for the loop
x = sum of all x vectors for baselines used
y = sum of all y vectors for baselines used
z = sum of all z vectors for baselines used

(4) The loop misclosure ratio may be calculated as follows:

Loop misclosure ratio = m/L (Eq 10-8)

where
L = total loop distance (perimeter distance)

(5) The resultant value can be expressed in the following form:

1: Loop Misclosure Ratio

with all units for the expressions being in terms of the units used in the baseline formulations (e.g., m, ft,
mm, etc.).

EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
10-22

Figure 10-7. Internal loop closure scheme

c. Sample loop closure computation. Figure 10-7 shows two loops that consist of four stations.
Stations 01 and 04 were known control stations. During Session A on day 065, three GPS receivers
observed the baselines between Stations 01, 02, and 03 for approximately 1 hour. The receivers were
then turned off and the receiver at Station 01 was moved to Station 04. The tripod heights at Stations 02
and 03 were adjusted. The baselines between Stations 02, 03, and 04 were then observed during Session
B, day 065. This provided an independent baseline for both loops.

(1) The closure for loop 01-02-03 is computed with the vectors 01-02 and 01-03, day 065, session
A, and the vector 02-03, day 065, session B. The vector 02-03 from session B provides an independent
baseline. The loop closure is determined by arbitrarily assigning coordinate values of zero to station 01
(X=0, Y=0, Z=0). The vector from 01-02 is added to the coordinates of Station 01. The vector from
02-03, session B, is added to the derived coordinates of Station 02. The vector from 03-01 is then added
to the station coordinates of 02. Since the starting coordinates of Station 01 were arbitrarily chosen as
zero, the misclosure is then the computed coordinates of Station 01 (dx, dy, dz). The vector data are
listed in Table 10-5.

Table 10-5. Vector Data for Stations 01, 02, and 03

Julian
Baseline Day Session X Y Z Distance

01-02 065 A -4077.865 -2877.121 -6919.829 8531.759
02-03 065 B 7855.762 -3129.673 688.280 8484.196
03-01 065 A -3777.910 6006.820 6231.547 9443.869

LOOP A
LOOP B
01
03
02
04
Known Station
Unknown Station
Baseline Vector Direction
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
10-23
(2) To determine the relative loop closure, the square root of the sum of the squares of the loop
misclosures (mx, my, mz) is divided into the perimeter length of the loop:

Loop misclosure ratio = [ 1 / L ]
.
[ (x
2
) + (y
2
) + (z
2
) ]

(Eq 10-9)

Where the perimeter distance (L) = Distance 01-02 + Distance 02-03 + Distance 03-01, or:

L = 8531.759 + 8484.196 + 9443.869 = 26,459.82

And where distance 03-01 was computed from:

(-3777.912
2
+ 6006.8202
2
+ 6231.5472
2
)
1/2
= 9443.869

(Other distances are similarly computed)

Summing the misclosures in each coordinate:

x = -4077.865 + 7855.762 - 3777.910 = - 0.0135
y = -2877.121 - 3129.673 + 6006.820 = + 0.0264
z = -6919.829 + 688.280 + 6231.547 = - 0.0021

then the loop misclosure is

( x
2
+y
2
+ z
2
)
1/2
= 0.029

Loop Misclosure Ratio = 0.029/26,459.82 or (approximately) 1 part in 912,000 (1:912,000)

(3) This example is quite simplified; however, it illustrates the necessary mechanics in
determining internal loop closures. The values x , y, and z are present in the baseline output files.
The perimeter distance is computed by adding the distances between each point in the loop.

d. External closures. External closures are computed in a similar manner to internal loops.
External closures provide information on how well the GPS measurements conform to the local
coordinate system. Before the closure of each traverse is computed, the latitude, longitude, and ellipsoid
height must be converted to geocentric coordinates (X,Y,Z). If the ellipsoid height is not known, geoid
modeling software can be used with the orthometric height to get an approximate ellipsoid height. The
external closure will aid the surveyor in determining the quality of the known control and how well the
GPS measurements conform to the local network. If the control stations are not of equal precision, the
external closures will usually reflect the lower-order station. If the internal closure meets the
requirements of the job, but the external closure is poor, the surveyor should suspect that the known
control is deficient and an additional known control point should be tied into the system.

10-12. On-Line Positioning User Service (OPUS)

OPUS is a free on-line baseline reduction and position adjustment service provided by the National
Geodetic Survey. OPUS provides an X-Y-Z baseline reduction and position adjustment relative to three
nearby national CORS reference stations. OPUS is ideal for establishing accurate horizontal control
relative to the NGRS. It can also be used as a quality control check on previously established control
points. OPUS input is performed "on-line" by entering at least two hours of static, dual-frequency GPS
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
10-24
RINEX data--see Figure 10-8. The resultant adjustment is returned in minutes via e-mail. Either the
ultra-rapid or precise ephemeris is used for the solution.

Figure 10-8. On-Line Positioning User Service (OPUS) Web input screen

a. On-line data input. OPUS is accessed at the following web page address:
www.ngs.noaa.gov/OPUS. The various data on the screen in Figure 10-8 are entered, e.g., e-mail
address, RINEX file path, antenna height, and local SPCS code. The antenna height in meters is the
vertical (not slope) distance measured between the monument/benchmark and the antenna reference point
(ARP). The ARP is almost always the center of the bottom-most, permanently attached, surface of the
antenna. If 0.0000 meters is entered for the height, OPUS will return the position of the ARP. The type
of antenna is selected from the drop down menu.

b. Solution. OPUS computes an average solution from the three baselines. NGS baseline
reduction software is used for the solutions. Output positions are provided in both ITRF and NAD 83.
An overall RMS (95%) confidence for the solution is provided, along with maximum coordinate spreads
between the three CORS stations for both the ITRF and NAD 83 positions. An orthometric elevation on
NAVD 88 is provided using the Geoid 99 model. The orthometric accuracy shown is a function of the
spread between the three redundant baseline solutions.

c. Sample adjustment. The following example was performed to locate a permanently mounted
GPS antenna that is used for real-time kinematic hydrographic surveys and dredging on the St. Marys
River offshore entrance channel leading to the Kings Bay FBM Submarine Base. This antenna point was
originally positioned in 1997 relative to local NGRS/HARN control. The NAVD 88 elevation was
established in 1997 using conventional differential levels. Five hours of dual-frequency data were
recorded in May 2002 and processed in OPUS against three distant CORS points in Charleston, SC, Cape
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
10-25
Canaveral, FL, and Savannah, GA. The solution was performed using both the Rapid Ephemeris and
Precise Ephemeris.

OPUS Solution: Kings Bay FBM Submarine Base Entrance Channel
Fernandina Pier Bath House RTK GPS Antenna

FILE: 58421440.02o
2004 WARNING! The IGS precise orbit was not available at processing [Rapid orbit will be used]
2004 time. The IGS rapid orbit was/will be used to process the data.
2004
1008 WARNING! Antenna offsets supplied by the user in the RINEX [permanent RTK antenna mounted on
1008 header or via the web were zero. Coordinates returned will mast above Bath House]
1008 be for the antenna reference point (ARP). Please refer to
1008 the following web address for an example.
1008 http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/CORS/OPUS/Preprinfile.html

NGS OPUS SOLUTION REPORT (RAPID EPHEMERIS)

USER: francis.m.woodward\@saj02.usace.a DATE: May 28, 2002
RINEX FILE: 58421440.02o TIME: 18:10:55 UTC
SOFTWARE: page5 0203.19 START: 2002/05/24 13:05:00
EPHEMERIS: igr11675.eph [rapid] STOP: 2002/05/24 18:05:00 [5 hours of observation]
NAV FILE: brdc1440.02n OBS USED: 8259 / 9034 : 91%
ANT NAME: TRM22020.00+GP # FIXED AMB: 63 / 71 : 89%
ARP HEIGHT: 0.0 OVERALL RMS: 0.021(m) [overall solution RMS 95%]

[Adjusted positions ... note that accuracy estimates are based on maximum spread between 3 solutions]

REF FRAME: NAD83(CORS96)(EPOCH:2002.0000) ITRF00 (EPOCH:2002.3936)
[spread] [spread]
X: 818024.398(m) 0.014(m) 818023.781(m) 0.014(m)
Y: -5427733.157(m) 0.055(m) -5427731.620(m) 0.057(m)
Z: 3237328.073(m) 0.033(m) 3237327.879(m) 0.034(m)

LAT: 30 41 59.95964 0.003(m) 30 41 59.98095 0.003(m)
E LON: 278 34 14.36555 0.011(m) 278 34 14.35123 0.012(m)
W LON: 81 25 45.63445 0.011(m) 81 25 45.64877 0.012(m)
EL HGT: -20.012(m) 0.065(m) -21.497(m) 0.067(m)

ORTHO HGT 8.591(m) 0.069(m) [Geoid99 NAVD88]

UTM: Zone 17
NORTHING: 3396432.577(m)
EASTING: 458884.381(m)

SPC: Zone 1001(GA)
NORTHING: 77823.887(m)
EASTING: 270630.929(m)

BASE STATIONS USED
PID DESIGNATION LATITUDE LONGITUDE DISTANCE(m)
AH6078 sav1 SAVANNAH 1 CORS ARP N320818 W0814146 161511
AH2496 ccv3 CAPE CANAVERAL 3 CORS ARP N282736 W0803242 262608
AF9630 cha2 CHARLESTON 2 CORS ARP N324526 W0795035 273177

NEAREST NGS PUBLISHED CONTROL POINT
BC1755 FERNA RESET N304207 W0812602 487

This position was computed without any knowledge by the National Geodetic
Survey regarding the equipment or field operating procedures used.

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OPUS Solution: Kings Bay FBM Submarine Base Entrance Channel (Continued)

RECOMPUTING WITH PRECISE EPHEMERIS:
SOFTWARE: page5 0203.19 START: 2002/05/24 13:05:00
EPHEMERIS: igs11675.eph [precise] STOP: 2002/05/24 18:05:00
NAV FILE: brdc1440.02n OBS USED: 8259 / 9034 : 91%
ANT NAME: TRM22020.00+GP # FIXED AMB: 63 / 71 : 89%
ARP HEIGHT: 0.0 OVERALL RMS: 0.021(m)

REF FRAME: NAD83(CORS96)(EPOCH:2002.0000) ITRF00 (EPOCH:2002.3936)

X: 818024.399(m) 0.013(m) 818023.781(m) 0.013(m)
Y: -5427733.166(m) 0.060(m) -5427731.630(m) 0.062(m)
Z: 3237328.081(m) 0.039(m) 3237327.888(m) 0.041(m)

LAT: 30 41 59.95972 0.004(m) 30 41 59.98104 0.005(m)
E LON: 278 34 14.36552 0.014(m) 278 34 14.35117 0.016(m)
W LON: 81 25 45.63448 0.014(m) 81 25 45.64883 0.016(m)
EL HGT: -20.000(m) 0.070(m) -21.484(m) 0.073(m)
ORTHO HGT: 8.603(m) 0.075(m) [Geoid99 NAVD88]

SUMMARY OF SOLUTION RESULTS

1997 POSITION OPUS Diff OPUS Diff
(RAPID) (PRECISE)

Lat: 30-41-59.9588 30-41-59.95964 2 cm 30-41-59.95972 3 cm
Lon: 81-25-45.6344 81-25-45.63445 0 cm 81-25-45.63448 0 cm
Ellip Hgt: -20.015 m -20.012 m 3 mm -20.000 m 15 mm

The above example illustrates the reliability of an OPUS solution in the horizontal plane. The position
difference between the old 1997 position and the 2002 OPUS/CORS solution is at the few centimeter-
level and is therefore insignificant for the purposes of the project control function. Although the ellipsoid
elevation agreed to within a few millimeters, this OPUS solution should not be relied on given the large
estimated variances between the baselines. This large variance illustrates that vertical control cannot be
reliably extended over baselines of this length. It is also apparent in this example that the differences
between the rapid ephemeris and precise ephemeris were not significant for this observation series. The
following OPUS solution illustrates a case where two nearby CORS stations were used in the solution.
Horizontal accuracies using the ultra-rapid orbit were at the centimeter level.

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OPUS Solution using two nearby CORS stations--New Orleans District
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10-13. Scripps Coordinate Update Tool (SCOUT)

SCOUT is another free differential GPS baseline processing service that operates similarly to OPUS. The
major difference is that SCOUT uses nearby International GPS Service (IGS) stations, which are more
densely spaced than CORS. A RINEX file is uploaded for adjustment using an ftp access point--see the
SCOUT input box in Figure 10-9. A minimum observation time of one hour is recommended. SCOUT is
operated by the Scripps Orbit and Permanent Array Center (SOPAC) at the Scripps Institution of
Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, in La Jolla, California. SOPAC's primary scientific
role is to support high precision geodetic and geophysical measurements using GPS satellites, particularly
for the study of earthquake hazards, tectonic plate motion, plate boundary deformation, and
meteorological processes. SOPAC investigators also conduct research on the implementation, operation
and scientific applications of continuously monitoring GPS arrays and Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)
interferometry. SOPAC is a major participant in projects for the International GPS Service for
Geodynamics (IGS), the Southern California Integrated GPS Network (SCIGN), the University
NAVSTAR Consortium (UNAVCO), NOAA's Forecast Systems Laboratory (FSL), and the California
Spatial Reference Center (CSRC).

Figure 10-9. Scripps Coordinate Update Tool (SCOUT) Web input screen

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10-14. Automated GIPSY Analyses (Jet Propulsion Laboratory)

GIPSY is a free point processing service which performs a single point solution. Its e-mail/fts interface is
known as auto-GIPSY or "ag." It does a basic analysis of GPS data in a RINEX file. All the processing
occurs on a computer at JPL using final orbital data. E-mail is used to inform "ag" about the location of
user data. E-mail is then sent from "ag" to inform the user about the location of the results. Anonymous
ftp is used by "ag" to retrieve the results. Users need to place their RINEX observation file--preferably
compressed--in an area that is accessible by anonymous ftp. Its name should conform to the RINEX
standard. Point solutions should be returned in a few minutes. JPL claims accuracies of a few mm in
horizontal components and about a cm in the vertical for data from a stationary site with a geodetic-
quality receiver. GIPSY does not make corrections for antenna heights.

10-15. Baseline Data Management and Archival

The raw data are defined as data recorded during the observation period. Raw data shall be stored on an
appropriate medium (CD-ROM, portable hard drive, magnetic tape, etc.). The raw data and the hard copy
of the baseline reduction (resultant baseline formulations) shall be stored at the discretion of each USACE
Command. See also data archiving requirements covered in Chapter 11.
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Chapter 11
Adjustment of GPS Surveys
11-1. General
Differential carrier phase GPS survey observations are adjusted no differently than conventional,
terrestrial EDM surveys. Each three-dimensional GPS baseline vector is treated as a separate distance
observation and adjusted as part of a trilateration network. A variety of techniques may be used to adjust
the observed GPS baselines to fit existing control. Since GPS survey networks often contain redundant
observations, they are usually adjusted by some type of rigorous least-squares minimization technique.
This chapter describes some of the methods used to perform GPS survey adjustments and provides
guidance in evaluating the adequacy and accuracy of the adjustment results.
11-2. Adjustment Considerations
a. This chapter primarily deals with the adjustment of horizontal control established using GPS
observations. Although vertical elevations are necessarily carried through the baseline reduction and
adjustment process, the relative accuracy of these GPS-derived elevations is normally inadequate for
many engineering and construction purposes. Special techniques and constraints are necessary to
determine approximate orthometric elevations from relative GPS observations, as were described in
Chapter 8.
b. The baseline reduction process (described in Chapter 10) directly provides the raw baseline
distances and relative position coordinates that are used in a 3-D GPS network adjustment. In addition,
and depending on the vendor's software, each reduced baseline will contain various orientation
parameters, covariance matrices, and cofactor and/or correlation statistics that may be used in weighting
the final network adjustment. Most least-squares adjustments use the accuracy or correlation statistics
from the baseline reductions; however, other weighting methods may be used in a least-squares or
approximate adjustment.
c. The adjustment technique employed (and time devoted to it) must be commensurate with the
intended accuracy of the survey, as defined by the project's engineering and construction requirements.
Care must be taken to prevent the adjustment process from becoming a project in itself.
d. There is no specific requirement that a rigorous least-squares type of adjustment be performed
on USACE surveys, whether conventional, GPS, or mixed observations. Traditional approximate
adjustment methods may be used in lieu of least-squares, and will provide comparable practical accuracy
results.
e. Commercial software packages designed for higher-order geodetic densification surveys often
contain a degree of statistical sophistication that is unnecessary for engineering survey control
densification. For example, performing repeated Chi-square statistical testing on observed data intended
for 1:20,000 base mapping photogrammetric control may be academically precise but, from a practical
engineering standpoint, is inappropriate. The distinction between geodetic surveying and engineering
surveying must be fully considered when performing GPS survey adjustments and analyzing the results
thereof.
f. The advent of GPS surveying technology has provided a cost-effective means of tying
previously poorly connected USACE projects to the NGRS, and simultaneously transforming the project
to the newly defined NAD 83. In performing (adjusting) these connections, care must be taken not to
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distort or warp long-established project construction/boundary reference points. Connections and
adjustments to existing control networks, such as the NGRS, must not become independent projects. It is
far more important to establish dense and accurate local project control than to consume resources tying
into high-order NGRS points miles from the project. Engineering, construction, and property/boundary
referencing requires consistent local control with high relative accuracies; accurate connections/references
to distant geodetic datums are of secondary importance. (Exceptions might involve projects in support of
military operations.)
11-3. GPS Error Measurement Statistics
In order to understand the adjustment results of a GPS survey network (or any network containing GPS,
angle, distance, and/or elevation observations), some simple statistical terms should be fully understood.
Many of these terms have varying names in different commercial software adjustment packages, as
indicated below.
Accuracy. Accuracy is the how well a measurement or a group of measurements are in
relation to a "true" or "known" value.
Precision. Precision is how close a group or sample of measurements are to each other or
their mean. For example, a low standard deviation indicates high precision. It is important to
understand that a survey or group of measurements can have a high precision, but have a low
accuracy (i.e. measurements are close together but not close to the known or true value).
Standard deviation. Also termed "standard error." The standard deviation is a range of how
close the measured values are from the arithmetic average. A low standard deviation
indicates that the observations or measurements are close together. Standard deviation is
computed by taking the square root of the variance. A priori observation weights are
inversely proportional to the estimated variance. A large weight implies a small variance or
standard deviation. Deviations can be reported at different confidence levels--e.g., 67%,
95%.
A priori weighting. The initial weighting assigned to an observation. The a priori weight is
based on past experience of resultant accuracies in network adjustments, or from
manufacturer's estimates. For example, past adjustment results from a certain total station
indicate it can measure angles to an accuracy of 7 arc-seconds (1-). The a priori
weighting used in subsequent adjustments would be 1/(7
2
), or 0.02. (Weights are inversely
proportional to the variance). Weights from independent observations are usually
uncorrelated. However, they may be correlated, as is the case with GPS baseline vector
components.
Least-squares adjustment. One of the most widely used methods for adjusting geodetic and
photogrammetric surveys. Least-squares adjustments provide a structured approach as
opposed to approximate adjustment techniques. The principle of least-squares is simply:
[ V
T
P V ] minimum
where V is the matrix of the residuals (V
T
is the transpose of V )
P is the "weight" matrix of the observations
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If there are "n" observations, then there will be "n" residuals (v) and the weight matrix will be
"n x n" square, containing variations within, and correlations between, the individual
observations.
Residual. Difference between a computed (i.e. adjusted) and observed quantity ... often
designated as "(c-o)" for "computed minus observed". The residual for a single observation
is symbolized as "v" or, for a group of "n" observations, "V" is a [n x 1] column matrix. The
computed value typically is output from a least-squares adjustment. From this adjusted value
the original observation is subtracted to obtain the residual.
Standardized or Normalized residual. Allows for a consistent evaluation of different types of
observations (GPS 3-D baseline vectors, angles, EDM distances, elevation differences, etc.)
in order to flag potential outlier observations. For each observation, most commercial
adjustment software lists the resultant residuals in their original units (meters, degrees, etc.)
and then "normalizes" these residuals by multiplying the residual "v" by the square root of the
input weight of the observation (or by the adjusted standard error of the observation).
Normalized or standardized residual = v / = v
.
( w )
where the "weight" w = 1/(
2
)
Normalized residuals are unitless. Some software (e.g., Trimble Geomatics Office) use
normalized residuals to plot histograms that depict the relative magnitude of the distribution
of the residuals, from which outlier tests (i.e. Student "t" or "Tau") can be performed.
Covariance matrix. Also termed the "variance-covariance matrix." Usually designated by
the term " ". The covariance matrix contains variance elements for a three-dimensional
vector or observation, such as a GPS baseline. A GPS baseline covariance matrix contains
the variances and correlations in all three dimensions. It is typically output from the baseline
reduction software and input into a least-squares network adjustment for use in forming a
priori weight factors. Covariance matrices are also generated for all points and lines in a free
or constrained network adjustment. Covariance matrices contain the parameters needed to
portray 1-D estimated errors, 2-D error ellipses, or 3-D error ellipsoids, and include the
parameters needed to compute related RMS and confidence level statistics.
Degrees of Freedom. Typically designated by the symbol "r." Simply, the number of
redundant observations in an adjustment, which, in turn, is a function of the number of
conditions and unknowns in the network.
Variance of Unit Weight. Also termed "reference variance" or "variance factor." Usually
designated by the symbol "
0
2
" and is computed from:
0
2
= V
T
P V / r
where r = the degrees of freedom
This statistic is important in evaluating the results of an adjustment. It represents the overall
ratio of variance of all the residuals in a network adjustment relative to the a priori variance
estimate. It is used for testing a priori weighting estimates of the observations relative to the
actual variations resulting in the least-squares adjustment. Reference variances around 1.0
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indicate the observations conformed to the nominal estimated accuracy. Large reference
variances typically indicate one or more poor observations in the adjustment.
Standard error of unit weight. The square root of the "Variance of Unit Weight" is termed
the "reference standard deviation," "reference factor," or "standard error of unit weight."
Chi-square test. Statistical hypothesis test on the computed reference variance in a network
of observations relative to the a priori estimate; for a given level of significance (e.g., 95%)
and degrees of freedom. Chi-square is computed directly from the residuals and weights in
the least-squares adjustment and an assumed a priori reference variance. Many commercial
software packages use the Tau criterion test, which is derived from a standard Student t-
distribution, and is used to test the statistical significance of outliers in the residuals.
Error ellipse. Graphical depiction of a point's geometric accuracy and alignment. Relative
accuracy ellipses may also be shown for GPS baseline distances. Error ellipses are normally
plotted at the 95% confidence level, meaning a 95% probability exists that the resultant
adjusted point falls within the dimensions of the ellipse. Two and three-dimensional
ellipsoids of constant probability may be output in an adjustment.
Root mean square (RMS). Also termed "mean square error." In one dimension (e.g., X, Y, or
Z) RMS is equivalent to standard deviation. In two dimensions, RMS is a radial measure
approximating the probability of an error ellipse. RMS is usually stated at the 95%
probability level. RMS may include both random and systematic errors.
Free or Minimally Constrained network adjustment. Also termed "internal adjustment." A
free network adjustment normally holds only one point fixed, which allows assessment of all
the observations. Distinctions between "free" and "minimally constrained" adjustments are
made by some software vendors.
Constrained Adjustment. Also termed "external adjustments." A constrained adjustment
holds two or more points, azimuths, scales, etc. fixed and constrains all the observations to
these fixed values. Constrained points may be held rigid or may be weighted.
For further information on the principles and theory of least-squares adjustments, and the statistics
resulting from these adjustments, consult Leick 1995 or Mikhail 1976. For more practical discussions on
these statistical concepts, see Trimble 2001c (Trimble Geomatics Office--Network Adjustment Software
User Guide).
11-4. Survey Adjustments and Accuracy
GPS-performed surveys are usually adjusted and analyzed relative to their internal consistency and
external fit with existing control. The internal consistency adjustment (i.e. free or minimally constrained
adjustment) is important from a contract compliance standpoint. A contractor's performance should be
evaluated relative to this adjustment. The final, or constrained, adjustment fits the GPS survey to the
existing network. This is not always easily accomplished since existing networks often have lower
relative accuracies than the GPS observations being fit. Evaluation of a survey's adequacy should not be
based solely on the results of a constrained adjustment.
a. General. The accuracy of a survey (whether performed using conventional or GPS methods)
is a measure of the difference between observed values and the true values (coordinates, distances, angles,
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etc.). Since the true values are rarely known, only estimates of survey accuracy can be made. These
estimates may be based on the internal observation closures, such as on a loop traverse, or connections
with previously surveyed points assumed to have some degree of reliability. The latter case is typically a
traverse (GPS or conventional) between two previously established points, either existing USACE project
control or the published NGRS network.
(1) GPS internal accuracies are typically far superior to most previously established control
networks. Therefore, determining the accuracy of a GPS survey based on misclosures with external
points is not always valid unless statistical accuracy estimates (i.e. station variance-covariance matrices,
distance/azimuth relative accuracy estimates, etc.) from the external network's original adjustment are
incorporated into the closure analysis for the new GPS work. Such geodetic refinements are usually
unwarranted for most USACE work.
(2) Most survey specifications and standards (including USACE) classify accuracy as a function
of the resultant relative accuracy between two adjacent points in a network. This resultant accuracy is
estimated from the statistics in an adjustment, and is defined by the size of a 2-D or 3-D relative error
ellipse formed between the two points. Relative distance, azimuth, or elevation accuracy specifications
and classifications are derived from this model, and are expressed either in absolute values (e.g., 1.2
cm) or as ratios of the propagated standard errors to the overall length (e.g., 1:20,000).
b. Internal accuracy. A loop traverse originating and ending from a single point will have a
misclosure when observations (i.e. EDM traverse angles/distances or GPS baseline vectors) are computed
forward around the loop back to the starting point. The forward-computed misclosure provides an
estimate of the relative or internal accuracy of the observations in the traverse loop, or more correctly, the
internal precision of the survey. This is perhaps the simplest method of evaluating the adequacy of a
survey, and most commercial GPS adjustment software contains loop closure checks. These loop point
misclosures, either expressed as distances or ratios, are not the same as relative distance accuracy
measures.
(1) Internal accuracy estimates made relative to a single fixed point are obtained when so-called
free, unconstrained, or minimally constrained adjustments are performed. In the case of a single loop, no
redundant observations (or alternate loops) back to the fixed point are available. When a series of GPS
baseline loops (or network) are observed, then the various paths back to the single fixed point provide
multiple position computations, allowing for a statistical analysis of the internal accuracy of not only the
position closure but also the relative accuracies of the individual points in the network (including relative
distance and azimuth accuracy estimates between these points). The magnitude of these internal relative
accuracy estimates (on a free adjustment) determines the adequacy of the control for subsequent design,
construction, and mapping work.
(2) Loop traverses are discouraged for most conventional surveys due to potential systematic
distance (scale) or orientation errors that can be carried through the network undetected. FGDC
classification standards for geodetic surveys do not allow traverses to start and terminate at a single point.
Such procedures are unacceptable for incorporation into the NGRS network; however, due to many
factors (primarily economic), loop traverses or open-ended spur lines are commonly employed in
densifying project control for engineering and construction projects. Since such control is not intended
for inclusion in the NGRS and usually covers limited project ranges, such practices have been acceptable.
Loop traverses will also be acceptable for GPS surveys performed in support of similar engineering and
construction activities.
c. External accuracy. The coordinates (and reference orientation) of the single fixed starting
point will also have some degree of accuracy relative to the network in which it is located, such as the
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NGRS, if it was established relative to that system/datum. This "external" accuracy (or inaccuracy) is
carried forward in the traverse loop or network; however, any such external variance (if small) is
generally not critical to engineering and construction. When a survey is conducted relative to two or
more points on an existing reference network, such as USACE project control or the NGRS, misclosures
with these fixed control points provide an estimate of the "absolute" accuracy of the survey. This analysis
is usually obtained from a final adjustment, such as a fully constrained least-squares minimization
technique or by other recognized traverse adjustment methods (Transit, Compass, Crandall, etc.).
d. NGRS versus local project control. Classical geodetic surveying is largely concerned with
absolute accuracy, or the best-fitting of intermediate surveys between points on a national network, such
as the NGRS. Alternatively, in engineering and construction surveying, and to a major extent in
boundary surveying, relative, or local, accuracies are more critical to the project at hand. As was outlined
in Chapter 8, the absolute NAD 27 or NAD 83 coordinates (in latitude and longitude) relative to the
NGRS datum reference are of less importance; however, accurate relative coordinates over a given
project reach (channel, construction site, levee section, etc.) are critical to design and construction. This
absolute accuracy estimate assumes that the fixed (existing) control is superior to the survey being
performed, and that any position misclosures at connecting points are due to internal observational errors
and not the existing control. This has always been a long-established and practical assumption, and has
considerable legal basis in property/boundary surveying. New work is rigidly adjusted to existing control
regardless of known or unknown deficiencies in the fixed network.
(1) For example, in establishing basic mapping and construction layout control for a military
installation, developing a dense and accurate internal (or relative) control network is far more important
than the values of these coordinates relative to the NGRS.
(2) On flood control and river and harbor navigation projects, defining channel points must be
accurately referenced to nearby shore-based control points. These points, in turn, directly reference
boundary/right-of-way points and are also used for dredge/construction control. Absolute coordinates
(NGRS/NAD 83) of these construction and/or boundary reference points are of less importance.
(3) Although reference connections with the NGRS are desirable and recommended, and should
be performed where feasible and practicable, it is critical that such connections (and subsequent
adjustments thereto) do not distort the internal (relative) accuracy of intermediate points from which
design, construction, and/or project boundaries are referenced.
(4) Connections and adjustments to distant networks (i.e. NGRS) can result in mixed datums
within a project area, especially if not all existing project control has been tied in. This in turn can lead to
errors and contract disputes during both design and construction. On existing projects with long-
established reference control, connections and adjustments to outside reference datums/networks should
be performed with caution. The impacts on legal property and project alignment definitions must also be
considered prior to such connections.
(5) On newly authorized projects, or on projects where existing project control has been largely
destroyed, reconnection with the NGRS is highly recommended. This will ensure future work will be
supported by a reliable and consistent basic network, while minimizing errors associated with mixed
datums.
(6) Since the relative positional accuracies of points on the NGRS are known from the NAD 83
readjustment, and GPS baseline vector accuracy estimates are obtained from the individual reductions,
variations in misclosures in GPS surveys are not always due totally to errors in the GPS work. Forcing a
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GPS traverse/network to rigidly fit the existing (fixed) network usually results in a degradation of the
internal accuracy of the GPS survey, as compared with a free (unconstrained) adjustment.
11-5. Free or Minimally Constrained Adjustments
This adjustment is made to determine how well the baseline observations fit or internally close within
themselves. This adjustment provides a measure of the internal precision of the survey. If a network of
GPS and terrestrial observations is minimally constrained, internal observation errors can be assessed
independent of external control points. The minimally constrained adjustment is performed to find and
remove poor quality observations (outliers). It also may be used to readjust the a priori weights for each
observation (or types of observations) should the adjustment results indicate that the estimated weights
were inaccurate. The flexibility to perform these adjustments depends on the software used. Other
terrestrial EDM distances or angles may also be included in the adjustment.
a. In a simplified example, a conventional EDM traverse that is looped back to the starting point
will misclose in both azimuth and position, as shown in Figure 11-1. Classical "approximate" adjustment
techniques (e.g., Transit, Compass, Bowditch, Crandall, etc.) will typically assess the azimuth
misclosure, proportionately adjust the azimuth misclosure (usually evenly per station), recompute the
traverse with the adjusted azimuths, and obtain a position misclosure. This position misclosure (in X and
Y) is then distributed among all the points on the traverse using various weighting methods (distance,
latitudes, departures, etc.). Final adjusted azimuths and distances are then computed from grid inverses
between the adjusted points. The adequacy/accuracy of such a traverse is evaluated based on the azimuth
misclosure and position misclosure after azimuth adjustment (usually expressed as a ratio to the overall
length of the traverse).
Figure 11-1. Conventional EDM and GPS traverse loops
Conventional EDM Loop
Traverse
Azimuth reference
Position misclosure in dX and dY
after azimuth adjustment
GPS Loop Traverse
GPS baseline vector
3DGPS position misclosure -- dX-dY-dZ
angle and EDM distance
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b. A least-squares adjustment of the same conventional loop traverse will end up adjusting the
points similarly to the approximate methods traditionally employed. The only difference is that a least-
squares adjustment simultaneously adjusts both observed angles (or directions) and distance
measurements. A least-squares adjustment also allows variable weighting to be set for individual
angle/distance observations, which is a somewhat more complex process when approximate adjustments
are performed. In addition, a least-squares adjustment will yield more definitive statistical results of the
internal accuracies of each observation and/or point, rather than just the final closure. This includes
estimates of the accuracies of individual station X-Y coordinates, relative azimuth accuracies, and relative
distance accuracies.
c. A series of GPS baselines forming a loop off a single point can be adjusted and assessed
similarly to a conventional EDM traverse loop described above (Figure 11-1). The baseline vector
components may be computed (accumulated) around the loop with a resultant three-dimensional
misclosure back at the starting point. These misclosures (in X, Y, and Z) may be adjusted using either
approximate or least-squares methods. The method by which the misclosure is distributed among the
intermediate points in the traverse is a function of the adjustment weighting technique.
(1) In the case of a simple EDM traverse adjustment, the observed distances (or position
corrections) are weighted as a function of the segment length and the overall traverse length (Compass
Rule), or to the overall sum of the latitudes/departures (Transit Rule). Two-dimensional EDM distance
observations are not dependent on their direction; that is, a distance's X- and Y-components are
uncorrelated.
(2) GPS baseline vector components (in X, Y, and Z) are correlated due to the geometry of the
satellite solution; that is, the direction of the baseline vector is significant. Since the satellite geometry is
continuously changing, remeasured baselines will have different correlations between the vector
components. Such data are passed down from the baseline reduction software for use in the adjustment.
d. The magnitude of the misclosure (i.e. loop closure) of the GPS baseline vectors at the initial
point provides an estimate of the internal precision or geometric consistency of the loop (survey). When
this misclosure is divided by the overall length of the baselines, an internal relative accuracy estimate
results. For example, if the position misclosure of a GPS loop is 0.08 m and the length of the loop is
8,000 m, then the loop closure is 0.08/8,000 or 1 part in 100,000 (1:100,000). This misclosure ratio
should not be less than the relative distance accuracy classification intended for the survey.
e. When an adjustment is performed, the individual corrections/adjustments made to each
baseline--the residual errors--provide an accuracy assessment for each baseline segment. A least-squares
adjustment can additionally provide relative distance accuracy estimates for each line, based on standard
error propagations between adjusted points. This relative distance accuracy estimate is most critical to
USACE engineering and construction work, and represents the primary basis for assessing the
acceptability of a survey.
11-6. Fully Constrained Adjustments
The internal "free" geometric adjustment provides adjusted positions relative to a single, often arbitrary,
fixed point. Most surveys (conventional or GPS) are connected between existing stations on some
predefined reference network or datum. These fixed stations may be existing project control points (on
NAD 27--SPCS 27) or stations on the NGRS (NAD 83). In OCONUS locales, other local or regional
reference systems may be used. A constrained adjustment is the process used to best fit the survey
observations to the established reference system.
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a. A simple conventional EDM traverse (Figure 11-2) between two fixed stations best illustrates
the process by which comparable GPS baseline vectors are adjusted. The misclosure in azimuth and
position between the two fixed end points may be adjusted by any type of approximate or least-squares
adjustment method. Unlike a loop traverse, however, the azimuth and position misclosures are not
wholly dependent on the internal errors in the traverse--the fixed points and their azimuth references are
not absolute, but contain relative inaccuracies with respect to one another.
b. A GPS survey between the same two fixed points also contains a 3-D position misclosure.
Due to positional uncertainties in the two fixed network points, this misclosure may (and usually does) far
exceed the internal accuracy of the raw GPS observations. As with a conventional EDM traverse, the 3-D
misclosures may be approximately adjusted by proportionately distributing them over the intermediate
points. A least-squares adjustment will also accomplish the same thing.
c. If the GPS survey is looped back to the initial point, the free adjustment misclosure at the
initial point may be compared with the apparent position misclosure with the other fixed point. In Figure
11-2, the free adjustment loop misclosure is 0.2 ft or 1:100,000, whereas the 2-ft misclosure relative to the
two network control points is only 1:5,000. Thus, the internal relative accuracy of the GPS survey is on
the order of 1 part in 100,000 (based on the misclosure); if the GPS baseline observations are constrained
to fit the existing control, the 2-ft external misclosure must be distributed amongst the individual
baselines to force a fit between the two end points.
Figure 11-2. Constrained adjustments between two fixed points
(1) After a constrained adjustment, the absolute position misclosure of 2 ft causes the relative
distance accuracies between individual points to degrade. They will be somewhat better than 1:5,000 but
far less than 1:100,000. The statistical results from a constrained least-squares adjustment will provide
estimates of the relative accuracies between individual points on the traverse.
Conventional EDM Traverse
between two fixed points
Initial
azimuth
reference
Position misclosure before azimuth adjustment
GPS Baselines Between Two Fixed Points
azimuth
misclosure
Position misclosureafter
azimuth adjustment
3D position misclosure--2 ft
in 10,000 ft
GPS Baseline Looped Back to Fixed Point 3D position misclosure--2 ft
in 10,000
or 1: 1,5000 (external)
3D Internal loop closure -- 0.2 ft in 20,000 ft or 1: 100,000 (Internal)
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(2) This example also illustrates the advantages of measuring the baseline between fixed network
points when performing GPS surveys, especially when weak control is suspected (as in this example).
(3) Also illustrated is the need for making additional ties to the existing network. In this example,
one of the two fixed network points may have been poorly controlled when it was originally established,
or the two points may have been established from independent networks (i.e. were never connected). A
third or even fourth fixed point would be beneficial in resolving such a case.
d. If the intent of the survey shown in Figure 11-2 was to establish 1:20,000 relative accuracy
control, connecting between these two points obviously will not provide that accuracy given the amount
of adjustment that must be applied to force a fit. For example, if one of the individual baseline vectors
was measured at 600 m and the constrained adjustment applied a 0.09 m correction in this sector, the
relative accuracy of this segment would be roughly 1:6,666. This distortion would not be acceptable for
subsequent design/construction work performed in this area.
e. Most GPS survey networks are more complex than the simple traverse example in Figure 11-2.
They may consist of multiple loops and may connect with any number of control points on the existing
network. In addition, conventional EDM, angles, and differential leveling measurements may be included
with the GPS baselines, resulting in a complex network with many adjustment conditions.
11-7. Partially Constrained Adjustments
In the previous example of the simple GPS traverse, holding the two network points rigidly fixed caused
an adverse degradation in the GPS survey, based on the differences between the free (loop) adjustment
and the fully constrained adjustment. An alternative is to perform a semi-constrained (or partially
constrained) adjustment of the net. In a partially constrained adjustment, the two network points are not
rigidly fixed but only partially fixed in position. The degree to which the existing network points are
constrained may be based on their estimated relative accuracies or, if available, their original adjustment
positional accuracies (covariance matrices). Partially constrained adjustments are not practicable using
approximate adjustment techniques; only least-squares will suffice.
a. For example, if the relative distance accuracy between the two fixed network points in Figure
11-2 is approximately 1:10,000, this can be equated to a positional uncertainty between them. Depending
on the type and capabilities of the least-squares adjustment software, the higher accuracy GPS baseline
observations can be "best fit" between the two end points such that the end points of the GPS network are
not rigidly constrained to the two original control points but will end up falling near them.
b. Some (but not all) commercial adjustment software will allow relative weighting of the fixed
points to provide a partially constrained adjustment. Any number of fixed points can be connected to, and
these points may be given partial constraints in the adjustment. Fixed control points are partially
constrained by setting the standard error to varying amounts. A large standard error (i.e. low relative
weight) would be set for uncertain accuracy points. A small standard error would be set for high accuracy
points, such as a published NGRS point or First-Order level line benchmark. To effectively fix a rigid
point in a network, its standard error can be set extremely low--e.g., 0.01 mm.
c. Performing partially constrained adjustments (as opposed to a fully constrained adjustment)
takes advantage of the inherent higher accuracy GPS data relative to the existing network control, which
is traditionally weak on many USACE project areas. Less warping of the GPS data (due to poor existing
networks) will then occur.
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d. A partial constraint also lessens the need for performing numerous trial-and-error constrained
adjustments in attempts to locate the poor external control points that are causing high residuals. Fewer
ties to the existing network need be made if the purpose of such ties was to find a best fit on a fully
constrained adjustment.
e. When connections are made to the NAD 83 or NAVD 88, relative accuracy estimates of
NGRS stations can be obtained from the NGS. Depending on the type of adjustment software used, these
partial constraints may be in the form of variance-covariance matrices, error ellipses, or circular accuracy
estimates.
11-8. Rigorous Least-Squares Adjustments of GPS Surveys
Adjustment of survey networks containing GPS baselines and/or conventional observations is typically a
trial-and-error process for both the free (minimally constrained) and fully constrained adjustments. A
generalized flow for performing the adjustment is shown in Figure 11-3. Once the baselines have been
reduced and meet acceptable criteria, then the "free" or "minimally constrained" adjustment is performed,
holding one point fixed. Individual network observations may be reweighted during this phase. The next
step is to include all the fixed-point constraints in a network and perform the "fully constrained"
adjustment. These "fixed" points may be partially or fully constrained, depending on their estimated
accuracy. Adjustments are performed on the project's horizontal and vertical datums. This requires
transforms from the satellite-based WGS 84 earth-centered, earth-fixed, geocentric coordinates.
Typically, transforms are performed from WGS 84 to NAD 83 or NAD 27 horizontal systems, and to a
local vertical network that may be based on NGVD 29, NAVD 88, or some other local vertical datum.
Geoid models may also be added to the adjustment. Performing these accurate datum transforms is
critical. Final adjusted coordinates are output, along with relative accuracies.
Figure 11-3. Sequential flow of a GPS network adjustment
Consider
weighting
scheme
For 3-D:
(2) HOR
(3) VER
Control Tie Analysis (Free Adjustments)
Perform free adjustment of network
Classify survey work to lowest relative line accuracy
Look at relative line accuracies
Analyze error ellipses (orientation and size)
Observe SEUW (around 1.0 ?)
Observe normalized residuals (any flagged ?)
Other statistical tests?
Perform constrained adjustment of network
Remove
only
highest
normalized
residual
Not OK? Not OK?
E
x
t
e
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n
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n
s
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The following is a summary of a network adjustment sequence recommended by NGS for surveys that are
connected to the NGRS:
A minimally constrained 3-D adjustment is done initially as a tool to validate the data, check for
blunders and systematic errors, and to look at the internal consistency of the network.
A 3-D horizontal constrained adjustment is performed holding all previously published horizontal
control points fixed and one height constraint. If the fit is poor, then a readjustment is considered.
All previous observations determining the readjusted stations are considered in the adjustment.
A fully constrained vertical adjustment is done to determine the orthometric heights. All previously
published benchmark elevations are held fixed along with one horizontal position in a 3-D
adjustment. Geoid heights are predicted using the latest model.
A final free adjustment to obtain final accuracy estimates using the rescaled variance factor from the
fully constrained adjustment.
The last step is usually not applicable to Corps projects since few points are established for incorporation
in the national network. The above sequence used by NGS differs somewhat with adjustment techniques
recommended by other commercial software vendors. For example, some recommend that the
constrained adjustment be performed by sequentially adding fixed control points. Other variations also
exist. For most engineering and construction work, many of the sophisticated adjustment procedures and
techniques are not relevant to the project accuracy requirements.
11-9. Network Adjustment Software Used in Corps
A number of commercial and government least-squares adjustment software packages are available that
will adjust GPS networks using standard desktop or laptop computers. Those commonly used by USACE
Commands include the following:
"ADJUST," an adjustment program distributed by the National Geodetic Survey.
"Ashtech Solutions," distributed by Thales Navigation LTD.
"GeoLab," distributed by Microsearch, Inc.
"GPSurvey," distributed by Trimble Navigation LTD.
"GrafNav/GrafNet," distributed by Waypoint Consulting Inc.
"SKI Pro," distributed by Leica Geosystems, Inc.
"STAR*NET, STAR*NET PRO, and STAR*LEV," distributed by Starplus Software, Inc.
"Trimble Geomatics Office (TGO)," distributed by Trimble Navigation LTD.
The above software packages have varying applications in USACE. Some are more applicable to
traditional static or kinematic GPS surveys and others allow incorporation of terrestrial observations and
GPS observations. Some are designed to support airborne GPS (ABGPS) control where velocity and
inertial measurement units (IMU) are included. USACE commands selecting network adjustment
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software need to evaluate many factors, including cost, which varies if mixed terrestrial and GPS
adjustments are opted and baseline reduction is included. As a result, costs can vary widely--from $1,000
to over $15,000. Complexity of the software is also a consideration. Some software is designed to
support high-order geodetic network adjustments and may be overly complex for engineering and
construction surveys. In general, all these packages perform a standard least-squares adjustment;
however, adjustment algorithms, weighting strategies, and statistical terminology can vary among
vendors. As a result, identical input data may yield slightly different results when run through different
adjustment software. In general, using baseline reduction and adjustment software developed by the same
GPS receiver/data collector manufacturer is the best approach if a District has identical receivers;
however, there are exceptions. To help in evaluating adjustment software, sample adjustment output from
some vendors are given throughout this chapter and in various appendices attached to this manual. Many
of these examples contain annotations explaining input and output parameters specific to the software.
Trade publications (e.g., "Point of Beginning--POB") periodically publish comparisons between different
adjustment software systems. These comparisons can also be of value in evaluating which adjustment
software bests meets an application.
11-10. Network Adjustment Criteria
When a least-squares adjustment is performed on a network of GPS observations, most adjustment
software will provide the adjusted 2-D or 3-D coordinate data, positional accuracy estimates of adjusted
points, covariance matrix (error ellipse) data for the adjusted coordinates, and related baseline covariance
data between adjusted points (i.e. relative line distance and azimuth accuracy estimates). Analyzing these
various statistics is not always simple. These statistics are also easily misinterpreted given the varied
weighting and confidence interval options. Arbitrary rejection and readjustment in order to obtain a best
fit (or best statistics) must be avoided. The original data reject criteria must be established and justified in
a final report document. Recommended criteria that should be followed are summarized in Table 11-1
and more fully explained in subsequent sections of this chapter.
Table 11-1. Free and Constrained Least-Squares Network Adjustment Criteria
Criterion
Evaluation statistic on free/unconstrained adjustment relative distance accuracies
Error ellipse size 95%
Reject Criteria:
Statistic normalized residual
Standard 3 times standard error of unit weight
Optimum/Nominal Weighting: 2 cm + 2 ppm
Optimum Variance of Unit Weight (Free Adjustment) between 0.5 and 1.5
Allowable Variance of Unit Weight (Free Adjustment) between 2.0 and 10
Allowable Variance of Unit Weight (Constrained Adjustment) no specific criteria
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11-11. Baseline Weights--Covariance Matrix
Baseline reduction vector component error statistics are usually carried down into the least-squares
adjustment and used for relative weighting of the observations. Relative GPS baseline standard errors can
be obtained from the baseline reduction output and in some software can be directly input into the
adjustment. These standard errors, along with their correlations, are given for each vector component (in
geocentric X, Y, and Z). They are converted to relative weights in the adjustment. A typical baseline
vector and covariance matrix input (from GrafNet) is shown below:
SESSION NAME VECTOR(m) ------ Covariance (m) [unscaled] ------
DX/DY/DZ standard deviations in (parens)
2 to 7 (1) 22054.8259 2.9600e-005 (0.0054)
-11419.0806 5.0662e-005 1.1843e-004 (0.0109)
-4620.2154 -3.8191e-005 -8.5945e-005 7.7102e-005 (0.0088)
The above baseline contains the 3-D geocentric coordinate vectors, along with the covariance matrix
variance (standard deviation) and correlation values. These values are then used as input and weighting
in the subsequent adjustment. The default a priori standard errors in an adjustment package have been
found to be reasonable in standard USACE work where extremely long baselines are not involved. Use
of these optimum values is recommended for the first adjustment iteration. If the network also contains
terrestrial observations (differential leveling, total station, etc.) then each of these observations must be
properly weighted. Most software provides recommended guidance for weighting conventional leveling,
angle, and distance observations. For many lower-order engineering surveys, least-squares adjustments
can be performed without all the covariance and correlation statistics from the GPS baseline reduction.
The following is a listing of default Standard errors (i.e. weights) for GPS and terrestrial observations
used by Star*Net 6.0, a comprehensive adjustment program that handles mixed observations. These
standard errors can be easily modified to reflect local conditions or experience. Star*Net recommends
scaling GPS vectors by 8.0, to reflect over-optimistic weighting from baseline reduction software. For
this sample project, the geoid height (-31.2000 m) was assumed constant over the entire area.
Alternatively, a geoid model could have been input.
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Project Option Settings (from STAR*NET 6.0 Demonstration Program)
STAR*NET Run Mode : Adjust with Error Propagation
Type of Adjustment : 3D
Project Units : Meters; DMS
Coordinate System : Mercator NAD83; AZ Central 0202
Geoid Height : -31.2000 (Default, Meters)
Longitude Sign Convention : Positive West
Input/Output Coordinate Order : North-East
Angle Data Station Order : At-From-To
Distance/Vertical Data Type : Slope/Zenith
Convergence Limit; Max Iterations : 0.001000; 10
Default Coefficient of Refraction : 0.070000
Create Coordinate File : Yes
Create Geodetic Position File : Yes
Create Ground Scale Coordinate File : No
Create Dump File : No
GPS Vector Standard Error Factors : 8.0000
GPS Vector Centering (Meters) : 0.00200
GPS Vector Transformations : Solve for Scale and Rotations
Instrument Standard Error Settings
Project Default Instrument
Distances (Constant) : 0.007500 Meters
Distances (PPM) : 2.000000
Angles : 0.500000 Seconds
Directions : 1.000000 Seconds
Azimuths & Bearings : 1.000000 Seconds
Zeniths : 3.000000 Seconds
Elevation Differences (Constant) : 0.010000 Meters
Elevation Differences (PPM) : 0.000000
Differential Levels : 0.002403 Meters / Km
Centering Error Instrument : 0.002000 Meters
Centering Error Target : 0.002000 Meters
Centering Error Vertical : 0.000000 Meters
a. Variance factor. The adequacy of the initial network a priori weighting described above is
indicated by the variance of unit weight, which equals the square of the standard error of unit weight. The
variance of unit weight should range between 0.5 and 1.5 (or the standard error of unit weight should
range between 0.7 and 1.2), with an optimum value of 1.0 signifying realistic weighting of the GPS input
observations. A large unit variance (say 5.0) indicates the initial GPS standard errors were too optimistic
(low) or, more likely, some poor observations are present. A low unit variance (say 0.1) indicates the
results from the adjustment were better than the assumed GPS baseline precisions used. This unit
variance test is, however, generally valid only when a statistically significant number of observations are
involved. This is a function of the number of "degrees of freedom" shown on the adjustment. To
evaluate the adequacy of the unit weight, a test such as Chi-square is performed. Failure of such a test
indicates the variance factor statistic may not be statistically valid, including any rejections made using
this value.
b. Changing weight factors. In performing a free adjustment, the input (a priori) standard errors
can easily be "juggled" in order to obtain a variance of unit weight near 1.0. This trial-and-error method
is generally not a good practice--especially if observational blunders are present. If the input weights are
changed, they should not be modified beyond reasonable levels (e.g., do not input a GPS standard error of
Terrestrial Observation Weighting
GPS Vector scaling and
estimated centering error
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50 cm + 50 ppm in order to get a good unit variance). If input standard errors are modified, these
modifications should be the same for all lines, not just selected ones. Any such modifications of a priori
standard errors must be justified and explained in the adjustment report.
c. Rescaling the variance of unit weight. Some software allows rescaling of the entire network
with the initial variance of unit weight, with a new resultant 1.0 variance factor. Changing the magnitude
of the input standard errors/weights will not change the adjusted position or residual results in a free
adjustment provided all weight changes are made equally--i.e. the entire project is rescaled. Although the
reference variance will change, the resultant precisions (relative line accuracies) will not change. (This is
not true in a constrained adjustment.) Therefore, the internal accuracy of a survey can be assessed based
on the free adjustment line accuracies regardless of the initial weighting or variance of unit weight.
11-12. Adjustment Output Statistics
Least-squares adjustment software will output various statistics from the free adjustment to assist in
detecting blunders and residual outliers in the free adjustment. Most commercial packages will display
the normalized residual for each observation (GPS, EDM, angle, elevation, etc.), which is useful in
detecting and rejecting residual outliers. The variance of unit weight (or its square root--the Standard
Error of Unit Weight) is important in evaluating the overall adequacy of the observed network. The
initial variance of unit weight on the first free adjustment is often input to rescale the weighting for a
second free adjustment, providing more representative error statistics with a unity variance of unit weight.
Other statistics, such as Tau, Chi-square, histograms, etc., are useful in assessing (or statistically testing)
outlier data for potential reject. These statistical tests may or may not be significant for lower-order
USACE engineering projects, and become totally insignificant if one is not well versed in statistics and
adjustment theory. Use of these statistics to reject data (or in reporting results of an adjustment) without a
full understanding of their derivation and source within the network adjustment is ill-advised.
11-13. Minimally Constrained Adjustment Considerations
The "free" adjustment is probably the most important phase of reducing and evaluating survey data--
especially when redundant observations are involved. When a series of observation loops are formed
relative to a fixed point or off another loop, different redundant conditions are formed. These different
loops allow forward baseline vector position computations to be made over different paths. From the
different routes (loops) formed, different positional closures at a single fixed point result. These
variances in position misclosures from the different routes provide additional data for assessing the
internal consistency of the network, in addition to checking for blunders in the individual baselines. The
number of different paths, or conditions, is partially related to the number of degrees of freedom in the
network. Since a "free" adjustment only holds one arbitrary point fixed (in position and orientation), the
resultant adjustment will provide a clean analysis of the internal consistency of the observations in the
network. Performing a free adjustment on a complex network containing many redundancies is best
performed using least-squares methods. An example of such a network is shown in Figure 11-4.
Approximate adjustment methods are difficult to evaluate when complex interweaving networks are
involved.
a. Redundant baseline observations. Duplicate baseline observations also provide additional
redundancy or strength to a line or network since they are observed at two distinct times of varying
satellite geometry and conditions. The amount of redundancy required is a function of the accuracy
requirements of a particular survey. Redundant baseline results are especially critical in assessing the
accuracy of vertical densification surveys.
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b. Fixed constraint. In practice, any station on the network can be held fixed for the free
adjustment. The selected point is held fixed in all three coordinates, along with the orientation of the
three axes and a network scale parameter. Usually one of the higher-order points on the existing network
is used.
11-14. Relative Baseline Accuracy Estimates
The accuracy of an observed GPS baseline in a network is influenced by the accuracy of the GPS
observation (i.e. baseline covariance matrix) and the accuracy of all other GPS baselines and other
conventional survey observations throughout the network. Most commercial software indicates the
resultant accuracy of the baseline vectors. This output statistic is called "relative distance accuracies,"
"output vector residuals," and other terms depending on the software. These relative distance accuracy
estimates between points in a network are determined by error propagation of the relative positional
standard errors at each end of the line, as shown in Figure 11-4. Relative accuracy estimates may be
derived for resultant distances or azimuths between the points. The relative distance accuracy estimates
are those typically employed to assess the free and constrained accuracy classifications, typically
expressed as a ratio, such as 1:80,000, a standard error statistic, or graphically in error ellipse dimensions.
Since each point in the network will have its particular position variances, the relative distance accuracy
propagated between any two points will also vary throughout the network. Relative positional and
distance accuracy estimates resulting from a free (minimally constrained) adjustment of a GPS network
are usually excellent in comparison to conventional surveying methods. Loop misclosure and relative
distance accuracies between points will commonly exceed 1:100,000.
Figure 11-4. Free adjustment of a complex GPS network
a. Residual corrections. Most commercial adjustment software will output the residual
corrections to each observed baseline (or actually baseline vector components). These residuals indicate
the amount by which each segment was corrected in the adjustment. A least-squares adjustment
minimizes the sum of the squares of these baseline residual corrections. When terrestrial survey
95% error ellipse for each
baseline yields
relative distance accuracy
relative azimuth accuracy
Arbitrary station held
fixed in X-Y-Z &
rotation
Spur
point
Positional error ellipse for
typical point (variance-
covariance matriix)
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observations are included in the network, residual corrections may be in distance or angular units. The
following output from GrafNet is typical of most software. For each observed GPS baseline session it
lists the residual corrections (RE, RN, RH), a parts per million (PPM) ratio, the baseline distance in km
(DIST), and the 1-sigma standard deviation (STD).
****************************************************************
OUTPUT VECTOR RESIDUALS (North, East, Height - Local Level)
****************************************************************
SESSION NAME -- RE -- -- RN -- -- RH -- - PPM - DIST - STD -
(m) (m) (m) (km) (m)
2 to 7 (1) -0.0018 -0.0030 -0.0134 0.547 25.3 0.0150
3 to 7 (1) 0.0000 -0.0027 -0.0040 0.539 8.9 0.0052
6 to 7 (1) 0.0000 0.0022 0.0032 103.562 0.0 0.0047
8 to 3 (1) 0.0000 -0.0040 -0.0060 0.467 15.4 0.0064
8 to 2 (1) -0.0024 -0.0040 -0.0176 0.572 31.8 0.0172
8 to 6 (1) -0.0004 0.0012 0.0048 0.727 6.8 0.0061
--------------------------------
RMS 0.0012 0.0030 0.0098
b. Free adjustment assessment criteria. The primary criteria for assessing the adequacy of a
particular GPS survey shall be based on the relative distance accuracy results from a minimally
constrained free adjustment, not the fully constrained adjustment. This is due to the difficulty in
assessing the adequacy of the surrounding network. Should the propagated relative accuracies fall below
the specified level, then reobservation would be warranted.
(1) The minimum relative distance accuracy value (i.e. the largest ratio) will govern the relative
accuracy of the overall project. This minimum value (from a free adjustment) is then compared with the
intended relative accuracy classification of the project to evaluate compliance. However, relative distance
accuracy estimates should not be rigidly evaluated over short lines (i.e. less than 500 m).
(2) Depending on the size and complexity of the project, large variances in the propagated
relative distance accuracies can result.
c. Constrained adjustment. When a constrained adjustment is subsequently performed, the
adequacy of the external fixed stations will have a major impact on the resultant propagated distance
accuracies, especially when connections are made to weak control systems. Properly weighted partially
constrained adjustments will usually improve the propagated distance accuracies. If the relative distance
accuracies significantly degrade on a constrained adjustment (due to the inadequacy of the surrounding
network), additional connections to the network may be required to resolve the conflicts. A large
variance of unit weight usually results in such cases.
11-15. Normalized or Standardized Residuals
The magnitude of the residual corrections shown in the sample adjustments may be assessed by looking
for blunders or outliers; however, this assessment should be performed in conjunction with the related
"normalized residual" or "standardized residual" statistic--i.e. v / = v
.
( w ). Most commercial
software packages provide this statistic for each observation. This statistic is obtained by multiplying the
residual by the square root of the input weight (the inverse of the square of the standard error). If the
observations are properly weighted, the "normalized residuals" should be around 1.0. Most adjustment
software will flag normalized residuals that exceed selected statistical outlier tests. Such flagged
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normalized residuals are candidates for rejection. A rule-of-thumb reject criterion should be set at three
times the standard error of unit weight, again provided that the variance of unit weight is within the
acceptable range given in Table 11-1 above. All rejected GPS observations must be justified in the
adjustment report, which should clearly describe the test used to remove the observation from the file.
The following excerpt from a GeoLab output shows the standardized residual (STD RES) in the last
column. This value is computed from data in the next to last column--dividing the RESIDUAL by the
STD DEV (standard error)-- v / .
================================================================================
gpstrav.iob
Microsearch GeoLab, V2001.9.20.0 WGS 84 UNITS: m,DMS Page 0006
================================================================================
Residuals (critical value = 1.728):
NOTE: Observation values shown are reduced to mark-to-mark.
OBSERVATION RESIDUAL STD RES
TYPE AT FROM TO STD DEV STD DEV PPM
---- ------------ ------------ ------------ ----------------- -------- --------
DXCT Control 1 Point 1 -4996.35800 0.013 1.938
0.012 0.006 1.69
================================================================================
11-16. Outlier Tests and Reject Criteria
One of the main purposes of the free adjustment is to check for poor observational data. This is
accomplished by reviewing the statistics from the adjustment output software. The statistics can be
presented in tabular format or graphically, depending on the software. A variety of statistical tests have
been developed to evaluate survey data. Most involve some type of outlier test. Most adjustment
software will output standardized or normalized residuals for each observation, as defined above. This
equalizes all angular and distance observations so relative assessments can be made. Standardized
residuals are typically plotted on histograms that provide a graphical assessment of outlying
observations--for example, those beyond a "x-sigma" standardized residual distance. The criteria for
determining "x-sigma" may be obtained from the Tau Criteria, a statistic derived from a standard Student
t-distribution statistic. Thus, for a large data set, "x" will typically be around "3" meaning normalized
residuals greater than 3-sigma from the mean are outliers and candidates for reject. Chi-square is another
statistical test used to assess the validity of the adjusted/computed variance of unit weight (reference
variance), and is especially useful for small data sets, i.e. those with few degrees of freedom. The
Marginally Detectable Error (MDE) is a statistic used by NGS in their ADJUST program. The MDE is a
measure of how large an error has to be before the standardized residual reaches 3-sigma. The general
flow sequence for using these criteria is illustrated in Figure 11-5 below. This figure details the
sequential "free" adjustments that may be necessary to isolate observational blunders, using the
Chi-square, Tau, and variance statistics. Use of all these statistics requires a full understanding of their
underlying concepts--these concepts are well covered in vendor's user manuals and/or "help" files that
accompany the software. See also the references in Appendix A.
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
11-20
Figure 11-5. Use of outlier test statistics in performing a network adjustment (Trimble Navigation LTD)
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
11-21
The following is a typical statistical summary taken from a GeoLab adjustment. GeoLab uses a "Tau-
max" criteria for assessing outlier observations. GeoLab also has options for other statistical outlier tests
(e.g., Student t). In this sample, four residuals exceeded the Tau-max 1.7284 limit that was computed for
this data set. The Chi-square test on the variance of unit weight allowed for a wide "Pass" range of 0.446
to 20.198. This is due to the relatively small number of observations and degrees of freedom (r = 3).
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
| |
| S T A T I S T I C S S U M M A R Y |
| |
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
| | |
| Residual Critical Value Type | Tau Max |
| Residual Critical Value | 1.7284 |
| Number of Flagged Residuals | 4 |
| Convergence Criterion | 0.0010 |
| Final Iteration Counter Value | 2 |
| Confidence Level Used | 95.0000 |
| Estimated Variance Factor | 1.4529 |
| Number of Degrees of Freedom | 3 |
| | |
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
| |
| Chi-Square Test on the Variance Factor: |
| |
| 4.6625e-01 < 1.0000 < 2.0198e+01 ? |
| |
| THE TEST PASSES |
| |
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
| |
| NOTE: All confidence regions were computed using the following factors: |
| ---------------------------------------------------------------- |
| Variance factor used = 1.4529 |
| 1-D expansion factor = 1.9600 |
| 2-D expansion factor = 2.4477 |
| |
| Note that, for relative confidence regions, precisions are |
| computed from the ratio of the major semi-axis and the spatial |
| distance between the two stations. |
| |
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
11-17. Positional Accuracy Statistics and Error Ellipses
2-D error ellipses (or 3-D error ellipsoids) generated from the adjustment variance-covariance matrices
for each adjusted point are also useful in depicting the relative positional accuracy--see Figure 11-6. The
scale of the ellipse may be varied as a function of the 2-D deviation. In the Corps a 95 % probability
ellipse is selected for output since final accuracies are always reported at the 95% confidence level--refer
to accuracy reporting standards specified in FGDC 1998a and FGDC 1998b. The size of the error ellipse
will give an indication of positional reliability, and the critical relative distance/azimuth accuracy estimate
between two adjacent points is a direct function of the size of these positional ellipses.
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
11-22
Figure 11-6. Relative accuracy ellipses for points (blue) and baselines (red). Control 1 and Control 2 are
fixed points. (Microsearch GeoLab 2001 Adjustment Software)
A typical list of positional accuracies resulting from a least-squares adjustment is shown below. The
standard errors are shown for the local coordinate system (E-N-UP) and the 1-sigma covariance matrix is
relative to the geocentric (X-Y-Z) coordinate system. From these data the error ellipses shown above are
formed.
****************************************************************
OUTPUT VARIANCE/COVARIANCE
****************************************************************
2
STA_ID SE/SN/SUP --------- CX matrix (m )-----------
(95.00 %) (not scaled by confidence level)
(m) (ECEF, XYZ cartesian)
2 0.0093 2.7948e-005
0.0099 3.2261e-005 8.7560e-005
0.0296 -2.4249e-005 -5.7075e-005 6.1238e-005
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
11-23
The following adjustment outputs are excerpts taken from Star*Net 6.0. It illustrates error ellipse and line
accuracy output data typical of mixed terrestrial and GPS vector observations. Terrestrial observations
included EDM, horizontal angles, and vertical angles (zenith distances).
Adjusted Measured Geodetic Angle Observations (DMS)
At From To Angle Residual StdErr StdRes
0013 0012 0051 67-58-22.13 -0-00-01.37 0.52 2.6
0051 0013 0052 160-18-02.35 0-00-00.65 0.61 1.1
Adjusted Measured Distance Observations (Meters)
From To Distance Residual StdErr StdRes
0013 0051 4013.9490 -0.0010 0.0158 0.1
0051 0052 2208.2595 -0.0105 0.0122 0.9
Adjusted Zenith Observations (DMS)
From To Zenith Residual StdErr StdRes
0013 0051 90-04-41.00 -0-00-03.00 3.00 1.0
0051 0052 90-14-28.41 -0-00-04.59 3.00 1.5
Adjusted GPS Vector Observations Sorted by Names (Meters)
From Component Adj Value Residual StdErr StdRes
To
(V1 Day125(1) 14:14 00120013.SSF)
0012 Delta-N -10107.7168 0.0011 0.0035 0.3
0013 Delta-E 1770.6887 0.0019 0.0032 0.6
Delta-U -27.1137 -0.0018 0.0049 0.4
Length 10261.6769
Adjusted Azimuths (DMS) and Horizontal Distances (Meters)
=========================================================
(Relative Confidence of Azimuth is in Seconds)
From To Grid Azimuth Grid Dist 95% RelConfidence
Grnd Dist Azi Dist PPM
0012 0013 170-36-18.76 10261.4179 0.12 0.0065 0.6324
10261.6712
0012 0016 119-21-46.52 7490.5576 0.13 0.0046 0.6123
7490.7714
Station Coordinate Error Ellipses (Meters)
Confidence Region = 95%
Station Semi-Major Semi-Minor Azimuth of Elev
Axis Axis Major Axis
0012 0.000000 0.000000 0-00 0.000000
0013 0.006490 0.006144 170-13 0.000000
Relative Error Ellipses (Meters)
Confidence Region = 95%
Stations Semi-Major Semi-Minor Azimuth of Vertical
From To Axis Axis Major Axis
0012 0013 0.006490 0.006144 170-13 0.000000
0012 0016 0.004786 0.004569 13-12 0.006523
Horizontal Angle Observations
EDM Distance Observations
Vertical Angle Observations
GPS Vector Observations
Relative accuracies and error
ellipse data--for azimuths
between points on network
Error ellipse data for adjusted
points on network
Relative line error ellipse data for
adjusted points on network
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
11-24
11-18. Sample GPSurvey Network Adjustment--San Juan PR Flood Control Project
The following Trimble GPSurvey adjustment example is taken from GPS control surveys performed on a
flood control project near San Juan, PR. This Jacksonville District survey was conducted to extend both
horizontal and vertical control from NGRS points to the flood control project area.
Sample of Trimble GPSurvey Observation Adjustment Summary
OBSERVATION ADJUSTMENT SUMMARY (Observed and Adjusted Parameters)
NETWORK = 02097base
TIME = Wed Jul 24 17:53:49 2002
OBSERVATION ADJUSTMENT (Tau = 3.61)
GPS Parameter Group 1 GPS Observations
Azimuth rotation = -0.1347 seconds 1.00 = 0.0155 seconds
Deflection in latitude = +2.4780 seconds 1.00 = 1.5593 seconds
Deflection in longitude = +4.3040 seconds 1.00 = 0.9980 seconds
Network scale = 1.000001515015 1.00 = 0.000000064660
OBS# BLK#/ TYPE BACKSIGHT/ UDVC/ OBSERVED/ 1.00/ TAU
REF# INSTRUMENT/ UDPG/ ADJUSTED/ 1.00/
FORESIGHT SBNT RESIDUAL 1.00
1 -**- hgoid -**- -**- -45.2101m 0.0001m 0.49
1 A 1001 -**- -45.2101m 0.0001m
-**- 1 -0.000001m 0.0000m
2 -**- hgoid -**- -**- -41.3690m 0.0001m OPEN
2 COMERIO -**- -41.3690m 0.0001m
-**- 1 +0.000000m 0.0000m
17 2 gpsaz -**- -**- 9012'28.3727" 0.0356" 0.13
1 PUR 3 -**- 9012'28.3885" 0.0132"
A 1001 1 +0.015842" 0.0330"
18 2 gpsht -**- -**- -131.9826m 0.1479m 0.16
1 PUR 3 -**- -131.9021m 0.0349m
A 1001 1 +0.080439m 0.1437m
19 2 gpsds -**- -**- 104825.8866m 0.0594m 0.33
1 PUR 3 -**- 104825.9576m 0.0070m
A 1001 1 +0.070964m 0.0590m

224 71 gpsaz -**- -**- 9241'28.2839" 0.0308" 0.37
1 PUR 3 -**- 9241'28.2472" 0.0133"
TATI 1 -0.036688" 0.0277"
225 71 gpsht -**- -**- -124.3835m 0.1211m 0.04
1 PUR 3 -**- -124.3994m 0.0405m
TATI 1 -0.015882m 0.1141m
226 71 gpsds -**- -**- 104537.6590m 0.0155m 0.41
1 PUR 3 -**- 104537.6797m 0.0066m
TATI 1 +0.020775m 0.0141m
Network calibration parameters
GPS Azimuth-Height-Distance residuals for each baseline
(OBSERVATIONS 20 THRU 223 NOT SHOWN)
Tau Test
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
11-25
Sample of Trimble GPSurvey Observation Adjustment Summary (Continued)
ADJUSTMENT SUMMARY
NETWORK = 02097base TIME = Wed Jul 24 17:53:48 2002
Network Reference Factor = 1.00
Chi-Square Test ( = 95%) = PASS
Degrees of Freedom = 163.00
GPS OBSERVATIONS
Reference Factor = 1.00 r = 163.00
GPS Solution 1 Reference Factor = 1.00 r = 0.00

GEOID MODEL
Geoid Heights: Reference Factor = 1.57 r = 0.00
Delta Geoid Heights: Reference Factor = 1.00 r = 0.00
WEIGHTING STRATEGIES:
GPS OBSERVATIONS: Scalar Weighting Strategy:
Alternative Scalar Set Applied Globally = 12.88
No summation weighting strategy was used
Station Error Strategy: H.I. error = 0.0051 Tribrach error = 0.0051
GEOID MODEL: Scalar Weighting Strategy:
Results of adjusted Geoid model: Noise in vertical GPS observations: 0.01911537
Variance of geoid model: 0.00000001
Further use of correlated Geoid Model not recommended
Degrees
of
Freedom
"r"
Reference Factors for
Baseline Solutions
Reference Factors for
Geoid Model
Weight Assignments for
GPS and equipment
centering
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
11-26
NETWORK ADJUSTMENT CONSTRAINTS
NETWORK = 02097base
TIME = Wed Jul 24 17:53:48 2002
Datum = NAD-83
Coordinate System = Geographic
Zone = Global
Network Adjustment Constraints:
3 fixed coordinates in y
3 fixed coordinates in x
3 fixed coordinates in h
POINT NAME OLD COORDS ADJUST NEW COORDS 1.00
1 A 1001
LAT= 18 27' 24.980321" +0.000000" 18 27' 24.980321" 0.005905m
LON= 66 04' 28.426893" +0.000000" 66 04' 28.426893" 0.005750m
ELL HT= -42.4781m +0.0000m -42.4781m 0.000120m
ORTHO HT= 2.7320m +0.0000m 2.7320m FIXED
GEOID HT= -45.2101m +0.0000m -45.2101m 0.000120m
2 COMERIO
LAT= 18 14' 08.759650" +0.000000" 18 14' 08.759650" FIXED
LON= 66 12' 52.299500" +0.000000" 66 12' 52.299500" FIXED
ELL HT= 149.1713m +0.0000m 149.1713m 0.214935m
ORTHO HT= 190.5403m +0.0000m 190.5403m 0.214935m
GEOID HT= -41.3690m +0.0000m -41.3690m 0.000120m
3 DRYDOCK
LAT= 18 26' 47.892303" +0.000000" 18 26' 47.892303" 0.006453m
LON= 66 05' 28.523900" +0.000000" 66 05' 28.523900" 0.006270m
ELL HT= -42.8225m +0.0000m -42.8224m 0.039711m
ORTHO HT= 2.1642m +0.0000m 2.1643m 0.039712m
GEOID HT= -44.9867m +0.0000m -44.9867m 0.000120m
4 MESAS
LAT= 18 16' 11.084080" +0.000000" 18 16' 11.084080" FIXED
LON= 66 03' 12.743070" +0.000000" 66 03' 12.743070" FIXED
ELL HT= 326.5441m +0.0001m 326.5442m 0.154736m
ORTHO HT= 368.7046m +0.0001m 368.7047m 0.154736m
GEOID HT= -42.1605m +0.0000m -42.1605m 0.000120m

13 TATI
LAT= 18 24' 57.790078" +0.000000" 18 24' 57.790078" 0.006387m
LON= 66 04' 42.999849" +0.000000" 66 04' 42.999849" 0.006301m
ELL HT= -34.9294m +0.0000m -34.9294m 0.040113m
ORTHO HT= 9.4295m +0.0000m 9.4296m 0.040113m
GEOID HT= -44.3590m +0.0000m -44.3590m 0.000120m
3 Constrained Points
in X-Y-Z
1-sigma errors in X, Y,
and height
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
11-27
SUMMARY OF BASELINE COVARIANCES
NETWORK = 02097base
TIME = Wed Jul 24 17:53:49 2002
Definition of precision (E x S) = C + P:
Horizontal:
Precision (P) expressed as: ratio
Propagated linear error (E): U.S.
(standard error of adjusted horizontal distance)
Scalar (S) on propagated linear error: 1.0000
Constant error term (C): 0.0000
3-Dimensional:
(standard error of adjusted slope distance)
Using orthometric height errors
FROM/ AZIMUTH/ 1.00 DISTANCE/ 1.00 HOR PREC/
TO DELTA H 1.00 DELTA h 1.00 3-D PREC
A 1001 21110'02" 0.04" 28603.164m 0.0059m 1: 4837618
COMERIO +191.6495m 0.2149m +187.8083m 0.2149m 1: 4837618
A 1001 23706'49" 0.64" 2099.955m 0.0068m 1: 309088
DRYDOCK -0.3443m 0.0397m -0.5677m 0.0397m 1: 309088
A 1001 17352'33" 0.06" 20838.212m 0.0059m 1: 3536897
MESAS +369.0223m 0.1547m +365.9727m 0.1547m 1: 3536897
A 1001 20305'54" 0.51" 2160.316m 0.0056m 1: 382773
MP 1 +6.2453m 0.0254m +5.8614m 0.0254m 1: 382773

RRS 1 21200'38" 0.33" 4586.198m 0.0075m 1: 615545
TATI -8.7112m 0.0592m -9.4431m 0.0592m 1: 615545
SJH 44 16344'08" 0.37" 3556.270m 0.0063m 1: 566242
SJHL 11 RM 1 +1.4034m 0.0363m +0.7455m 0.0363m 1: 566242
SJH 44 13955'03" 0.18" 6204.046m 0.0051m 1: 1210786
TATI +8.9809m 0.0401m +8.0800m 0.0401m 1: 1210786
SJHL 11 RM 1 11358'02" 0.49" 3281.605m 0.0074m 1: 444627
TATI +7.5775m 0.0387m +7.3344m 0.0387m 1: 444627
Azimuth-Distance-Height
errors for each observed
baseline
Absolute and ratio
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
11-28
FINAL ADJUSTED COORDINATES AND HEIGHTS
Projection Group: Geographic
Zone Name: Puerto Rico
Linear Units: meter
Angular Units: degrees
Datum Name: NAD-83
Station Latitude Longitude Ortho.Hgt(m) Ellip. Hgt
Northing (Y) Easting (X) Ortho. Hgt(ft)
A 1001 1827'24.98033" N 06604'28.42689" W 2.73200 -42.48337
882738.00637 780498.87896 8.96324
COMERIO 1814'08.75965" N 06612'52.29950" W 190.56082 149.19186
802345.96891 732089.99908 625.22327
DRYDOCK 1826'47.89232" N 06605'28.52390" W 2.16132 -42.82538
878985.77825 774720.68565 7.08975
MESAS 1816'11.08408" N 06603'12.74307" W 368.70346 326.54298
814776.08472 787925.49457 1209.66679
MP 1 1826'20.34912" N 06604'57.30844" W 8.59188 -36.23434
876213.11755 777731.11182 28.18954
MP 3 1826'18.28984" N 06604'15.21238" W 6.58580 -38.22604
876013.28555 781784.27695 21.60691
PN 007 1824'00.86849" N 06603'22.35068" W 13.16149 -30.89685
862161.61528 786902.04404 43.18265
PN 030 1823'50.41792" N 06604'58.66515" W 11.87409 -32.12466
861089.02683 777629.43315 38.96153
PUR 3 1827'46.70249" N 06704'01.05083" W 133.53638 87.35157
885187.27032 436591.08273 438.16948
RRS 1 1827'04.27895" N 06603'20.16586" W 18.86853 -26.22228
880663.02269 787074.26883 61.90391
SJH 44 1827'32.19208" N 06606'59.11446" W 1.34960 -43.90927
883438.71281 765991.82221 4.42781
SJHL11RM 1825'41.15411" N 06606'25.17479" W 2.09702 -42.50505
872243.79347 769278.91615 6.88033
TATI 1824'57.79009" N 06604'42.99983" W 9.42896 -34.92999
867887.87460 779124.78992 30.93844
***** End of Report *****
Ortho Hgt = Ellip Hgt + Geoid Undulation (N)
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
11-29
11-19. Sample Network Adjustment--Virginia Key, FL Disposal Area Site
The following adjustment is an example of a small network adjustment using Waypoint Consulting's
GrafNet software. The project is located at Virginia Key, Dade County, Florida. The GPS survey was
performed for the Jacksonville District by Sea Systems, Inc. The purpose of the survey was to provide
reference horizontal and vertical control for a topographic survey of the Northern Virginia Key Disposal
Site, for ultimate use in determining fill capacity for possible use in upcoming construction dredging in
Miami Harbor. The reference control will be used to obtain cross-sections at 100-foot intervals across the
disposal site. A sketch of the network is shown in Figure 11-7 below.
Figure 11-7. Virginia Key Disposal Site Control Network
In the above figure, stations shown in triangles are known points. These known points have either fixed
horizontal coordinates or fixed elevations; or both--see INPUT CONTROL block on the following
constrained adjustment. Fixed coordinates were given a standard error of 5 mm. Point OFFSET is a
benchmark with no fixed position. Its elevation was also assigned a standard error of 5 mm. The two
points to be adjusted are "SET 1" and SET 2." Baseline observations between the points are as indicated.
A total of 35 baselines were observed and adjusted, including redundant lines. Baselines were reduced
and a free (unconstrained) adjustment was run with no outlier rejects. The following GrafNet constrained
adjustment is held to NAVD 88 orthometric elevations at the fixed points. This same network was also
adjusted to obtain NGVD 29 elevations but these results are not shown in this example. However, a
summary of the NGVD 29 and NAVD 88 adjusted elevations is shown at the end of the adjustment.
OFFSET
AA 5493
RC 2234
AC 3733
SET 1
SET 2
Northern Virginia Key, Upland Disposal Site,
Plans and Specifications Scope Survey,
Virginia Key, Dade County, Florida (Survey No. 02-179)
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
11-30
Virginia Key, FL Constrained Network Adjustment
**************************************************
* NETWORK - WEIGHTED GPS NETWORK ADJUSTMENT *
* *
* (c) Copyright Waypoint Consulting Inc., (2000) *
* *
* VERSION: 6.03 *
* *
* FILE: C:\02179A\02179A.net
**************************************************
DATE(m/d/y): Thur. 10/03/02 TIME: 13:27:09
***************************************************************
DATUM: 'NAD83'
GRID: Grid: US State Plane, FL East
SCALE_FACTOR: 57.6315
CONFIDENCE LEVEL: 95.00 % (Scale factor is 2.4479)
****************************************************************
INPUT CONTROL/CHECK POINTS
****************************************************************
STA_ID TYPE -- LATITUDE -- -- LONGITUDE -- ELLHGT - HZ-SD V-SD
AA5493 GCP-3D 25 43 35.37003 -80 09 15.51953 -24.944 0.00500 0.00500
AC2234 GCP-3D 25 45 56.06211 -80 08 02.49717 -23.521 0.00500 0.00500
AC3733 GCP-3D 25 44 26.83627 -80 13 10.56329 -24.315 0.00500 0.00500
OFFSET GCP-VT -20.733 0.00500
****************************************************************
INPUT VECTORS
****************************************************************
DX/DY/DZ standard deviations in brackets
AA5493 to OFFSET (1) -4345.9720 8.1161e-007 (0.0009)
911.4010 -1.5108e-007 1.5096e-006 (0.0012)
3410.0230 7.4691e-007 -1.1100e-006 3.1877e-006 (0.0018)
AA5493 to OFFSET (2) -4345.9790 9.4716e-007 (0.0010)
911.3820 -1.3388e-006 6.5898e-006 (0.0026)
3410.0200 6.3886e-007 -2.1769e-006 1.6410e-006 (0.0013)
AA5493 to OFFSET (3) -4345.9750 8.8808e-007 (0.0009)
911.3960 -7.9258e-007 3.2975e-006 (0.0018)
3410.0190 4.7680e-008 -3.0244e-007 8.9945e-007 (0.0009)
AA5493 to SET1 (1) 527.3470 2.5454e-007 (0.0005)
1463.4770 -1.3575e-007 1.5997e-006 (0.0013)
2804.1390 1.5573e-008 -6.5468e-007 6.0109e-007 (0.0008)
AA5493 to SET1 (2) 527.3460 9.6956e-007 (0.0010)
1463.4670 -1.0256e-006 4.0156e-006 (0.0020)
2804.1500 5.8803e-007 -1.8213e-006 1.1555e-006 (0.0011)
AA5493 to SET1 (3) 527.3410 6.7566e-007 (0.0008)
1463.4740 -8.9273e-007 2.8178e-006 (0.0017)
2804.1560 3.4075e-007 -9.6947e-007 8.4725e-007 (0.0009)
5 mm standard errors
Fixed X-Y-Z Points:
AA5493
AC2234
AC3733
Fixed in Z only: OFFSET
35 observed baseline input vectors & covariance matrices
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
11-31
Virginia Key, FL Constrained Network Adjustment (Continued)
AA5493 to SET2 (1) 183.4260 2.7612e-007 (0.0005)
1518.1400 -1.2588e-007 1.6500e-006 (0.0013)
3037.5440 2.3001e-009 -6.8352e-007 6.7586e-007 (0.0008)
AA5493 to SET2 (2) 183.4290 6.8405e-007 (0.0008)
1518.1260 -5.4212e-007 4.3782e-006 (0.0021)
3037.5590 1.6255e-007 -6.6215e-007 7.2271e-007 (0.0009)
AA5493 to SET2 (3) 183.4240 6.8019e-007 (0.0008)
1518.1320 -4.8324e-007 3.7894e-006 (0.0019)
3037.5660 1.7634e-007 -4.6283e-007 7.3229e-007 (0.0009)
AC2234 to AA5493 (1) -1683.4200 8.7470e-007 (0.0009)
-2200.0290 -1.4696e-007 1.9535e-006 (0.0014)
-3900.3850 -3.9538e-007 -4.1776e-007 2.1921e-006 (0.0015)
AC2234 to AA5493 (2) -1683.4430 1.2038e-006 (0.0011)
-2200.0120 -9.9266e-007 4.5283e-006 (0.0021)
-3900.4030 7.4956e-007 -1.9036e-006 1.3560e-006 (0.0012)
AC2234 to OFFSET (1) -6029.4190 1.5439e-004 (0.0124)
-1288.7690 1.7075e-005 3.0166e-004 (0.0174)
-490.3520 2.6812e-005 -4.7363e-005 3.3521e-005 (0.0058)
AC2234 to OFFSET (2) -6029.4140 9.4516e-007 (0.0010)
-1288.5960 -8.3686e-007 1.2101e-005 (0.0035)
-490.3920 4.5221e-007 -4.1408e-006 2.4716e-006 (0.0016)
AC2234 to SET1 (1) -1156.0830 7.1801e-007 (0.0008)
-736.5510 -1.2067e-007 1.6032e-006 (0.0013)
-1096.2420 -3.2557e-007 -3.3912e-007 1.7975e-006 (0.0013)
AC2234 to SET1 (2) -1156.0990 6.3275e-007 (0.0008)
-736.5380 -5.6626e-007 5.9402e-006 (0.0024)
-1096.2560 1.4765e-007 -7.1220e-007 6.5753e-007 (0.0008)
AC2234 to SET2 (1) -1500.0060 7.2331e-007 (0.0009)
-681.8870 -1.2156e-007 1.6151e-006 (0.0013)
-862.8380 -3.2796e-007 -3.4163e-007 1.8107e-006 (0.0013)
AC2234 to SET2 (2) -1500.0190 6.3474e-007 (0.0008)
-681.8700 -5.6714e-007 5.9473e-006 (0.0024)
-862.8530 1.4802e-007 -7.1328e-007 6.5867e-007 (0.0008)
AC3733 to AA5493 (1) 6572.5550 1.2659e-006 (0.0011)
439.5040 -1.3419e-006 5.2399e-006 (0.0023)
-1426.9770 7.8483e-007 -2.4146e-006 1.5525e-006 (0.0012)
AC3733 to AA5493 (2) 6572.5490 7.1515e-007 (0.0008)
439.5320 -5.4746e-007 4.5827e-006 (0.0021)
-1427.0080 1.6796e-007 -5.0904e-007 6.6952e-007 (0.0008)
AC3733 to AC2234 (1) 8255.9920 1.0793e-006 (0.0010)
2639.5390 -1.2860e-006 1.3182e-005 (0.0036)
2473.3960 6.4343e-007 -5.0607e-006 3.2850e-006 (0.0018)
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
11-32
AC3733 to OFFSET (1) 2226.5690 6.3259e-007 (0.0008)
1350.9290 -8.5721e-007 2.8679e-006 (0.0017)
1983.0120 3.1585e-007 -9.3196e-007 7.7437e-007 (0.0009)
AC3733 to OFFSET (2) 2226.5840 8.1728e-007 (0.0009)
1350.9190 -1.1227e-006 4.4849e-006 (0.0021)
1983.0190 5.1104e-007 -1.1740e-006 9.7556e-007 (0.0010)
AC3733 to SET1 (1) 7099.8930 7.8833e-007 (0.0009)
1902.9860 -5.8486e-007 4.7634e-006 (0.0022)
1377.1540 1.9193e-007 -5.4995e-007 7.7778e-007 (0.0009)
AC3733 to SET1 (2) 7099.8960 8.5710e-007 (0.0009)
1903.0120 -1.2296e-006 5.1840e-006 (0.0023)
1377.1400 4.6990e-007 -1.1777e-006 9.5439e-007 (0.0010)
AC3733 to SET2 (1) 6755.9730 8.3658e-007 (0.0009)
1957.6580 -5.8188e-007 4.3591e-006 (0.0021)
1610.5530 2.2816e-007 -5.9007e-007 9.0215e-007 (0.0009)
AC3733 to SET2 (2) 6755.9730 1.2266e-006 (0.0011)
1957.6830 -1.7619e-006 6.4245e-006 (0.0025)
1610.5420 7.7503e-007 -1.6224e-006 1.2553e-006 (0.0011)
OFFSET to SET1 (1) 4873.3100 3.3145e-007 (0.0006)
552.0730 -1.1994e-007 1.8526e-006 (0.0014)
-605.8730 -2.0091e-008 -7.7142e-007 8.5374e-007 (0.0009)
OFFSET to SET1 (2) 4873.3150 6.4153e-007 (0.0008)
552.0630 -5.0275e-007 1.6390e-006 (0.0013)
-605.8550 1.9615e-007 -3.2252e-007 6.3350e-007 (0.0008)
OFFSET to SET1 (3) 4873.3180 8.7943e-007 (0.0009)
552.0600 -1.2151e-006 4.7929e-006 (0.0022)
-605.8460 5.5000e-007 -1.2606e-006 1.0262e-006 (0.0010)
OFFSET to SET2 (1) 4529.3890 3.2547e-007 (0.0006)
606.7360 -1.1703e-007 1.8219e-006 (0.0013)
-372.4680 -2.0457e-008 -7.5827e-007 8.3920e-007 (0.0009)
OFFSET to SET2 (2) 4529.3950 6.9596e-007 (0.0008)
606.7290 -5.1822e-007 1.6025e-006 (0.0013)
-372.4520 2.2261e-007 -3.7470e-007 7.4870e-007 (0.0009)
OFFSET to SET2 (3) 4529.3970 1.0660e-006 (0.0010)
606.7290 -1.5254e-006 5.6727e-006 (0.0024)
-372.4420 6.6847e-007 -1.4856e-006 1.1226e-006 (0.0011)
SET1 to SET2 (1) -343.9200 5.5512e-007 (0.0007)
54.6670 -4.3883e-007 3.5448e-006 (0.0019)
233.4040 1.3188e-007 -5.3718e-007 5.8763e-007 (0.0008)
SET1 to SET2 (2) -343.9210 5.2863e-007 (0.0007)
54.6660 -3.9745e-007 1.2402e-006 (0.0011)
233.4040 1.6649e-007 -2.7847e-007 5.6816e-007 (0.0008)
SET1 to SET2 (3) -343.9210 2.3912e-007 (0.0005)
54.6600 -1.1279e-007 1.4035e-006 (0.0012)
233.4060 3.3420e-009 -5.8588e-007 5.8424e-007 (0.0008)
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
11-33
****************************************************************
OUTPUT VECTOR RESIDUALS (East, North, Height - Local Level)
****************************************************************
(m) (m) (m) (km) (m)
AA5493 to OFFSET (1) -0.0013 -0.0110 -0.0074 2.380 5.6 0.0178
AA5493 to OFFSET (2) 0.0089 -0.0007 -0.0219 4.218 5.6 0.0230
AA5493 to OFFSET (3) 0.0025 -0.0055 -0.0096 2.031 5.6 0.0171
AA5493 to SET1 (1) -0.0066 0.0055 0.0079 3.645 3.2 0.0119
AA5493 to SET1 (2) -0.0039 -0.0002 -0.0056 2.137 3.2 0.0188
AA5493 to SET1 (3) -0.0002 -0.0090 -0.0012 2.830 3.2 0.0158
AA5493 to SET2 (1) -0.0060 0.0052 0.0071 3.136 3.4 0.0122
AA5493 to SET2 (2) -0.0065 -0.0021 -0.0123 4.134 3.4 0.0183
AA5493 to SET2 (3) -0.0026 -0.0113 -0.0092 4.365 3.4 0.0173
AC2234 to AA5493 (1) -0.0074 -0.0026 -0.0119 2.981 4.8 0.0170
AC2234 to AA5493 (2) 0.0123 0.0046 0.0145 4.103 4.8 0.0202
AC2234 to OFFSET (1) 0.0420 0.0358 -0.1446 25.023 6.2 0.1680
AC2234 to OFFSET (2) 0.0075 -0.0019 0.0255 4.315 6.2 0.0299
AC2234 to SET1 (1) -0.0044 -0.0019 -0.0033 3.307 1.8 0.0154
AC2234 to SET1 (2) 0.0092 0.0040 0.0168 11.121 1.8 0.0204
AC2234 to SET2 (1) -0.0019 -0.0019 -0.0024 1.945 1.9 0.0155
AC2234 to SET2 (2) 0.0080 0.0034 0.0212 12.298 1.9 0.0204
AC3733 to AA5493 (1) 0.0020 -0.0087 -0.0281 4.382 6.7 0.0216
AC3733 to AA5493 (2) 0.0031 0.0068 0.0111 1.981 6.7 0.0185
AC3733 to AC2234 (1) -0.0084 0.0034 -0.0083 1.364 9.0 0.0318
AC3733 to OFFSET (1) 0.0104 -0.0004 0.0027 3.283 3.3 0.0157
AC3733 to OFFSET (2) -0.0027 -0.0014 -0.0115 3.639 3.3 0.0190
AC3733 to SET1 (1) 0.0033 0.0011 -0.0109 1.537 7.5 0.0191
AC3733 to SET1 (2) -0.0041 0.0028 0.0178 2.465 7.5 0.0201
AC3733 to SET2 (1) 0.0015 0.0025 -0.0013 0.437 7.2 0.0187
AC3733 to SET2 (2) -0.0028 0.0017 0.0257 3.590 7.2 0.0227
OFFSET to SET1 (1) 0.0040 0.0072 0.0092 2.505 4.9 0.0132
OFFSET to SET1 (2) 0.0008 -0.0044 -0.0082 1.891 4.9 0.0130
OFFSET to SET1 (3) -0.0017 -0.0109 -0.0153 3.816 4.9 0.0196
OFFSET to SET2 (1) 0.0047 0.0069 0.0085 2.594 4.6 0.0131
OFFSET to SET2 (2) -0.0001 -0.0040 -0.0056 1.510 4.6 0.0133
OFFSET to SET2 (3) -0.0020 -0.0129 -0.0103 3.624 4.6 0.0213
SET1 to SET2 (1) -0.0010 -0.0010 0.0031 8.072 0.4 0.0164
SET1 to SET2 (2) 0.0002 -0.0007 0.0023 5.797 0.4 0.0116
SET1 to SET2 (3) 0.0012 0.0001 -0.0039 9.631 0.4 0.0113
--------------------------------
RMS 0.0088 0.0082 0.0275
$ - This session is flagged as a 3-sigma outlier
35 baseline
residuals
Underlined session AC2234-OFFSET (1) has
abnormally large adjustment and deviation ...
marginal/suspect
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
11-34
****************************************************************
CONTROL POINT RESIDUALS (ADJUSTMENT MADE)
****************************************************************
STA. NAME -- RE -- -- RN -- -- RH --
(m) (m) (m)
AA5493 -0.0194 -0.0126 -0.0071
AC2234 0.0161 0.0085 0.0048
AC3733 0.0032 0.0041 0.0025
OFFSET -0.0002
--------------------------------
RMS 0.0147 0.0091 0.0044
****************************************************************
OUTPUT STATION COORDINATES (LAT/LONG/HT)
****************************************************************
STA_ID -- LATITUDE -- -- LONGITUDE -- - ELLHGT - ORTHOHGT
AA5493 25 43 35.36962 -80 09 15.52023 -24.9511 0.7156
AC2234 25 45 56.06239 -80 08 02.49659 -23.5162 2.1831
AC3733 25 44 26.83640 -80 13 10.56317 -24.3125 1.0849
OFFSET 25 45 38.32461 -80 11 43.58762 -20.7332 4.7284
SET1 25 45 16.52663 -80 08 47.89629 -24.6836 0.9756
SET2 25 45 24.94919 -80 08 59.71990 -24.7666 0.8763
****************************************************************
OUTPUT STATION COORDINATES (ECEF)
****************************************************************
STA_ID ---- X ---- ---- Y ---- ---- Z ----
(m) (m) (m)
AA5493 983140.1505 -5664838.2823 2751785.2653
AC2234 984823.5795 -5662638.2615 2755685.6579
AC3733 976567.5973 -5665277.8079 2753212.2624
OFFSET 978794.1770 -5663926.8797 2755195.2752
SET1 983667.4918 -5663374.8111 2754589.4127
SET2 983323.5714 -5663320.1475 2754822.8171
Note that fixed control points
were assigned 5 mm standard
error. OFFSET was only held
fixed in vertical.
NAVD 88
ortho
heights
ECEF
geocentric
coordinates
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
11-35
****************************************************************
****************************************************************
STA_ID SE/SN/SUP --------- CX matrix (m
2
)-----------
AA5493 0.0077 9.9663e-006
0.0077 -4.0723e-007 1.2020e-005
0.0086 2.4550e-007 -6.6579e-007 1.0018e-005
AC2234 0.0080 1.0688e-005
0.0081 -4.6222e-007 1.4580e-005
0.0094 2.5833e-007 -1.1509e-006 1.1165e-005
AC3733 0.0079 1.0634e-005
0.0079 -1.0831e-006 1.5026e-005
0.0096 5.6622e-007 -1.2673e-006 1.0700e-005
OFFSET 0.0082 1.1484e-005
0.0085 -5.7821e-007 1.3011e-005
0.0087 3.3286e-007 2.4449e-007 1.1682e-005
SET1 0.0080 1.1088e-005
0.0082 -1.5090e-006 1.7694e-005
0.0105 5.1383e-007 -1.9026e-006 1.1568e-005
SET2 0.0081 1.1180e-005
0.0084 -1.4287e-006 1.8188e-005
0.0105 4.4044e-007 -1.6083e-006 1.1714e-005
****************************************************************
VARIANCE FACTOR = 1.0609
Note: Values < 1.0 indicate statistics are pessimistic, while
values > 1.0 indicate optimistic statistics. Entering this
value as the network adjustment scale factor will bring
variance factor to one.
****************************************************************
*********************************************************************
Project: 02179A Virginia Key Survey 2002-179
Program: GrafNet Version 6.03b
Source: Network Adjustment
CoordType: U.S. State Plane for FL East (901)
Units(h,v): U.S. Survey Feet, U.S. Survey Feet
Geoid: Geoid99-ContUS.wpg
Datum: NAD83(90)/NAVD88/NGVD29
*********************************************************************
NAME EASTING(X) NORTHING(Y) HEIGHT(88) HEIGHT(29)
AA5493(BRUCE 2) 934579.734 507176.193 2.348 3.880
AC2234(BASE USE) 941164.684 521424.341 7.162 8.709
AC3733(LIZ) 913053.811 512239.973 3.559 5.106
OFFSET(from AC2164) 920962.902 519505.389 15.513 17.058
SET1(MH 61) 937039.950 517405.598 3.201 4.743
SET2(MH 62) 935953.420 518248.986 2.875 4.417
NOTES: AC2164 OFFSET is a temporary bench mark and is reported here for
informational purposes only.
95% adjusted position
standard errors
&
covariance matrices for
4 fixed points and 2
new points
Used to develop
relative line accuracies
and error ellipses
Variance
Factor
close to
1.0 ...
good
Summary of
Adjustment
Results
NAD 83 (90)
&
NAVD 88 and
NGVD 29
adjustments
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
11-36
11-20. Sample Network Adjustment--Everglades National Park Modified Water Deliveries
The following project example is typical of a small network where accurate vertical control is densified
using GPS methods. Given the small and critical elevation gradients in an area such as the Everglades,
redundant GPS observations and good geoid model adjustments are essential. The adjustment technique
is similar to that performed in the above paragraph. However, in this example, a variety of existing
control is constrained in the adjustment. In the network sketch in Figure 11-8 below, only AC4421 is
held fixed in X-Y-Z. AC4743 and C546 are held fixed only in elevation, and AC4450 is held in X-Y
coordinates only. AC0511 is set as a "check point" in the adjustment. Since the final adjusted values did
not agree with published values, its check point setting proved correct. The only point without existing
coordinate values is OSC 1. A 5 mm standard deviation was set for all constrained coordinates. 30
baselines were observed over all possible 15 lines. Resultant elevation accuracy from this adjustment
scheme was about 1 centimeter (95%)--excellent results.
Figure 11-8. Osceola Camp GPS network control scheme
Horizontal coordinates were adjusted relative to NAD 83 (1990). The constrained elevation adjustment
used the GEOID 99 model and elevations were adjusted relative to the NAVD 88 datum. A separate
adjustment (not shown) was made to determine elevations relative to NGVD 29. Adjusted elevations in
both NAVD 88 and NGVD 29 are listed at the end of the following adjustment output. The field survey
was performed by Sea Systems, Inc. and adjusted by the Jacksonville District.
AC0511
check
point
AC4743
fix Z
AC4421
fix X-Y-Z
AC4450
fix X-Y
C546
fix Z
OSC 1
new
OSCEOLA CAMP, MICCOSUKEE INDIAN VILLAGE
MODIFIED WATER DELIVERIES TO EVERGLADES
NATIONAL PARK
CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN FLORIDA PROJECT
MICCOSUKEE INDIAN RESERVATION, FLORIDA
JUNE 1, 2002, SURVEY 02-157
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
11-37
Everglades National Park--Osceola Camp GPS Adjustment
**************************************************
* NETWORK - WEIGHTED GPS NETWORK ADJUSTMENT *
* *
* (c) Copyright Waypoint Consulting Inc., (2000) *
* *
* VERSION: 6.03 *
* *
* FILE: C:\02157A\01257A.net
**************************************************
DATE(m/d/y): Wed. 8/07/02 TIME: 14:56:44
***************************************************************
DATUM: 'NAD83'
GRID: Grid: US State Plane, FL East (901)
SCALE_FACTOR: 32.5131
CONFIDENCE LEVEL: 95.00 % (Scale factor is 2.4479)
****************************************************************
INPUT CONTROL/CHECK POINTS
****************************************************************
STA_ID TYPE -- LATITUDE -- -- LONGITUDE -- ELLHGT - HZ-SD V-SD
AC0511 CHK-3D 25 45 43.46685 -80 41 35.17195 -20.816
AC4421 GCP-3D 25 51 44.92959 -80 37 19.81874 -19.325 0.00500 0.00500
AC4450 GCP-HZ 25 42 11.38117 -80 40 18.10062 0.00500
AC4743 GCP-VT -22.007 0.00500
C546 GCP-VT -21.843 0.00500
****************************************************************
INPUT VECTORS
****************************************************************
DX/DY/DZ standard deviations in brackets
AC0511 to AC4450 (1) 2578.6070 2.0675e-007 (0.0005)
-2448.8320 -9.9567e-008 1.1169e-006 (0.0011)
-5879.2220 5.8886e-008 -3.8150e-007 4.5670e-007 (0.0007)
AC0511 to AC4450 (2) 2578.5950 5.7093e-007 (0.0008)
-2448.8200 -2.3657e-007 2.1838e-006 (0.0015)
-5879.2160 -3.1864e-009 -8.7442e-007 1.1279e-006 (0.0011)
AC0511 to AC4743 (1) 11409.6470 3.1346e-007 (0.0006)
1856.3890 -1.6648e-007 1.6595e-006 (0.0013)
-54.2970 9.6551e-008 -5.5090e-007 6.5289e-007 (0.0008)
AC0511 to AC4743 (2) 11409.6400 6.5983e-007 (0.0008)
1856.4020 -2.7220e-007 2.5029e-006 (0.0016)
-54.2970 -4.5299e-009 -1.0087e-006 1.3303e-006 (0.0012)
AC0511 to C546 (1) 6402.6260 3.1519e-007 (0.0006)
1029.4410 -1.8154e-007 1.6328e-006 (0.0013)
-50.5110 1.0456e-007 -5.2772e-007 6.3081e-007 (0.0008)
Fixed X-Y-Z Points:
AC4421
Fixed X-Y Points:
AC4450
Fixed Z Points:
AC4743
C546
Check Point: AC0511
New Point: OSC 1
30 observed baseline input vectors & covariance matrices
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
11-38
Everglades National Park--Osceola Camp GPS Adjustment (Continued)
AC0511 to C546 (2) 6402.6260 5.3039e-007 (0.0007)
1029.4530 -2.1387e-007 2.0364e-006 (0.0014)
-50.5120 -7.1812e-009 -8.1844e-007 1.0774e-006 (0.0010)
AC0511 to OSCI (1) 2826.3730 3.7274e-007 (0.0006)
404.6930 -2.6391e-007 2.0154e-006 (0.0014)
-124.1030 1.3580e-007 -6.6592e-007 6.5855e-007 (0.0008)
AC0511 to OSCI (2) 2826.3650 8.4775e-007 (0.0009)
404.6950 -2.8715e-007 1.4421e-006 (0.0012)
-124.1140 4.2744e-007 -9.1936e-007 3.2470e-006 (0.0018)
AC4421 to AC0511 (1) -6232.2220 9.2131e-007 (0.0010)
-5932.4830 5.4026e-007 1.2058e-005 (0.0035)
-10014.2210 -2.7845e-007 -3.4691e-006 1.9579e-006 (0.0014)
AC4421 to AC0511 (2) -6232.2330 7.5210e-007 (0.0009)
-5932.4600 -3.8308e-007 2.9070e-006 (0.0017)
-10014.2290 2.0782e-007 -1.6442e-006 3.1353e-006 (0.0018)
AC4421 to AC4450 (1) -3653.6150 1.1259e-006 (0.0011)
-8381.3130 -5.9188e-007 9.2928e-006 (0.0030)
-15893.4400 2.7188e-007 -3.3162e-006 2.2906e-006 (0.0015)
AC4421 to AC4450 (2) -3653.6400 1.0867e-006 (0.0010)
-8381.2780 -5.7658e-007 3.6854e-006 (0.0019)
-15893.4530 4.6676e-007 -1.9728e-006 3.1363e-006 (0.0018)
AC4421 to AC4743 (1) 5177.4260 8.6219e-007 (0.0009)
-4076.0780 -7.9451e-007 5.2706e-006 (0.0023)
-10068.5230 3.3408e-007 -1.8431e-006 1.4359e-006 (0.0012)
AC4421 to AC4743 (2) 5177.4070 7.8702e-007 (0.0009)
-4076.0560 -4.5627e-007 2.7180e-006 (0.0016)
-10068.5270 6.1596e-008 -1.0694e-006 1.2751e-006 (0.0011)
AC4421 to C546 (1) 170.4060 9.4167e-007 (0.0010)
-4903.0240 -6.7498e-008 9.8157e-006 (0.0031)
-10064.7380 1.1574e-007 -3.1915e-006 1.8121e-006 (0.0013)
AC4421 to C546 (2) 170.3920 5.5963e-007 (0.0007)
-4903.0050 -2.5663e-007 2.3604e-006 (0.0015)
-10064.7420 2.1925e-008 -9.4061e-007 1.0812e-006 (0.0010)
AC4421 to OSCI (1) -3405.8410 8.5957e-007 (0.0009)
-5527.7820 4.5942e-007 1.1213e-005 (0.0033)
-10138.3240 -2.5094e-007 -3.2530e-006 1.8422e-006 (0.0014)
AC4421 to OSCI (2) -3405.8610 8.3149e-007 (0.0009)
-5527.7630 -4.1256e-007 4.0949e-006 (0.0020)
-10138.3360 8.6963e-008 -1.5747e-006 1.4468e-006 (0.0012)
AC4450 to AC4743 (1) 8831.0450 6.3641e-007 (0.0008)
4305.2230 -2.6640e-007 2.5327e-006 (0.0016)
5824.9200 4.1565e-009 -1.0129e-006 1.2527e-006 (0.0011)
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
11-39
AC4450 to AC4743 (2) 8831.0390 3.1074e-007 (0.0006)
4305.2200 -1.6068e-007 1.6600e-006 (0.0013)
5824.9260 9.2403e-008 -5.4809e-007 6.4638e-007 (0.0008)
AC4450 to C546 (1) 3824.0170 3.3440e-007 (0.0006)
3478.2730 -1.8974e-007 1.7443e-006 (0.0013)
5828.7110 1.0963e-007 -5.6357e-007 6.6786e-007 (0.0008)
AC4450 to C546 (2) 3824.0240 6.3212e-007 (0.0008)
3478.2790 -4.0326e-007 2.3609e-006 (0.0015)
5828.7040 7.6899e-008 -9.2258e-007 9.8419e-007 (0.0010)
AC4450 to OSCI (1) 247.7780 6.6765e-007 (0.0008)
2853.5060 -3.3646e-007 3.2715e-006 (0.0018)
5755.1150 7.2410e-008 -1.2595e-006 1.1570e-006 (0.0011)
AC4450 to OSCI (2) 247.7700 4.3775e-007 (0.0007)
2853.5220 -3.0438e-007 2.3932e-006 (0.0015)
5755.1210 1.5746e-007 -7.8969e-007 7.7406e-007 (0.0009)
AC4743 to C546 (1) -5007.0180 5.6984e-007 (0.0008)
-826.9480 -3.2246e-007 2.0020e-006 (0.0014)
3.7850 4.1288e-008 -7.8730e-007 9.4577e-007 (0.0010)
AC4743 to C546 (2) -5007.0200 2.9664e-007 (0.0005)
-826.9520 -1.7240e-007 1.5355e-006 (0.0012)
3.7880 9.8675e-008 -4.9653e-007 5.9224e-007 (0.0008)
AC4743 to OSCI (1) -8583.2680 2.2110e-006 (0.0015)
-1451.7250 -1.3886e-006 2.9021e-006 (0.0017)
-69.8050 2.2770e-007 -6.6224e-007 1.1514e-006 (0.0011)
AC4743 to OSCI (2) -8583.2680 4.8045e-007 (0.0007)
-1451.7040 -3.4129e-007 2.6017e-006 (0.0016)
-69.8030 1.7535e-007 -8.5930e-007 8.4823e-007 (0.0009)
C546 to OSCI (1) -3576.2450 3.8622e-007 (0.0006)
-624.7600 -2.7415e-007 2.0848e-006 (0.0014)
-73.5840 1.4094e-007 -6.8895e-007 6.8216e-007 (0.0008)
C546 to OSCI (2) -3576.2530 1.3190e-006 (0.0011)
-624.7670 -8.8551e-007 1.9994e-006 (0.0014)
-73.5870 1.8526e-007 -4.8323e-007 7.1551e-007 (0.0008)
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
11-40
****************************************************************
OUTPUT VECTOR RESIDUALS (East, North, Height - Local Level)
****************************************************************
(m) (m) (m) (km) (m)
AC0511 to AC4450 (1) -0.0027 0.0033 -0.0053 0.994 6.9 0.0076
AC0511 to AC4450 (2) 0.0072 -0.0081 0.0045 1.707 6.9 0.0112
AC0511 to AC4743 (1) -0.0015 0.0024 -0.0093 0.841 11.6 0.0092
AC0511 to AC4743 (2) 0.0033 -0.0036 0.0033 0.512 11.6 0.0121
AC0511 to C546 (1) -0.0004 0.0016 -0.0078 1.229 6.5 0.0092
AC0511 to C546 (2) -0.0023 -0.0026 0.0033 0.744 6.5 0.0109
AC0511 to OSCI (1) 0.0011 -0.0010 0.0061 2.202 2.9 0.0100
AC0511 to OSCI (2) 0.0087 0.0075 0.0138 6.288 2.9 0.0134
AC4421 to AC0511 (1) -0.0025 0.0036 -0.0199 1.541 13.2 0.0220
AC4421 to AC0511 (2) 0.0046 0.0001 0.0056 0.553 13.2 0.0149
AC4421 to AC4450 (1) -0.0055 0.0033 -0.0248 1.395 18.3 0.0203
AC4421 to AC4450 (2) 0.0135 -0.0018 0.0157 1.131 18.3 0.0160
AC4421 to AC4743 (1) -0.0075 0.0037 -0.0129 1.280 12.0 0.0157
AC4421 to AC4743 (2) 0.0076 -0.0035 0.0111 1.160 12.0 0.0125
AC4421 to C546 (1) -0.0078 0.0030 -0.0094 1.118 11.2 0.0202
AC4421 to C546 (2) 0.0030 -0.0026 0.0113 1.068 11.2 0.0114
AC4421 to OSCI (1) -0.0105 -0.0003 -0.0078 1.091 12.0 0.0213
AC4421 to OSCI (2) 0.0061 0.0009 0.0172 1.517 12.0 0.0144
AC4450 to AC4743 (1) -0.0040 0.0031 -0.0007 0.452 11.4 0.0120
AC4450 to AC4743 (2) 0.0024 -0.0014 -0.0051 0.509 11.4 0.0092
AC4450 to C546 (1) 0.0043 -0.0018 -0.0022 0.658 7.8 0.0094
AC4450 to C546 (2) -0.0036 0.0024 0.0052 0.868 7.8 0.0114
AC4450 to OSCI (1) -0.0049 0.0083 -0.0055 1.723 6.4 0.0129
AC4450 to OSCI (2) 0.0004 -0.0045 0.0073 1.343 6.4 0.0108
AC4743 to C546 (1) -0.0019 0.0003 0.0015 0.476 5.1 0.0107
AC4743 to C546 (2) 0.0007 -0.0008 -0.0031 0.645 5.1 0.0089
AC4743 to OSCI (1) 0.0014 0.0085 -0.0117 1.668 8.7 0.0143
AC4743 to OSCI (2) -0.0020 -0.0023 0.0061 0.785 8.7 0.0113
C546 to OSCI (1) -0.0044 -0.0041 -0.0014 1.709 3.6 0.0101
C546 to OSCI (2) 0.0046 0.0010 -0.0052 1.925 3.6 0.0115
--------------------------------
RMS 0.0053 0.0038 0.0099
$ - This session is flagged as a 3-sigma outlier
****************************************************************
CHECK POINT RESIDUALS (East, North, Height - Local Level)
****************************************************************
STA. NAME -- RE -- -- RN -- -- RH --
(m) (m) (m)
AC0511 0.1149 0.0706 0.0205
--------------------------------
RMS 0.1149 0.0706 0.0205
****************************************************************
CONTROL POINT RESIDUALS (ADJUSTMENT MADE)
****************************************************************
STA. NAME -- RE -- -- RN -- -- RH --
(m) (m) (m)
AC4421 -0.0022 -0.0003 0.0023
AC4450 0.0022 0.0003
AC4743 0.0013
C546 -0.0037
--------------------------------
RMS 0.0022 0.0003 0.0026
30 baseline
residuals
Note that only AC4421 was fixed
in X-Y-Z. AC4450 in X-Y. AC4743
& C546 in Z only.
AC0511 Check Point ... note large
residuals relative to published X-Y
coordinates
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
11-41
****************************************************************
OUTPUT STATION COORDINATES (LAT/LONG/HT)
****************************************************************
STA_ID -- LATITUDE -- -- LONGITUDE -- - ELLHGT - ORTHOHGT
AC0511 25 45 43.46914 -80 41 35.16782 -20.7955 3.4857
AC4421 25 51 44.92958 -80 37 19.81882 -19.3227 5.1525
AC4450 25 42 11.38118 -80 40 18.10054 -20.4271 3.8297
AC4743 25 45 41.52892 -80 34 40.34114 -22.0057 2.4627
C546 25 45 41.66302 -80 37 42.45544 -21.8467 2.5379
OSCI 25 45 39.01186 -80 39 52.72863 -22.1036 2.2219
****************************************************************
OUTPUT STATION COORDINATES (GRID)
****************************************************************
STA_ID - EASTING - - NORTHING - - ELLHGT - ORTHOHGT
(m) (m) (m) (m)
AC0511 230785.8193 158293.4066 -20.7955 3.4857
AC4421 237869.1636 169434.8382 -19.3227 5.1525
AC4450 232949.5269 151772.2488 -20.4271 3.8297
AC4743 242345.1457 158265.6645 -22.0057 2.4627
C546 237270.4892 158254.5151 -21.8467 2.5379
OSCI 233640.6253 158163.2008 -22.1036 2.2219
****************************************************************
OUTPUT STATION COORDINATES (ECEF)
****************************************************************
STA_ID ---- X ---- ---- Y ---- ---- Z ----
(m) (m) (m)
AC0511 929550.8543 -5672146.7997 2755337.8280
AC4421 935783.0819 -5666214.3355 2765352.0545
AC4450 932129.4576 -5674595.6260 2749458.6067
AC4743 940960.4983 -5670290.4017 2755283.5292
C546 935953.4786 -5671117.3512 2755287.3151
OSCI 932377.2294 -5671742.1124 2755213.7268
****************************************************************
****************************************************************
2
STA_ID SE/SN/SUP --------- CX matrix (m )-----------
AC0511 0.0093 1.4361e-005
0.0094 -1.9537e-007 1.7159e-005
0.0103 -2.3383e-010 -1.1162e-006 1.5425e-005
AC4421 0.0089 1.3301e-005
0.0090 6.4995e-008 1.3740e-005
0.0091 -8.5067e-008 -9.1607e-008 1.3432e-005
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
11-42
AC4450 0.0089 1.3402e-005
0.0090 -5.5987e-007 1.7644e-005
0.0106 2.2196e-007 -2.0083e-006 1.4373e-005
AC4743 0.0093 1.4464e-005
0.0094 2.7930e-007 1.2905e-005
0.0086 -2.7758e-007 1.0199e-006 1.4280e-005
C546 0.0093 1.4373e-005
0.0094 3.2785e-007 1.2859e-005
0.0086 -2.8629e-007 9.9338e-007 1.4100e-005
OSCI 0.0094 1.4906e-005
0.0095 -6.0164e-007 1.8449e-005
0.0107 1.3502e-007 -1.3032e-006 1.5374e-005
****************************************************************
VARIANCE FACTOR = 1.0042
Note: Values < 1.0 indicate statistics are pessimistic, while
values > 1.0 indicate optimistic statistics. Entering this
value as the network adjustment scale factor will bring
variance factor to one.
****************************************************************
*********************************************************************
Project: 02157A: Survey 02-157 MODIFIED WATER DELIVERIES-OSCEOLA
CAMP-C&SF
Program: GrafNet Version 6.03b
Source: Network Adjustment
CoordType: U.S. State Plane for FL East (901)
Units(h,v): U.S. Survey Feet
Geoid: Geoid99-ContUS.wpg
Datum: NAD83(90)/NAVD88/NGVD29
*********************************************************************
NAME PID EASTING NORTHING 88 HGT 29 HGT
N 237 AC0511 ---------- ---------- 11.436 12.969
BUZZARD AC4421 780409.081 555887.465 16.905 18.433
TROOPER AC4450 764268.573 497939.453 12.565 14.096
G 237 RESET AC4743 795094.032 519243.268 8.080 9.615
C 546 AJ7754 778444.930 519206.688 8.326 9.855
OSC1 ------ 766535.951 518907.101 7.290 8.821
NOTES:
1. Published vertical value for AJ7754 is a preliminary CERP line
adjusted value.
2. Horizontal values observed for AC0511 did not match published
values, nor did they fit with observations made for Survey 01-198.
Data will be incorporated into the L-67 Network Surveys and re-
evaluated.
3. See "02157A88.net" and "02157A29.net" for more network adjustment
information.
Summary of
Adjustment
Results
NAD 83 (90)
&
NAVD 88 and
NGVD 29
adjustments
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
11-43
11-21. Approximate Adjustments of GPS Networks
Simply constructed GPS networks used for establishing lower-order USACE control can be effectively
adjusted using approximate adjustment techniques, or adjustments that approximate the more rigorous
least-squares solution. Although least-squares solutions may be theoretically superior to approximate
methods, the resultant differences between the adjustments are generally not significant from a practical
engineering standpoint.
a. Given the high cost of commercial geodetic adjustment software, coupled with the adjustment
complexity of these packages, approximate adjustment methods are allowed for in-house and contracted
surveys.
b. In practice, any complex GPS survey network may be adjusted by approximate methods. If
the main loop/line closures are good, redundant ties to other fixed network points may be used as checks
rather than being rigidly adjusted.
c. In some cases it is not cost-effective to perform detailed and time-consuming least-squares
adjustments on GPS project control surveys requiring only 1:5,000 or 1:10,000 engineering /construction
/boundary location accuracy. If internal loop closures are averaging over 1:200,000, then selecting any
simple series of connecting baselines for an approximate adjustment will yield adequate resultant
positional and relative distance accuracies for the given project requirements. If a given loop/baseline
series of say five points miscloses by 0.01 ft over 1,000 m (1:100,000), a case can be made for not even
making any adjustment if a relative accuracy of only 1:5,000 is required between points.
d. Any recognized approximate adjustment method may be used to distribute baseline vector
misclosures. The method used will depend on the magnitude of the misclosure to be adjusted and the
desired accuracy of the survey. These include the following:
(1) Simple proportionate distribution of loop/line position misclosures among the new station
coordinates.
(2) Compass Rule.
(3) Transit Rule.
(4) Crandall Method.
(5) No adjustment. Use raw observations if misclosures are negligible.
e. Approximate adjustments are performed using the 3-D earth-centered X-Y-Z coordinates. The
X-Y-Z coordinates for the fixed points are computed using the transform algorithms shown in the
following paragraph or obtained from the baseline reduction software. Coordinates of intermediate
stations are determined by using the baseline vector component differences (X, Y, Z), which are
obtained directly from the baseline reductions. These differences are then accumulated (summed)
forward around a loop or traverse connection, resulting in 3-D position coordinate misclosures at the loop
nodes and/or tie points. These misclosures are then adjusted by any of the above methods. GPS vector
weighting is accomplished within the particular adjustment method used; there is no need to incorporate
the standard errors from the baseline reductions into the adjustment. Internal survey adequacy and
acceptance are based on the relative closure ratios (e.g., 1:10,000), as in conventional traversing criteria
(see FGCC 1984). Final local datum coordinates are then transformed back from the X-Y-Z coordinates.
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
11-44
f. Given a loop of baseline vectors between two fixed points (or one point looped back on itself),
the following algorithms may be used to adjust the observed baseline vector components and compute the
adjusted station geocentric coordinates.
(1) Given: Observed baseline vector components X
i
, Y
i
, Z
i
for each baseline " i " (total of n
baselines in the loop/traverse). The three-dimensional length of each baseline is " l
i
" and the total length
of the loop/traverse is "L."
(2) The misclosures (dx, dy, and dz) in all three coordinates are computed from:
dx = X
F
+ X
i
- X
E
dy = Y
F
+ Y
i
- Y
E
dz = Z
F
+ Z
i
- Z
E
(Eq 11-1)
Where X
F
, Y
F
, and Z
F
are the fixed coordinates of the starting point, X
E
, Y
E
, and Z
E
are the
coordinates of the end point of the loop/traverse, and X
i,
Y
i,
and Z
i
are summed from i = 1 to n.
(These misclosures would also be used to assess the internal accuracy of the work.)
(3) Adjustments (x
i
, y
i
, z
i
) to each baseline vector component may be computed using either
the Compass Rule:
x
i
= - dx [ l
i
/ L ] (Eq 11-2)
y
i
= - dy [ l
i
/ L ]
z
i
= - dz [ l
i
/ L ]
or the Transit Rule:
x
i
= - dx [ x
i
/ x
i
] (Eq 11-3)
y
i
= - dy [ y
i
/ y
i
]
z
i
= - dz [ z
i
/ z
i
]
(4) The adjusted vector components are computed from:
X
i

a
= X
i
a
+ x
i

a
(Eq 11-4)
Y
i

a
= Y
i

a
+ y
i
a
Z
i

a
= Z
i

a
+ z
i
a
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
11-45
(5) The final geocentric coordinates are then computed by summing the adjusted vector
components from Equation 11-4 above:
X
i

a
= X
F
+ x
i
x
i

a
(Eq 11-5)
Y
i

a
= Y
F
+ y
i
y
i

a
Z
i

a
= Z
F
+ z
i
z
i

a
g. Example of an approximate GPS survey adjustment:
(1) Fixed control points from the US Army Yuma Proving Ground GPS Survey (May 1990) (see
Figure 11-9):
Figure 11-9. US Army Yuma Proving Ground GPS Traverse Sketch
PGT NO 2 CONTRAVES G
X
F
= (-) 2205 949.0762 X
E
= (-) 2188 424.3707
Y
F
= (-) 4884 126.7921 Y
E
= (-)4897 740.6844
Z
F
= + 3447 135.1550 Z
E
= + 3438 952.8159
(XYZ geocentric coordinates were computed from GP-XYZ transform using Equations 11-6 and 11-7
below).
l
a
, l
b
, l
c
= observed GPS baseline vectors(from baseline reductions) and PLR 8.5 and PLR 17 are the
points to be adjusted.
PGT NO. 2
PLR 8.5
PLR 17
CONTRAVES G
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
11-46
(2) Misclosures in X, Y, and Z (computed from Equation 11-1):
(-)2205 949.0762 X
F
(-) 4884 126.7921 Y
F
3447 135.1550 Z
F
+3 777.9104 Xa (-) 6 006.8201 Ya (-)6 231.5468 Za
+7 859.4707 Xb (-) 3 319.1092 Yb + 400.1902 Zb
+5 886.8716 Xc (-) 4 288.9638 Yc (-)2 350.2230 Zc
-(-)2188 424.3707 X
E
-(-) 4897 740.6844 Y
E
- 3438952.8159 Z
E
___________________ ___________________ ________________
dx = (-) 0.4528 dy = (-) 1.0008 dz = + 0.7595
(3) Linear 3-D Misclosure:
= (0.45282 + 1.00082 + 0.75952)
= 1.335 m or 1 part in 25,638.2/1.335 = 1:19,200

(Note: This is a constrained misclosure check, not free)
(4) Compass rule adjustment:
(a) Compass Rule misclosure distribution:
l
a
= 9 443.869 la/L = 0.368
l
b
= 8 540.955 lb/L = 0.333
l
c
= 7 653.366 lc/L = 0.299
L =25,638.190 = 1.000
(b) Compass Rule adjustment to GPS vector components using Equation 11-2:
Vector x y z
A 0.1666 0.3683 (-) 0.2795
B 0.1508 0.3333 (-) 0.2529
C 0.1354 0.2992 (-) 0.2271
(+0.4528) (+1.0008) ((-) 0.7595) Check
(c) Adjusted baseline vectors (from Equation 11-4):
Vector X
a
Y
a
Z
a
A 3778.0770 (-)6006.4518 (-)6231.8263
B 7859.6215 (-)3318.7759 399.9373
C 5887.0070 (-)4288.6646 (-)2350.4501
(d) Final adjusted coordinates (Equation 11-5):
Point X
a
Y
a
Za
PGT No. 2 (-) 2205 949.0762 (-) 4884 126.7921 + 3447 135.1550
PLR 8.5 (-) 2202 170.9992 (-) 4890 133.2439 + 3440 903.3287
PLR 17 (-) 2194 311.3777 (-) 4893 452.0198 + 3441 303.2660
Contraves G (-) 2188 424.3707 (-) 4897 740.6844 + 3438 952.8159 (Check)
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
11-47
(e) Adjusted geocentric coordinates are transformed to , , h, using Equations 11-9 through
11-13 in the following section. Geographic coordinates may then be converted to local SPCS (either
NAD 83 or NAD 27) project control using USACE program CORPSCON.
(5) Transit rule adjustment.
(a) Distribution of GPS vector misclosures using Equation 11-3:
x
i
= 3777.9104 + 7859.4707 + 5886.8716 = 17,524.2527
Similarly,
y
i
= 13,614.8931 and z
i
= 8,981.9600
x
i
= - dx [ x
i
/ x
i
] = -(-) [0.4538/17 524.2527 ] x
i
= + 2.584 x 10
5
x
i
Similarly,
y
i
= + 7.351 x 10
5
y
i
and z
i
= (-) 8.456 x 10
5
z
i
(b) Adjustments to baseline vector components using Transit Rule (Equation 11-3):
Vector x y z
A 0.0976 0.4415 (-) 0.5269
B 0.2031 0.2440 (-) 0.0338
C 0.1521 0.3153 (-) 0.1987
(check) (0.4528) (1.0008) (- 0.7595)
(c) Adjusted baseline vectors (from Equation 11-4):
Vector X
a
Y
a
Z
a
A 3 778.0080 (-)6 006.3786 (-)6 232.0737
B 7 859.6738 (-)3 318.8652 + 400.1564
C 5 887.0237 (-)4 288.6485 (-)2 350.4217
(d) Final adjusted coordinates (computed from Equation 11-5):
Point X
a
Y
a
Z
a

PGT No. 2 (-) 2 205 949.0762 (-) 4884 126.7921 +3447 135.1550
PLR 8.5 (-) 2 202 171.0682 (-) 4890 133.1707 +3440 903.0813
PLR 17 (-) 2 194 311.3944 (-) 4893 452.0359 +3441 303.2377
Contraves G (-) 2 188 424.3707 (-) 4897 740.6844 +3438 952.8160
(6) Proportionate distribution adjustment method:
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
11-48
(a) Vector misclosures are simply distributed proportionately over each of the three GPS
baselines in the traverse:
x = - (-) 0.4528 / 3 = + 0.1509
y = - (-) 1.0008 / 3 = + 0.3336
z = - (-) 0.7595 / 3 = (-) 0.2532
Vector X
a
Y
a
Z
a
A 3778.0613 (-) 6006.4865 (-) 6231.8000
B 7859.6216 (-) 3318.7756 + 399.9370
C 5887.0225 (-) 4288.6302 (-) 2350.4762
(b) Final adjusted coordinates:
Point X
a
Y
a
Z
a

PLR 8.5 (-) 2202 171.0149 (-) 4890 133.2786 +3440 903.3550
PLR 17 (-) 2194 311.3933 (-) 4893 452.0542 +3441 303.2920
Note: Relatively large horizontal (2-D) misclosure (1:23,340) may be due to existing control
inadequacies, not poor GPS baseline observations.
(c) Variances between adjusted coordinates yield relative accuracies well in excess of 1:20,000;
thus, if project control requirements are only 1:10,000, then any of the three adjustment methods may be
used. The recommended method is the Compass Rule. Fixed coordinates of PGT No. 2 and
CONTRAVES G can be on any reference ellipsoid--NAD 27 or NAD 83.
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
11-49
11-22. Geocentric Coordinate Conversions
The following algorithms for transforming between geocentric and geographic coordinates can be
performed in the field on a hand-held calculator.
a. Geodetic to Cartesian coordinate conversion. Given geodetic coordinates on NAD 83 (in ,
, H) or NAD 27, the geocentric Cartesian coordinates (X, Y, and Z) on the WGS 84, GRS 80, or Clarke
1866 ellipsoid are converted directly by the following formulas.
X = ( R
N
+ h ) cos cos
Y = ( R
N
+ h ) cos cos
Z = ( ( b
2
/ a
2
) R
N
+ h ) sin (Eq 11-6)
where
= latitude in degrees
= 360 degrees -
W
(for CONUS west longitudes)
h = the ellipsoidal elevation. If only the orthometric elevation H is known, then that value may
be used.
R
N
= the normal radius of curvature
R
N
can be computed from either of the following formulas:
R
N
= ( a
2
) / [ a
2
cos
2
+ b
2
sin
2
]
(Eq 11-7)
or R
N
= ( a ) / [ 1 - e
2
sin
2
]
(Eq 11-8)
and
a (GRS 80) = 6,378,137.0 m (semimajor axis)
a (WGS 84) = 6,378,137.0 m
a (NAD 27) = 6,378,206.4 m
b (GRS 80) = 6,356,752.314 1403 m (semiminor axis)
b (WGS 84) = 6,356,752.314 m
b (NAD 27) = 6,356,583.8 m
f (GRS 80) = 1/298.257 222 100 88 (flattening)
f (WGS 84) = 1/298.257 223 563
f (NAD 27) = 1/294.978 698
e
2
(GRS 80) = 0.006 694 380 222 90 (eccentricity squared)
e
2
(WGS 84) = 0.006 694 379 9910
e
2
(NAD 27) = 0.006 768 658
NAD 27 = Clarke Spheroid of 1866
GRS 80 NAD 83 reference ellipsoid
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
11-50
also
b = a ( 1 - f )
e
2
= f ( 2 - f ) = ( a
2
- b
2
) / a
2
e
2
= ( a
2
- b
2
) / b
2
b. Cartesian to geodetic coordinate conversion. In the reverse case, given GRS 80 X, Y, Z
coordinates, the conversion to NAD 83 geodetic coordinates (, , H) is performed using the following
noniterative method:
= arc tan (Y/X) (Eq 11-9)
The latitude "" and height "h" are computed using the following sequence. The initial reduced latitude

0
is first computed:

0
= [ Z / p ] [ ( 1 - f ) + (e
2
a / r ) ] (Eq 11-10)
where
p = [ X
2
+ Y
2
]
1/2
e
2
= 2 f - f
2
r = [ p
2
+ Z
2
]
Directly solving for and h:

tan = [ Z ( 1 - f ) + e
2
a sin
3

0
] / [ ( 1 - f ) ( p - a e
2
cos
3

0
] (Eq 11-11)
h
2
= ( p - a cos )
2
+ ( Z - b sin )
2
(Eq 11-12)
where the final reduced latitude "" is computed from:
tan = ( 1 - f ) tan (Eq 11-13)
c. Transforms between other OCONUS datums may be performed by changing the ellipsoidal
parameters "a," "b," and "f" to that datum's reference ellipsoid.
d. Example geocentric-geographic coordinate transform
Geographic to geocentric (,, h to X, Y, Z) transform:
(1) Given any point:
N
= 35 deg 27' 15.217"
W
= 94 deg 49' 38.107" then = 360 deg -
W
= 265.1727481 deg
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
11-51
h = 100 m (N = 0 assumed)
(2) Given constants (WGS 84):
a = 6,378,137 m b = a(1 - f) = 6,356,752.314
f = 1/298.257223563 e
2
= f(2 - f) = 6.694380 x 10
-3
e. Geocentric (X, Y, Z) to geographic (,, H) transform.
Inversing the above X, Y, Z geocentric coordinates:
p = (X
2
+ Y
2
)
1/2
= 5,201,440.106 and r = (p
2
+ Z
2
)
1/2
= 6,371,081.918

0
= tan
-1
[ Z / p ] [ ( 1 - f ) + (e
2
a / r ) ] = 35.36295229 deg
tan = [ Z ( 1 - f ) + e
2
a sin
3

0
] / [ ( 1 - f ) ( p - a e
2
cos
3

0
] = 0.712088398
then = 35.45422693 deg = 35 deg 27' 15.217"
= tan
-1
(Y/X ) = 85.17274810 deg or 265.17274810 deg
then
W
= 360 deg - = 94 deg 49' 38.107"
= tan
-1
[ (1 - f) tan ] = 35.36335663 deg
h
2
= (p - a cos )
2
+ (Z - b sin )
2
= (81.458)
2
+ (58.004)
2

then h = 99.999 = 100 m
f. North American Datum of 1927 (Clarke Spheroid of 1866). Given a point with SPCS/Project
coordinates on NAD 27, the point may be converted to X, Y, Z coordinates for use in subsequent
adjustments.
N
= 35 deg 27' 15.217"
W
= 94 deg 49' 38.107" h or H = 100 m
(NAD 27 from SPCS X-Y to - conversion using USACE program CORPSCON)
a = 6,378,206.4 b = 6,356,583.8 f = 1/294.978698 e
2
= 0.006768658
(NAD 27/Clarke 1866 Spheroid)
R
N
= ( a ) / [ 1 - e
2
sin
2
]
= 6392 765.205 m
then
X = ( R
N
+ h ) cos cos = (-) 438 220.073 m
Y = ( R
N
+ h ) cos cos = (-) 5189 023.612 m
Z = ( ( b
2
/ a
2
) R
N
+ h ) sin = + 3733 466.852 m
These geocentric coordinates (on NAD 27 reference) may be used to adjust subsequent GPS baseline
vectors observed on WGS 84.
EM 1110-1-1003
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11-23. Evaluation of Adjustment Results
A survey shall be classified based on its horizontal point closure ratio, as indicated in Table 11-2 or the
vertical elevation difference closure standard given in Table 11-3. Other criteria pertaining to the results
in free and constrained adjustments were given in Table 11-1.
a. Horizontal control standards. The horizontal point closure is determined by dividing the
linear distance misclosure of the survey into the overall circuit length of a traverse, loop, or network
line/circuit. When independent directions or angles are observed, as on a conventional survey
(i.e. traverse, trilateration, or triangulation), these angular misclosures may optionally be distributed
before assessing positional misclosure. In cases where GPS vectors are measured in geocentric
coordinates, then the three-dimensional positional misclosure is assessed.
Table 11-2. USACE Point Closure Standards for Horizontal Control Surveys
USACE Classification Point Closure Standard
(Ratio)
Second Order Class I 1:50,000
Second Order Class II 1:20,000
Third Order Class I 1:10,000
Third Order Class II 1: 5,000
4th Order - Construction Layout 1: 2,500 - 1:20:000
Table 11-3. USACE Point Closure Standards for Vertical Control Surveys
USACE Classification Point Closure Standard
(Millimeters)
Second Order Class I 6 mm K
1/2
Second Order Class II 8 mm K
1/2
Third Order 12 mm K
1/2
4th Order - Construction Layout 24 mm K
1/2
(K is distance in kilometers)
(1) Approximate surveying. Approximate surveying work should be classified based on the
survey's estimated or observed positional errors. This would include absolute GPS and some differential
GPS techniques with positional accuracies ranging from 10 to 150 feet (95 %). There is no order
classification for such approximate work.
(2) Higher-order surveys. Requirements for relative line accuracies exceeding 1:50,000 are rare
for most USACE applications. Surveys requiring accuracies of First-Order (1:100,000) or better should
be performed using FGCS standards and specifications, and must be adjusted by the National Geodetic
Survey (NGS).
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(3) Construction layout or grade control (Fourth-Order). This classification is intended to cover
temporary control used for alignment, grading, and measurement of various types of construction, and
some local site plan topographic mapping or photo mapping control work. Accuracy standards will vary
with the type of construction. Lower accuracies (1:2,500 - 1:5,000) are acceptable for earthwork,
dredging, embankment, beach fill, levee alignment stakeout and grading, and some site plan, curb and
gutter, utility building foundation, sidewalk, and small roadway stakeout. Moderate accuracies (1:5,000)
are used in most pipeline, sewer, culvert, catch basin, and manhole stakeout, and for general residential
building foundation and footing construction, major highway pavement, and concrete runway stakeout
work. Somewhat higher accuracies (1:10,000 - 1:20,000) are used for aligning longer bridge spans,
tunnels, and large commercial structures. For extensive bridge or tunnel projects, 1:50,000 or even
1:100,000 relative accuracy alignment work may be required. Vertical grade is usually observed to the
nearest 0.005 meter for most construction work, although 0.04-meter accuracy is sufficient for rip rap
placement, grading, and small diameter pipe placement. Construction control points are typically marked
by semi-permanent or temporary monuments (e.g., plastic hubs, P-K nails, wooden grade stakes).
Control may be established by short, nonredundant spur shots, using total stations or GPS, or by single
traverse runs between two existing permanent control points. Positional accuracy will be commensurate
with, and relative to, that of the existing point(s) from which the new point is established.
b. Vertical control standards. The vertical accuracy of a survey is determined by the elevation
misclosure within a level section or level loop. For conventional differential or trigonometric leveling,
section or loop misclosures (in millimeters) shall not exceed the limits shown in Table 11-3, where the
line or circuit length (K) is measured in kilometers. Fourth-Order accuracies are intended for construction
layout grading work. Procedural specifications or restrictions pertaining to vertical control surveying
methods or equipment should not be over-restrictive.
11-24. Final Adjustment Reports, Submittals, and Metadata
a. A variety of free and/or constrained adjustment combinations may be specified for a
contracted GPS survey. Specific stations to be held fixed may be indicated or a contractor may be
instructed to determine the optimum adjustment, including appropriate weighting for constrained points.
When fixed stations are to be partially constrained, then appropriate statistical information must be
provided--either variance-covariance matrices or relative positional accuracy estimates which may be
converted into approximate variance-covariance matrices in the constrained adjustment. All rejected
observations will be clearly indicated, along with the criteria/reason used in the rejection.
b. When different combinations of constrained adjustments are performed due to indications of
one or more fixed stations causing undue biasing of the data, an analysis shall be made as to a
recommended solution that provides the best fit for the network. Any fixed control points that should be
readjusted due to anomalies from the adjustment(s) should be clearly indicated in a final analysis
recommendation.
c. The final adjusted horizontal and/or vertical coordinate values shall be assigned an accuracy
classification based on the adjustment statistical results. This classification shall include both the
resultant geodetic/Cartesian coordinates and the baseline differential results. The final adjusted
coordinates shall state the 95 percent confidence region of each point and the accuracy in parts per million
between all points in the network. The datum and/or SPCS will be clearly identified for all coordinate
listings.
d. Final report coordinate listings may be required on hard copy as well as on a specified digital
media. It is recommended that a scaled plot be submitted with the adjustment report showing the proper
locations and designations of all stations established.
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e. Final report format. The following outline is recommended for GPS project submittals
involving extensive networks, geoid modeling, and adjustments. Formal reports are usually not required
for local topographic site plan or construction stake out surveys where simple GPS "total station" RTK
techniques are employed. Typical project reports submitted by A-E contractors are shown in Appendix E
and Appendix J. These sample reports include applicable portions of the outline guidance below.
Recommended Outline for Survey Report Submittals
Section 1: General Project Description
-Overview of the project including location, purpose, and parties involved.
Section 2: Background
-Reason for project (more detailed description) and more specific location description including a map.
Accuracy and deliverables should be discussed in this section.
Section 3: Project Planning
-How the project was planned including but not limited to: reconnaissance results; PDOP and satellite
availability tools used; DGPS method(s) selected; feature and attribute standards selected.
Section 4: Data Collection
-Overview of how data was collected including but not limited to: Equipment used (make and model); data
collection method(s) and/or techniques used; control points used (brief history of control, datums, recovery
notes); amount of data collected; number of crews and personnel per crew; how long the data collection
took; data processing/error checking performed in field.
Section 5: Data Processing
-How was the data processing was performed including but not limited to process followed.
Subsection 5.1: Baseline Processing:
-Software used; baseline processing results (summary); reprocessed baselines and reason for;
parameters for baseline processing (elevation mask, type of ephemeris used); summary results or
loop closures (if applicable).
Subsection 5.2: Network Adjustments:
-Software used; results of unconstrained adjustment, minimal constrained adjustment (show
unconstrained known control compared against published coordinates), and fully constrained
adjustment; summary of weights used, general statistics.
Section 6: Project Summary and Conclusion
-This section shall include a narrative of overall results of the processing, products produced, listing of
deliverables being submitted, overall accuracy of the data collection (based on results from data processing
section), problems encountered during data collection and data processing, recommendations for future
data collection efforts of this type or in this area (lessons learned).
Section 7: Output and Reports from Software
-This section shall include the detailed reports and output from software packages used during the data
processing. This section might have multiple subsections--e.g., one for each step in the processing that has
output that is critical in evaluating results.
f. Metadata submittals. Metadata records should be created for observations and adjustments of
project control established by GPS. Corps metadata policy and procedural references are contained in
ER 1110-1-8156 (Policies, Guidance, and Requirements for Geospatial Data and Systems) and
EM 1110-1-2909 (Geospatial Data and Systems). The following is a sample metadata file developed for
a GPS PROSPECT training survey at the Corps Bevill Center in Huntsville, AL
EM 1110-1-1003
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Sample Metadata File for a GPS Survey Observations
SurveyIV.met
Identification_Information:
Citation:
Citation_Information:
Originator: Survey IV(comp.)
Publication_Date: Unknown
Publication_Time: Unknown
Title: Field survey to densify geodetic control for civil works plans and specifications
for the Tom Bevill Center and adjacent facilities
Edition: FY02
Description:
Abstract:
This data set is the result of a GPS field survey performed
to develop geodetic control at specified locations within
the vicinity of the Tom Bevill Center, Huntsville, Alabama.
Purpose:
To set control to verify existing map data and to facilitate
future civil works projects adjacent to the Tom Bevill
Center
Time_Period_of_Content:
Time_Period_Information:
Range_of_Dates/Times:
Beginning_Date: 20020603
Ending_Date: 20020607
Currentness_Reference: Publication Date
Status:
Progress: Complete
Maintenance_and_Update_Frequency: Annually
Spatial_Domain:
Bounding_Coordinates:
West_Bounding_Coordinate: -086.645900
East_Bounding_Coordinate: -086.639310
North_Bounding_Coordinate: +34.732910
South_Bounding_Coordinate: +34.717664
Keywords:
Theme:
Theme_Keyword_Thesaurus: Tri - Service Spatial Data Standard
Theme_Keyword: Geodetic/Cadastral
Place:
Place_Keyword_Thesaurus: Geographic Names Information System
Place_Keyword: Tom Bevill Center
Access_Constraints: None
Use_Constraints:
These data were compiled for government use and
represents the results of data collection/processing for a
specific U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) activity.
The USACE makes no representation as to the suitability or
accuracy of these data for any other purpose and disclaims
any liability for errors that the data may contain. As such, it
is only valid for its intended use, content, time, and
accuracy specifications. While there are not explicit
constraints on the use of the data, please exercise
appropriate and professional judgment in the use and
interpretation of these data.
EM 1110-1-1003
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Sample Metadata File for a GPS Survey Observations (Continued)
Point_of_Contact:
Contact_Information:
Contact_Person_Primary:
Contact_Person: Diane M. Hollingshead
Contact_Organization: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
Contact_Position: Survey IV Coordinator
Contact_Address:
Address_Type: mailing address
Address:
CEHR-P
P.O. Box 1600
City: Huntsville
State_or_Province: Alabama
Postal_Code: 35807-4301
Contact_Voice_Telephone: 256-895-7449
Native_Data_Set_Environment: ASCII Data
Data_Quality_Information:
Attribute_Accuracy:
Attribute_Accuracy_Report: Point attributes were supplied by USACE, Survey IV.
Logical_Consistency_Report: None
Completeness_Report: None
Positional_Accuracy:
Horizontal_Positional_Accuracy:
Horizontal_Positional_Accuracy_Report:
Points meet Third Order Class 1 horizontal accuracy as
specified in EM1110-1-2909, Change 2, 1 Jul 98; Table
11-5, Design, Construction, Operation & Maintenance of
Feature & Topographic Detail Plans.
Vertical_Positional_Accuracy:
Vertical_Positional_Accuracy_Report:
Points meet third order vertical accuracy as specified in
EM1110-1-2909, Change 2, 1 Jul 98; Table 11-5, Design,
Construction, Operation & Maintenance of Military
Feature & Topographic Detail Plans.
Lineage:
Source_Information:
Source_Citation:
Citation_Information:
Originator: Survey IV(comp.)
Publication_Date: Unknown
Publication_Time: Unknown
Title: Field survey to densify geodetic control for civil works plans and
specifications for the Tom Bevill Center and adjacent facilities
Type_of_Source_Media: paper
Source_Time_Period_of_Content:
Time_Period_Information:
Single_Date/Time:
Calendar_Date: 20010604
Source_Currentness_Reference: Publication Date
Source_Citation_Abbreviation: None
Source_Contribution: Geodetic Control Points
EM 1110-1-1003
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11-57
Process_Step:
Process_Description:
The data for these points was collected with GPS and
processed/adjusted with Trimble Geomatics Office
software.
Process_Date: 20020606
Spatial_Reference_Information:
Horizontal_Coordinate_System_Definition:
Planar:
Grid_Coordinate_System:
Grid_Coordinate_System_Name: State Plane Coordinate System 1983
State_Plane_Coordinate_System:
SPCS_Zone_Identifier: 0101
Transverse_Mercator:
Scale_Factor_at_Central_Meridian: 0.9999600000
Longitude_of_Central_Meridian: -085.833333
Latitude_of_Projection_Origin: +30.500000
False_Easting: 656166.667
False_Northing: 0.000
Planar_Coordinate_Information:
Planar_Coordinate_Encoding_Method: coordinate pair
Coordinate_Representation:
Abscissa_Resolution: .001
Ordinate_Resolution: .001
Planar_Distance_Units: Survey Feet
Geodetic_Model:
Horizontal_Datum_Name: North American Datum of 1983
Ellipsoid_Name: Geodetic Reference System 80
Semi-major_Axis: 6378137.000
Denominator_of_Flattening_Ratio: 298.257223563
Vertical_Coordinate_System_Definition:
Altitude_System_Definition:
Altitude_Datum_Name: North American Vertical Datum of 1988
Altitude_Resolution: .01
Altitude_Distance_Units: Meters
Altitude_Encoding_Method: Explicit elevation coordinate included with horizontal
coordinates
Distribution_Information:
Distributor:
Contact_Person: Jim Garster
Contact_Position: Survey Engineer
Contact_Address:
Address_Type: mailing and physical address
Address:
ERDC
U.S. Army Topographic Engineering
Center
ERDC-TEC-VA
City: Alexandria
State_or_Province: Virginia
Postal_Code: 22315
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Distribution_Liability:
Standard_Order_Process:
Non-digital_Form:
For digital or non-digital data, contact Prospect Course
Proponent
Fees: No charge
Metadata_Reference_Information:
Metadata_Date: 20020607
Metadata_Contact:
Contact_Person: Fran Woodward
Contact_Position: Civil Engineering Technician
Contact_Address:
Address_Type: mailing address
Address:
CESAJ-CO-OM
P. O. Box 4970
City: Jacksonville
State_or_Province: Florida
Postal_Code: 32232-0019
Metadata_Standard_Name: FGDC Content Standards for Digital Geospatial Metadata
Metadata_Standard_Version: FGDC-STD-001-1998
Metadata_Time_Convention: Local time
Metadata_Access_Constraints: None
Metadata_Use_Constraints:
EM 1110-1-1003
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Not all metadata fields must be completed for a particular project. Figure 11-10 below shows the required
and optional metadata sections. For example, the above sample metadata file used only sections 1, 2, 4, 6,
and 7.
Figure 11-10. General Metadata format indicating sections 2 through 6 are optional
11-25. Mandatory Requirements
The criteria standards in Tables 11-1, 11-2, and 11-3 are considered mandatory.
EM 1110-1-1003
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12-1
Chapter 12
Contracting GPS Surveying Services
12-1. General
This chapter describes the process for contracting GPS survey services. It covers development of survey
scopes of work, performance specifications, and cost estimates for Architect-Engineer (A-E) contracts.
Procedures for developing GPS survey contract specifications and cost estimates are performed similarly
to those for A-E design services. Similar technical discipline scheduling and production factors are used
to determine the ultimate cost of a task. Although this chapter is intended to provide guidance for
estimating costs for GPS surveying services, the explanations herein regarding procurement policies and
practices describe only the framework within which cost estimates are used. For detailed guidance on
procurement policies and practices, refer to the appropriate procurement regulations: FAR, DFARS,
EFARS, EP 715-1-7 (Architect-Engineer Contracting), and the PROSPECT course on A-E contracting.
12-2. Brooks Architect-Engineer Act
In the Federal government, professional architectural, engineering, planning, and related surveying
services must be procured under the Brooks Architect-Engineer Act, Public Law 92-582 (10 US Code
541-544). The Brooks A-E Act requires the public announcement of requirements for surveying services,
and selection of the most highly qualified firms based on demonstrated competence and professional
qualifications. Cost or pricing is not considered during the selection process. After selection, negotiation
of a fair and reasonable price for the work is conducted with the highest qualified firm. GPS surveying
supporting the Corps' research, planning, development, design, construction, or alteration of real property
is considered to be a related or supporting architectural or engineering service, and must therefore be
procured using Brooks A-E Act qualifications-based selection, not by bid price competition.
12-3. Contracting Processes and Procedures
Corps procedures for obtaining A-E services are based on a variety of Federal and DoD acquisition
regulations. The following paragraphs synopsize the overall A-E process used in the Corps.
a. Types of contracts. Two types of A-E contracts are principally used for surveying services:
Firm-Fixed-Price (FFP) contracts and Indefinite Delivery contracts (IDC). FFP contracts are used for
moderate to large mapping projects (e.g., > $1 million) where the scope of work is known prior to
advertisement and can be accurately defined during negotiations--typically for a large new project site.
Due to variable and changing engineering and construction schedules (and funding), most mapping work
involving GPS services cannot be accurately defined in advance; thus, these fixed-scope FFP contracts
are rarely used, and well over 95% of surveying services are procured using IDC.
b. Announcements for surveying services. Requirements for surveying services are publicly
announced and firms are given at least 30 days to respond to the announcement. The public
announcement contains a brief description of the project, the scope of the required services, the selection
criteria in order of importance, submission instructions, and a point-of-contact. This public
announcement is not a request for price proposal, and firms are directed not to submit any price-related
information.
c. Selection criteria. Federal and DoD regulations set the criteria for evaluating prospective
surveying contractors as listed below. These criteria are listed in the public announcement in their order
EM 1110-1-1003
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12-2
of importance and the selection process assigns descending weights to each item in that order. (The order
listed below may be modified based on specific project requirements.)
(1) Professional qualifications necessary for satisfactory performance.
(2) Specialized experience and technical competence in the type of work required.
(3) Past performance on contracts with Government agencies and private industry in terms of cost
control, quality of work, and compliance with performance schedules.
(4) Capacity to perform the work in the required time.
(5) Knowledge of the locality of the project.
(6) Utilization of small or disadvantaged businesses.
(7) Geographic location.
(8) Volume of work awarded by the Department of Defense.
[Note: (6), (7), and (8) are secondary selection criteria--see EP 715-1-7 (Architect-Engineer
Contracting) for latest policy on A-E selection procedures and evaluation criteria]
d. Selection process. The evaluation of firms is conducted by a formally constituted Selection
Board in the Corps district seeking the services. This board is made up of highly qualified professional
employees having experience in architecture, engineering, surveying, etc. A majority of the board
members for surveying services must have specific technical expertise in that area. At least one member
must be a licensed surveyor if real property surveys are involved. The board evaluates each of the firm's
qualifications based on the advertised selection criteria and develops a list of at least three most highly
qualified firms. As part of the evaluation process, the board conducts interviews with these top firms
prior to ranking them. The firms are asked questions about their experience, capabilities, organization,
equipment, quality management procedures, and approach to the project. These interviews are normally
conducted by telephone. The top three (or more) firms are ranked and the selection is approved by the
designated selection authority--typically the District Commander. The top ranked firms are notified they
are under consideration for the contract. Unsuccessful firms are also notified, and are afforded a
debriefing as to why they were not selected, if they so request.
e. Negotiations and award. The highest qualified firm ranked by the selection board is provided
with a detailed scope of work for the project, project information, and other related technical criteria, and
is requested to submit a detailed price proposal for performing the work. In the case of IDC, price
proposals consist simply of unit rates for various disciplines, services, and equipment. This list becomes
the contract "Schedule B" of prices, and typically each line item of services contains all overheads,
profits, and incidental supplies. Once a fair and reasonable price (to the government) is negotiated, the
contract is awarded. The Government Contracting Officer is obligated to strive to obtain a negotiated
price that is "fair and reasonable" to both the Government and the contractor.
12-4. Indefinite Delivery Contracts and Task Orders
The vast majority of the Corps surveying services are procured using Indefinite Delivery Contracts (IDC).
These IDCs are procured using the selection and negotiation process described above. IDC (once termed
"Open-End" or Delivery Order contracts) have only a general scope of work--e.g., "GPS surveying
services in Southeastern United States." When work arises during the term of the contract, task orders are
written for performing that specific work. In the Corps, IDCs are currently (2002) issued for $1 million
EM 1110-1-1003
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12-3
with two additional $1 million option term (not year) extensions -- for a total award of $3 million. Task
orders may be issued up to $1 million each. Larger IDC awards are often made, both in overall award
size and task order limit. Task orders are negotiated using the unit rate "Schedule" developed for the
main contract. Thus, negotiations are focused on the level of effort and performance period. Task orders
typically have short scopes of work--a few pages. The scope is sent to a contractor who responds with a
time and cost estimate, from which negotiations are initiated. Under emergency conditions (e.g., flood
fights, hurricanes) contractors can be issued task orders verbally by the Contracting Officer, with the
scope of work simply defined as a limiting number of days for survey crew at the contract schedule rate.
The entire process--from survey need to task order award--should routinely take only 2 to 4 weeks. From
the IDC Schedule, a GPS survey crew and equipment is pieced together using the various line items--
adding or deducting personnel or equipment as needed for a particular project. A number of methods are
used for scheduling GPS services in a fixed-price or IDC contract. The most common method is a Daily
Rate. A daily rate basis is the cost for a GPS field crew (including all instrumentation, transport, travel,
and overhead) over a nominal 8-hour day. A daily crew rate is the preferred unit price basis for
estimating contracted GPS services for IDC contracts and their task orders. It provides the most
flexibility for IDC contracts, especially when individual project scopes are expected to vary widely. The
crew personnel size, number of GPS receivers deployed, vehicles, etc., must be explicitly indicated in the
contract specifications, with differences resolved during negotiations. Options to add additional GPS
receiver units (along with personnel and/or transport) must be accounted for in the estimate and unit price
schedule. As an example, the daily rate for a GPS surveying crew could be estimated using the following
detailed analysis method.
Table 12-1. Factors for Estimating A-E Costs
Item Description
I Direct labor or salary costs of GPS survey technicians: includes applicable overtime or other
differentials necessitated by the observing schedule
II Overhead on Direct Labor *
III G&A Overhead Costs (on Direct Labor) *
IV Material Costs
V Travel and Transportation Costs: crew travel, per diem, etc. Includes all associated costs of
vehicles used to transport GPS receivers
VI Other Costs: includes survey equipment and instrumentation, such as GPS receivers. GPS
receiver costs should be amortized down to a daily rate, based on average utilization rates,
expected life, etc. Exclude all instrumentation and plant costs covered under G&A, such as interest
VII Profit (Computed/ negotiated on individual task order or developed for all task orders in contract)
* these may be combined into a single overhead rate
12-5. Contract Price Schedule
The various personnel, plant and equipment cost items like those shown in Table 12-1 above are used as a
basis for negotiating fees for individual line items in the basic IDC contract. During negotiations with the
A-E contractor, individual components of the Independent Government Estimate (IGE) and the
contractor's price proposal may be compared and discussed. Differences would be resolved in order to
EM 1110-1-1003
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arrive at a fair and reasonable price for each line item. The contract may also schedule unit prices based
on variable crew sizes and/or equipment. A typical negotiated IDC price schedule (i.e. Section B -
Supplies or Services and Prices/Costs) is shown below in Table 12-2. The contract specifications would
contain the personnel and equipment requirements for each line item. Each Corps district has its unique
requirements and therefore line items used in schedules will vary considerably. For instance, some
districts may elect to apply overhead as a separate line item. Others may compute profit separately for
each task order and others may not include travel costs with crew rates.
Table 12-2. Sample Contract Schedule of Services for an Indefinite Delivery Contract used for GPS
Surveying Services
Item Description Quantity U/M Unit Price
0001 Registered/Licensed Land Surveyor--Office [1] Day $ 497.31
0002 Registered/Licensed Land Surveyor--Field [1] Day $ 459.22

0005 Professional Geodesist Computer--Office [1] Day $ 415.76
0007 Engineering Technician (CADD Draftsman)--Office [1] Day $ 296.00
1003 Civil Engineering Technician--Field Supervisor [1] Day $ 245.00
1005 Supervisory GPS Survey Technician (Field) [1] Day $ 452.73
1006 Surveying Technician--GPS Instrumentman/Recorder [1] Day $ 374.19
1007 Surveying Aid--Rodman/Chainman [1] Day $ 246.94
1008 One-Person GPS RTK Survey Crew [1] Day $1,323.76
[two receivers--one vehicle--travel]
1008a Two-Person GPS Static or RTK Survey Crew [1] Day $1,868.05
[two receivers--one vehicle--travel]
1008b Three-Person GPS Static or RTK Survey Crew [1] Day $2,234.72
[three receivers--two vehicles--travel]
1008c Four-Person GPS Static or RTK Survey Crew [1] Day $2,546.98
[four receivers--three vehicles--travel]
1101 Additional GPS receiver [1] Day $ 100.00
1102 Additional survey vehicle [1] Day $ 40.00
1013 Air Boat (Florida w/operator) [1] Day $ 330.00
1014 Marsh Buggy (Florida w/operator) [1] Day $ 360.00
1210 Station Monuments [standard concrete monument] [1] EA $ 25.00
1211 Station Monuments [deep rod vertical monument] [1] EA $ 950.00
1215 Bluebooking [1] BL $ 500.00
1300 Nominal Per diem [to be adjusted on each task order] [1] Day [per JTR rate]
Abbreviations EA = Each BL=Baseline
Scheduled prices include overhead and profit [these could be listed separately if desired]
GPS survey crew includes all field equipment, auxiliary data loggers, tripods, and computers needed to observe, reduce, and adjust baselines
in the field. Per diem is included. [The contract scope of work will specify items that are included with a crew, including GPS receiver quality
standards]
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12-5
12-6. Sample Cost Estimate for Contracted GPS Survey Services
The following cost computation is representative of the procedure used in preparing the IGE for an A-E
contract and ultimately the contract price schedule above. The example shows the computation for a two-
man GPS survey crew. Larger crew/receiver size estimates would be performed similarly. Costs and
overhead percentages are shown for illustration only--they are subject to considerable geographic-,
project-, and contractor-dependent variation (e.g., audited G&A rates could range from 50 to 200
percent). GPS instrumentation rates are approximate (2002) costs. Associated costs for GPS receivers,
such as insurance, maintenance contracts, interest, etc., are presumed to be indirectly factored into a firm's
G&A overhead account. If not, then such costs must be directly added to the basic equipment
depreciation rates shown. Other equally acceptable accounting methods for developing daily costs of
equipment may be used. Equipment utilization estimates in an IGE may be subsequently revised (during
negotiations) based on actual rates as determined from a detailed cost analysis and field price support
audits.
SAMPLE COMPUTATION FOR FULLY EQUIPPED 3-MAN GPS SURVEY CREW
[3 geodetic quality receivers, auxiliary equipment, 2-vehicles, laptops, and adjustment software]
LABOR
Supervisory Survey Tech (Party Chief) $42,776.00/yr (based on GS 11/5)
Overhead on Direct Labor (36%) $15,399.36/yr
G&A Overhead (115%) $49,192.40/yr
Total: $107,367.76/yr $411.57/day *
Survey Technician--GPS observer $35,355/yr (based on GS 9/5)
@ 151% O/H (36%+115%) $88,741.05 $340.17/day
Survey Aid $23,332/yr (based on GS 5/5)
@ 151 % O/H $58,563.32 $224.49/day
Total Labor Cost for 3-Man GPS Crew/day: $976.23
*[adding 10% profit = $452.73 --Schedule B]
TRAVEL (NOMINAL RATE)
Per Diem (Nominal): 3 persons @ $ 88/day
(subject to JTR adjustment on task orders)
Total Travel Cost/day: $264.00
SURVEY INSTRUMENTATION & EQUIPMENT
DGPS Carrier Phase Positioning System --3 geodetic quality receivers
(static or kinematic positioning), batteries, tripods, data collectors, etc.
$40,000 ea or $120,000 @ 4 yrs @ 100 d/yr $300/day
Total Station: data collector, prisms, etc.
$32,000 @ 5 yrs @ 120 d/yr $ 53/day
(rental rate: $60/d)
Survey Vehicle $40,000 ea @ 6 yrs @ 225 d/yr plus O&M @ 2 reqd $ 80/day
Misc Materials (field books, survey supplies, etc) $ 25/day
Total Instrumentation & Equipment Cost/day: $ 458.00
Subtotal : $ 1,698.23
Profit @ 10.0% $ 169.82
Total Estimated Cost per Day -- 3 man GPS Survey Crew $ 1,868.05
Similar computations are made for other line items in the price schedule.
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12-7. Cost Per Work Unit (GPS Station) Schedule
If a cost-per-work-unit fee structure is desired on an IDC, the computed daily/hourly crew rates and other
applicable cost items can be divided by the estimated daily/hourly productivity in order to schedule work
units. Typical work unit measures on a GPS contract might be cost per static point or cost per kinematic
point. Both the estimated crew daily rate and the estimated productivity rates are subject to negotiation.
An infinite number of work unit measures could be formed, given the variety in units of measure, survey
classifications, expected local conditions, etc. Use of work unit rates is obviously restricted to individual
project areas where work is fairly repetitious. Costs per GPS stations were commonly used during the
early days of GPS (mid-1980s) when GPS receivers cost $150,000 and only 3-4 hours of satellite
constellation was available each day. Today there is little justification for using work unit costs for
pricing GPS surveys.
12-8. Contract Specifications and Accuracy Standards
a. Contract specifications and standards for Corps surveying work should make maximum
reference to existing standards, publications, and other references. The primary reference standard is this
manual. Drafting and CADD/GIS standards are contained in various (Tri-Service) CADD/GIS
Technology Center publications. Corps headquarters does not specify standard hardware or software for
its districts--each district may establish their own standards based on their unique requirements. US
Government policy prescribes maximum use of industry standards and consensus standards established
by private voluntary standards bodies, in lieu of government-developed standards. This policy is further
outlined in EM 1110-1-2909, as follows:
"Voluntary industry standards shall be given preference over non-mandatory Government
standards. When industry standards are non-existent, inappropriate, or do not meet a project's
functional requirement, ...[other] standards may be specified as criteria sources. Specifications
for surveying and mapping shall use industry consensus standards established by national
professional organizations, such as the American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote
Sensing (ASPRS), the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), the American Congress on
Surveying and Mapping (ACSM), or the American Land Title Association (ALTA). Technical
standards established by state boards of registration, especially on projects requiring licensed
surveyors or mappers, shall be followed when legally applicable. Commands shall not develop or
specify local surveying and mapping standards where industry consensus standards or Army
standards exist."
b. According to Corps policy, technical specifications for obtaining GPS survey data shall be
"performance-based" and not overly prescriptive or process oriented. Performance-based specifications
shall be derived from the functional project requirements and use recognized industry standards where
available. Performance-oriented (i.e. outcome based) specifications set forth the end results to be
achieved (i.e. final drawing/chart format or accuracy standard) and not the means, or technical
procedures, used to achieve those results. A performance-oriented specification provides the most
flexibility and allows the most economical and efficient methods to achieve the desired end product.
Performance specifications should succinctly define the basic mapping limits, feature location and
attribute requirements, scale, contour interval, map format, sheet layout, and final data transmittal,
archiving or storage requirements, the required accuracy criteria standards for topographic and
planimetric features that are to be depicted, and describe quality assurance procedures that will be used to
verify conformance with the specified criteria. Performance-oriented specifications should be free from
unnecessary equipment, personnel, instrumentation, procedural, or material limitations; except as needed
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to establish comparative cost estimates for negotiated services. This would include any in-progress
reviews or approvals during various phases of the project.
c. EM 1110-1-2909 also states that use of prescriptive (i.e. procedural) specifications shall be
kept to a minimum, and called for only on highly specialized or critical projects where only one
prescribed technical method, in the opinion of the Government, is appropriate or practical to perform the
work. Overly prescriptive specifications typically require specific field instrumentation (e.g., brand name
GPS receiver), personnel, office adjustment procedures (e.g., product-specific software or output format),
or rigid project phasing with on-going design or construction. Prescriptive specifications reduce
flexibility, efficiency, and risk, and can adversely impact project costs if antiquated survey methods or
instrumentation are required.
12-9. Contract Statements of Work
Technical specifications for GPS surveying that are specific to the project (including items such as the
scope of work, procedural requirements, and accuracy requirements) are inserted in the appropriate
section of the contract (e.g., Statement of Work--Section C). This GPS engineer manual should be
attached to and made part of any A-E service or construction contract requiring GPS surveying.
References to USACE survey classifications (and related criteria tables) may also be made if required.
References to this manual will normally suffice for most USACE survey specifications; however, areas
where deviations from (or additions to) this manual must be considered in developing the Statement of
Work. A guide specification for GPS surveying services is found in Appendix C of this manual. This
guide specification is readily adaptable to all types of GPS surveying services.
12-10. Contract Quality Control and Quality Assurance
Under the Corps professional contracting system, contractors are responsible for performing all quality
control (QC) activities associated with their work. The Corps is responsible for quality assurance (QA)
oversight of the contractor's QC actions. Therefore, Corps QA or testing functions should be focused on
whether the contractor meets the required performance specification (e.g., survey accuracy) and not the
intermediate surveying or compilation steps performed by the contractor. As a result, for surveys
procured using the Brooks A-E Act qualifications-based selection method, Corps representatives do not
regularly observe work in progress (i.e. perform QC activities)--the contractor was selected as being
technically qualified to perform the work; including all QC associated with it. Corps-performed field
testing of a contractor's work is an optional QA requirement, and should be performed only when
technically and economically justified.
12-11. Task Order Time and Cost Estimates
Once unit prices have been negotiated and established in the basic IDC schedule as illustrated in the
above sections, each IDC task order is negotiated primarily for effort, i.e. time. The process for
estimating the time to perform any particular survey function in a given project is highly dependent on the
knowledge and personal field experience of the government and contractor estimators. The negotiated fee
on a task order is then a straight mathematical procedure of multiplying the agreed-upon effort against the
established unit prices in Schedule B, plus an allowance for profit if not included in the unit rates. An
IGE is required for task orders over $100,000, along with a detailed profit computation, documented
records of negotiations, etc. The scope is attached to a DD 1155 order placed against the basic contract.
If a preliminary site investigation is scheduled for this project, any such adjustments should be
investigated and resolved prior to negotiating subsequent task orders for the various phases of the work,
to the maximum extent possible. As such, the negotiated costs for the subsequent work phases would be
considered fixed price agreements. Any later adjustments to these agreed to prices would be issued in the
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form of modifications to task orders (i.e. change orders), and would have to be rigorously defended as
significant, unforeseen changes in the scope. The contractor would be expected to immediately notify the
contracting officer (KO) or Contracting Officers Technical Representative (COTR) of the need for cost
adjustments.
12-12. Sample Task Order for GPS Services
Following is an example of a task order for GPS surveying services that are performed within a task order
for monitoring a beach renourishment project. Included in this example is the letter request for proposal
to the IDC contractor. Attached to this letter request is the detailed statement of work that identifies the
scope, standards, and specifications that are to be performed. The final record of negotiations compares
the Independent Government Estimate with the contractor's proposal, and records the final negotiated cost
to perform the task order.
SAMPLE LETTER REQUEST FOR PROPOSAL
Engineering Division
Design Branch
Sea Systems, Inc.
3456 Northwest 27th Avenue
Pompano Beach, Florida 33069-1087
SUBJECT: Contract No. DACW17-98-D-0004
Gentlemen:
Enclosed are marked drawings depicting the scope of work required for the following project:
Brevard County, Sand Bypass System Post Construction
One-Year Monitoring Beach Erosion Survey
Canaveral Harbor, Florida (Survey 99-267)
General Scope. Furnish all personnel, plant, equipment, transportation, and materials necessary to perform and
deliver the survey data below in accordance with the conditions set forth in Contract No. DACW17-98-D-0004.
Services not specifically described herein are nonetheless a firm requirement, if they can be identified as an item or
items commonly a part of the professional grade work of a comparative nature required by your contract. All work
shall be accomplished in accordance with the Manuals and TM's specified in your contract.
Your attention is directed to the Site Investigation and Conditions Affecting the Work clause of your contract. After
we have reached agreement on a price and time for performance of this work, neither the negotiated price nor the
time for performance will be exchanged as a consequence of conditions at the site except in accordance with the
clause. Costs associated with the site investigation are considered overhead costs which are reimbursed in the
overhead rates included in your contract. Additional reimbursement will not be made.
a. Scope of Work. Hydrographic and topographic monitoring data shall be collected for CCAFS-29, CCAFS-30,
CCAFS-33 through CCAFS-42, BC-5 through BC-14, and DEP R-0 through DEP R-18 including DEP R-1-AA and
DEP R-1A. The area is shown on Enclosure 1, USGS quads. Enclosure 2 is the control monument descriptions and
profile line azimuth. Enclosure 3 is the technical requirements for the surveys.
b. Data Processing. The Contractor shall make the necessary computations to verify the accuracy of all
measurements and apply the proper theory of location in accordance with the law or precedent and publish the
results of the survey.
c. CADD. The survey data shall be translated or digitally captured into Intergraph IGDS 3D design files according
to the specifications furnished. The survey data shall be provided in Intergraph MicroStation Version 5.0 or higher.
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d. Digital Geospatial Metadata. Metadata are "data about data". They describe the content, identification, data
quality, spatial data organization, spatial reference, entity and attribute information, distribution, metadata reference,
and other characteristics of data. Each survey project shall have metadata submitted with the final data submittal.
e. Compliance. Surveying and Mapping shall be in strict compliance with EM-1110-1-1000 Photogrammetric
Mapping, EM-1110-1-1002 Survey Markers and Monumentation, EM-1110-1-1003 NAVSTAR Global Positioning
System Surveying, EM-1110-1-1004 Deformation Monitoring and Control Surveying, EM-1110-1-1005 Topographic
Surveying, EM-1110-2-1003 Hydrographic Surveying, EM-1110-1-2909 Geospatial Data and System, Tri-Services
A/E/C CADD Standards, Tri-Services Spatial Data Standards, Related Spatial Data Products and Chapter 177,
Chapter 472, and Chapter 61G17 of the Minimum Technical Standards set by the Florida Board of Professional
Surveyors and Mappers.
The completion date for this assignment is 60 days after the Notice to Proceed is signed by the Contracting Officer.
Contact Design Branch at 904-232-1613 for assistance, questions, and requirements.
You are required to review these instructions and make an estimate in writing of the cost and number of days to
complete the work. Please mark your estimate to the attention of Chief, Design Branch.
This is not an order to proceed with the work. Upon successful negotiation of this delivery order the
Contracting Officer will issue the Notice to Proceed.
Sincerely,
Enclosures Walter Clay Sanders, P.E.
Assistant Chief, Engineering Division
Sample Task Order Scope of Work--Sand Bypass Project
TECHNICAL QUALITY CONTROL REQUIREMENTS
BREVARD COUNTY, SAND BYPASS SYSTEM POST CONSTRUCTION
ONE-YEAR MONITORING BEACH EROSION SURVEY
CANAVERAL HARBOR, FLORIDA
(SURVEY 99-267)
1. LOCATION OF WORK. The project is located in Brevard County at Canaveral Harbor, Florida.
2. SCOPE OF WORK.
2a. The services to be rendered by the Contractor include obtaining topographic and hydrographic survey data (x,
y, z,) and CADD data for 47 beach profile lines.
2b. The services to be rendered by the Contractor include all the work described in these technical requirements.
Details not specifically described in these instructions are nevertheless a firm requirement if they can be identified as
an item, or items, commonly a part of professional grade work of a comparative nature.
2c. The Contractor shall furnish all necessary materials, labor, supervision, equipment, and transportation
necessary to execute and complete all work required by these specifications.
2d. The Corps of Engineers, Survey Section shall be contacted the same day that the Contractor plans to
commence the work.
2e. Rights-of-Entry must be obtained verbally and recorded in the field book before entering on the private
property. Enter in the field book the name and address of the property owner contacted for rights-of-entry.
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2f. COMPLIANCE. Surveying and Mapping shall be in strict compliance with EM-1110-1-1000 Photogrammetric
Mapping, EM-1110-1-1002 Survey Markers and Monumentation, EM-1110-1-1003 NAVSTAR Global Positioning
System Surveying, EM-1110-1-1004 Deformation Monitoring and Control Surveying, EM-1110-1-1005 Topographic
Surveying, EM-1110-2-1003 Hydrographic Surveying, EM-1110-1-2909 Geospatial Data and System, Tri-Services
A/E/C CADD Standards, Tri-Services Spatial Data Standards, Related Spatial Data Products and Chapter 177,
Chapter 472, and Chapter 61G17 of the Minimum Technical Standards set by the Florida Board of Professional
Surveyors and Mappers.
2f1. Digital Geospatial Metadata. Metadata are data about data. They describe the content, identification, data
quality, spatial data organization, spatial reference, entity and attribute information, distribution, metadata reference,
and other characteristics of data. Each survey project shall have metadata submitted with the final data submittal.
2f2. Furnish a digital file using CORPSMET 95 (Metadata Software) with the appropriate data included. Point of
contact in survey section Mr. Bill Mihalik at 904-232-1462.
2g. All digital data shall be submitted on CD ROM's.
2h. EXISTING DATA. The Contractor shall be furnished DTM files and existing sheet layout of previous
monitoring survey. The Contractor shall utilize this information to perform survey comparisons. These comparisons
are quality assurance measures for the Contractor to the correctness of his data.
3. FIELD SURVEY EFFORT. Hydrographic and topographic monitoring data shall be collected for CCAFS-29,
CCAFS-30, CCAFS-33 through CCAFS-42, BC-5 through BC-14, and DEP R-0 through DEP R-18 including DEP R-
1-AA and DEP R-1-A. The area is shown on Enclosure 1, USGS quads. Enclosure 2 is the control monument
descriptions and profile line azimuth. Enclosure 3 is the technical requirements for the surveys.
3a. CONTROL. The Horizontal datum shall be NAD 1927 and the vertical datum shall be NGVD 29 MLW. All
control surveys shall be Third-Order, Class II accuracy and shall comply with the Engineering Manuals listed above.
3a1. The basic control network shall be accomplished using precise differential carrier-phase Global Positioning
System (GPS) and Differential GPS baseline vector observations.
3a2. Network design, station and baseline occupation requirements, for static and kinematic surveys, satellite
observation time per baseline, baseline redundancies, and connection requirements to existing networks, shall follow
the criteria given in the above said engineering manual. A field observation log shall be completed at each setup in
the field.
3a3. GPS derived elevation data shall be supplied in reference to the above said datum. Existing benchmark data
and stations shall be used in tandem in a minimally constrained adjustment program to model the geoid. All
supporting data used in vertical adjustment shall be submitted to Survey Section. The GPS plan shall be submitted
and approved by Mr. Lonnie Zurfluh prior to commencing work.
3a4. Establish or recover 1 horizontal and vertical control monument for each profile line. The established position
for each monument recover shall be utilized and new positions shall be established for any new monuments
established. The GPS network (if required) shall commence from the control shown on Enclosure 2. All established
or recovered control shall be fully described and entered in a FIELD BOOK, in accordance with the Technical
Requirements of this contract. All control surveys shall be Third-Order, Class II accuracy. The Contractor shall
submit the field data and abstracts for the control networks to Survey Section for computation before commencing the
mapping. The monument designations shall be furnished as requested.
3a5. All horizontal and vertical control (double run forward and back) established shall be a closed traverse or
level loop no spur lines, with Third-Order accuracy. All horizontal and vertical control along with baseline layouts,
sketches, and pertinent data shall be entered in field books.
3a6. All monuments, survey markers, etc., recovered shall be noted on the copies of control descriptions. Control
points established or recovered with no description or out-of-date (5 Years old) description shall be described with
sketches for future recovery use.
3a7. All original field notes shall be kept in standard pocket size field books and shall become the property of the
Government. The first four pages of the field books shall be reserved for indexing and the binding outside edge shall
be free of all marking. All control surveys shall be Third-Order, Class II accuracy.
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3b. BEACH PROFILES. Recover or establish one (1) horizontal and vertical control monument for Sand Bypass
System CCAFS-29, CCAFS-30, CCAFS-33, CCAFS-34, CCAFS-35, CCAFS-36, CCAFS-37, CCAFS-38, CCAFS-
38A, CCAFS-39, CCAFS-39A, CCAFS-40, CCAFS-40A, CCAFS-41, CCAFS-41A, CCAFS-42, BC-5, BC-6, BC-7,
BC-8, BC-9, BC-10, BC-11, BC-12, BC-13, BC-14, DEP R-0, R-1T RESET, R-1-AA, R-1A, R-2, R-3, T-4 RESET, R-
5, R-6-T RESET, R-7-T RESET, R-8 RESET, R-9, T-10, R-11, R-12, R-13, R-14, R-15-T, R-16, R-17 and R-18.
Utilize the coordinates, elevations, and azimuths shown on Enclosure 2.
3b1. Certification of original and all reset DEP monuments shall be conducted prior to any survey data being
collected. In the event several benchmarks are discovered for one specific monument, the enclosed excel worksheet
highlights the benchmark to be conserved (all others should be destroyed). This work shall be accomplished and
completed prior to collecting any survey data in Jun/Jul 99.
3b2. All profile lines shall extend 150 feet landward (or to the limits of the beach), from the established DNR
monument or until a building, road, wall, protected vegetation, water, etc. is encountered (note features along profiles
and write descriptor in field book for all land features located west of and including the monuments at point collected
on land side). The profile lines shall extend seaward from the monument a distance of no less than 3,000 feet.
3b3. Obtain data points (X, Y, Z) on 10-foot ranges (land), all breaks in grade greater than 1 foot vertically,
vegetation line, tops and toes of dunes, seawalls, or other manmade features along the profile line. Soundings shall
be identified at 12.5 ranges along the profile.
3c. TIDE STAFF. Establish an on-site tide staff referenced to mean low water, which is 1.90 below NGVD of
1929. Maintain a 0.1 frequency reading log during the water portion of the survey. Monument SOUTHPORT shall
be utilized for the tide staff.
3d. BREAKLINE. Breaklines shall be located for all natural or man-made features as needed. The breaklines
shall be located with X, Y, and Z and identified.
3e. SOUNDING POLE / 6 DISK: A sounding pole or sounding rod with a 6 inch diameter disk attached to the
bottom shall be used.
3f. DATA COLLECTION (RTK or TOTAL STATION). Data collection will be allowed for data points only, showing
all instrument positions, calibration, backsights, and closing readings in the field book.
4. DATA PROCESSING. The Contractor shall make the necessary computations to verify the correctness of all
results of the survey. The Contractor shall submit advance copies of the horizontal control so that USACE can
compute the final positions before commencing mapping. Compute and tabulate the horizontal and vertical positions
on all work performed. Review and edit all field data for discrepancies before plotting the final drawings.
4a. Furnish X, Y, Z and descriptor ASCII file for each profile line and one X, Y, Z, and descriptor ASCII file with all
data included for each area.
4b. Furnish a DEP format ASCII file for each profile line.
5. CADD. The survey data shall be translated or digital capture into Intergraph IGDS 3D design files according to the
specifications furnished. The survey data shall be provided in Intergraph MicroStation Version 5.0 or higher as
shown in the letter dated 30 September 1992. The neat mapping area on all sheets (cover and plan) shall be 30-
inches by 25-inches.
5a. GLOBAL ORIGIN. The IGDS 3-D design file shall be prepared with a global origin of 0, 0, 2147483.65, Design
file master units: FT., Sub units: 1,000, and positional units: 1. The file name shall be the survey number prefixed to
an "A" i.e., a267S1.DGN. All reference file names shall commence with the a267 also.
5b. DIGITAL TERRAIN MODEL (DTM) DATA. The Contractor shall develop and deliver a surface model of the
area using Intergraph compatible Digital Terrain Modeling software and the model file shall have the .dtm extension.
The digital terrain model shall be developed from the collected data. Breaklines should include ridges, drainage, road
edges, surface water boundaries, and other linear features implying a change in slope. The surface model shall be of
adequate density and quality to produce a one-foot contour interval derived from the original DTM (Digital Terrain
Model) file. The contour data shall be incorporated as a reference file into the final data set. All data used to develop
the DTM's shall be delivered in Intergraph 3-D design files.
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5b1. CONTOURS. The contours shall be developed in the digital terrain model (DTM). The contours shall be
provided in one or more master DGN files, attached as a reference file to all sheet files utilizing the clip bounds
methods. Each contour shall be drawn sharp and clear as a continuous solid line, dashed contours are not
acceptable. Every index contour shall be accentuated as a heavier line than the intermediate and shall be annotated
according to its actual elevation above MLW. Whenever index contours are closer than one-quarter (1/4) inch, and
the ground slope is uniform, the intermediate shall be omitted. Labeling or numbering of contours shall be placed on
top of the contour line, so that the elevation is readily discernible, do not break contours. Labeling of intermediate
contours may be required in areas of low relief.
5c. MODEL DGN FILES (SCALE 1:1).
5c1. The beach profile upland (land) data shall be provided in one or more master DGN file attached as a
reference file to all sheet files utilizing the clip bounds methods.
5c2. The beach profile offshore (water) data shall be provided in one or more master DGN file attached as a
5c3. The control data shall be provided in one or more master DGN file attached as a reference file to all sheet files
utilizing the clip bounds methods.
5c4. The contours shall be provided in one or more master DGN file attached as a reference file to all sheet files
5c5. The breaklines shall be provided in one or more master DGN file attached as a reference file to all sheet files
5d. COVER AND CONTROL SHEET. The first sheet shall be a cover sheet showing the control sketch, survey
control tabulation, sheet layout or index, legend, project location map, survey notes, north arrow, graphic scale, grid
ticks, and large signature block. Tabulate, plot, and list the horizontal control used for the survey on the final
drawings.
5e. PLAN SHEETS. The plan sheets shall be prepared to a scale of 1=100', in the Corps of Engineers format
(reference letter and instruction dated September 30, 1992) showing notes, title block, grid, north arrow, graphic
scale, legend, sheet index, and D. O. File Number. Sheets shall be oriented with north to the top. The extreme right
7 inches of the sheet shall be left blank for notes, legends, etc. The second sheet and all sheets following shall be a
continuation sheet and shall have a minimum of two notes, note 1: See Drawing number 1 for notes, note 2: Refer to
Survey No. 99-267. The existing sheet layout shall be furnished.
5d. SECTION VIEWS. The sections shall be extracted and displayed from the digital terrain model (DTM OR
TTN) utilizing INROADS OR INXPRESS. The sections shall be generated or extracted along the same azimuth as
the section was collected in the field. The sections shall be displayed at a 10 to 1 vertical exaggeration. The
planimetric lines (alignment of extraction), alignment, stations, and cross sections shall be displayed in one DGN file
(NO PLOTS).
6. MAP CONTENT.
6a. COORDINATE GRID (NAD 27). Grid ticks (English) of the applicable State Plane Coordinate System shall be
properly annotated at the top, bottom and both sides of each sheet. Spacing of the grid ticks shall be five (5) inches
apart.
6b. CONTROL. All horizontal and vertical ground control monuments shall be shown on the maps in plan and
tabulated.
6c. TOPOGRAPHY. The map shall contain all representable and specified topographic features that are visible or
identifiable.
6d. SPOT ELEVATIONS. Spot elevations shall be shown on the maps in proper position.
6e. MAP EDIT. All names, labels, notes, and map information shall be checked for accuracy and completeness.
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6f. SHEET INDEX AND LEGEND. On plan drawings a small-scale sheet index shall be shown on each sheet of
the series; highlighting the sheets in the standard manner. Planimetric and topographic feature legends shall be
shown on each sheet. Contractor logo shall be shown on each drawing.
6g. MAP ACCURACY. All mapping shall conform to the national map accuracy standards except that no dashed
contour line will be accepted.
7. OFFICE REVIEW AND COMPUTATIONS. The Contractor shall make the necessary computations to verify the
correctness of all measurements and apply the proper theory of location in accordance with the law or precedent and
publish the results of the survey. The contractor shall submit the original field notes and horizontal and vertical
abstract (computation abstract) to Survey Section for final computation before mapping commences.
8. DELIVERIES. On completion, all data required shall be delivered or mailed to Design Branch, Survey Section at
the address shown in contract, and shall be accompanied by a properly numbered, dated and signed letter or
shipping form, in duplicate, listing the materials being transmitted. All costs of deliveries shall be borne by the
Contractor. Items to be delivered include, but are not limited to the following:
8a. GPS network plan, (before GPS work commences).
8b. GPS raw data along with field observation log sheets filled out in field with all information and sketches.
8c. Computation files with Horizontal and Vertical abstracts along.
8d. Horizontal and Vertical Field Books.
8e. Furnish X, Y, Z, and descriptor ASCII file for each beach profile and one merged with all beach profile data.
8f. Furnish DEP format file for each profile line.
8g. DTM File.
8h. Master DGN files.
8i. DGN sheet files at 1=100.
8j. Furnish a digital file using CORPSMET 95 (Metadata Software) with the appropriate data included.
8k. Excel file with Monument ID, X, Y, Z, and Azimuth of profile line.
AUTHOR EN-DT JERRY T. BURCHFIELD
APPROVED BY______________________
ED HODGENS (EN-HC)
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SAMPLE RECORD OF NEGOTIATIONS
CESAJ-EN-DT (1110-2-1150a) 24 Jun 99
MEMORANDUM FOR: CONTRACT FILES
SUBJECT: Negotiations Memorandum: Contract No. DACW17-98-D-0004, Brevard County, Sand Bypass System
Post Construction One-Year Monitoring Beach Erosion Survey, Canaveral Harbor, Florida (Survey 99-267)
1. References.
a. Letter RFP CESAJ-EN-DT, 9 Jun 99, subject: Contract No. DACW17-98-D-0004.
b. Government Survey Estimate, 3 Jun 99, prepared by Mr. Burchfield (CESAJ-EN-DT), in the amount of
$60,831.00 and approved by Mr. Walter Clay Sanders, Assistant Chief, Engineering Division, 9 Jun 99.
c. Contractor's (Sea System, Inc - SEA) initial letter of proposal, 23 Jun 99, in the amount of $76,135.00.
d. Contractor's (Sea System, Inc - SEA) revised letter of proposal, 24 Jun 99, in the amount of $59,775.00.
2. The Contractors initial proposal of $76,135.00 is above the Government Estimate of $60, 831.00 by $15,304.00.
The Contractors revised proposal of $59,775.00 is below the Government Estimate of $60,831.00 by $1,056.00.
3. On 24 Jun 99, a line-by-line comparison of the estimate and proposal was performed (per References 1b and 1c)
as follows:
CONTRACTOR'S PROPOSAL (23 JUN 99)
Item Quantity Amount
2002 5-Man Hydro Crew 38.0 CD @ $1,404.00 $ 53,352.00
2003 Survey Helper (Deduct) 38.0 MD @ 144.00 - 5,472.00
2004a Per Diem 152.0 MD @ 65.00 9,880.00
2005 Project Manager 5.0 MD @ 436.00 2,180.00
2006a Per Diem (PM) 5.0 MD @ 92.00 460.00
2007 CADD Operator 15.0 MD @ 333.00 4,995.00
2008 Survey Computer 20.0 MD @ 318.00 6,360.00
2011 Establish Monuments 4.0 EA @ 25.00 100.00
2015a GPS First Unit 26.0 DY @ 130.00 3,380.00
2015b Second Unit 10.0 DY @ 90.00 900.00
Total------------------------------------------- $ 76,135.00
GOVERNMENT ESTIMATE (3 JUN 99)
Item Quantity Amount
2002 5-Man Hydro Crew 30.0 CD @ $1,404.00 $ 42,120.00
2003 Survey Helper (Deduct) 30.0 MD @ 144.00 - 4,320.00
2004a Per Diem 120.0 MD @ 65.00 7,800.00
2005 Project Manager 7.0 MD @ 436.00 3,052.00
2006a Per Diem (PM) 7.0 MD @ 92.00 644.00
2007 CADD Operator 27.0 MD @ 333.00 8,991.00
2008 Survey Computer 8.0 MD @ 318.00 2,544.00
Total------------------------------------------- $ 60,831.00
4. Line-by-line discussions with the Contractor took place on 24 Jun 99 between Jerry T. Burchfield (CESAJ-EN-DT)
and Stan Copeland (SEA). The Request for Proposal (RFP), the technical requirements (TR), work effort, line items,
and time period were reviewed with the Contractor.
4a. Line items 2005, 2006a, and 2007 were the same or below the Government Estimate. Line item's 2002,
2003, 2004a, 2008, 2011, 2015a, and 2015b of the Contractors proposal is above the Government Estimate. We
agreed to use the existing positions of the control monuments therefore line items 2011, 2015a, and 2015b of the
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
12-15
Contractors proposal are not required and line items 2002, and 2003 were reduced. Line item 2008 was reduced
and line item 2007 was increased base on the computation and CADD requirements.
4b. During discussion with the Contractor, it was discovered that line item's 2002 requires 30 days, 2003 requires
30 days (Deduct), 2004a requires 120 days, 2005 requires 5 days, 2006a requires 5 days, 2007 requires 27 days,
and 2008 requires 8 days.
5. The Contractor and the Government agreed to a completion date of 60 days after the Notice To Proceed is signed
by the Contracting Officer and that these negotiations are subject to approval of the Contracting Officer and do not
authorize the Contractor to commence work. The Contracting Officer will issue the Notice to Proceed.
6. The Contractor's Proposed cost of $59,775.00 is considered fair and reasonable based on time and effort
reasonably expected of a prudent contractor or Government forces performing the same services, and is
recommended for acceptance by the Contracting Officer.
7. Sea System, Inc was selected for this Task Order based on an equitable distribution of work among our AE
Contractors.
PREPARED BY DATE
JERRY T. BURCHFIELD/CESAJ-EN-DT
REVIEWED BY DATE
D. TONEY LANIER
CHIEF, SPECIFICATIONS SECTION
APPROVAL RECOMMENDED DATE
WALTER CLAY SANDERS, P.E.
ASSISTANT CHIEF, ENGINEERING DIVISION
APPROVED BY DATE
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
A-1
Appendix A
References

A-1. Required References

ER 1110-1-8156
Policies, Guidance, and Requirements for Geospatial Data and Systems

ER 1110-2-1150
Engineering and Design for Civil Works Projects

EP 715-1-7
Architect-Engineer Contracting

EM 1110-1-1002
Survey Markers and Monumentation

EM 1110-1-1000
Photogrammetric Mapping

EM 1110-1-1004
Geodetic and Control Surveying

EM 1110-1-2909
Geospatial Data and Systems

EM 1110-2-1003
Hydrographic Surveying

EM 1110-2-1009
Structural Deformation Surveying

NOTE: The above Corps of Engineers publications may be downloaded at
http://www.usace.army.mil/inet/usace-docs/.

A-2. Related References

DoD 1996
"NAVSTAR GPS User Equipment Introduction," DoD Joint Program Office, September 1996

DoD 2001
"Global Positioning System Standard Positioning Service Performance Standard," October 2001, Asst
Secretary for Command, Control, Communications, and Intelligence

Executive Order 12906
Coordinating Geographic Data Acquisition and Access: The National Spatial Data Infrastructure (NSDI)

EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
A-2

FGCC 1988
"Geometric Geodetic Accuracy Standards and Specifications for Using GPS Relative Positioning
Techniques," Version 5.0 11 May 1988, (Reprinted with Corrections: 1 Aug 1989), Federal Geodetic
Control Committee, 1988. Note: the FGCC is now the Federal Geodetic Control Subcommittee (FGCS)
under the Federal Geographic Data Committee (FGDC)

FGDC 1998a
"Geospatial Positioning Accuracy Standards, PART 1: Reporting Methodology," Federal Geographic
Data Committee, FGDC-STD-007.1-1998

FGDC 1998b
"Geospatial Positioning Accuracy Standards, PART 2: Standards for Geodetic Networks," Federal
Geographic Data Committee, FGDC-STD-007.2-1998

FGDC 1998c
"Geospatial Positioning Accuracy Standards, PART 3: National Standard for Spatial Data Accuracy,"
Federal Geographic Data Committee, FGDC-STD-007.3-1998

FGDC 1998d
"Content Standard for Digital Geospatial Metadata (Version 2.0)," Federal Geographic Data Committee,
FGDC-STD-001-1998

FGDC 2002
"Geospatial Positioning Accuracy Standards, PART 4: Standards for Architecture, Engineering,
Construction (A/E/C) and Facility Management," Federal Geographic Data Committee,
FGDC-STD-007.4-2002

FRP 2001
"2001 Federal Radionavigation Plan," and "2001 Federal Radionavigation Systems," Department of
Defense and Department of Transportation, 2001.

Kaplin 1996
Kaplin, E. D., "Understanding GPS Principles and Applications," 1996, Artech House, Inc.

Leick 1995
Leick, A., 1995, "GPS Satellite Surveying," (Second Edition) John Wiley & Sons.

Mikhail 1976
Mikhail, Edward M., and Ackermann, Friedrich E. 1976. Observations and Least-Squares, IEP Series in
Civil Engineering, New York.

NGS 2000
"PAGE-NT User's Manual," Version 2000.09.07, National Geodetic Survey, September 2000.

NOAA 1994
"Input Formats and Specifications of the National Geodetic Survey Data Base," NOAA, National Geodetic
Survey, September 1994.

EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
A-3
NOAA 1997
NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS NGS-58, Zilkoski, D.B., D'Onofrio, J. D., and Frankes, S. J. (Nov
1997) "Guidelines for Establishing GPS-Derived Ellipsoid Heights (Standards: 2 cm and 5 cm)," Version
4.1.3. Silver Spring, Maryland.

Public Law 92-582
Public Law 92-582, (86 STAT. 1278), "Public Buildings--Selection of Architects and Engineers"

Remondi 1985
Remondi, B. W. 1985. "Global Positioning System Carrier Phase: Description and Use."

Snay & Soler 1999
Snay, R.A. & Soler, T., "Modern Terrestrial Reference Systems, " Professional Surveyor Magazine,
1999-2000

Trimble 2000a
Postprocessed Surveying Workbook, Revision A, Number 33143-30, Trimble Navigation LTD, May 2000

Trimble 2000b
Real-Time Surveying Workbook, Revision A, Number 33142-30, Trimble Navigation LTD, January 2000

Trimble 2000c
TRIMMARK 3 Radio Modem User Guide, Revision A, Trimble Navigation LTD, December 2000

Trimble 2001a
Trimble Survey Controller Reference Manual/Field Guide, Version 7.7 Revision A, Trimble Navigation
LTD, January 2001

Trimble 2001b
5700 GPS Receiver User Guide, Version 1.0, Revision A, Trimble Navigation LTD, January 2001

Trimble 2001c
Trimble Geomatics Office--Network Adjustment Software User Guide, Version 1.5, Revision A, Number
39933-10-ENG, Trimble Navigation LTD, January 2001.

Trimble 2001d
Trimble Geomatics Office--WAVE Baseline Processing Software User Guide, Version 1.5, Revision A,
Number 39685-10-ENG, Trimble Navigation LTD, January 2001.

Trimble 2001e
GPS Pathfinder Systems Receiver Manual, Version 1.00, Revision B, Trimble Navigation LTD, April
2001.

Trimble 2001f
GeoExplorer 3 Operation Guide, Revision A, Trimble Navigation LTD, March 2001

Trimble 2002
Trimble Geomatics Office User Guide, Revision A, Number 46741-20-ENG, Trimble Navigation LTD,
April 2002

EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
A-4
Trimble 2002a
GPS Pathfinder Office, Version 2.90, Trimble Navigation LTD, January 2002

USFS/BLM 2001
"Standards and Guidelines for Cadastral Surveys using Global Positioning System Methods," Version 1.0, 9
May 2001, USDA (Forest Service) and USDI (Bureau of Land Management)

Van Sickle 2001
Jan Van Sickle, 2001. "GPS for Land Surveyors," Second Edition, Ann Arbor Press.

Waypoint 2001
"GrafNav/GrafNet, GrafNav Lite, GrafMov Operating Manual," Version 6.03, Waypoint Consulting, Inc,
August 2001.
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
A-5
A-3. Related Publications (Not Referenced)

Ackroyd and Lorimer 1990
Ackroyd, N. and Lorimer, R., 1990, "Global Navigation--A GPS User's Guide," Lloyd's of London Press
Ltd.

American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing 1989
American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing. 1989. "ASPRS Accuracy Standards for
Large-Scale Maps," Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing, pp 1068 and 1070.

Bossler and Challstrom 1985
Bossler, J. D., and Challstrom, C. W. 1985. "GPS Instrumentation and Federal Policy."

Bureau of the Budget 1947
Bureau of the Budget. 1947 (17 June). "United States National Map Accuracy Standards," US Bureau of
the Budget.

Burkhard, Richard K., et al. 1983
Geodesy for the Layman," Defense Mapping Agency (DMA).

Canadian GPS Associates 1987
Guide to GPS Positioning, Fredericton, New Brunswick, Canada.

Department of Defense 1987
"Department of Defense World Geodetic System 1984 - Its Definition and Relationships with Local
Geodetic Systems." 1987. DMA Technical Report 8350.2.

FGCS 1980
Federal Geodetic Control Subcommittee 1980
Input Formats and Specifications of the National Geodetic Data Base (also termed the Bluebook)

Federal Geodetic Control Committee 1984
Federal Geodetic Control Committee. 1984. "Standards and Specifications for Geodetic Control
Networks," Rockville, MD.

Global Positioning System Subcommission 1989
Global Positioning System Subcommission. 1989 (January-February). GPS Bulletin, Commission VIII,
International Association of Geodesy/International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics. Vol 2, No. 1.

Goad 1985
Goad, C. C. 1985. "Precise Relative Position Determination Using Global Positioning System Carrier
Phase Measurements in a Nondifference Mode."

Hein 1985
Hein, G. W. 1985. "Orthometric Height Determination Using GPS Observations and the Integrated
Adjustment Model, " NOAA Technical Report NOS 110 NGS-32, National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration.

EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
A-6
Hothem and Fronczek 1983
Hothem, L. D. and Fronczek, C. J. 1983. "Report on Test and Demonstration of Macrometer Model V-
1000 Interferometric Surveyor," Federal Geodetic Control Committee.

Hothem and Williams 1985
Hothem, L. D., and Williams, G. E. 1985. "Factors to be Considered in Development of Specifications for
Geodetic Surveys Using Relative Positioning GPS Techniques."

Hothem, Goad, and Remondi 1984
Hothem, L. D., Goad, C. C., and Remondi, B. W. 1984. "GPS Satellite Surveying - Practical Aspects."

Kass and Dulaney 1986
Kass, W. G., and Dulaney, R. 1986. "Procedures for Processing GPS Phase Observations at the National
Geodetic Survey."

Lucas and Mader 1988
Lucas, J. R., and Mader, G. L. 1988. "Recent Advances in Kinematic GPS Photogrammetry."

Mader 1986
Mader, G. L. 1986. "Decimeter Precision Aircraft Positioning using GPS Carrier Phase."

Mader and Abell 1985
Mader, G. L., and Abell, M. D. 1985. "A Comparison between Global Positioning System and Very Long
Baseline Interferometry Surveys in Alaska and Canada."

Milbert 1985a
Milbert, D. G. 1985a. "Application of the Variance Factor Test to a Global Positioning System Survey."

Milbert 1985b
Milbert, D. G. 1985b. "Preliminary Analysis of an Operational Global Position System Control Survey."

Milbert 1988
Milbert, D. G. 1988. "Network Adjustment of Correlated Coordinate Difference Observations."

Milbert 1996
Milbert, D.G. and Smith D.A. (1996). Converting GPS Height into NAVD 88 Elevation with the Geoid
96 Geoid Height Model. National Geodetic Survey, Silver Spring, Maryland.

Minke 1988
Minke, D. H. 1988. "Kinematic GPS Land Survey--Description of Operational Test and Results."

National Geodetic Information Center 1989
National Geodetic Information Center. 1989 (revised). "Documents Available on GPS," Information Flyer
86-1, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.

National Geodetic Survey 1986
National Geodetic Survey. 1986. "Geodetic Glossary," 242 pp.

National Geodetic Survey 1988
National Geodetic Survey. 1988. "Guidelines for Submitting GPS Relative Positioning Data to the National
Geodetic Survey," Rockville, MD.
EM 1110-1-1003
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A-7

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 1988
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 1988. "National Geodetic Survey State Plane
Coordinate Manual NAD 1983."

Remondi 1984
Remondi, B. W. 1984. "Using the Global Positioning System (GPS) Phase Observable for Relative
Geodesy: Modeling, Processing, and Results," Ph.D dissertation, University of Texas.

Remondi 1985b
Remondi, B. W. 1985b. "Modeling the GPS Carrier Phase for Geodetic Applications."

Remondi 1985c
Remondi, B. W. 1985c. "Performing Centimeter-Level Surveys in Seconds with GPS Carrier Phase: Initial
Results," NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS NGS-43, National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration.

Remondi 1986
Remondi, B. W. 1986. "Distribution of Global Positioning System Ephemerides by the National Geodetic
Survey," ACSM spring meeting, March 1986.

Remondi 1991
Remondi, B. W. 1991. "Kinematic GPS Results Without Static Initialization, NOAA Technical
Memorandum NOS NGS-55", May 1991.

Remondi, 1992a
Remondi, B. W. 1992a. "Real-Time Centimeter-Accuracy Without Static Initialization", Sixth Internal
Geodetic Symposium on Satellite Positioning, Columbus, Ohio.

Remondi, 1992b
Remondi, B. W. 1992b. "Real-Time Centimeter-Accuracy While in Motion (Warm Start Versus Cold
Start), 5th International Technical Meeting ION GPS-92, Albuquerque, New Mexico.

Remondi and Hofmann-Wellenhof 1989
Remondi, B. W., and Hofmann-Wellenhof, B. 1989. "Accuracy of Global Positioning System Broadcast
Orbits from Relative Surveys."

Snay 1986
Snay R. A. 1986. "Network Design Strategies Applicable to GPS Surveys using Three or Four Receivers."

Soler and Hothem 1988
Soler, T., and Hothem, L. 1988. "Coordinate Systems used in Geodesy - Basic Definitions and Concepts,"
Journal on Surveying and Engineering, American Society of Civil Engineers.

Soler, Hothem, and Fury 1986
Soler, T., Hothem, L. D., and Fury, R. J. 1986. "Precise Geodetic Surveying with Code and Carrier Phase
Tracking GPS Receivers."

Stenn 1989
Stenn, James E. 1989. "The State Plane Coordinate System of 1983," NOAA Manual NOS NGS 5,
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
EM 1110-1-1003
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A-8

Strange 1985
Strange, W. E. 1985. "High-Precision Three-Dimensional Differential Positioning Using GPS."

Zilkoski 1990a
Zilkoski, David B. 1990a. "Establishing Vertical Control Using GPS Satellite Surveys," Proceedings of the
19th International Federation of Surveying Congress, National Geodetic Survey.

Zilkoski 1990b
Zilkoski, David B. 1990b. "Minimum Steps Required when Estimating GPS-Derived Orthometric
Heights," Proceedings of the Fall GIS/LIS 1990 Convention.

Zilkoski and Hothem 1989
Zilkoski, David B., and Hothem, Larry D. 1989. "GPS Satellite Surveys and Vertical Control," Journal of
Surveying Engineering.

Zilkoski 1992
Zilkoski, D.B., Richards, J.H., and Young, G.M. (1992). Special Report: Results of the General
Adjustment of the North American Vertical Datum of 1988, Silver Spring, Maryland.

EM 1110-1-1003
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B-1
Appendix B
Abbreviations and Acronyms
1-D........................One dimensional
2-D........................Two-dimensional
3-D........................Three-dimensional
2DRMS .................Two (standard) deviations root mean square
A-E .......................Architect-Engineer
A/S........................Anti-Spoofing
ABGPS..................Airborne GPS
ACSM...................American Congress on Surveying and Mapping
AFARS..................Army Federal Acquisition Regulation Supplement
ALTA....................American Land Title Association
APC......................Antenna phase center
ARP ......................Antenna reference point
ASCE....................American Society of Civil Engineers
ASPRS..................American Society of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing
BIH.......................Bureau International Heure
C/A-code ...............Coarse Acquisition Code
CADD...................Computer Aided Design and Drafting
CDC......................Consecutive Doppler Counts
CDMS...................Continuous Deformation Monitoring System
CEP.......................Circular error probable
CID.......................Continuously Integrated Doppler
cm.........................centimeter
CONUS.................Continental United States
CORS....................Continuously Operating Reference Station
CTP.......................Conventional Terrestrial Pole
CW........................Civil Works
DFARS..................Defense Federal Acquisition Regulation Supplement
DGPS....................Differential GPS
DMA.....................Defense Mapping Agency (now NIMA)
DOP ......................Dilution of Position
DoD ......................Department of Defense
DoT.......................Department of Transportation
E&D......................Engineering and design
ECC......................estimated construction cost
ECDIS...................Electronic Charting and Information System
ECEF.....................Earth centered earth fixed
EDM.....................electronic distance measurement
EFARS..................Engineer Federal Acquisition Regulation Supplement
EM........................Engineer Manual
EP .........................Engineer Pamphlet
ER.........................Engineer Regulation
ERDC....................Engineer Research and Development Center
FAA......................Federal Aviation Administration
FAR......................Federal Acquisition Regulation
FFP .......................Firm fixed-price
FGCC....................Federal Geodetic Control Committee
FGCS.....................Federal Geodetic Control Subcommittee
FGDC....................Federal Geographic Data Committee
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
B-2
FOC......................Full Operational Capability
FRP.......................Federal Radionavigation Plan
FRS.......................Federal Radionavigation Systems
ft ...........................foot or feet
FY.........................Fiscal Year
G&A.....................General & Administrative (overhead)
GDOP ...................Geometric dilution of precision
GIS........................Geographic Information System
GLONOSS.............Global Orbiting Satellite Navigation System
GNSS ....................Global Satellite Navigation System
GPS.......................Global Positioning System
GRS 80..................Geodetic Reference System of 1980
HARNS.................High Accuracy Reference Networks
HDOP ...................Horizontal dilution of precision
HI..........................Height of Instrument
HPGN ...................High Precision Geodetic Network
HQUSACE............Headquarters, US Army Corps of Engineers
IDC.......................Indefinite Delivery Contract
IERS......................International Earth Rotation Service
IGE........................Internal Government Estimate
IGLD 55 ................International Great Lakes Datum of 1955
IGLD 85 ................International Great Lakes Datum of 1985
IGS........................International GPS Services
IID........................Intermittently Integrated Doppler
IMU ......................Inertial Measurement Unit
IOC.......................Initial Operating Capability
IRON....................Inter Range Operation Number
ITRF......................International Terrestrial Reference Frame
JPO .......................Joint Program Office
KO........................Contracting Officer
LAAS....................Local Area Augmentation System
LIDAR..................Light Detection and Ranging
LMN .....................Local Notice to Mariners
m...........................meter
M-code ..................Military code
MHz......................Megahertz
MSC......................Major Subordinate Command
MSE......................Mean square error
NAD 27.................North American Datum of 1927
NAD 83.................North American Datum of 1983
NANU...................Notice: Advisory to Navigation Users
NASA ...................National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NATO...................North Atlantic Treaty Organization
NAVCEN..............Navigation Center (US Coast Guard)
NAVD 88 ..............North American Vertical Datum of 1988
NGRS....................National Geodetic Reference System
NGS ......................National Geodetic Survey
NGVD 29 ..............National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929
NIMA....................National Imagery and Mapping Agency
NIS........................Navigation Information Service
NMEA...................National Maritime Electronics Association
EM 1110-1-1003
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B-3
NOAA...................National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
NOS......................National Ocean Service
NOTAM................Notice to Airmen
OCONUS..............Outside the Continental United States
OPUS....................On-Line Positioning User Service
OTF.......................On-The-Fly
P-code ...................Precise Code or Precision Code
PDOP....................Positional Dilution of Precision
PPS.......................Precise Positioning Service
PRC ......................Pseudorange correction
PRN......................Pseudo-Random Noise
PROSPECT...........Proponent Sponsored Engineer Corps Training
PVT ......................Position-Velocity-Time
RINEX..................Receiver INdependent EXchange
RMS......................Root mean square
RTCM...................Radio Technical Commission for Maritime Services
RTK......................Real-Time Kinematic
S/A........................Selective availability
SCOUT .................Scripps Coordinate Update Tool
SIS ........................Signal in space
SPCS.....................State Plane Coordinate System
SPCS 27 ................State Plane Coordinate System of 1927
SPCS 83 ................State Plane Coordinate System of 1983
SPS.......................Standard Positioning Service
TEC.......................Topographic Engineering Center
U/M.......................Unit of Measure
U/P........................Unit Price
UERE....................user equivalent range error
UHF......................Ultra high frequency
URE......................User range error
USACE .................US Army Corps of Engineers
USFS.....................US Forest Service
USGS ....................US Geological Survey
UT.........................Universal Time
UTC......................Universal Time Coordinated
UTM.....................Universal Transverse Mercator
VAC......................Volts alternating current
VDC......................Volts direct current
VDOP ...................Vertical dilution of precision
VHF......................Very high frequency
VLBI.....................Very long baseline interferometry
WAAS...................Wide Area Augmentation System (FAA)
WGS 84.................World Geodetic System of 1984
EM 1110-1-1003
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C-1
Appendix C
Contract Schedules for GPS Surveying Services
C-1. General
This Appendix contains a guide specification for use in preparing Architect-Engineer (A-E) contracts for
professional surveying and mapping services where use of GPS methods is an integral part of the effort.
These specifications are applicable to all A-E contracts used to support US Army Corps of Engineers
(USACE) civil works and military construction design, construction, operations, maintenance, regulatory,
and real estate activities. Since GPS is only a tool for supporting topographic, photogrammetric, or
hydrographic surveys, an exclusive GPS survey contract would not normally be developed--i.e. these
specifications would normally be incorporated into a traditional site plan mapping, photogrammetric
mapping, or hydrographic surveying contract. This guide specification is intended for contracts, which
are obtained using PL 92-582 (Brooks Act) qualification-based selection procedures.
C-2. Coverage
This guide specification contains the technical standards and/or references necessary to specify the more
common static and kinematic differential (carrier phase tracking) GPS surveying methods that are
currently (2002) in use. It is intended to support precise GPS control surveys performed for engineering
and construction purposes. This guide supports the following types of differential GPS carrier phase
surveying:
- Static Differential GPS Positioning
- Rapid Static Differential GPS Positioning
- Stop-and-Go Differential GPS Positioning
- Pseudo-kinematic Differential GPS Positioning
- Real-time On-the-Fly Differential GPS Positioning
Continuing developments of the above applications, along with the evolution of newer GPS survey
techniques, mandates that these guide specifications be continuously evaluated by USACE Commands to
insure they are technologically current.
C-3. Applicability
The following types of negotiated A-E contract actions are supported by these instructions:
a. Fixed-price surveying service contracts requiring GPS control.
b. Indefinite delivery contracts (IDC) for surveying services.
c. A multi-discipline surveying and mapping IDC contract in which GPS surveying services is a
line item supporting other surveying, mapping, hydrography, and/or photogrammetry services.
d. A task order placed against an IDC contract.
e. Design and design-construct contracts that include incidental surveying and mapping services
(including Title II services). Both fixed-price and IDC contracts are supported by these instructions.
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
C-2
C-4. Insertion of Technical Specifications
This Engineer Manual (EM 1110-1-1003, NAVSTAR GPS Surveying) shall be attached to and made part
of any service contract for GPS surveying. References to this EM are made throughout this guide. These
references will normally suffice for most USACE GPS survey specifications; however the guide also
identifies areas where deviations from this manual must be considered.
a. Technical specifications for GPS surveying that are specific to the project, (including items
such as the scope of work, procedural requirements, and accuracy requirements), will be placed under
Section C of the SF 252 (Block 10). The prescribed format for developing the technical specifications is
contained in this guide specification. Project-specific technical specifications shall not contain contract
administrative functions -- these should be placed in more appropriate sections of the contract.
b. Standards and other specifications referenced in this guide specification should be checked for
obsolescence and for dates and applicability of amendments and revisions issued subsequent to the
publication of this specification. Maximum use should be made of existing EM's, Technical Manuals,
and other recognized industry standards and specifications.
c. Throughout Section C of this guide, the specification writer must elect a contract performance
method: (1) the government designs the GPS occupation/observing schedule, or (2) the contractor
designs his performance method based on the criteria given in EM 1110-1-1003. Selection of the first
method depends on the GPS survey expertise of the specification writer. This method also transfers much
of the contract risk to the government. The second method is the preferred contract procedure.
C-5. Alternate Clauses/Provisions or Options
In order to distinguish between required clauses and optional clauses, required clauses are generally
shown in capitol letters. Optional or selective clauses, such as would be used in a work order, are
generally in lower case. In other instances, alternate clauses/provisions may be indicated by brackets "[ ]"
and/or clauses preceded by a single asterisk "*". A single asterisk signifies that a clause or provision that
is inapplicable to the particular section may be omitted, or that a choice of clauses may be made
depending upon the technical surveying and mapping requirement. Clauses requiring insertion of
descriptive material or additional project-specific specifications are indicated by either ellipsis or
underlining in brackets (e.g., "[...]" "[_____]"). In many instances, explanatory notes are included
regarding the selection of alternate clauses or provisions.
C-6. Notes and Comments
General comments and instructions used in this guide are contained within asterisk blocks. These
comments and instructions should be removed from the final contract.
C-7. Indefinite Delivery Contracts and Individual Task Order Assignments
Contract clauses that pertain to IDC contracts, or task orders thereto, are generally indicated by notes
adjacent to the provision. These clauses should be deleted for fixed-price contracts. In general, sections
dealing with IDC contracts are supplemented with appropriate comments pertaining to their use. Task
orders against a basic IDC contract may be constructed using the format contained in Section C of this
guide. This contract section is therefore applicable to any type of GPS service contracting action.
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
C-3
THE CONTRACT SCHEDULE
SECTION A
SOLICITATION/CONTRACT FORM
*************************************************************************************
NOTE: Include here Standard Form 252
************************************************************************************
SF 252 -- (Block 5): PROJECT TITLE AND LOCATION
*********************************************************************************
NOTE: The following sample titles represent projects under which static or kinematic GPS
surveys are expected to play a significant role in developing basic project control, photo control,
or local site plan mapping control. GPS surveys are used to support subsequent photogrammetric,
plane table/total station site plan mapping, and construction layout operations.
**********************************************************************************
{Fixed-price contract -- sample title}:
PROJECT CONTROL AND PHOTOGRAMMETRIC MAPPING CONTROL SURVEYS USING
KINEMATIC DIFFERENTIAL NAVSTAR GPS IN SUPPORT OF SITE PLAN MAPPING FOR
PRELIMINARY CONCEPT DESIGN OF FAMILY HOUSING COMPLEX ALPHA, FORT
_______________, ALABAMA.
PROJECT CONTROL REFERENCE SURVEYS USING STATIC DIFFERENTIAL NAVSTAR GPS
POSITIONING FOR BOUNDARY DEMARCATION SURVEYS OF __________________
[PROJECT], ________________, CALIFORNIA.
{Indefinite Delivery Contract -- sample title}:
INDEFINITE DELIVERY CONTRACT FOR GEODETIC CONTROL, TOPOGRAPHIC MAPPING,
AND RELATED SURVEYING SERVICES IN SUPPORT OF VARIOUS *[CIVIL WORKS]
[MILITARY CONSTRUCTION] PROJECTS *[IN] [ASSIGNED TO] THE __________________
DISTRICT.
*********************************************************************************
SECTION B
SERVICES AND PRICES/COSTS
*********************************************************************************
NOTE: The fee schedule for photogrammetric mapping and related survey services should be developed
in conjunction with the preparation of the independent government estimate (IGE) along with the
technical specifications. The unit of measure (U/M) used in a fee schedule for GPS mapping services is
generally established on a daily rate basis (i.e. crew-day). U/Ms based on "per occupied point" or "per
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
C-4
baseline observation" are no longer recommended given the high variability in GPS equipment
production.
The table below contains sample fee schedules that may be tailored for use on most GPS control
surveying or mapping service contracts. The guide writer should select those line items applicable to the
project, or for those projects envisioned over the course of an IDC contract. Other line items may be
added which are unique to the project(s). If applicable, a separate fee schedule for contract option periods
should be developed and negotiated during contract negotiations and included with the contract during
initial award. Unit prices shall include direct and indirect overheads. Profit may or may not be included
on IDC contract unit prices.
Procedures for estimating line item unit prices (U/P) are described in Chapter 12 of this EM.
Determination of these estimated unit prices should conform to the detailed analysis method. The scope
of each scheduled line item used in Section B must be thoroughly defined--either with the line item in
Section B or at its corresponding reference in Section C of the contract. Many of the line item units of
measure are comprised of costs from a variety of sources. These sources are combined in the IGE to
arrive at the scheduled rate. Survey crew day rates normally include labor, travel, transportation,
expendable materials, and numerous other items which are developed as part of the IGE. However, large
items, such as travel, may be separately scheduled.
On IDC contracts, the specification writer should strive to avoid scheduling items, which have little
probability of being required during the contract period. Since each line item must be separately
estimated and negotiated, considerable government (and contractor) resources may be consumed in
developing negotiated unit costs for unused items. Individual line items should not be included on an
IDC contract unless there is a fair degree of assurance that these items will be required on a subsequent
work order.
In addition, the specification writer should attempt to include only those line items that represent a major
cost activity/phase in performing GPS surveying. Cost estimating emphasis and resources should be
placed on major cost items, such as field crew labor. Avoid cluttering the schedule with small and
relatively insignificant (to the overall project cost) supply and material items; again, minimizing the
administrative costs of estimating and negotiating these items. These should be included as part of a
major line item or be contained in the firm's overhead. Examples of normal supply items that the guide
user should avoid scheduling are field survey books or bundles of 2"x2" survey stakes. These items
would, however, be compensated for in the IGE. Care must be taken (in developing these schedules with
the IGE) to preclude against duplication of costs between line items or overheads. Specific personnel and
equipment requirements should be identified and itemized in applicable contract sections. This is
particularly important when breaking out GPS receiver costs. The guide user (and cost estimator) must
have a good working knowledge of GPS field surveying, baseline reduction, and data adjustment
processes to properly allocate time and costs.
The following Section B outline may be tailored for either A-E fixed-price or A-E IDC contracts. For
fixed-price contracts, the estimated quantities are available from the government estimate. For IDC
contracts, a unit quantity for each line item would be negotiated and included in the basic contract. Daily
units of measure (U/M) may be modified to hourly or other nominal units if needed. Lump sum or areal
U/M (e.g., per baseline observation) may be developed for some of the services, although this is not
recommended. The item numbers shown are for reference in this guide only -- they would be renumbered
in the final contract. A sample of a completed "Schedule B" is shown in Chapter 12.
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
C-5
SERVICES AND PRICES/COSTS
*********************************************************************************
ITEM DESCRIPTION QUAN U/M U/P AMOUNT
0001 Registered/Licensed Land Surveyor-Office [1] Day
0002 Registered/Licensed Land Surveyor-Field [1] Day
0003 Civil Engineering Technician -- Field Party
Supervisor (Multiple Crews) [1] Day
0004 Engineering Technician (Draftsman)-Office [1] Day
0005 Supervisory Survey Technician (Field) [1] Day
0006 Surveying Technician --
GPS Instrumentman/Recorder [1] Day
0007 Surveying Aid -- Rodman/Chainman
{Conventional surveys} [1] Day
0008 [Two][Three][Four][___]- Man [Static] [Kinematic]
GPS Survey Party
[___] GPS Receiver(s)
[___] Vehicle(s)
[___] Computer(s)
{Detail specific personnel/equipment requirements in
applicable contract sections [1] CrewDay
0009 Additional GPS Receiver
{Add Item 0006 observers as necessary} [1] Day
0010 {Travel/Per Diem -- add line item if not
included in above items} [1] Day
0011 Survey Technical (Office Computer) [1] Day
0012
0013
SECTION C
STATEMENT OF WORK
C.1 GENERAL. THE CONTRACTOR, OPERATING AS AN INDEPENDENT CONTRACTOR AND
NOT AN AGENT OF THE GOVERNMENT, SHALL PROVIDE ALL LABOR, MATERIAL, AND
EQUIPMENT NECESSARY TO PERFORM THE PROFESSIONAL SURVEYING *[AND MAPPING
WORK] *[FROM TIME TO TIME] DURING THE PERIOD OF SERVICE AS STATED IN SECTION
D, IN CONNECTION WITH PERFORMANCE OF *[_______________] SURVEYS *[AND THE
PREPARATION OF SUCH MAPS] AS MAY BE REQUIRED FOR *[ADVANCE PLANNING,]
[DESIGN,] [AND CONSTRUCTION] [or other function] [ON VARIOUS PROJECTS] *[specify
project(s)] . THE CONTRACTOR SHALL FURNISH THE REQUIRED PERSONNEL, EQUIPMENT,
INSTRUMENTS, AND TRANSPORTATION, AS NECESSARY TO ACCOMPLISH THE REQUIRED
SERVICES AND FURNISH TO THE GOVERNMENT REPORTS AND OTHER DATA TOGETHER
WITH SUPPORTING MATERIAL DEVELOPED DURING THE FIELD DATA ACQUISITION
PROCESS. DURING THE PROSECUTION OF THE WORK, THE CONTRACTOR SHALL
PROVIDE ADEQUATE PROFESSIONAL SUPERVISION AND QUALITY CONTROL TO ASSURE
THE ACCURACY, QUALITY, COMPLETENESS, AND PROGRESS OF THE WORK.
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
C-6
*********************************************************************************
NOTE: The above clause is intended for use on an IDC contract for survey services. It is not exclusive to
GPS-performed surveys. It may be used for Fixed-price service contract by deleting appropriate IDC
language and adding the specific project survey required. This clause is not repeated on individual task
orders.
*********************************************************************************
C.2 LOCATION OF WORK.
*********************************************************************************
NOTE: Use the following clause for a fixed-scope contract or individual work order.
*********************************************************************************
C.2.1. *[STATIC] [KINEMATIC] SURVEYS USING NAVSTAR GPS EQUIPMENT WILL
BE PERFORMED AT [...] *[list project area or areas required]. *[A MAP DETAILING THE WORK
SITE IS ATTACHED AT SECTION G OF THIS CONTRACT.]
*********************************************************************************
NOTE: Use the following when specifying an indefinite delivery contract for surveying and mapping
services.
*********************************************************************************
C.2.2. SURVEYING SERVICES WILL BE PERFORMED IN CONNECTION WITH
PROJECTS *[LOCATED IN] [ASSIGNED TO] THE [_______________] DISTRICT. *[THE
_________________ DISTRICT INCLUDES THE GEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS WITHIN *[AND
COASTAL WATERS] [AND RIVER SYSTEMS] ADJACENT TO:]
*________________________________
{list states, regions, etc.}
*********************************************************************************
NOTE: Note also any local points-of-contact, right-of-entry requirements, clearing restrictions,
installation security requirements, etc.
*********************************************************************************
C.3 TECHNICAL CRITERIA AND STANDARDS.
REFERENCE STANDARDS:
C.3.1. US ARMY CORPS OF ENGINEERS EM 1110-1-1003, NAVSTAR GPS SURVEYING.
THIS REFERENCE IS ATTACHED TO AND MADE PART OF THIS CONTRACT. (SEE
CONTRACT SECTION G).
C.3.2. US ARMY CORPS OF ENGINEERS ENGINEER MANUAL EM 1110-1-1002,
SURVEY MARKERS AND MONUMENTATION. *[THIS REFERENCE IS ATTACHED TO AND
MADE PART OF THIS CONTRACT. (SEE CONTRACT SECTION G).]
C.3.4. *[List other applicable USACE reference manuals and standards].
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
C-7
*********************************************************************************
NOTE: Reference may also be made to other applicable Engineering Manuals or standard criteria
documents. Such documents need not be attached to the Contract; if attached, however, reference should
be made to their placement in contract Section G.
*********************************************************************************
C.4 WORK TO BE PERFORMED. PROFESSIONAL NAVSTAR GPS SURVEYING AND
MAPPING SERVICES TO BE PERFORMED UNDER THIS CONTRACT ARE LISTED BELOW.
UNLESS OTHERWISE INDICATED IN THIS CONTRACT *[OR IN TASK ORDERS THERETO],
EACH REQUIRED SERVICE SHALL INCLUDE FIELD-TO-FINISH EFFORT.
*********************************************************************************
NOTE: The following clauses under this paragraph may be used for either Fixed-price service contracts,
IDC work orders under an IDC contract, or IDC contracts where GPS control services are part of a
schedule of various survey disciplines. Clearly identify the functional requirements of any GPS surveys,
including recommended static or kinematic procedures.
Fixed-scope contracts: Detail specific GPS surveying and mapping technical work requirements
and performance criteria, which are necessary to accomplish the work.
IDC contracts and work orders: Since specific project scopes are indefinite at the time a basic
contract is prepared, only general technical criteria and standards can be outlined. Project or site-specific
criteria will be contained in each task order, along with any deviations from technical standards identified
in the basic IDC contract. The clauses contained herein are used to develop the general requirements for
a basic IDC contract. Subsequent task orders will reference these clauses; adding project-specific work
requirements as required. Task order formats should follow the outline established for the basic IDC
contract.
******************************************************************************
C.4.1. GENERAL REQUIREMENTS (GPS SURVEYS). BASIC PROJECT CONTROL
SURVEYS WILL BE PERFORMED USING PRECISE DIFFERENTIAL CARRIER-PHASE
TRACKING NAVSTAR GPS MEASUREMENT PROCEDURES. DIFFERENTIAL GPS BASELINE
VECTOR OBSERVATIONS WILL BE MADE IN STRICT ACCORDANCE WITH THE CRITERIA
CONTAINED IN EM 1110-1-1003, EXCEPT AS MODIFIED OR AMPLIFIED HEREIN. THE GPS
MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUE TO BE EMPLOYED IN MEASURING RELATIVE BASELINE
VECTORS FOR *[PROJECT CONTROL] [PHOTO CONTROL] [TOPOGRAPHIC SITE PLAN
MAPPING] IS *[STATIC] [STOP-AND-GO] [RAPID STATIC] [RTK] [PSEUDO-KINEMATIC],
*[OR COMBINATIONS THEREOF]. *[CONVENTIONAL SURVEY METHODS WILL BE USED
TO DENSIFY SUPPLEMENTAL POINTS RELATIVE TO ESTABLISHED GPS STATIONS.]
*[SPECIFIC GPS BASELINES TO BE OCCUPIED AND OBSERVED IN THE DIFFERENTIAL
MODE ARE INDICATED IN THESE SPECIFICATIONS.]
C.4.2. HORIZONTAL ACCURACY REQUIREMENTS. NEW *[PRIMARY] STATIONS
SHALL BE ESTABLISHED TO A *[___________]-ORDER, *[CLASS *[___]] RELATIVE
ACCURACY CLASSIFICATION, OR *[___ PART IN ______]. *[SUPPLEMENTAL
TOPOGRAPHIC/PHOTOGRAMMETRIC MAPPING POINTS SHALL BE ESTABLISHED TO A
*[___________]-ORDER, *[CLASS *[___]] RELATIVE ACCURACY CLASSIFICATION, OR *[___
PART IN ______].] *[GPS HORIZONTAL ACCURACY REQUIREMENTS SPECIFIED FOR
NEWLY POSITIONED STATIONS SHALL BE BASED ON A FREE (UNCONSTRAINED)
ADJUSTMENT OF OBSERVATIONS AND SHALL MEET THE RELATIVE ACCURACY AND/OR
LOOP MISCLOSURE CRITERIA INDICATED IN EM 1110-1-1003.]
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
C-8
*********************************************************************************
NOTE: Note that accuracy classifications, and related contract quality control and acceptance, are based
on a free adjustment of the work -- not a constrained adjustment to fixed/existing control that often is of
less accuracy than the new GPS work. GPS derived topographic mapping control need only meet general
positional mapping requirements based on the site plan scale -- refer to ASPRS horizontal and vertical
accuracy standards.
*********************************************************************************
C.4.3. * VERTICAL ACCURACY REQUIREMENTS. GPS-DERIVED ELEVATIONS
SHALL HAVE STANDARD ERRORS NOT EXCEEDING *[____] OR SHALL BE
COMMENSURATE WITH THE CONTOUR INTERVAL OF THE FINAL TOPOGRAPHIC MAP
BEING PRODUCED. ALL ELEVATION MEASUREMENTS DERIVED FROM GPS
OBSERVATIONS SHALL BE PERFORMED IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE STANDARDS AND
SPECIFICATIONS IN EM 1110-1-1003, AND SUPPLEMENTAL REFERENCES THEREOF.
*********************************************************************************
NOTE: When GPS techniques are used to establish vertical elevations for photo or topo mapping
projects, the required vertical accuracy must be specified. Extreme caution must be employed in
specifying the use of GPS in densifying vertical control -- its application for engineering and construction
work requires extensive redundancy.
*********************************************************************************
C.4.4. PROCEDURAL OBSERVATION REQUIREMENTS. NETWORK DESIGN,
STATION AND BASELINE OCCUPATION REQUIREMENTS FOR STATIC AND KINEMATIC
SURVEYS, SATELLITE OBSERVING TIME PER BASELINE, BASELINE REDUNDANCIES, AND
CONNECTION REQUIREMENTS TO EXISTING NETWORKS, SHALL FOLLOW THE CRITERIA
GIVEN IN EM 1110-1-1003, EXCEPT AS MODIFIED IN THESE SPECIFICATIONS.
*********************************************************************************
NOTE: At this point, indicate any exceptions, modifications, and/or deviations from EM 1110-1-1003.
The specification writer may optionally elect to have the contractor design his observing procedures in
accordance with general EM 1110-1-1003 criteria. Alternatively, specific baselines or stations requiring
occupation may be specified. Use of either option depends on the GPS and geodetic survey
experience/expertise of the specification writer. The preferred method is to allow the maximum
flexibility be given to the contractor to determine the most optimum network design (interconnections,
traverses, loops, spurs, etc.). In specifying baselines/points that have been monumented, contingencies
should be allowed for resetting marks and/or eccentric observations due to obscured satellite visibility.
Maximum use of more efficient kinematic control densification methods (as opposed to static methods)
should be specified.
*********************************************************************************
C.4.5. * SPECIFIC BASELINES TO BE MEASURED.
******************************************************************************
NOTE: Use the above clause only if the government specification writer is designing the network.
******************************************************************************
*(1) THE FOLLOWING BASELINES SHALL BE OBSERVED ON THIS PROJECT: [...]
*[list specific station-station baselines and any requirements for redundant observations]
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
C-9
*(2) THESE BASELINES ARE INDICATED BY [...] *[specify line symbol] ON THE
ATTACHED MAP IN SECTION G.
C.4.6. NEW STATIONS TO BE *[MONUMENTED AND] OCCUPIED.
(1) THE FOLLOWING *[...] *[indicate number of] STATIONS ARE TO BE OCCUPIED
AND POSITIONED USING GPS SURVEY TECHNIQUES: *[list/tabulate new stations name and/or
area designation, accuracy requirements (order/class), redundant occupations, etc.]
(2) THE NEW STATIONS *[GENERAL LOCATIONS] ARE INDICATED WITH A *[...]
*[indicate map symbol used] ON THE ATTACHED MAP. *[ACTUAL STATION LOCATION
WITHIN THE GENERALLY DEFINED AREA SHALL BE SELECTED BY THE CONTRACTOR
AND SHALL BE LOCATED SUCH THAT ADEQUATE SATELLITE VISIBILITY IS AFFORDED.]
C.4.7. EXISTING NETWORK CONTROL STATIONS TO BE OCCUPIED AND
CONNECTED.
(1) A TOTAL OF *[...] *[specify number of] EXISTING HORIZONTAL CONTROL
STATIONS WILL BE USED TO REFERENCE HORIZONTAL GPS OBSERVATIONS ON THIS
SURVEY. A LISTING OF THESE FIXED POINTS *[IS SHOWN BELOW] [IS SHOWN IN
ATTACHMENT G.*]. FIXED COORDINATES ARE *[NAD 27] [NAD 83] [WGS 84 GEOCENTRIC]
[...].
*********************************************************************************
NOTE: List each existing control station(s) or, alternately, refer to a map or tabulation attachment in
contract Section G.
*********************************************************************************
(2) A TOTAL OF *[...] [specify number] VERTICAL CONTROL STATIONS
(BENCHMARKS) WILL BE OCCUPIED AND USED TO CONTROL AND/OR PROVIDE
VERTICAL ORIENTATION REFERENCE TO GPS VERTICAL COMPONENTS. A LISTING OF
THESE FIXED BENCHMARKS *[IS SHOWN BELOW] [IS SHOWN IN ATTACHMENT G.*].
ELEVATIONS FOR ALL FIXED BENCHMARKS ARE BASED ON *[NGVD 29] [NAVD 88] [IGLD-
55] [...] DATUM. GEOID SEPARATION IS *[...] [ASSUMED TO BE ZERO].
*********************************************************************************
NOTE: list or reference attachment for existing benchmarks.
*********************************************************************************
(3) REQUIRED GPS BASELINE CONNECTIONS TO EXISTING CONTROL IS SHOWN
ON ATTACHMENT G.* IN SECTION G. THESE FIXED POINTS WILL BE USED IN
PERFORMING A FINAL CONSTRAINED ADJUSTMENT OF ALL NEW WORK. HORIZONTAL
POINTS ARE INDICATED BY A [...], VERTICAL POINTS BY A [...], COMBINED POINTS BY A
[...], AND GPS BASELINES BY A [...].
*********************************************************************************
NOTE: Use the above clause when existing control points to be connected are specified in the contract.
*********************************************************************************
(4) ALL HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL MONUMENTS ARE KNOWN TO BE IN-PLACE
AS OF *[date]. DESCRIPTIONS FOR EACH POINT *[WILL BE PROVIDED PRIOR TO
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
C-10
CONTRACT AWARD] *[ARE ATTACHED AT CONTRACT SECTION G]. THE SOURCE
AGENCY, AND ESTIMATED ACCURACY, OF EACH POINT IS INDICATED ON THE
DESCRIPTION. *[A GPS OBSTRUCTION SKETCH IS SHOWN ON (HAS BEEN ADDED TO) THE
DESCRIPTIONS.] *[IF SATELLITE VISIBILITY IS OBSCURED AT AN EXISTING STATION,
THEN A NEW MARK SHALL BE SET AT THE RATE FOR ITEM [____] IN SECTION B.] *[THE
CONTRACTOR'S FIELD REPRESENTATIVE SHALL IMMEDIATELY NOTIFY THE
GOVERNMENT'S CONTRACTING OFFICER REPRESENTATIVE IF EXISTING CONTROL
POINTS HAVE BEEN DISTURBED AND/OR SATELLITE VISIBILITIES ARE NOT AS
INDICATED IN THE FURNISHED DESCRIPTIONS.]
*********************************************************************************
NOTE: Use the following clause(s) only when network design and observation schedule/sequence will be
determined by the contractor.
*********************************************************************************
(5) * UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED IN THESE INSTRUCTIONS, AT LEAST *[ONE]
[TWO] [THREE] [____] EXISTING (PUBLISHED) CONTROL STATIONS MUST BE OCCUPIED IN
THE NETWORK. CONNECTION METHODS AND REDUNDANCY ARE AT THE
CONTRACTOR'S OPTION. PRIOR TO USING ANY CONTROL POINTS, THE MONUMENTS
SHALL BE CHECKED TO ENSURE THAT THEY HAVE NOT BEEN MOVED OR DISTURBED.
C.4.8. NEW STATION MONUMENTATION, MARKING, AND OTHER CONTROL
REQUIREMENTS.
(1) ALL STATIONS SHALL BE MONUMENTED IN ACCORDANCE WITH EM 1110-1-
1002, SURVEY MARKERS AND MONUMENTATION. MONUMENTATION FOR THIS PROJECT
SHALL BE TYPE *[...] FOR HORIZONTAL AND TYPE *[...] FOR VERTICAL; PER EM 1110-1-
1002 CRITERIA. *[MONUMENTATION SHALL BE DEFINED TO INCLUDE THE REQUIRED
REFERENCE MARKS AND AZIMUTH MARKS REQUIRED BY EM 1110-1-1002.]. *[ALL
MONUMENTS FOR NEW STATIONS ARE CURRENTLY IN PLACE AND DESCRIPTIONS ARE
ATTACHED AT SECTION G.] *[IF SATELLITE VISIBILITY SHOWN ON THE DESCRIPTIONS IS
OBSCURED AT AN EXISTING STATION, THEN A NEW MARK SHALL BE SET AT THE RATE
FOR ITEM *[____] IN SECTION B.]
*********************************************************************************
NOTE: Deviations from EM 1110-1-1002 should be indicated as required. USACE project control rarely
requires supplemental reference/azimuth marks -- the optional specification clauses below should be
tailored accordingly.
*********************************************************************************
*(2) At each station, angle and distance measurements shall be made between a network station
and reference marks and azimuth marks set that were established in accordance with the requirements set
forth in EM 1110-1-1002. All observations shall be recorded in a standard field book.
*(a) For reference marks, two (2) directional positions are required (reject limit 10 " arc) and
with steel taping performed to the nearest 0.01 foot.
*(b) Four directional positions are required to azimuth marks. The reject limit for a one-second
theodolite is +5 seconds. Azimuth mark landmarks shall be easily defined/described natural features or
structures that are of sufficient distance to maintain a *[ ___]-second angular accuracy. *[______-order
astronomic azimuths shall be observed to azimuth marks.]
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
C-11
*(c) A compass reading shall be taken at each station to reference monuments and azimuth
marks.
C.4.9. STATION DESCRIPTION AND RECOVERY REQUIREMENTS.
(1) STATION DESCRIPTIONS AND/OR RECOVERY NOTES SHALL BE WRITTEN IN
ACCORDANCE WITH THE INSTRUCTIONS CONTAINED IN EM 1110-1-1002. [FORM *[______]
SHALL BE USED FOR THESE DESCRIPTIONS.] DESCRIPTIONS SHALL BE *[WRITTEN]
[TYPED].
(2) DESCRIPTIONS *[ARE] [ARE NOT] REQUIRED FOR *[EXISTING] [AND/OR NEWLY
ESTABLISHED] STATIONS.
(3) RECOVERY NOTES *[ARE] [ARE NOT] REQUIRED FOR EXISTING STATIONS.
C.4.10. MINIMUM OCCUPATION TIMES FOR OCCUPIED BASELINES. BASELINES
SHALL BE OCCUPIED FOR A PERIOD OF TIME THAT IS CONSISTENT WITH THE SPECIFIED
ACCURACY REQUIREMENT FOR THE PROJECT AND/OR PARTICULAR NEW STATION/LINE.
RECOMMENDED MINIMUM OCCUPATION TIMES ARE CONTAINED IN EM 1110-1-1003.
UNLESS OTHERWISE STATED IN THESE SPECIFICATIONS, THE CRITERIA SHOWN IN THIS
MANUAL SHALL BE FOLLOWED FOR EACH PROJECT AND/OR OBSERVED BASELINE.
MINIMUM OCCUPATION TIMES FOR KINEMATIC GPS SURVEY OBSERVATIONS SHALL BE
CONSISTENT WITH MANUFACTURER RECOMMENDATIONS AND REQUIRED ACCURACIES
OF TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES.
C.4.11. TYPE AND NUMBER OF GPS RECEIVER UNITS TO BE DEPLOYED.
(1) THE CONTRACTING OFFICER RESERVES THE RIGHT TO REQUEST PUBLISHED
DOCUMENTATION ON THE ACCURACY/QUALITY OF THE HARDWARE/SOFTWARE USED
FOR THIS PROJECT. ALL GPS RECEIVERS AND POST-PROCESSING SOFTWARE USED
UNDER THIS *[CONTRACT] [ASSIGNMENT] SHALL BE SUBJECT TO REVIEW BY THE
CONTRACTING OFFICER. SYSTEM COMPONENTS SUBJECT TO REVIEW SHALL INCLUDE:
(A) RECEIVERS
(B) ANTENNAS
(C) POWER SOURCE
(D) DATA RECORDING UNITS AND STORAGE MEDIA
(E) REAL-TIME OR POST-PROCESSING HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE
(2) A MINIMUM OF [...] GPS FIELD RECEIVER UNITS SHALL BE CONTINUOUSLY
AND SIMULTANEOUSLY DEPLOYED DURING THIS *[TASK ORDER] [PROJECT].
*********************************************************************************
NOTE: Add any applicable variations due to project specific requirements.
*********************************************************************************
C.4.12. FIELD GPS OBSERVATION RECORDING PROCEDURES.
(1) FIELD LOG *[SHEETS] [FORMS] [NOTES] SHALL BE COMPLETED FOR EACH
STATION OF EACH SESSION AND SUBMITTED TO THE GOVERNMENT. MINIMUM DATA
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
C-12
FOR STATIC AND KINEMATIC OBSERVATIONS TO BE INCLUDED ON THESE FIELD LOG
RECORDS ARE DESCRIBED IN EM 1110-1-1003.
(2) RAW SATELLITE TRACKING DATA, BASELINE REDUCTION DATA, AND
ADJUSTMENT SOLUTIONS SHALL BE RECORDED AND SUBMITTED TO THE GOVERNMENT
ON *[___-INCH FLOPPY DISKS] [A PRE-APPROVED MEDIUM].
(3) IT SHALL BE THE RESPONSIBILITY OF THE CONTRACTOR TO ASSURE THAT
AMPLE OBSERVATIONS ARE CONDUCTED SO THAT ALL POINTS ARE INTERCONNECTED
IN A COMPLETE INTERCONNECTING NETWORK OR GPS TRAVERSE SURVEY; AND/OR IN
ACCORDANCE WITH THE REQUIRED BASELINE MEASUREMENTS SPECIFIED HEREIN.
*[ADEQUATE FIELD COMPUTATIONAL CAPABILITY SHALL EXIST IN ORDER TO VERIFY
MISCLOSURES PRIOR TO SITE DEPARTURE.]
C.4.13. BASELINE DATA REDUCTION REQUIREMENTS (CONTROL SURVEYS).
(1) SOFTWARE FOR POST-PROCESSING OF SATELLITE TRACKING DATA SHALL BE
SUBJECT TO APPROVAL BY THE CONTRACTING OFFICER. ALL SOFTWARE MUST BE
ABLE TO PRODUCE FROM THE RAW DATA RELATIVE POSITION COORDINATES *[AND
CORRESPONDING VARIANCE-COVARIANCE STATISTICS WHICH IN TURN CAN BE USED
AS INPUT TO THREE-DIMENSIONAL NETWORK ADJUSTMENT PROGRAMS.]
*********************************************************************************
NOTE: Baseline output statistics are generally only specified when rigorous least-squares adjustments
are required; and then only if the specified adjustment software utilizes such statistics. This is not
applicable to topographic surveying uses of GPS.
*********************************************************************************
(2) BASELINE PROCESSING SHALL BE COMPLETED FOR ALL BASELINES AND
SELECTED FOR USE IN THE FINAL NETWORK ADJUSTMENT BASED ON AN ANALYSIS OF
THE STATISTICAL DATA AND RELATIVE SPATIAL RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN POINTS.
TEST CONSTANTS GIVEN FOR A PARTICULAR SOFTWARE SYSTEM SHALL BE COMPARED
TO THE PROCESSED RESULTS AND ANY SUSPECT BASELINE THAT DOES NOT MEET THE
CRITERIA SHALL BE REOBSERVED OR NOT INCLUDED IN THE FINAL ADJUSTMENT.
BASELINE ACCEPTANCE AND REJECTION CRITERIA ARE CONTAINED IN EM 1110-1-1003.
C.4.14. FINAL ADJUSTMENT REQUIREMENTS (CONTROL SURVEYS). GPS SURVEY
TRAVERSE LOOPS AND NETWORKS SHALL BE ADJUSTED AND EVALUATED IN
ACCORDANCE WITH THE PROCEDURES AND CRITERIA OUTLINED IN EM 1110-1-1003.
FINAL VECTOR MISCLOSURES MAY BE PROPORTIONATELY DISTRIBUTED AMONGST THE
OBSERVED VECTORS USING EITHER APPROXIMATE OR LEAST-SQUARES ADJUSTMENT
TECHNIQUES DESCRIBED IN EM 1110-1-1003.
(1) ADJUSTMENTS ARE NORMALLY PERFORMED USING X-Y-Z GEOCENTRIC
COORDINATES RELATIVE TO THE WGS 84 SPHEROID. TRANSFORMED FINAL ADJUSTED
HORIZONTAL DATA SHALL BE EXPRESSED IN *[SPCS] [UTM] [GEOGRAPHIC]
[GEOCENTRIC] [OTHER] COORDINATES, AND SHALL BE REFERENCED TO *[NAD 27] [NAD
83] [PROJECT] DATUM. FINAL COORDINATES SHALL BE TABULATED IN *[METERS]
[FEET] [other] TO ONLY *[___] DECIMAL POINTS OF PRECISION. *[FINAL ADJUSTED
VERTICAL DATA FOR TOPOGRAPHIC MAPPING APPLICATIONS SHALL BE SHOWN AS
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
C-13
ORTHOMETRIC HEIGHTS ON *[NGVD 29] [NAVD 88] [other] VERTICAL DATUM. GPS-
DERIVED ELEVATIONS SHALL BE ROUNDED TO THE NEAREST *[METER] [FOOT].]
* (2) FOR PROJECT CONTROL SURVEYS AN ADJUSTMENT ANALYSIS SHALL
INCLUDE THE FOLLOWING:
* (a) GPS TRAVERSE LOOPS SHALL BE ANALYZED RELATIVE TO THE INTERNAL
CLOSURE CRITERIA GIVEN IN EM 1110-1-1003. INTERNAL ACCEPTABILITY OF THE WORK
WILL BE BASED ON THE MAGNITUDE OF THE THREE-DIMENSIONAL VECTOR
MISCLOSURES RELATIVE TO THE LOOP LENGTH. SUCH LOOP CLOSURE ANALYSIS WILL
BE CONSIDERED THE INTERNAL, MINIMALLY-CONSTRAINED, FREE ADJUSTMENT.
LOOPS/LINES WITH INTERNAL MISCLOSURE RATIOS IN EXCESS OF THOSE SPECIFIED IN
THIS CONTRACT SHALL BE REOBSERVED. MISCLOSURES BETWEEN EXTERNAL FIXED
CONTROL MAY BE DISTRIBUTED USING THE APPROXIMATE DISTRIBUTION METHODS
GIVEN IN EM 1110-1-1003. FINAL CONSTRAINED ACCURACY ESTIMATES WILL BE BASED
ON RELATIVE MISCLOSURES AT FIXED POINTS.
(b) * WHEN A FREE (OR MINIMALLY CONSTRAINED) LEAST-SQUARES
ADJUSTMENT IS PERFORMED ON THE BASELINE VECTORS, A CLASSIFICATION BASED ON
THIS INTERNAL ADJUSTMENT SHALL BE DERIVED AND EVALUATED AGAINST THE
MINIMUM ALLOWABLE STANDARDS SHOWN IN EM 1110-1-1003 FOR THE GIVEN
REQUIRED ACCURACY. THIS FREE ADJUSTMENT, ALONG WITH AN ANALYSIS OF THE
BASELINE REDUCTION DATA, WILL BE USED IN EVALUATING THE CONTRACTUAL
ACCEPTABILITY OF THE OBSERVED NETWORK. STATION *[__________] SHALL BE HELD
FIXED FOR THIS UNCONSTRAINED ADJUSTMENT. THE NORMALIZED RESIDUALS SHALL
BE COMPUTED AND ANALYZED RELATIVE TO THE CRITERIA CONTAINED IN EM 1110-1-
1003. THE VARIANCE OF UNIT WEIGHT FOR THE MINIMALLY CONSTRAINED NETWORK
ADJUSTMENT SHALL CONFORM TO THE CRITERIA GIVEN IN EM 1110-1-1003. RELATIVE
LINE ACCURACIES SHALL BE COMPUTED FOR PAIR OF POINTS ON THE NETWORK USING
STATISTICAL DATA CONTAINED IN THE FREE ADJUSTMENT. THESE RELATIVE LINE
ACCURACIES SHALL NOT EXCEED THE REQUIRED ACCURACY CLASSIFICATIONS
PRESCRIBED FOR THE WORK. STATIONS/BASELINES/NETWORK AREAS WITH FREE
ADJUSTMENT RELATIVE ACCURACIES NOT MEETING THE REQUIRED CRITERIA MUST BE
REOBSERVED; IT IS THEREFORE CONTINGENT ON THE CONTRACTOR TO INSURE THAT
MISCLOSURE TOLERANCES ARE CHECKED IN THE FIELD.
(c) * A CONSTRAINED LEAST-SQUARES ADJUSTMENT WILL BE PERFORMED
HOLDING *[FIXED] [PARTIALLY CONSTRAINED] THE COORDINATES OF THE STATIONS
LISTED UNDER THE EXISTING CONTROL CLAUSE IN THIS CONTRACT SECTION. FOR THE
PURPOSE OF THESE SPECIFICATIONS, BOTH FULLY CONSTRAINED AND PARTIALLY
CONSTRAINED POINTS ARE REFERRED TO AS "FIXED" POINTS. THE CONSTRAINED
LEAST-SQUARES ADJUSTMENT SHALL USE MODELS WHICH ACCOUNT FOR: THE
REFERENCE ELLIPSOID FOR THE REFERENCE CONTROL, THE ORIENTATION AND SCALE
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE SATELLITE AND NETWORK CONTROL DATUMS, GEOID-
ELLIPSOID RELATIONSHIPS, AND DISTORTIONS AND/OR RELIABILITY IN THE NETWORK
CONTROL.
*********************************************************************************
NOTE: A variety of free and/or constrained adjustment combinations may be specified. Specific stations
to be held fixed may have been indicated in a prior contract section or the contractor may be instructed to
determine the optimum adjustment, including appropriate weighting for constrained points. When fixed
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
C-14
stations are to be partially constrained, then appropriate statistical information must be provided -- either
variance-covariance matrices or relative positional accuracy estimates which may be converted into
approximate variance-covariance matrices in the constrained adjustment.
*********************************************************************************
[1] *WHEN DIFFERENT COMBINATIONS OF CONSTRAINED ADJUSTMENTS ARE
PERFORMED DUE TO INDICATIONS OF ONE OR MORE FIXED STATIONS CAUSING UNDUE
BIASING OF THE DATA, AN ANALYSIS SHALL BE MADE AS TO A RECOMMENDED
SOLUTION WHICH PROVIDES THE BEST FIT FOR THE NETWORK. ANY FIXED CONTROL
POINTS WHICH SHOULD BE READJUSTED (TO ANOMALIES FROM THE ADJUSTMENT(S))
SHOULD BE CLEARLY INDICATED IN A FINAL ANALYSIS RECOMMENDATION.
[2] *THE FINAL ADJUSTED HORIZONTAL AND/OR VERTICAL COORDINATE
VALUES SHALL BE ASSIGNED AN ACCURACY CLASSIFICATION BASED ON THE LEAST-
SQUARES ADJUSTMENT STATISTICAL RESULTS AND IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE
CRITERIA INDICATED IN EM 1110-1-1003. THIS CLASSIFICATION SHALL INCLUDE BOTH
THE RESULTANT GEODETIC/CARTESIAN COORDINATES AND THE BASELINE
DIFFERENTIAL RESULTS. THE FINAL ADJUSTED COORDINATES SHALL STATE THE 95%
CONFIDENCE REGION OF EACH POINT AND THE 95% RELATIVE LINE ACCURACY IN
PARTS PER MILLION (PPM) BETWEEN ALL POINTS IN THE NETWORK.
(3) *FINAL ADJUSTED COORDINATE LISTINGS SHALL BE PROVIDED ON HARD
COPY *[AND ON *[___] [specify] COMPUTER MEDIA].
(4) * A SCALED PLOT SHALL BE SUBMITTED WITH THE ADJUSTMENT REPORT
SHOWING THE PROPER LOCATIONS AND DESIGNATIONS OF ALL STATIONS
ESTABLISHED.
C.5 SUBMITTAL REQUIREMENTS:
C.5.1. SUBMITTAL SCHEDULE: THE COMPLETED SURVEY REPORT SHALL BE
DELIVERED WITHIN *[___ DAYS AFTER NOTICE TO PROCEED IS ISSUED] *[BY calendar date]
*********************************************************************************
NOTE: Include a more detailed submittal schedule breakdown if applicable to project.
*********************************************************************************
C.5.2. SUBMITTED ITEMS: SUBMITTALS SHALL CONFORM THOSE SPECIFIED IN
EM 1110-1-1003 *[EXCEPT AS MODIFIED HEREIN].
*********************************************************************************
NOTE: Reference should be made to EM 1110-1-1003 for typical GPS survey submittal requirements.
Modify and/or add items as required.
*********************************************************************************
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
C-15
C.5.3. PACKAGING AND MARKING: PACKAGING OF COMPLETED WORK SHALL BE
ACCOMPLISHED SUCH THAT THE MATERIALS WILL BE PROTECTED FROM HANDLING
DAMAGE. EACH PACKAGE SHALL CONTAIN A TRANSMITTAL LETTER OR SHIPPING
FORM, IN DUPLICATE, LISTING THE MATERIALS BEING TRANSMITTED, BEING PROPERLY
NUMBERED, DATED AND SIGNED. SHIPPING LABELS SHALL BE MARKED AS FOLLOWS:
US ARMY ENGINEER DISTRICT, ________________
ATTN: _________________________________
*[include office symbol and name]
CONTRACT NO. __________________________
*[TASK ORDER NO. ___________________]
[STREET/PO BOX] ________________________
*[complete local mailing address]
*HAND CARRIED SUBMISSIONS SHALL BE PACKAGED AND MARKED AS ABOVE, AND
DELIVERED TO THE FOLLOWING OFFICE ADDRESS:
_______________________________________
*[insert office/room number as required]
*********************************************************************************
NOTE: In this section, also reference any automated data submittal requirements for GPS observations, if
applicable.
*********************************************************************************
C.6 PROGRESS SCHEDULES AND WRITTEN REPORTS.
C.6.1. *PRE-WORK CONFERENCE:
*********************************************************************************
NOTE: Detail any requirements for a Prework conference after contract award, including requirements
for preparing written reports for such conferences. Most of the following sections are completed by the
District's Contracting Office.
*********************************************************************************
SECTION D
CONTRACT ADMINISTRATION DATA
SECTION E
SPECIAL CONTRACT REQUIREMENTS
SECTION F
CONTRACT CLAUSES
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
C-16
SECTION G
LIST OF ATTACHMENTS
G.1. US ARMY CORPS OF ENGINEERS EM 1110-1-1003, NAVSTAR GPS SURVEYING. THIS
REFERENCE IS ATTACHED TO AND MADE PART OF THIS CONTRACT.
*********************************************************************************
NOTE: List any other attachments called for in contract section C or in other contract sections. This
includes items such as:
- Marked-up project sketches/drawings.
- Station/Monument descriptions or Recovery Notes.
- Lists of baseline connections to existing network.
- Lists of fixed (existing) stations to be connected with and adjusted to.
*********************************************************************************
SECTION H
REPRESENTATIONS, CERTIFICATIONS AND OTHER
STATEMENTS OF OFFERERS
SECTION I
INSTRUCTIONS, CONDITIONS, AND NOTICES TO OFFERERS
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
D-1
Appendix D
Application: Dredge Material Disposal Area RTK Cross-Sections--

D-1. Sample RTK Survey of Maintenance Dredging Confined Disposal Area

The following RTK topographic surveying example is representative of the procedures used for most
Corps engineering and construction applications. This example depicts a topographic survey of the levee
surrounding the dredge disposal area. These cross-sections were performed on the Quarantine Island
disposal area in the St. Johns River, near Jacksonville, Florida. The disposal area is west of Cuts F and G
on the navigation project where the material was excavated. The dredging measurement and payment
hydrographic surveys in the navigation channel and the RTK surveys in the disposal area placement area
were performed for the Jacksonville District by Arc Surveying & Mapping, Inc.

Figure D-1. Plan of confined disposal area and typical section

Figure D-1 above shows a plan of the entire disposal area, over which cross-sections were obtained using
RTK techniques. The example data in this appendix covers only a few sections taken on the northerly
edge of the disposal area. A typical levee design section at Station 2+00 is shown at the right.

EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
D-2
The sketch below (Figure D-2) depicts the layout for the RTK survey. The base receiver was set over ST
JO 335 and the 14 representative cross-sections shown were observed relative to that point. Elevations
ranged from around 45 feet at the top of the constructed levee down to 15 feet at the toe. Elevations were
referenced and adjusted to NGVD 29. ST JO 336 was used as an elevation and position check point for
the RTK set up. RTK field data collection procedures followed the methods described in Chapter 9 of
this manual.

Figure D-2. Disposal area survey fixed control points and baseline layout

ST JO
335
ST JO 336
L
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e

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fixed control
point (check)
BASE
Receiver
to
p
o
f le
v
e
e
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
D-3
The screen capture below (from Trimble Geomatics Office) shows the 14 selected cross-sections, over
which a total of 145 topo points were observed on the disposal area embankment. A Trimble RTK
system was used to perform the survey and Trimble Geomatics Office software was used to reduce the
data. The reference receiver was located at benchmark ST JO 335 (just off the left of the screen), the
point whose position and elevation were held fixed for the survey. RTK vector observations to each shot
point are shown as rays emanating from ST JO 335. The shot points are numbered from 3001 to 3147, in
sequence. Cross-sections were run in alternate directions up and down the embankment.

Figure D-3. Trimble Geomatics Office plot of observed RTK vectors and topo points

The points shown are from the
data received during the RTK
survey
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
D-4
D-2. Request for Proposal and Scope of Work

The following Request for Proposal, along with the technical scope of work, is an example of a labor-
hour (not-to-exceed) task order designed to provide surveying support for a long-term construction
project. This task order provides for periodic pre-, during-, and post-construction surveys; including
GPS-controlled hydrographic surveys of the channel excavation and GPS/RTK-controlled profile surveys
of the placement area. The task order additionally requires the contractor to compute payment volumes
for the excavated and placed material.

Design Branch

Mr. John Sawyer
ARC Surveying and Mapping
5202 San Juan Ave
Jacksonville, Florida 32210


Dear Mr. Sawyer:

Reference contract number DACW17-01-D-0002 for Surveying and Mapping Services. The Government
desires to execute a delivery order under subject contract for the following project:

Jacksonville Harbor Construction Dredging Phase I DACW17-01-C-0023
38 Foot Project Cut-F Through Cut-G Construction Survey
Jacksonville, Florida (Survey 01-245)

Please review the enclosed scope of work outlining the Technical Requirements and submit an itemized fee
proposal for this work within 10 working days of receipt of this document. Please furnish this fee proposal to the
attention of the Chief, Design Branch.

This request does not constitute a notice to proceed for the delivery order. Please do not commence work
or incur any costs chargeable to the Government. You are cautioned that preparation of this fee proposal is
entirely at your own risk and the Government can assume no obligation for payment of any related expenses
incurred by your firm.

Mr. Jerry Burchfield of Survey Section is the point of contact. Please call him at 904-232-1613 if you have
questions or need additional information.

Sincerely,

Edward E. Middleton, PhD., P.E.
Chief, Engineering Division

EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
D-5

TECHNICAL QUALITY CONTROL REQUIREMENTS
JACKSONVILLE HARBOR CONSTRUCTION DREDGING PHASE I AND PHASE II
DACW17-01-C-0023 38 FOOT PROJECT CUT-F THROUGH CUT-G
DACW17-01-C-0013 40 FOOT PROJECT CUT-3 THROUGH CUT-50
PRE, DURING AND POST CONSTRUCTION SURVEYS
JACKSONVILLE, FLORIDA (SURVEY 01-245)

1. LOCATION OF WORK. The project is located in Duval County at Jacksonville, Florida.

2. SCOPE OF WORK.

2.a. The services to be rendered by the Contractor include obtaining topographic and hydrographic Pre,
During, and Post construction surveys, CADD data, and volumes.

2.b. The services to be rendered by the Contractor include all the work described in these technical
requirements. Details not specifically described in these instructions are nevertheless a firm requirement if they
can be identified as an item, or items, commonly a part of professional grade work of a comparative nature.

2.c. The Contractor shall furnish all necessary materials, labor, supervision, equipment, and transportation
necessary to execute and complete all work required by these specifications.

2.d. COMPLIANCE. Surveying and Mapping shall be in strict compliance with EM-1110-1-1000
Photogrammetric Mapping, EM-1110-1-1002 Survey Markers and Monumentation, EM-1110-1-1003 NAVSTAR
Global Positioning System Surveying, EM-1110-1-1004 Deformation Monitoring and Control Surveying, EM-
1110-2-1003 Hydrographic Surveying, EM-1110-1-2909 Geospatial Data and System, Tri-Services A/E/C CADD
Standards, Tri-Services Spatial Data Standards, Related Spatial Data Products and Chapter 177, Chapter 472,
and Chapter 61G17 of the Minimum Technical Standards set by the Florida Board of Professional Surveyors and
Mappers.

2.d(1) Digital Geospatial Metadata. Metadata are data about data. They describes the content,
identification, data quality, spatial data organization, spatial reference, entity and attribute information,
distribution, metadata reference, and other characteristics of data. Each survey project shall have metadata
submitted with the final data submittal. All metadata submitted must be compliant with the Federal Geographic
Data Committee Standard Content Standard for Digital Geospatial Metadata, FGDC-STD-001-1998. This
standard is available for download from www.fgdc.gov. A graphical, annotated workbook explaining the standard
is available in PDF format at www.fgdc.gov.

2.d(2) Furnish a digital file using Corpsmet95 Metadata Software. Corpsmet95 is available for download
from www.corpsgeo1.usace.army.mil. All sections applicable to this collection effort must be completed. The
point of contact in Survey Section for questions about metadata is Mr. Bill Mihalik at 904-232-1462.

2.e. The digital data shall be submitted on Recordable (CD-R) Compact Disk, media. Compact Disk,
Rewritable (CD-RW) will not be accepted.

2.f. SUBMITTALS AND POINTS OF CONTACT. The points of contact are, Mr. Son Q. Vu at 904-232-1606,
Mr. Dave Robar at 904-232-1458 (Jacksonville District Office), and Mr. Tommy Gaskins at 904-232-2144 (North
Florida Area Office) mobile 904-614-9476. The survey Contractor shall furnish data directly to the North Florida
Area Office within 24 hours after the survey data is collected in the field.

2.f(1) The survey Contractor shall furnish to the South Florida Area Office, letter size (8 1/2 x 11) cross
sections plots by fax or hand carry. The plots for the pre survey shall depict the plans and specification survey,
the design template, and the pre survey. The plots for the after survey shall depict the plans and specification
survey, the design template, the pre survey and after survey.

2.f(2) The survey Contractor shall furnish to the South Florida Area Office standard Corps of Engineers
size plan view plots, utilizing the sheet layout shown in Enclosure 1, Contract Plans. The Contractor shall also
place all cross sections into one or more standard Corps of Engineers size sheet and furnish plots within 48
hours.
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
D-6
TECHNICAL QUALITY CONTROL REQUIREMENTS (Continued)

2.f(3) The Contractor shall perform quantity calculations by the average end area method. The quantities
shall be determined by passing the required grade template along both surveys. The quantities shall be
furnished to the North Florida Area Office (Hard Copy), Mr. Tommy Gaskins and Survey Section Jacksonville
District (DIGITAL COPY).

2.f(4) The survey Contractor shall furnish any and all data requested by the North Florida Area Office, this
includes the COPIES OF THE FIELD BOOKS, HARD COPY MAPS, DIGITAL FILES (X, Y, Z, DGN, OR DTM)
AND VOLUMES. All data (copies or plots) shall be stamp with a disclaimer such as PRELIMINARY OR
ADVANCE COPY, FOR FIELD REVIEW ONLY, SUBJECT TO CORRECTIONS. The digital data shall be
uploaded to the FTP site under the Contractors directory. Survey section shall be furnished only digital data NO
PLOTS.

2.f(5) The survey Contractor shall furnish daily reports, which verifies work effort by line items to EN-DT
(Jacksonville District, Survey Section).

2.f(6) For each submittal all of the following files must be submitted if applicable:
Raw data files
XYZ ASCII files (unsorted)
DGN design files
DTM surface files
ALG alignment files
TML template files
RWL roadway files
Volume/Quantity reports
Readme files that explicitly detail the files submitted (including any special circumstances)
Daily Log of survey activities at the project site (this can be part of the Readme file)

The directory structure should be as follows:
Jax FTP
Company Name
Survey Number
Pre (pre-construction)
YYYYMMDD (date posted)
Intermit (intermittent surveys and check surveys)
YYYYMMDD
Post (post-construction)
YYYYMMDD

2.f(7) The final data shall be submitted on CD-ROM after at the conclusion of the project and under the
direction of the Jacksonville District Survey Section, a final project CD will be compiled and submitted. The CD
will contain all of the partial project data sets posted to the FTP site in addition to a final overall set of files for the
project (single overall DGN, etc.). Notify David Robar at the Jacksonville District Office via email or telephone
when data has been posted.

2.f(8) NOT TO EXCEED. It was emphasized that the amount that is stated in this delivery order is a "NOT
TO EXCEED" amount. The Contractor shall not provide services in excess of 85% of this total amount without
first receiving written authorization from the Contracting Officer. Payments will be made on the fixed unit prices
of the task order for services performed, as reflected by daily work reports submitted with the payment estimates.
Upon completion of all services, if the total amount for services provided is less than the stated amount, the price
of the delivery order will be modified to reflect services actually performed and accepted. To certify the hours
worked and progress, a daily report shall be furnished directly to the Corps of Engineers, Design Branch, from
the field party employed and signed by the Project Office representative. Weekly submittal is acceptable. The
Contractor's work hours and work days may have to be adjusted to coincide with the construction Contractor, at
no additional cost to the Government.

3. FIELD SURVEY EFFORT. Pre, During, and Post Construction beach surveys shall be collected for Contract
DACW17-01-C-0023 as shown in Enclosure 1, Contract Plans And Specifications. Enclosure 2 is the technical
requirements for the surveys. Enclosure 3 is CD with the plans and specification surveys.
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
D-7

3.a. CONTROL. The Horizontal datum shall be NAD 83 and the vertical datum shall be NGVD 1929 with a
MLW datum applied. The MLW datum is shown in Enclosure 1. All control surveys shall be Third Order, Class II
accuracy.

3.a(1) The basic control network shall be accomplished using precise differential carrier-phase Global
Positioning System (GPS) and Differential GPS baseline vector observations.

3.a(2) Network design, station and baseline occupation requirements, for static and kinematic surveys,
satellite observation time per baseline, baseline redundancies, and connection requirements to existing
networks, shall follow the criteria given in the above said engineering manual. The field observation log shall be
completed at each setup in the field.

3.a(3) GPS derived elevation data shall be supplied in reference to the above said datum. Existing
benchmark data and stations shall be used in tandem in a minimally constrained adjustment program to model
the geoid. All supporting data used in vertical adjustment shall be submitted to Survey Section. The GPS plan
shall be submitted and approved by Mr. Robar prior to commencing work.

3.a(4) Existing Corps of Engineers control data shall be utilized for controlling the surveys. No control
monuments shall be utilized that are not included in Enclosure 1. All established or recovered control shall be
fully described and entered in a FIELD BOOK, in accordance with the Technical Requirements of this contract.
All control surveys shall be Third Order, Class II accuracy.

3.a(5) All horizontal and vertical control (double run forward and back) established shall be a closed
traverse or level loop no spur lines, with third order accuracy. All horizontal and vertical control along with
baseline layouts, sketches, and pertinent data shall be entered in field books.

3.a(6) All monuments, survey markers, etc., recovered shall be noted in the FIELD BOOK. Control points
established or recovered with no description or out-of-date (5 Years old) description shall be described with
sketches in the FIELD BOOK for future recovery use.

3.a(7) All original field notes shall be kept in standard pocket size field books and shall become the
property of the Government. The first four pages of the field books shall be reserved for indexing and the binding
outside edge shall be free of all marking.

3.b. TIDE STAFF. Establish an on-site tide staff referenced to mean low water. Maintain a 0.1 frequency
reading log during the water portion of the survey. Tide staff shall be set at the project sites.

3.c. QUANTITY SURVEYS. Topographic and Hydrographic cross sections shall be collected on even 100
foot station intervals for the disposal area and the channels.

3.d. ACOUSTIC MULTIBEAM DATA. Multibeam data shall be collected for final acceptance of the channel
(reference COE Hydrographic Manual).

3.e. NAVAIDS. All Navigations Aids (NAVAIDS) shall be located with coordinate positions (GPS) in or
adjacent project area. Fixed NAVAIDS shall be positioned four to five times and floating NAVAIDS shall be
positioned one time, with wind and tide direction recorded. Note type and condition of NAVAIDS within the
project limits. Waning signs, lights, and any existing regulatory markers, (information signs) within the project
limits shall be positioned four to five times. Locate all NAVAIDS in the entrance channel.

3.f. DGPS. The hydrographic positioning system shall be a Differential Global Positioning System utilizing the
USCG Nav-beacon system as the reference station. The positioning system shall be checked with two control
monuments and recorded along with setup data (input data to the GPS) in the field book. Hydrographic survey
log sheets shall be filled out and submitted along with the field book.

3.g. SOUNDING POLE 6 DISK. Utilize a 6 inch diameter disk attached to the bottom of the sounding pole or
lead line at all times when collecting conventional soundings.

3.h. BREAKLINE. Breaklines shall be located for all natural or man-make features as needed with X, Y, and
Z and identified.
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
D-8

3.i. DATA COLLECTION (RTK or TOTAL STATION). Data collection will be allowed for data points only,
showing all instrument positions, calibration, backsites and closing readings in the field book. Mr. Robar shall be
contacted if you plan to use GPS (RTK) before utilizing. If RTK is utilized Q1 and Q2 files shall be furnished.
Before using RTK, one session shall be performed around the expected survey area. After observation of the
primary control (four monuments; one on each corner of the work area) the geoid model shall be prepared
utilizing the four occupied monuments data. The geoid model shall be furnished to the Corps of Engineers for
review and acceptance. CAUTION, unless the one session is observed with the four monuments before
modeling the geoid, all data will be rejected and returned to the Contractor.

4. DATA PROCESSING. The Contractor shall make the necessary computations to verify the correctness of all
results of the survey. The Contractor shall submit advance copies of the horizontal control so that USACE can
compute the final positions before commencing mapping. Compute and tabulate the horizontal and vertical
positions on all work performed. Review and edit all field data for discrepancies before plotting the final
drawings.

4.a. Furnish X, Y, Z and descriptor ASCII file for profile line and or each cross section line and one X, Y, Z,
and descriptor ASCII file with all data included.

5. CADD. The survey data shall be translated or digital capture into Intergraph IGDS 3D design files according
to the specifications furnished. The survey data shall be provided in Intergraph MicroStation Version 5.0 or
higher, as shown in the letter dated 30 September 1992.

5.a. GLOBAL ORIGIN. The IGDS 3-D design file shall be prepared with a global origin of 0, 0, 2147483.65,
Design file master units: FT., Sub units: 1,000, and positional units: 1. The file name shall be the survey number
prefixed to an "c" i.e., c245.DGN.

5.b. DIGITAL TERRAIN MODEL (DTM) DATA. The Contractor shall develop and deliver a surface model of
the survey area using Intergraph compatible Digital Terrain Modeling software and the model file shall have the
.dtm extension. The digital terrain model shall be developed from the collected data. Breaklines should include
ridges, drainage, road edges, surface water boundaries, and other linear features implying a change in slope.
The surface model shall be of adequate density and quality to produce a one foot contour interval derived from
the original DTM (Digital Terrain Model) file. The contour data shall be incorporated as a reference file into the
final data set. All data used to develop the DTM's shall be delivered in Intergraph 3-D design files.

5.b(1) CONTOURS. The contours shall be developed in the digital terrain model (DTM). The contours
shall be provided in one or more master DGN files, attached as a reference file to all sheet files utilizing the clip
bounds methods. Each contour shall be drawn sharp and clear as a continuous solid line, dashed contours are
not acceptable. Every index contour shall be accentuated as a heavier line than the intermediate and shall be
annotated according to its actual elevation above NGVD 29 MLW. Whenever index contours are closer than
one-quarter (1/4) inch, and the ground slope is uniform, the intermediate shall be omitted. Labeling or numbering
of contours shall be placed on top of the contour line, so that the elevation is readily discernible, do not break
contours. Labeling of intermediate contours may be required in areas of low relief.

5.c. MODEL DGN FILES (SCALE 1:1).

5.c(1) The topographic data points shall be provided in one or more DGN file.

5.c(2) The hydrographic data points shall be provided in one or more DGN file.

5.c(3) The control and baseline data points shall be provided in one or more master DGN file attached as
a reference file to all sheet files utilizing the clip bounds methods.

5.c(4) The contours shall be provided in one or more DGN file attached as a reference file to all sheet files

5.c(5) The breaklines shall be provided in one or more master DGN file attached as a reference file to all
sheet files utilizing the clip bounds methods DO NOT PLOT THE BREAKLINES.
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
D-9
TECHNICAL QUALITY CONTROL REQUIREMENTS (Concluded)

5.d. SECTION VIEWS. The sections shall be extracted and displayed from the digital terrain model (DTM OR
TTN) utilizing INROADS OR INXPRESS. The sections shall be generated or extracted along the same azimuth
as the section was collected in the field. The sections shall be displayed at a 10 to 1 vertical exaggeration. The
planimetric lines (alignment of extraction), alignment, stations, and cross sections shall be displayed in one DGN
file (NO PLOTS) with the district border file attached.

6. SURVEY/QUALITY CONTROL REPORT. The Contractor shall furnish a digital (*.doc) file on the final CD.
The report shall include Right-of-Entry information, Control monuments Designation recovered, destroyed, fixed,
included in control network, tide gauge location and monument used, dates of field survey collection, types of
equipment used, quality control checks, and digital files. Unique circumstances and/or issues related to this
survey, general approach/methodology to this survey. Along with any other data required in accordance with the
law or precedent and for the Corps of Engineers to publish the results of the survey.

7. DELIVERIES. On completion, all data required shall be delivered or mailed to Design Branch, Survey Section
at the address shown in contract, and shall be accompanied by a properly numbered, dated and signed letter or
shipping form, in duplicate, listing the materials being transmitted. All costs of deliveries shall be borne by the
Contractor. Items to be delivered include, but are not limited to the following:

7.a. GPS network plan, (before GPS work commences).

7.b. GPS raw data along with field observation log sheets filled out in field with all information and sketches.

7.c. Computation files with Horizontal and Vertical abstracts.

7.d. Horizontal and Vertical Field Books.

7.e. Furnish X, Y, Z, and descriptor ASCII file for each cross section and one merged with all data collected
for all cross section.

7.f. DTM File.

7.g. DGN files.

7.h. Volumes.

7.i. Furnish a digital file using CORPSMET 95 (Metadata Software) with the appropriate data included.

7.j. Survey Report *.doc file.

EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
D-10

D-3. Trimble Geomatics Office Data Processing

The following three screen captures (Figures D-4 a-c) from the Geomatics Office file editor show the
initial calibration and control parameters set for this RTK project. Fixed positional data for ST JO 335
are also shown, along with mask angle settings, PDOP limits, instrument serial numbers, and antenna
data. The site was calibrated relative to NAD 1983 (WGS 84 ellipsoid), with coordinates transformed to
the Florida SPCS (East Zone). The geoid model used was GEOID 99. The elevation reference datum for
this disposal area is NGVD 29.

Figure D-4a. Trimble Geomatics File Editor (Continued)
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
D-11

Figure D-4b. Trimble Geomatics File Editor (Continued)

EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
D-12

Figure D-4c. Trimble Geomatics File Editor (Concluded)

EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
D-13

Figure D-5 below shows the coordinates for six baseline PI points (1 through 6) along the top of the
embankment.

Figure D-5. Baseline PI coordinates

EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
D-14

The following screen captures are from Trimble Geomatics "Observations" and show the first few topo
observations made relative to the fixed elevation at benchmark ST JO 335. The "Geoid" window (bottom
figure) depicts the (-) 93.296 ft geoid separation input for this area.

Figure D-6. Trimble Geomatics Observations windows

The box shows the observations that were made
during the survey, beginning with point 3001. It
also shows which observations were "used"--
the "from point-to point" and "type" of
observation (RTK).
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
D-15

Figure D-7. GPS and Geoid Weighting Strategies
The box shows the weighting strategies that will be used during adjustment.
The default scalar type gives the same scalar to each of the observations. If
the alternative scalar type is used the scalar number will change for each of
the measurements.
This box is the geoid scalar type--the default scalar is the same for each of
the observations and if the alternative is used the scalar value will change
for each of the observations.
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
D-16

Figure D-8. Listing of first 11 topographic points in file

D-4. Final Coordinates of Points on Cross-Sections

The following Trimble tabulation lists the computed RTK coordinates and elevations for each observed
point, along with information about the reference datums, geoids, grids, etc. Coordinates and elevations
for the check point, ST JO 336, are also indicated. A comparison at the end of the list shows the
differences between two checks on ST JO 336. This check indicated repeatability was well within 0.2 ft
horizontal and 0.1 ft vertical.

First few topo points taken along Station 0+00
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
D-17
Final Listing of Observed Points

Fixed width point coordinate listing

Project name 01245bar
Coordinate Units US survey feet
Distance Units US survey feet
Height Units US survey feet
Date printed 8/20/02 12:37:02 PM
Coordinate System US State Plane 1983 Zone Florida East 0901
Datum NAD 1983 (Conus)
Geoid model GEOID99 (Conus)
Coordinate units: US survey feet
Elevation units: US survey feet

Point listing
Name Northing Easting Elevation Feature Code
STJO 335 2199181.300 481183.200 19.860 ACOE MON
3000 2197914.045 481651.255 20.484 CHK IN ST JO 336
1 2199215.870 481362.030 13.000 0+00
2 2199163.490 481671.370 13.000 PI 3+13.74
3 2199088.920 482074.380 13.000 PI 7+23.59
4 2199040.550 482382.000 13.000 PI 10+34.99
5 2199029.910 482586.390 13.000 PI 12+39.66
6 2199031.950 482826.020 13.000 PI 14+79.30
3001 2199199.999 481360.176 45.156 TOP LEVEE
3002 2199215.964 481362.217 45.329 GND
3003 2199217.868 481362.449 45.060 TOP LEVEE
3004 2199230.752 481364.920 37.762 SLP
3005 2199246.714 481366.810 26.385 SLP
3006 2199260.367 481370.247 17.707 TOE LEVEE
3007 2199265.680 481371.113 17.403 GND
3008 2199277.572 481371.709 17.060 BRK
3009 2199288.411 481374.840 13.421 SLP
3010 2199302.657 481377.100 8.926 BRK
3011 2199307.040 481377.533 8.932 BRK
3012 2199312.396 481378.231 10.353 BRK
3013 2199333.392 481381.984 9.018 GND
3014 2199334.741 481383.238 9.432 BRK
3015 2199338.309 481383.368 6.865BRK SOUTH END OF PIPE PILE
3016 2199384.650 481391.055 7.821GND NORTH SIDE OF PIPE PILE
3017 2199366.127 481488.416 7.624 GND
3018 2199347.730 481485.338 8.001 GND
3019 2199322.648 481482.309 8.471 GND
3020 2199298.067 481477.092 9.085 BRK
3021 2199272.929 481472.688 16.434 BRK
3022 2199255.697 481470.546 17.949 TOE LEVEE
3023 2199244.566 481469.000 24.264 SLP
3024 2199229.231 481465.548 35.291 SLP
3025 2199212.151 481463.286 45.550 TOP LEVEE
3026 2199197.201 481460.477 45.546 TOP LEVEE
3027 2199179.463 481558.052 45.666 TOP LEVEE
3028 2199195.180 481560.957 45.681 TOP LEVEE
3029 2199212.564 481564.767 33.632 SLP
3030 2199226.977 481567.093 23.017 SLP
3031 2199235.011 481567.707 17.555 TOE LEVEE
3032 2199258.442 481572.385 15.941 BRK
3033 2199281.314 481575.366 10.959 GND
3034 2199274.564 481676.546 9.443 TREE LINE
3035 2199264.474 481674.632 9.502 GND
3036 2199248.182 481671.606 10.271 BRK
3037 2199245.983 481671.930 12.527 BRK
LINE 1

PI
Station
0+00

Points
3001
thru
3016
Reference Datum Parameters

Elevations referenced to NGVD 29

EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
D-18
Final Listing of Observed Points (Continued)
3038 2199240.352 481670.583 16.606 BRK
3039 2199239.973 481670.826 16.597 BRK
3040 2199216.180 481666.760 17.168 TOE LEVEE
3041 2199210.533 481664.537 20.202 SLP
3042 2199195.746 481662.326 30.564 SLP
3043 2199180.980 481660.209 41.257 SLP
3044 2199173.701 481659.481 45.693 TOP LEVEE
3045 2199159.847 481656.740 45.862 TOP LEVEE
3046 2199157.651 481669.736 45.861 TOP LEVEE
3047 2199164.029 481671.527 45.971 GND
3048 2199172.385 481673.051 45.648 TOP LEVEE
3049 2199178.972 481673.282 40.667 SLP
3050 2199193.732 481676.922 30.838 SLP
3051 2199208.133 481679.138 20.259 SLP
3052 2199213.831 481680.182 17.037 TOE LEVEE
3053 2199237.524 481684.628 16.738 BRK
3054 2199244.599 481685.769 10.463 BRK
3055 2199271.059 481689.628 9.106 TREE LINE
3056 2199248.677 481775.660 8.129 TREE LINE
3057 2199227.998 481770.512 9.607 BRK
3058 2199220.781 481769.121 15.875 BRK
3059 2199199.758 481765.024 16.842 TOE LEVEE
3060 2199192.327 481763.747 19.992 SLP
3061 2199177.703 481761.018 29.702 SLP
3062 2199163.207 481758.872 39.776 SLP
3063 2199154.511 481757.891 45.578 TOP LEVEE
3064 2199147.475 481755.512 45.729 GND
3065 2199140.021 481755.480 45.570 TOP LEVEE
3066 2199120.937 481852.586 45.105 TOP LEVEE
3067 2199130.060 481854.090 45.132 GND
3068 2199136.808 481856.432 44.989 TOP LEVEE
3069 2199144.995 481857.716 39.716 SLP
3070 2199159.413 481859.993 29.485 SLP
3071 2199174.480 481863.265 20.065 SLP
3072 2199181.776 481865.501 16.948 TOE LEVEE
3073 2199201.096 481868.135 15.688 BRK
3074 2199206.059 481868.126 8.690 BRK
3075 2199231.069 481873.669 7.121 TREE LINE
3076 2199103.740 481950.915 45.295 TREE LINE
3077 2199103.646 481951.690 45.260 TOP LEVEE
3078 2199112.366 481952.925 45.417 GND
3079 2199117.876 481954.391 45.049 TOP LEVEE
3080 2199126.659 481956.372 40.023 SLP
3081 2199141.430 481959.148 29.481 SLP
3082 2199156.118 481960.785 20.228 SLP
3083 2199162.793 481962.528 16.679 TOE LEVEE
3084 2199182.459 481965.633 15.532 BRK
3085 2199188.883 481966.505 8.357 BRK
3086 2199211.685 481971.859 5.488 TREE LINE
3087 2199196.029 482070.755 6.406 TREE LINE
3088 2199173.846 482065.692 7.875 BRK
3089 2199165.071 482065.076 16.162 BRK
3090 2199143.318 482059.769 17.537 TOE LEVEE
3091 2199137.896 482058.831 20.323 SLP
3092 2199123.031 482056.113 29.447 SLP
3093 2199108.614 482053.986 39.740 SLP
3094 2199100.852 482051.997 45.151 TOP LEVEE
3095 2199093.674 482050.679 45.279 GND
3096 2199086.315 482049.134 45.579 TOP LEVEE
3097 2199081.124 482073.545 45.330 TOP LEVEE
3098 2199089.674 482075.034 45.414 GND
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
D-19
Final Listing of Observed Points (Concluded)
3099 2199097.527 482076.386 44.784 TOP LEVEE
3100 2199104.299 482077.444 40.172 SLP
3101 2199118.692 482080.383 29.698 SLP
3102 2199133.761 482083.402 20.255 SLP
3103 2199138.783 482084.389 17.650 TOE LEVEE
3104 2199160.505 482088.277 16.597 BRK
3105 2199168.850 482089.607 8.810 BRK
3106 2199192.889 482092.993 5.844 TREE LINE
3107 2199182.573 482165.848 6.137 TREE LINE
3108 2199156.945 482162.124 8.130 BRK
3109 2199147.118 482161.417 16.249 BRK
3110 2199127.248 482157.412 17.403 TOE LEVEE
3111 2199121.910 482156.701 19.962 SLP
3112 2199106.873 482154.575 29.773 SLP
3113 2199092.500 482151.611 40.207 SLP
3114 2199084.389 482150.513 45.505 TOP LEVEE
3115 2199077.070 482148.916 45.605 GND
3116 2199069.835 482147.937 45.346 TOP LEVEE
3117 2199053.593 482248.233 45.445 TOP LEVEE
3118 2199061.015 482249.129 45.489 GND
3119 2199068.622 482250.452 45.438 TOP LEVEE
3120 2199076.630 482251.368 39.882 SLP
3121 2199091.695 482253.717 29.251 SLP
3122 2199106.298 482256.417 20.293 SLP
3123 2199111.368 482257.035 17.799 TOE LEVEE
3124 2199131.742 482259.561 16.689 BRK
3125 2199142.707 482261.077 7.581 BRK
3126 2199166.334 482264.746 4.956 GND
3127 2199151.877 482364.498 5.293 GND
3128 2199129.007 482360.224 7.096 BRK
3129 2199119.051 482358.557 16.268 BRK
3130 2199097.092 482354.914 17.644 TOE LEVEE
3131 2199090.754 482354.390 19.786 SLP
3132 2199075.847 482352.131 29.372 SLP
3133 2199061.315 482350.750 39.630 SLP
3134 2199053.703 482348.875 45.246 TOP LEVEE
3135 2199046.268 482347.542 45.743 GND
3136 2199037.454 482346.208 45.410 TOP LEVEE
3137 2199032.359 482380.200 45.147 TOP LEVEE
3138 2199041.159 482382.638 45.704 GND
3139 2199048.788 482383.667 45.587 TOP LEVEE
3140 2199055.931 482385.236 40.246 SLP
3141 2199070.519 482387.084 30.297 SLP
3142 2199085.384 482388.779 20.138 SLP
3143 2199090.871 482389.763 17.801 TOE LEVEE
3144 2199113.683 482393.186 16.724 BRK
3145 2199125.318 482394.590 7.227 BRK
3146 2199147.958 482398.202 5.426 GND
3147 2197914.192 481651.189 20.539 CHK IN ST JO 336

ST JO 336 checks: Points 3000 & 3147
dx = +0.147 ft
dy = -0.066 ft
dz = +0.055 ft
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
E-1
Appendix E
Application: Photogrammetric Mapping Control Surveys of Nine Mile Run
(Pittsburgh District)
The following report of a photo control survey was submitted by TERRASURV, a contractor to the
Pittsburgh District. It summarizes GPS observations performed to establish control for a
photogrammetric mapping project.
REPORT OF SURVEY
NINE MILE RUN
PITTSBURGH, PA
INTRODUCTION
TERRASURV was requested to perform a geodetic control survey covering a portion of the Nine Mile
Run watershed in Pittsburgh, Allegheny County, Pennsylvania. The purpose of the survey was to provide
control values (photo identities) for use in photogrammetric mapping of an area around Nine Mile Run
between the Monongahela River to the south and Forbes Avenue to the North.
In addition, three pairs of intervisible monuments were to be established for use in future survey work in
the project area. This phase of the project was observed and adjusted separately from the photo control.
The work was performed as a subcontractor to GRW, Inc. (client) who was contracted by the Pittsburgh
District of the US Army Corps of Engineers (contracting agency).
CONTROL
The contracting agency requested that the horizontal component of the control be referenced to the North
American Datum of 1983, 1986 adjustment (NAD 1983 1986), and that the vertical component of the
control be referenced to the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 (NGVD 1929).
The horizontal control consisted of two National Spatial Reference System (NSRS) stations located along
the Monongahela River. Station 7002 (PID# KX2402) is a City of Pittsburgh City Line disk in a
monument box at the now abandoned Amoco Refinery, on the left bank of the Monongahela River at
river mile 5.75, just west of the mouth of Streets Run and the Glenwood Bridge. Station L/D 2 M 6
(PID# KX2396) is a USACE survey disk on the right bank land wall at Lock and Dam 2, at the lower
lock gates. Both of these stations were part of the USACE Monongahela River GPS network done in
1989. They are first order horizontal and second order class I vertical control.
The vertical control consisted of the two stations used for horizontal control, and station IVY (PID#
KX1251). This is a USACE harbor line monument located along the rail line on the right bank of the
river, approximately 165 m upstream of the upstream edge of the railroad bridge over Nine Mile Run, in
the Duck Hollow section of Pittsburgh. This station has a vertical accuracy of first order class I.
In 1988, a Second-Order level run was made starting at 3041 (PID# KX1478) and 3042 (PID# KX1479),
both of which are first order class II benchmarks. This level line, run with a Wild NA-2 with micrometer
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
E-2
and Inver rods, ran along the perimeter of this project, and ended at IVY. The line closed +0.000 m, and
was computed on the NGVD 1929 datum. Several elevations determined in the 1988 run were used in the
current project. Ties were made at the following stations: 00028I, 00028K, 00028N, and 00028U.
In addition to the requested datums, horizontal positions were also computed on the North American
Datum of 1927 (NAD 1927), utilizing the USACE river control, and on the North American Datum of
1986, 1996 adjustment (NAD 1983 1996), utilizing the Continuously Operating Reference Station
(CORS) PIT1. The elevations were computed on the North American Vertical Datum of 1988
(NAVD 1988) as well.
PHOTO CONTROL STATIONS
The locations of the photo identities were selected by GRW. The following is a list of the photo control
points:
name GPSID description
101 00028A C/L sidewalk @ west end of street
102 00028B NW corner of walk at end
103 00028C NW edge of street @ c/l narrow sidewalk
104 00028D NW corner of drive @ S edge of street
105H1 00028E ECC base of pole
105H2 00028E ECC Post
105H3 00028E ECC Milepost
105V1 00028E ECC C/L tracks opposite signal box
105V2 00028E ECC C/L tracks opposite milepost
106 00028F SW corner of drive
107 00028G SW corner of drive @ N edge of road
108H 00028H ECC base of pole
109 00028I NW corner of pavement
110H 00028J ECC base of lone tree
110V1 00028J ECC C/L road opposite tree
110V2 00028J ECC C/L road X C/L trail
111 00028K center of CB grate on N side of street
112 00028L NW corner of pavement
113H 00028M ECC Base of northernmost goal post
114 00028N edge of pavement at end of stop bar
115 00028O C/L sidewalk X C/L sidewalk
116 00028P NW corner of sidewalk intersection
117 00028Q C/L manhole
118 00028R N edge of sidewalk @ C/L sidewalk
119 00028S NW corner of sidewalk @ N edge of drive
120 00028T NE corner of parking pavement
121 00028U C/L manhole
122 00028V center of CB grate on N side of street
Note that additional identities were selected at several of the stations (105 & 110). At 105, the pole
selected was located on a steep bank, and therefore additional horizontal and vertical identities were
surveyed along the railroad tracks. At 110, additional vertical identities (coordinated) were surveyed.
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
E-3
The short eccentrics at 108 and 113 were done with a compass (corrected for declination) and tape. The
longer offsets at 110 and 105 were done using a Zeiss S10 total station, utilizing distant intersection
stations for orientation.
MONUMENTS
Three monument pairs were established in locations that would be useful for conventional surveying. The
following is a description of these stations:
00028AA: located at the fishing area at the bottom of Old Browns Hill Road, in the Duck Hollow
Section of the City of Pittsburgh, on the right bank of the Monongahela River. It is a disk on a
concrete structure, 15.25 m SW of a triangular metal structure near the SE corner of the parking
area, 0.67 m landward of the river wall. Intervisible with 00028AB. DUCK HOLLOW
00028AB: located on an access bridge to an old water intake station at the former USX
Homestead Works in Homestead, in what is now a new development, behind the Eat N Park
headquarters building (under construction), on the left bank of the Monongahela River. The disk
is 15.81 m N of the NE corner of the building, 0.805 m north (riverward) of the south end of the
access bridge, and 0.545 m E of the E face of the W curb of the bridge. Intervisible with
00028AA. EAT N PARK
00028AC: To reach, take Beechwood Boulevard east from Browns Hill Road to the entrance to
Rosemont (new subdivision). Travel to the end of the cul-de-sac, and walk out to the edge of the
hill, past the air monitor station. The station is a disk in a concrete monument in the cleared area
around the edge of the hill, 10.464 m from three punch marks in a fence corner post at the air
monitor station, and 0.5 m back from the edge. Intervisible with 00028AD. ROSEMONT
00028AD: located in a clearing off of Commercial Street, now reachable only from Whipple
Street in Swissvale due to a road closure. There is a boarded up construction trailer to the SE,
and the station is near the guardrail. The station is a disk in a concrete monument, 7.085 from a
PK in a utility pole, and 10.472 m from a punch mark in the top of a guardrail post. Intervisible
with 00028AC. COMMERCIAL
00028AE: located on a traffic island between Forbes Avenue and Beechwood Boulevard, near the
entrance to Homewood Cemetery. The station is an existing disk cemented in the concrete island,
stamped 226 AZIMUTH MON VALLEY EXP. Intervisible with 00028AF. BEECHWOOD
00028AF: located on the back wall of a catch basin on the north side of Forbes Avenue, near a
small gas utility building. The disk is 0.52 m east of the east edge of the building extended,
5.57 m from the corner, 0.119 m north of the south face of curb on the north side of Forbes, also
2.88 m south of the south face of a stone wall. Intervisible with 00028AE. FORBES
Four of the six stations have additional backsight objects. A steel standpipe (WTVENT) located atop a
hill near the Monongahela Cemetery, straddling the Braddock and Braddock Hills boundary was
intersected from EAT N PARK, DUCK HOLLOW, and ROSEMONT. The point sighted was the small
vent rising from the center of the roof of the tank. A barrel like object (HAZELMICRO) atop a radio
tower just west of Calvary Cemetery in the Glenwood section of the City of Pittsburgh was intersected
from ROSEMONT and DUCK HOLLOW. Both of these intersection stations were previously
coordinated during an electronic traverse along the Monongahela River for sounding control. Station
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
E-4
BEECHWOOD is an existing azimuth mark set in 1988 during mapping of the proposed Monongahela
Valley Expressway. The main station MV226 was tied by angle and distance measurements. All of these
additional measurements were included in the adjustment, as were the EDM and zenith distances between
the stations of each monument pair. [Sketches of these stations are included in Appendix A--withdrawn.]
GPS OBSERVATIONS
The project was observed in two phases. The photo control was done on days 099 and 101 of 2000. The
following is a summary of the station occupations:
Day 099 (three receivers):
Station Filename UTC Start UTC End Duration
00028C 97570990.DAT 12:38:00 13:00:45 23 min
00028B 17690990.DAT 12:44:00 13:00:30 17 min
00028A 99810990.DAT 12:51:00 13:22:15 31 min
00028G 97570991.DAT 13:12:15 13:59:15 47 min
00028D 17690990.DAT 13:13:00 13:22:00 9 min
00028H 17690990.DAT 13:41:00 14:00:00 19 min
00028I 99810991.DAT 13:42:00 14:53:30 72 min
00028V 17690990.DAT 14:19:30 15:30:00 71 min
00028J 97570992.DAT 14:24:30 14:45:15 21 min
00028K 97570993.DAT 15:10:30 15:30:15 20 min
00028R 99810992.DAT 15:13:15 16:08:00 55 min
00028Q 97570994.DAT 15:39:45 16:07:30 28 min
00028S 17690990.DAT 15:47:30 16:46:15 59 min
00028T 97570995.DAT 16:16:45 16:46:15 30 min
00028U 99810993.DAT 16:29:45 17:15:00 45 min
00028O 17690991.DAT 16:58:15 17:14:15 16 min
00028O 17690992.DAT 18:17:30 18:47:00 30 min
00028N 9757099B.DAT 18:20:00 18:47:00 27 min
00028F 99810994.DAT 18:27:00 18:47:15 20 min
00028T 9757099C.DAT 18:55:45 19:32:15 37 min
00028P 17690992.DAT 19:05:00 19:32:15 27 min
00028M 99810995.DAT 19:16:00 20:30:15 74 min
00028H 17690992.DAT 19:41:15 20:30:00 49 min
00028L 9757099D.DAT 19:55:15 20:30:30 35 min
00028F 99810996.DAT 20:51:15 21:28:30 37 min
00028C 17690992.DAT 20:55:15 21:46:00 51 min
00028E 9757099E.DAT 21:11:00 21:28:15 17 min
KX1251 9957099F.DAT 21:36:45 21:46:00 9 min
Day 101 (two receivers):
00028N 97571010.DAT 11:47:00 12:14:30 28 min
KX2396 99811011.DAT 13:43:45 18:30:15 287 min
KX1251 97571011.DAT 14:08:30 14:26:45 18 min
KX2402 97571012.DAT 18:06:45 19:34:30 88 min
00028R 99811010.DAT 18:54:00 19:08:15 14 min
The monument control was done on day 228 using two receivers:
KX1251 99812280.DAT 17:00:00 17:37:30 38 min
00028AA 97572280.DAT 17:00:30 18:31:30 91 min
00028AB 99812281.DAT 17:48:30 18:05:00 17 min
00028AC 99812282.DAT 18:16:30 18:31:00 15 min
00028AD 99812283.DAT 18:50:00 19:52:15 62 min
00028AC 97572281.DAT 18:51:30 19:20:00 29 min
00028AB 97572282.DAT 19:36:00 19:53:45 18 min
00028AC 97572283.DAT 20:06:15 20:35:00 29 min
00028AE 99812284.DAT 20:08:15 21:29:45 82 min
00028AF 97572284.DAT 20:55:30 22:15:30 80 min
00028AD 99812285.DAT 21:51:00 22:17:15 26 min
No equipment or other problems were encountered during the observations.
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
E-5
GPS DATA PROCESSING
The GPS data was downloaded to a PC and processed using the GPSurvey WAVE processor, version
2.35. The single baseline method was used. Most of the baselines in the network independent (i.e. non-
trivial), but several of the trivial baselines from day 099 were included. These lines are not totally non-
trivial, due to differing start and stop times. The broadcast ephemeris was used. The following is a
summary of the baseline processing for the photo control network:
FILENAME FROM TO DATE TIME DUR RATIO VAR RMS LENGTH
00063958 00028A 00028B 04/08/00 12:51 10 14.81 4.25 0.006 625 m
00063962 00028A 00028C 04/08/00 12:51 10 12.00 8.68 0.009 788 m
00063966 00028B 00028C 04/08/00 12:44 17 67.14 6.89 0.008 613 m
00064010 00028C 00028E 04/08/00 21:11 17 9.66 17.56 0.016 611 m
00064014 00028C 00028F 04/08/00 20:55 33 13.75 6.57 0.008 914 m
00064006 00028C KX1251 04/08/00 21:36 9 75.64 2.37 0.005 59 m
00063954 00028D 00028A 04/08/00 13:13 9 10.92 4.34 0.007 867 m
00064018 00028F 00028E 04/08/00 21:11 17 10.08 13.62 0.015 539 m
00063946 00028G 00028A 04/08/00 13:12 10 10.01 4.24 0.006 1319 m
00063950 00028G 00028D 04/08/00 13:13 9 18.94 2.56 0.005 588 m
00063942 00028H 00028G 04/08/00 13:41 18 20.14 16.93 0.017 721 m
00063998 00028H 00028L 04/08/00 19:55 35 3.86 38.11 0.023 975 m
00063886 00028I 00028G 04/08/00 13:42 17 13.30 2.64 0.005 852 m
00063894 00028I 00028H 04/08/00 13:42 18 20.62 18.28 0.017 744 m
00063882 00028I 00028J 04/08/00 14:24 21 22.80 1.96 0.005 610 m
00063890 00028I 00028V 04/08/00 14:19 34 11.85 3.79 0.006 1051 m
00063898 00028J 00028V 04/08/00 14:24 21 10.24 6.23 0.008 819 m
00063910 00028K 00028R 04/08/00 15:13 17 10.86 3.53 0.006 463 m
00063990 00028M 00028H 04/08/00 19:41 49 10.68 23.96 0.018 704 m
00063982 00028M 00028L 04/08/00 19:55 35 3.66 18.00 0.014 562 m
00063994 00028M 00028P 04/08/00 19:16 16 9.06 9.01 0.009 578 m
00063986 00028M 00028T 04/08/00 19:16 16 15.06 2.33 0.006 912 m
00063978 00028N 00028F 04/08/00 18:27 20 12.02 8.98 0.011 555 m
00063970 00028O 00028F 04/08/00 18:27 20 1.71 71.39 0.025 1092 m
00063974 00028O 00028N 04/08/00 18:20 27 1.89 112.63 0.031 537 m
00064046 00028O 00028N 04/10/00 11:49 26 12.28 7.56 0.009 537 m
00064002 00028P 00028T 04/08/00 19:05 27 4.49 6.83 0.009 454 m
00063922 00028Q 00028S 04/08/00 15:47 20 5.08 12.44 0.011 589 m
00063914 00028R 00028Q 04/08/00 15:39 28 11.11 6.65 0.009 893 m
00063918 00028R 00028S 04/08/00 15:47 21 5.84 9.99 0.011 1087 m
00063930 00028S 00028T 04/08/00 16:16 30 4.05 9.48 0.010 460 m
00063926 00028S 00028U 04/08/00 16:29 17 3.41 11.93 0.012 1096 m
00063934 00028T 00028U 04/08/00 16:29 17 11.03 3.22 0.006 671 m
00063938 00028U 00028O 04/08/00 16:58 16 12.41 5.29 0.008 593 m
00063906 00028V 00028K 04/08/00 15:10 20 8.45 6.59 0.009 708 m
00063902 00028V 00028R 04/08/00 15:13 17 11.21 5.10 0.007 1159 m
00064038 KX2396 KX1251 04/10/00 14:08 18 9.14 1.79 0.014 5247 m
00064034 KX2396 KX2402 04/10/00 18:06 24 14.36 1.19 0.011 6692 m
00064042 KX2402 00028R 04/10/00 18:54 14 11.33 2.15 0.016 6177 m
The two baselines denoted above in bold type were rejected.
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
E-6
The data from the CORS station PIT1 was obtained and processed using the data from day 099. The
following summarizes these results:
00063870 pit1 00028A 04/08/00 12:51 31 8.97 5.17 0.027 24515 m
00063846 pit1 00028C 04/08/00 20:55 51 25.94 1.56 0.015 23730 m
00063830 pit1 00028F 04/08/00 20:51 37 13.56 2.48 0.016 22824 m
00063866 pit1 00028G 04/08/00 13:12 47 4.97 5.15 0.024 23316 m
00063850 pit1 00028H 04/08/00 19:41 49 6.99 4.86 0.025 22598 m
00063862 pit1 00028I 04/08/00 13:42 72 4.72 1.19 0.012 22788 m
00063834 pit1 00028L 04/08/00 19:55 35 ******* 21.97 0.049 21633 m
00063838 pit1 00028M 04/08/00 19:16 74 7.70 3.44 0.021 21971 m
00063858 pit1 00028R 04/08/00 15:13 55 29.63 0.99 0.010 20781 m
00063874 pit1 00028S 04/08/00 15:47 59 1.74 8.12 0.031 20915 m
00063842 pit1 00028T 04/08/00 18:55 37 27.28 0.95 0.010 21302 m
00063854 pit1 00028U 04/08/00 16:29 45 10.26 2.13 0.017 21633 m
00063878 pit1 00028V 04/08/00 14:19 71 7.79 2.00 0.016 21795 m
Of the thirteen baselines processed from PIT1, four (in bold type) were rejected. The other nine were
included in the adjustment.
The monument network was observed on day 228. The following is a summary of these results:
FILENAME FROM TO DATE TIME DUR RATIO VAR RMS LENGTH
00087929 00028AA 00028AC 08/15/00 18:16 15 14.96 5.14 0.007 929 m
00087945 00028AE 00028AC 08/15/00 20:08 27 7.09 11.19 0.012 1721 m
00087925 00028AA 00028AB 08/15/00 17:48 17 17.34 16.50 0.013 356 m
00087941 00028AF 00028AD 08/15/00 21:51 25 6.90 11.71 0.012 1506 m
00087921 00028AA KX1251 08/15/00 17:00 37 15.39 5.83 0.007 265 m
00087957 00028AD 00028AB 08/15/00 19:36 16 13.38 3.20 0.007 1459 m
00087937 00028AE 00028AF 08/15/00 20:55 34 3.18 18.07 0.016 379 m
00087953 00028AD 00028AC 08/15/00 18:51 29 21.29 1.91 0.005 728 m
00087933 pit1 00028AE 08/15/00 20:08 82 6.62 2.57 0.017 22116 m
00087949 pit1 00028AD 08/15/00 18:50 62 13.09 1.86 0.015 22533 m
00087917 pit1 00028AA 08/15/00 17:00 91 12.65 2.63 0.019 23976 m
All of these results were acceptable.
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
E-7
LEAST SQUARES ADJUSTMENTS
GEOLAB was used to perform all of the various adjustments. No scaling of the a priori baseline
statistics was done. Geoid heights were interpolated for each station using the GEOID99 model. Station
errors (HI and centering) of 0.005 m were input for the GPS observations.
The first adjustment was a free adjustment of the GPS only portion of the photo control network (i.e. no
traverse or eccentric observations). A map of this network is shown in figure 1. Station 7002 was held
fixed in all three dimensions (NAD 1983 1986 latitude and longitude, NGVD 1929 orthometric height).
The estimated variance factor was 1.18. The plot in figure 2 shows the horizontal and vertical residuals
versus baseline length for this adjustment. The misclosures at the other control stations were as follows:
Station Name Azimuth Distance Height
00028I +0.009 m
00028K +0.036 m
00028N +0.019 m
00028U +0.002 m
KX1251 +0.001 m
KX2396 319 0.037 m +0.011 m
As can be seen, the misclosures are all within the expected range. The output from this adjustment is
included in appendix B.
The next adjustment added the traverse and eccentric information to the network, vertically constrained
the four new stations with elevations, and constrained in all three dimensions the two existing NSRS
stations, 7002 and L/D 2 M 6. This adjustment had an estimated variance factor of 1.70. The output
from this adjustment is included in appendix C. The coordinates from this adjustment were provided to
the client to be used as photo control for aerotriangulation.
The monument network was surveyed as a network with a tie to IVY and PIT1. The coordinate for IVY
resulting from the photo control network was constrained in a free adjustment. The network is shown in
figure 3. This adjustment had an estimated variance factor of 1.31. A level tie from BEECHWOOD to a
nearby TBM from the 1988 survey had a vertical misclosure of 0.008 m. A subsequent adjustment was
performed that constrained IVY in all three dimensions, and BEECHWOOD (00028AE) vertically. This
adjustment had an estimated variance factor of 1.27. This adjustment supplied the coordinates for the
monuments, and the output is included in appendix D. The plot in figure 4 shows the horizontal and
vertical residuals versus baseline length for this adjustment.
Although not requested by the contracting agency, adjustments were also performed on the NAD 1983
1992 horizontal datum and NAVD 1988 vertical datum, as well as the NAD 1927 horizontal datum.
A free adjustment was run holding the NAD 1983 1996 coordinates of PIT1 fixed, as well as the GPS
derived NAVD 1988 orthometric height of PIT1. This adjustment included all of the GPS observations
from both the photo control network and the monument network, as well as the traverse observations and
eccentric measurements. The estimated variance factor was 1.14. The misclosure at the other control
stations were as follows:
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
E-8
Station Azimuth Distance Height
KX1251 +0.018 m
KX2396 51 0.102 m +0.021 m
KX2402 51 0.108 m +0.007 m
The vertical misclosures are excellent. The horizontal misclosures show a bias of approximately 10 cm.
This is common in Pennsylvania, and results from the poor ties between the HARN/CORS network and
the existing NSRS network. Although the two Monongahela River GPS Network stations were
established using GPS, they were controlled by triangulation stations. The ties between the existing
triangulation network and the HARN/CORS are very sparse. Because of this, these two stations were not
constrained horizontally in the subsequent constrained adjustment.
A constrained NAD 1983 1992/NAVD 1988 adjustment was done that held PIT1 fixed in all three
dimensions, and KX1251, KX2396, and KX2402 fixed vertically. The coordinates from this adjustment
are listed below.
A final adjustment held the two Monongahela River GPS network stations fixed horizontally on
NAD 1927. The horizontal coordinates from this adjustment are also given below.
SUMMARY
A geodetic control network was established in Allegheny County, Pennsylvania for the purpose of
photogrammetric mapping of a portion of the Nine Mile Run watershed. The relative accuracy of the
network is first order (10 ppm). The absolute accuracy of the network on NAD 1983 1992/NAVD 1988
is 0.03 m, and 0.05 m on NAD 1983 1986/NGVD 1929.
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
E-9
Figure 1 - Photo Control network
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
E-10
Photo Control Network - GPS only - Free Adjustment
-0.025
-0.02
-0.015
-0.01
-0.005
0
0.005
0.01
0.015
0.02
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000
Horizontal
Vertical
Figure 2 - Free Adjustment Residuals Photo Control Network
Figure 3 - Monument network
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
E-11
Monument Network - Free Adjustment
-0.004
-0.002
0
0.002
0.004
0.006
0.008
0.01
0.012
0.014
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000
Horizontal
Vertical
Figure 4 - Free Adjustment Residuals Monument Network
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
E-12
Geographic Coordinates NAD 1983 1986/NGVD 1929 meters
Station name DD.MMSSsssss DD.MMSSsssss NGVD 29
00028A +40.244373915 -79.551903928 279.471
00028B +40.243892060 -79.545337681 226.404
00028C +40.245877823 -79.545212383 226.078
00028D +40.251161627 -79.551470183 314.363
00028E +40.250258950 -79.542669843 229.274
00028F +40.251994846 -79.542509201 272.652
00028G +40.252182038 -79.545361428 313.808
00028H +40.253459240 -79.542806129 266.139
00028I +40.254941105 -79.545272706 345.491
00028J +40.255069893 -79.542692187 335.031
00028K +40.262266917 -79.535783977 287.435
00028L +40.255732751 -79.535935253 244.717
00028M +40.253912794 -79.535880664 234.322
00028N +40.251625186 -79.540203241 276.056
00028O +40.251371439 -79.533948213 269.077
00028P +40.253038314 -79.533713726 260.288
00028Q +40.255286358 -79.533933278 274.932
00028R +40.262180888 -79.533823209 277.638
00028S +40.255164744 -79.531439207 278.031
00028T +40.253742651 -79.532020712 265.289
00028U +40.251612166 -79.531451814 284.970
00028V +40.261721597 -79.542700963 305.088
105H1 +40.250285773 -79.542675087 231.017
105H2 +40.250294316 -79.542491782 228.181
105H3 +40.250231666 -79.542982566 228.664
105V1 +40.250283909 -79.542478089 229.083
105V2 +40.250217640 -79.542979675 229.565
108H +40.253460079 -79.542807586 266.139
110H +40.255111069 -79.542734712 335.930
110V1 +40.255089174 -79.542728131 335.547
110V2 +40.255091557 -79.542710634 335.478
113H +40.253911904 -79.535881363 234.322
KX1251 +40.245775546 -79.545001015 228.411
KX2396 +40.233266491 -79.513732815 223.342
KX2402 +40.234468037 -79.562064720 222.229
PIT1 +40.330373303 -79.415003350 387.967
WM TANK +40.220215201 -79.552106762
00028AA +40.245218145 -79.545853741 222.236
00028AB +40.244629080 -79.544553760 227.315
00028AC +40.252095183 -79.544753173 307.386
00028AD +40.252889612 -79.541862393 236.118
00028AE +40.261662630 -79.544304435 319.725
00028AF +40.261723257 -79.542698290 305.243
HAZELMICRO +40.244148128 -79.555545080
MV226 +40.261346816 -79.543230087 329.615
TBM +40.252128376 -79.544885781 307.083
WTVENT +40.244605636 -79.513177261
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
E-13
PA South Zone State Plane Coordinates NAD 1983 1986 US Survey FT.
Station name Northing Easting
00028A 400435.8779 1363757.9807
00028B 399899.6831 1365730.4180
00028C 401906.1722 1365876.5568
00028D 403247.7692 1364162.7121
00028E 402243.6187 1367851.9233
00028F 403996.6802 1368019.0322
00028G 404240.0212 1365818.4710
00028H 405483.7251 1367825.6717
00028I 407029.5104 1365955.4943
00028J 407110.9705 1367953.5743
00028K 410290.3802 1370280.5208
00028L 407729.5595 1370101.1665
00028M 405887.3896 1370098.5408
00028N 403579.2282 1369792.7885
00028O 403280.1225 1371530.0718
00028P 404961.9994 1371752.3144
00028Q 407240.3361 1371637.8055
00028R 410166.5011 1371793.9987
00028S 407070.5582 1373562.8761
00028T 405642.7933 1373078.4837
00028U 403476.8521 1373466.1279
00028V 409793.7040 1368012.3367
105H1 402270.8526 1367848.5345
105H2 402276.0323 1367990.4748
105H3 402221.9265 1367609.4503
105V1 402265.2456 1368000.8108
105V2 402207.6827 1367611.3381
108H 405484.6017 1367824.5637
110 407153.4294 1367921.7141
110V1 407131.1552 1367926.2594
110V2 407133.2352 1367939.8470
113H 405886.5022 1370097.9778
KX1251 401798.6993 1366037.4568
KX2396 392829.9184 1380730.4457
KX2402 394578.9939 1358845.9242
PIT1 449561.1714 1427433.1207
WM TANK 384093.1350 1363198.9126
00028AA 401250.9819 1365364.2711
00028AB 400630.4221 1366354.8731
00028AC 404140.6297 1366286.5849
00028AD 404889.6479 1368541.2109
00028AE 409764.3684 1366771.4392
00028AF 409795.3329 1368014.4416
HAZELMICRO 400276.8881 1360936.7527
MV226 409424.5584 1367594.0708
TBM 404176.7208 1366184.8803
WTVENT 400244.2779 1381337.4967
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
E-14
Geographic Coordinates NAD 1983 1992/NAVD 1988 meters
Station name DD.MMSSsssss DD.MMSSsssss NAVD 88 Ellip H
00028A +40.244373923 -79.551902931 279.315 245.654
00028AA +40.245218164 -79.545852750 222.103 188.444
00028AB +40.244629097 -79.544552771 227.185 193.532
00028AC +40.252095199 -79.544752183 307.258 273.593
00028AD +40.252889624 -79.541861400 235.994 202.335
00028AE +40.261662646 -79.544303440 319.598 285.919
00028AF +40.261723272 -79.542697296 305.118 271.444
00028B +40.243892070 -79.545336685 226.250 192.598
00028C +40.245877835 -79.545211390 225.925 192.266
00028D +40.251161633 -79.551469183 314.206 280.536
00028E +40.250258960 -79.542668847 229.121 195.468
00028F +40.251994853 -79.542508202 272.499 238.841
00028G +40.252182043 -79.545360426 313.649 279.982
00028H +40.253459242 -79.542805124 265.979 232.316
00028I +40.254941106 -79.545271700 345.330 311.656
00028J +40.255069893 -79.542691179 334.873 301.206
00028K +40.262266913 -79.535782970 287.299 253.633
00028L +40.255732752 -79.535934247 244.556 210.895
00028M +40.253912795 -79.535879658 234.160 200.504
00028N +40.251625191 -79.540202241 275.910 242.260
00028O +40.251371440 -79.533947208 268.920 235.278
00028P +40.253038315 -79.533712719 260.126 226.479
00028Q +40.255286352 -79.533932265 274.775 241.122
00028R +40.262180880 -79.533822193 277.483 243.823
00028S +40.255164742 -79.531438197 277.870 244.226
00028T +40.253742652 -79.532019705 265.127 231.484
00028U +40.251612168 -79.531450811 284.802 251.168
00028V +40.261721595 -79.542699953 304.933 271.258
105H1 +40.250285783 -79.542674089 230.864 197.211
105H2 +40.250294319 -79.542490783 228.028 194.375
105H3 +40.250231689 -79.542981571 228.511 194.857
105V1 +40.250283911 -79.542477091 228.930 195.278
105V2 +40.250217662 -79.542978681 229.412 195.758
108H +40.253460081 -79.542806581 265.979 232.316
110 +40.255111070 -79.542733702 335.772 302.105
110V1 +40.255089174 -79.542727122 335.388 301.721
110V2 +40.255091557 -79.542709625 335.319 301.652
113H +40.253911906 -79.535880357 234.160 200.504
HAZELMICRO +40.244148158 -79.555544088
KX1251 +40.245775573 -79.545000039 228.262 194.604
KX2396 +40.233266541 -79.513731866 223.196 189.625
KX2402 +40.234468007 -79.562063673 222.065 188.411
MV226 +40.261346832 -79.543229093 329.488 295.813
PIT1 +40.330373303 -79.415002340 387.807 354.289
TBM +40.252128392 -79.544884790 306.955 273.290
WM TANK +40.220215201 -79.552106762
WTVENT +40.244605614 -79.513176210
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
E-15
PA South Zone State Plane Coordinates NAD 1983 1992 US Survey FT.
00028A 400435.8671 1363758.7464
00028AA 401250.9826 1365365.0372
00028AB 400630.4205 1366355.6389
00028AC 404140.6270 1366287.3509
00028AD 404889.6413 1368541.9767
00028AE 409764.3658 1366772.2050
00028AF 409795.3293 1368015.2149
00028B 399899.6742 1365731.1916
00028C 401906.1656 1365877.3226
00028D 403247.7565 1364163.4854
00028E 402243.6098 1367852.6966
00028F 403996.6683 1368019.8055
00028G 404240.0074 1365819.2443
00028H 405483.7083 1367826.4446
00028I 407029.4927 1365956.2673
00028J 407110.9515 1367954.3552
00028K 410290.3575 1370281.2937
00028L 407729.5415 1370101.9473
00028M 405887.3716 1370099.3217
00028N 403579.2145 1369793.5618
00028O 403280.1045 1371530.8526
00028P 404961.9814 1371753.0953
00028Q 407240.3111 1371638.5860
00028R 410166.4742 1371794.7792
00028S 407070.5372 1373563.6566
00028T 405642.7753 1373079.2645
00028U 403476.8357 1373466.9012
00028V 409793.6830 1368013.1175
105H1 402270.8440 1367849.3081
105H2 402276.0166 1367991.2481
105H3 402221.9311 1367610.2164
105V1 402265.2289 1368001.5762
105V2 402207.6864 1367612.1042
108H 405484.5847 1367825.3367
110 407153.4114 1367922.4950
110V1 407131.1362 1367927.0402
110V2 407133.2162 1367940.6278
113H 405886.4854 1370098.7587
HAZELMICRO 400276.8992 1360937.5267
KX1251 401798.7082 1366038.2153
KX2396 392829.9515 1380731.1816
KX2402 394578.9434 1358846.7356
MV226 409424.5558 1367594.8365
PIT1 449561.1540 1427433.8999
TBM 404176.7185 1366185.6464
WM TANK 384093.1350 1363198.9126
WTVENT 400244.2362 1381338.3080
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
E-16
Geographic Coordinates NAD 1927
Station name DD.MMSSsssss DD.MMSSsssss
00028A +40.244349603 -79.551986513
00028AA +40.245193860 -79.545936409
00028AB +40.244604788 -79.544636468
00028AC +40.252070927 -79.544835873
00028AD +40.252865366 -79.541945187
00028AE +40.261638437 -79.544387157
00028AF +40.261699067 -79.542781066
00028B +40.243867751 -79.545420358
00028C +40.245853542 -79.545295081
00028D +40.251137345 -79.551552780
00028E +40.250234673 -79.542752613
00028F +40.251970585 -79.542591969
00028G +40.252157768 -79.545444089
00028H +40.253434984 -79.542888866
00028I +40.254916860 -79.545355361
00028J +40.255045651 -79.542774919
00028K +40.262242708 -79.535866797
00028L +40.255708526 -79.540018090
00028M +40.253888547 -79.535963495
00028N +40.251600920 -79.540286074
00028O +40.251347169 -79.534031107
00028P +40.253014061 -79.533796623
00028Q +40.255262116 -79.534016143
00028R +40.262156675 -79.533906073
00028S +40.255140513 -79.531522168
00028T +40.253718409 -79.532103665
00028U +40.251587902 -79.531534782
00028V +40.261697382 -79.542783695
105H1 +40.250261496 -79.542757856
105H2 +40.250270033 -79.542574556
105H3 +40.250207401 -79.543065327
105V1 +40.250259625 -79.542560864
105V2 +40.250193374 -79.543062438
108H +40.253435823 -79.542890323
110 +40.255086827 -79.542817443
110V1 +40.255064931 -79.542810862
110V2 +40.255067315 -79.542793365
113H +40.253887658 -79.535964195
HAZELMICRO +40.244123813 -79.555627636
KX1251 +40.245751293 -79.545083789
KX2396 +40.233242234 -79.513816333
KX2402 +40.234443553 -79.562146844
MV226 +40.261322620 -79.543312845
PIT1 +40.330349718 -79.415088725
TBM +40.252104121 -79.544968476
WM TANK +40.220190200 -79.552189000
WTVENT +40.244581371 -79.513261026
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
E-17
PA South Zone State Plane Coordinates NAD 1927 US Survey FT.
00028A 400405.9895 1395177.4664
00028AA 401221.1024 1396783.7489
00028AB 400600.5429 1397774.3460
00028AC 404110.7278 1397706.0624
00028AD 404859.7368 1399960.6822
00028AE 409734.4341 1398190.9246
00028AF 409765.3976 1399433.9228
00028B 399869.8009 1397149.8958
00028C 401876.2845 1397296.0189
00028D 403217.8625 1395582.2064
00028E 402213.7231 1399271.3860
00028F 403966.7708 1399438.5104
00028G 404210.1046 1397237.9665
00028H 405453.7960 1399245.1626
00028I 406999.5715 1397374.9981
00028J 407081.0273 1399373.0791
00028K 410260.4098 1401700.0258
00028L 407699.6170 1401520.6469
00028M 405857.4556 1401518.0256
00028N 403549.3152 1401212.2607
00028O 403250.2053 1402949.5450
00028P 404932.0703 1403171.7890
00028Q 407210.3798 1403057.3036
00028R 410136.5242 1403213.5064
00028S 407040.6104 1404982.3575
00028T 405612.8600 1404497.9573
00028U 403446.9322 1404885.5930
00028V 409763.7428 1399431.8480
105H1 402240.9570 1399267.9976
105H2 402246.1298 1399409.9415
105H3 402192.0443 1399028.9147
105V1 402235.3425 1399420.2699
105V2 402177.7999 1399030.8025
108H 405454.6723 1399244.0544
110 407123.4853 1399341.2182
110V1 407101.2107 1399345.7638
110V2 407103.2917 1399359.3514
113H 405856.5695 1401517.4626
HAZELMICRO 400247.0088 1392356.1915
KX1251 401768.8424 1397456.8696
KX2396 392800.1691 1412149.6687
KX2402 394549.0396 1390265.6255
MV226 409394.6244 1399013.5473
PIT1 449531.0097 1458852.3085
TBM 404146.8199 1397604.3628
WM TANK 384062.8217 1394618.6122
WTVENT 400214.3974 1412756.5621
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F-1
Appendix F
Application: Static GPS Control Survey--Coyote Dam, Russian River, CA
(Sacramento District)
This appendix provides an example of a static GPS surveys performed on a Corps civil works project
performed during 1989. This survey was performed prior to full operational capability of the GPS satellite
constellation; thus, observation windows had to be observed in order to obtain four or more satellites. The
procedures and standards that were used for performing, reducing, and adjusting these early GPS surveys
have not significantly changed, other than the more user-friendly field data collection devices and
significantly updated Windows-based baseline reduction and adjustment software. Baseline reduction and
adjustment software techniques shown on these 1989 surveys are still representative of the current
reductions and analyses performed today--only the output formats have changes.
F-1. Planning Phase
The GPS survey was planned for 25 April 1989 in the vicinity of Coyote Dam on the East Fork of the
Russian River, near Ukiah, California.
a. A diagram of the project area is shown in Figure F-1. Three fixed control points were
connected--Calpella 1949, Perry 1949, and Ukiah Airport 1949.
b. Four Trimble 4000 SL GPS carrier phase tracking receivers were used for the survey--with one
person per receiver. In actuality, because the personnel were inexperienced in conducting a GPS survey, a
fifth person was also used. The fifth person was used as a "runner" who can be called upon during the
survey to aid in smoothing out any complications (e.g., aiding in overall communication and coordination,
parts retrieval in case of breakdown, bad power source, blown fuse, misplaced equipment, forgotten
measurement device or power cord, as well as any other possible complication). Communication between
personnel was by two-way radio. Care was taken in choosing and operating the two-way radio near the
GPS survey so that the radio transmitter and receiver chosen, when in operation, would not interfere with
the GPS receiver.
c. Prior to data collection, the stations were inspected and found to be acceptable (easy
accessibility, no obstruction or possible multipath sources, and at least 20 degree satellite visibility above the
horizon).
d. April 25, 1989 corresponds to Julian calendar day 115. Calpella, Perry, and Ukiah Airport were
stations with established horizontal control. Pier 1 and Pier 2 were stations requiring horizontal coordinates
accurate to 1:10,000 (refer to Figure F-2). Therefore, the following station conventions for Session 1 of the
survey were:
Pier 1 - Station 20011151
Pier 2 - Station 20021151
Calpella - Station 20131151
Ukiah Airport - Station 20141151
It is important to note that this station convention was used for this survey because the Trimble receiver only
allowed numeric input of station names. Newer receivers allow alphanumeric inputs for station names,
which provides more flexibility in station naming.
EM 1110-1-1003
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F-2
Figure F-1. Ukiah Project Area Figure F-2. GPS Project Diagram (Ukiah)
e. A satellite visibility plan (a software package that produces a hard copy listing of satellite
constellations and time availability based on ephemerides) was run for the project location. The satellite
visibility was run with the most up-to-date ephemeris for the period of observation, using four-satellite
visibility, and with a cut-off elevation angle of 20 deg. An up-to-date ephemeris was used to ensure the
satellite visibility formulated was the most accurate. A minimum of 4 visible satellites was specified in
order to formulate accurate three-dimensional solutions. A cut-off elevation of 20 deg was chosen in order
to minimize any diffusion or dispersion of the signal by the atmosphere which in turn may cause errors in
the solution as the satellites pass near the horizon. The satellite visibility plan produced for the Ukiah
project is shown below.
All-In-View PDOP for UKIAH
Date : 25 Feb 1990 Time : 4:00 -> 4:00
Latitude : 39
o
12' 30" N Longitude : 123
o
10' 30" W
Cut-off Elevation : 20 Zone : - 7:00
Time Time PDOP
Satellite Constellation Rise Set dT Rise Set
6 9 11 13 21:55 22:03 0:08 4.9 5.0
6 9 11 12 13 22:02 22:33 0:30 3.8 3.6
6 9 11 12 13 19 22:32 23:18 0:45 3.2 3.3
3 6 9 11 12 13 19 23:17 23:48 0:30 2.9 3.0
3 9 11 12 13 19 23:47 1:08 1:20 4.2 4.2
3 11 12 13 19 1:07 1:22 0:15 4.9 5.0
3 12 13 19 1:22 2:20 0:58 22.7 31.6
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F-3
The portion of the satellite visibility where the PDOP is near 5.0 m/m or below are times when the satellite
geometry is conducive for conduct of a survey. A PDOP near or below 5.0 m/m does not guarantee a
successful survey but it does indicate good satellite geometry during that moment of the survey--see Chapter
5 for further information on PDOP.
f. From the satellite visibility plan, it was decided to conduct three sessions during the survey.
Travel between survey sites, time to set up and take down the equipment before and after the survey,
receiver warm up time, time of survey (at least an hour allotment for survey data collection, but more than
an hour if at all possible), and possible time loss due to unforeseeable problems or complications were taken
into account before deciding on a specific session schedule. The final survey session schedule is shown in
the chart below:
Final Survey Session Schedule
Session Start Time Stop Time
1 21:55 22:55
2 23:38 00:38
3 01:23 02:20
It was further decided which stations would be occupied during each session. Station occupation was
designed to minimize travel time and to add to the overall efficiency of the survey. The station occupation
schedule was planned as shown in the following chart:
Station Occupation Schedule
Session Station Station Station Station
1 Calpella Ukiah Airport Pier 1 Pier 2
2 Calpella Perry Pier 1 Pier 2
3 Ukiah Airport Perry Pier 1 Pier 2
g. A GPS Station Observation Log is generally filled out prior to conduct of the survey. An
example of a GPS Station Observation Log is shown in Figure F-3. The GPS Station Observation Log must
be filled out for each of the station occupied in order to have a written record of the actual survey and as an
aid for the personnel occupying each of the station.
h. Portions of the GPS Station Observation Log were filled out prior to data collection. These
portions included the station name, start date, GPS 8 character ID for each session, project name, project
location, observer name, approximate receiver position (latitude, longitude, and elevation), session
scheduled start and stop times, and requisite tracking equipment information. In this case, six GPS Station
Observation Logs were filled out, one each for: Calpella (Sessions 1 & 2), Ukiah Airport (Session 3), Ukiah
Airport (Session 1), Perry (Sessions 1 & 2), Pier 1 (Sessions 1, 2, and 3), and Pier 2 (Sessions 1, 2, and 3).
An example of a GPS Station Observation Log for Station "Pier 2" is shown in Figure F-4.
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F-4
Figure F-3 a. Example GPS Station Observation Log (Front)
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F-5
Figure F-3 b. Example GPS Station Observation Log (Back)
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F-6
Figure F-4. GPS Station Observation Log (Pre-Survey)
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F-7
F-2. Actual Survey Operation
Those portions of the GPS Station Observation Log, which were not filled out during the planning phase of
the survey, were filled out during data collection. An example of the GPS Station Observation Log for
Station "Pier 2", filled out after data collection, is shown in Figure F-5.
a. Key to proper data collection is correct set up of the equipment (tripod, receiver, and power
source) and correct antenna height measurements (height of the antenna above the mark).
b. Figure F-6 shows personnel correctly taking an antenna height measurement over a temporary
monument. Figure F-7 illustrates a typical antenna setup with the following equation detailing the antenna
height correction.
v = sqrt [ s
2
- r
2
]
where
v = corrected vertical height distance of the antenna center above the mark,
s = slope distance measurement derived from the average of several antenna height measurements
r = antenna radius
c. When measuring the antenna height during this survey, the following procedure was followed in
order to ensure an accurate reading:
(1) The slope distance from the North point of the antenna to the center of the monument was
measured to the nearest millimeter (0.001 m). Measurement was also done in English units (inches) to the
nearest 1/32th of an inch. This value then was compared to the metric value measured earlier. This
comparison is done to detect blunders.
(2) Similar measurements are also taken from the South point of the antenna to the center of the
monument.
(3) The resultant North and South slope distances were averaged.
(4) Example: (Refer to Figure F-5)
Tripod set up flat on a dock.
The North side measure up for session 1 = .120m
The South side measure up for session 1 = .120m
An extra "Check Measurement" was also taken for the measure up for Session 1 and was
found to = 0.394 ft.
As a check: (0.394 ft.) x (1m / 3.281 ft.) = .120m
This value was recorded in the GPS Station Observation Log.
d. Each GPS receiver was operated in direct accordance with the manufacturer instructions,
procedures, and/or guidance.
e. No problems were encountered during the survey sessions.
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F-8
Figure F-5a. GPS Observation Log (Post-Survey)
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F-9
Figure F-5b. GPS Observation Log (Post-Survey)
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F-10
Figure F-6. Antenna Height Measurement Figure F-7. Diagram of Antenna Setup
F-3. Post-Processing Observation Data
All recorded observation data were downloaded from the receivers to 5.25" floppy discs. The downloading
procedures detailed in the manufacturer's operating manuals were strictly adhered to.
a. Once the observation data was downloaded, preprocessing of data was performed.
Preprocessing of data included checking the station names, antenna heights, latitude and longitude of the
points, elevation of the points, as well as applying any required corrections. In general, most GPS
processing software requires the antenna slope height be corrected to vertical at some point in the survey,
usually during the preprocessing phase (consult receiver/software manufacturer guidelines for specifics).
b. The data for the Ukiah project was post-processed using Trimble software TRIMVEC Version
88.028--GPS Relative Positioning Solution), but in general, all post-processing software produces similar
results. The observation data was processed in accordance with manufacturer guidelines (see Chapter 10 for
further discussion on GPS baseline post-processing).
(1) An examination of the results reveals the following, which are produced in one form or another
in other manufacturer's solution file formats:
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1 Jul 03
F-11
a--Listing of the filename
b--Types of solutions (single, double, or triple difference)
c--Satellite availability during the survey for each station occupied
d--Ephemeris file used for solution formulation
e--Type of satellite selection (manual or automatic)
f--Elevation mask
g--Minimum number of satellites used
h--Meteorological data (pressure, temperature, humidity)
i--Session time (date, time)
j--Data logging time (start, stop)
k--Station information: Location (latitude, longitude); Receiver serial number used; Antenna
serial number used; ID number; Antenna height
l--RMS
m--Solution files: dx, dy, dz between station; Slope distance between station; dlatitude,
dlongitude between station; Distance between station; dheight
n--Epoch intervals
o--Number of epochs
(2) The triple difference, double difference float, and double difference fix Trimble solutions of the
baseline reductions for baseline 2014--2002 were computed. The fixed solution is shown in Figures F-8a
through F-8d--annotated with the above conventions (a through o) provided as an explanation. A summary
of all solutions is shown in Figure F-8e. The baseline formulations are reproduced from the Trimble
Navigation TRIMVEC solution file.
c. In general, all GPS manufacturer data reduction software programs produce a summary of results
once data has been reduced and a baseline formulated.
d. Although the Trimble summary solution file does specify that the integers were found, the RMS
is OK, and FIXED solution is recommended, an analysis of the output prior to this conclusion in accordance
with Chapter 10 would have revealed the following:
(1) With a baseline distance of 7000 m for the formulated baseline (baseline 1402) and from Table
10-2 (Fixed Solution Acceptance Criteria), the RMS must be less than (0.02+(0.004*d)). Using the formula
(0.02+(0.004/d)) from Table 10-2 with a distance (d) equal to 7 km, the equation is (0.02 + (0.004*7)) and
the RMS is approximately equal to 0.048. Therefore, the RMS is acceptable.
(2) With a baseline distance of 7000 m for the formulated baseline (baseline 1402) and from Table
10-3, the variance ratio must be more than 1.5. The fixed solution factor from the summary solution file is
18.9. Therefore, the fixed solution quality factor is acceptable.
(3) From Table 10-3, with a baseline length of 7 km for baseline 1402 (between 0 - 20 km), an
acceptable RMS (small), an acceptable variance ratio (large), and an integer solution, the fixed solution
should be acceptable.
e. All other formulated baselines for this survey were found to be acceptable.
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F-12
Figure F-8a. TRIMBLE Baseline Solution File (Ukiah Baseline 2014--2002)
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F-13
Figure F-8b. TRIMBLE Baseline Solution File (Ukiah Baseline 2014--2002)
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F-14
Figure F-8c. TRIMBLE Baseline Solution File (Ukiah Baseline 2014--2002)
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F-15
Figure F-8d. TRIMBLE Baseline Solution File (Ukiah Baseline 2014--2002)
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F-16
Figure F-8e. TRIMBLE Baseline Solution Summary File (Ukiah Baseline 2014--2002)
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F-17
F-4. Loop Closure
An approximate loop closure was done by following the procedures detailed in Chapter 10.
Figure F-9. Loop Closure (Ukiah)
The resulting calculations would proceed as shown in the following computation:
a. Follow Figure F-9, holding 2013 as the starting point.
b. Formulate a table similar to that shown in Chapter 10, where all values are taken from the GPS
post-processed baseline formulations:
Baseline x (m) y (m) z (m) Distance(m)
13142059.FIX
2013 -> 2014 -3367.429 -7891.019 -10410.673 13490.362
14021059.FIX
2014 -> 2002 3799.005 2554.018 5296.798 7000.823
02053056.FIX
2002 -> 2006 953.294 -748.319 -16.709 1212.035
06013056.FIX
2006 -> 2001 -666.617 1441.548 908.280 1829.593
01132059.FIX
2001 -> 2013 -718.244 4683.775 4222.288 6317.297
c. Sum up the x, y, z, and distance components:
x components = x(2013->2014) + x(2014->2002) + x(2002->2006) + x(2006->2001)
+ x(2001->2013) = -3367.429 + 3799.005 + 953.294 + (-666.617) + (-718.244) = 0.009
y components = y(2013->2014) + y(2014->2002) + y(2002->2006) + y(2006->2001)
+ y(2001->2013) = -7891.019 + 2554.018 + (-748.319) + 1441.548 + 4643.775 = 0.003
z components = z(2013->2014) + z(2014->2002) + z(2002->2006) + z(2006->2001)
+ z(2001->2013) = -10410.673 + 5296.798+ (-16.709) + 908.280 + 4222.288 = -0.016
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F-18
Distances = (2013->2014) + (2014->2002) + (2002-2006) + (2006->2001) + (2001->2013)
= 13490.362 + 7000.823 + 1212.035 + 1829.593 + 6317.297 = 29850.110
d. From Equation (10-1):
m = sqrt [ 0.009
2
+ 0.003
2
+ (-0.016)
2
] = 0.018601075 or 0.0186
Therefore, misclosure is approximately 0.0186 in 29850.110 m, or 1 part in 1,600,000.
F-5. Final Adjustment
The program used for final adjustment of the Ukiah survey was the GEOLAB program (Version 1.82--
1987). For an in depth technical discussion on GEOLAB, refer to the literature accompanying the
GEOLAB software package. The following discussion on the GEOLAB adjustment of the Ukiah survey
highlights some of the criteria used in the adjustment of a horizontal survey.
a. The input data file for a GEOLAB adjustment is called an "IOB" file. An IOB file can be
created using a text editor program or with a GEOLAB option called "GPS Environment." An IOB file is
specific to the GEOLAB adjustment software and may or may not be required by other least-square
adjustment software (refer to Chapter 11 or the owner's manual). The GEOLAB Environment option takes
GPS baseline solution files developed by most GPS manufacturers and automatically sets up an IOB file for
adjustment.
b. The IOB input file generally consists of the following information:
(1) Top Line. Title Record - usually a project name and an adjustment number.
(2) Second Line. Options Record - this record specifies which GEOLAB options are to be activated
for processing.
(3) Third Line. Ellipsoid Specification Record - Prints ellipsoid parameters chosen in the Options
Record or as chosen by the user.
(4) Station Information Section. All stations must have their coordinates defined here. The
coordinates must be given as ellipsoidal latitude, longitude, and orthometric height, or as Cartesian
coordinates. In this section, stations are either held fixed or are to be adjusted. If stations are not held fixed,
estimated coordinates are input.
(5) Auxiliary Parameter Definition Record. The auxiliary parameter group definition record is
optional, but can be used if GEOLAB is to solve for various scale, orientation, translation, or constant
parameters. In the sample GEOLAB input, enough vertical and horizontal control is held fixed to solve for
SCALE and ROTATION. Rotation is about the Cartesian X-axis, Y-axis, and Z-axis.
(6) Observation Records Section. In the example GEOLAB input file, only GPS observations are
entered. Each baseline is entered separately with the station name and Cartesian coordinate differences
between the stations, which is the computed baseline. These can also be entered as x=0, y=0, z=0, for
station 1 and the 3 D baseline for station 2. For example, baseline 1 would be entered as:
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
F-19
STATION x y z
92 2001 0.000 0.000 0.000
92 2006 -666.617 1441.548 908.280
The correlation matrix elements from the baseline solution are also entered and the last line of the
observation record is the standard deviation for x, y, and z.
c. Figure F-10 depicts GEOLAB input with annotations using the above convention.
d. Once an IOB file containing parameters necessary to perform an adjustment has been completed,
the adjustment can begin. The first step is to select the baselines needed for the adjustment. The baselines
chosen must have been processed adequately, as detailed in Chapter 10, or as recommended by the GPS
manufacturer.
e. The example IOB file shown in Figure F-10 was adjusted as shown in Figure F-11.
f. For the first adjustment (Figure F-11), one point was held fixed in 3D, producing a free
adjustment). A free adjustment checks the internal consistency of a GPS survey--refer to Chapter 11 for
further details.
g. A second adjustment (not shown) can be done to check the existing network if these control
points are directly tied together with GPS baselines. To do this with GEOLAB, the user must set up an IOB
file with only the fixed control and the respective baselines connecting them. Hold fixed all control except
one point, then perform the adjustment. Next, fix that control point and free one of the others, and keep
repeating this procedure until all control points have been allowed to be checked against it's true position. If
the position of one control point is "bad", that point can generally be omitted from the subsequent
constrained adjustment or allowed to adjust with the other points.
h. A final constrained adjustment (Figure F-12) should hold fixed all good horizontal and vertical
control. Adjust and check the output as detailed in Chapter 11.
F-6. Check of the Final Adjustment
After each adjustment was run, the 2-D and 1-D station (absolute) error ellipse for each adjusted point was
reviewed (for further discussion on error ellipses and adjustments, refer to Chapter 11). These are listed as
major semi-axis, minor semi-axis, major azimuth, and vertical. The sizes of the error ellipses listed in this
portion of the GEOLAB adjustment are an indication of the internal consistency of the GPS survey. The
smaller the size of the ellipse, the better the survey. The size of the ellipse will also generally become larger
as the project size increases. In the constrained adjustment shown, the major semi-axis and minor semi-axis
are of the mm level (0.0066 and 0.0048 mm for 2001 and 0.0062 and 0.0044 mm, respectively) - which is
acceptable.
a. The 2-D and 1-D relative error ellipses and line accuracies (i.e. precision) between survey points
were checked. These are listed as major semi-axis, minor semi-axis, major azimuth, vertical, spatial
distance, and precision (as shown on labeled page 16 of the free adjustment and page 17 of the constrained
adjustment). When checking these values, one should remember they are relative values. The relativity of
points used in the adjustment can sometimes produce deceptive values, higher major semi-axis and minor
semi-axis values: this may occur between points that are close together, but have not been tied together by a
baseline. Because of the possibility of the production of deceptive results, the user must take special care
when reviewing these values. In the constrained adjustment shown, the major semi-axis and minor semi-
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
F-20
axis are of the mm level (0.0045 and 0.0036 for the baseline 2001->2002). The project precision in parts
per million (ppm) is also listed in this portion of the adjustment and should be checked.
b. The histograms in the GEOLAB adjustments were reviewed. The histogram is a visual
representation of the standardized (normalized) residuals. The histogram shows whether the residuals are
symmetrical about the mean residual, the total spread of values of the residuals, the frequencies of the
different values, and how peaked or how flat the distribution of the residuals may be. A generally good
looking histogram has data that, when graphed, is in the shape of a bell curve.
c. The free adjustment line accuracy precessions shown on Figure F-11 are the primary criteria
used to evaluate the survey adequacy. The worst precision (4.182 ppm between 2001 and 2013) equates to
1:239,000. This far exceeds the required project accuracy (1:10,000). The relative line accuracy between
2001 and 2002 on the constrained adjustment was 3.846 ppm, or 1:260,000. This indicates excellent
connections with existing control.
d. The variance factor shown on each adjustment is within acceptable limits (0.5 to 1.5). As such,
it could be used to determine outlier limits for rejection of data, as explained in Chapter 11.
e. The residual corrections to each baseline component are shown on each adjustment. Special
review is made of the Standardized Residuals, which one will find is approximately comparable to
Normalized Residuals in GEOLAB software. None of the residuals were flagged (based on Tau Max
testing) for exceeding tolerance.
f. The 3-D positional and relative confidence regions (ellipsoid) and 3-D line accuracy precessions
are shown at the end of each adjustment. These statistics are not applicable for most USACE work.
g. Of all the output statistics, only the residuals, standardized residuals, relative 2-D/1-D line
precessions, and variance factor have useful application for USACE work. The histograms, Chi-square
tests, 3-D ellipsoid, etc. are useful only if one understands their derivation and application.
h. The results of the free and constrained adjustments in this example were not significantly
different. This is usually not the case--typically, station/line accuracies degrade on the constrained
adjustment.
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F-21
Figure F-10a. GEOLAB Input (Ukiah)
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F-22
Figure F-10b. GEOLAB Input (Ukiah)
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F-23
Figure F-11a. GEOLAB Adjustment Output (Free)
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F-24
Figure F-11b. GEOLAB Adjustment Output (Free)
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F-25
Figure F-11c. GEOLAB Adjustment Output (Free)
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F-26
Figure F-11d. GEOLAB Adjustment Output (Free)
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F-27
Figure F-11e. GEOLAB Adjustment Output (Free)
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F-28
Figure F-11f. GEOLAB Adjustment Output (Free)
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F-29
Figure F-11g. GEOLAB Adjustment Output (Free)
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F-30
Figure F-12a. GEOLAB Adjustment Output (Constrained)
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Figure F-12b. GEOLAB Adjustment Output (Constrained)
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Figure F-12c. GEOLAB Adjustment Output (Constrained)
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Figure F-12d. GEOLAB Adjustment Output (Constrained)
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Figure F-12e. GEOLAB Adjustment Output (Constrained)
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Figure F-12f. GEOLAB Adjustment Output (Constrained)
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Figure F-12g. GEOLAB Adjustment Output (Constrained)
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Appendix G
Application: Structural Deformation Reference Network Survey--Dworshak Dam,
Idaho (Walla Walla District and Topographic Engineer Center)
G-1. General
High precision GPS control surveys may be performed to establish reference locations for structural
deformation monitoring surveys. Accurate reference control in the vicinity of the structure is critical.
Absolute NGRS coordinate on monitoring points is of lesser importance. NGRS control may be brought
into one of the reference points with GPS. Only the NGRS coordinates of this fixed point are held fixed for
all subsequent adjustments in the vicinity of the structure.
G-2. Project Description
This project was conducted in the vicinity of Dworshak Dam, Idaho and was performed to establish
permanent reference points in the vicinity of the dam. A diagram of the project is shown in Figure G-1.
Baseline data from the NGRS control to one point (Fish Hatchery - 4001) at the project site were collected
and other baseline data for baselines between 4001, BIG EDDY (4002), and four points on the Dworshak
Dam and Reservoir (4003, 4004, 4005, and 4006) as shown in Figure G-1. Loop closure checks were done
for the complete network by using the loop closure routine shown in Figure G-2. The resultant precision for
the loop is 0.43 ppm (1:2,300,000).
Figure G-1. Dworshak Dam locale and GPS project diagram
G-3. Adjustment
An IOB file for the adjustment based on the formulated baselines was set up. Station USC&GS Dish, 1959,
and USC&GS Orofino, 1933, were held fixed to establish NGRS control on Corps of Engineers Station
4001 at the project site. Then, for the next adjustment, 4001 was held fixed to adjust station 4002, 4003,
4004, 4005, and 4006. The resultant adjustment statistics are shown in Figure G-3 (a-h). The 2-D station
confidence is on the order of 0.04 m (95%) in the horizontal and +0.06 m in the vertical. The largest line
accuracy is 36.322 ppm (1:27,000) over a short (62 meter) baseline. This would be acceptable even though
a 1:100,00 relative accuracy is required. Due to fixed centering errors, maintaining 1:100,000 relative
accuracies over lines less than 200 to 500 meters is unrealistic.
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Figure G-2. Loop Closure (Dworshak)
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Figure G-3a. GEOLAB adjustment output (Dworshak Dam Reference Network)
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Figure G-3b. GEOLAB adjustment output (Dworshak Dam Reference Network)
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Figure G-3c. GEOLAB adjustment output (Dworshak Dam Reference Network)
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Figure G-3d. GEOLAB adjustment output (Dworshak Dam Reference Network)
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Figure G-3e. GEOLAB adjustment output (Dworshak Dam Reference Network)
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Figure G-3f. GEOLAB adjustment output (Dworshak Dam Reference Network)
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Figure G-3g. GEOLAB adjustment output (Dworshak Dam Reference Network)
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Figure G-3h. GEOLAB adjustment output (Dworshak Dam Reference Network)
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Appendix H
Application: Upper Saginaw River, MI Navigation Project--Second-Order GPS
Photo Mapping Control Surveys (Detroit District)
The purpose of this 1993 project was to establish Second-Order control, using static GPS survey methods,
for the navigation project on the Upper Saginaw River (Michigan) leading into Saginaw Bay in Lake Huron.
The survey area started at Green Point and went to the railroad bridge at the upper end of the project area.
Control stations established during this survey were designed to support digital mapping of the Upper
Saginaw River. A total of 8 stations in the project area were occupied, and 6 new stations were established.
External NGRS control was brought in from two First-Order NGS horizontal control stations--JONAS and
PARRISH. The Saginaw Area Office, Detroit District, performed all the observations and adjustments.
This appendix illustrates the observation, reduction, and adjustment phases of this project.
H-1. Planning Phase
a. The GPS survey was planned for 24-25 March 1993, Julian Day 083 and 084 in the vicinity of
Saginaw, Michigan.
b. Four Ashtech Dual Frequency (L1/L2) GPS receivers and antennas with ground planes were
used for this project, simultaneously occupying 4 stations during each session--observing 6 baselines, 3 of
which are independent.
c. Prior to any data collection, a preplanning survey was conducted to determine any obstructions
(see typical example in Figure H-1) and examine existing control. Control station JONAS and PARRISH
had some sinking problems due to thawing ground. Station JONAS was readjusted during the survey but
station PARRISH was not.
d. A satellite visibility chart was run to determine occupation times for each session on both Day
083 and Day 084. The chart included the number of satellites and PDOP for the project area. The charts
were run with an elevation mask of 20 deg (Figure H-2) and 25 deg (see Figure H-3).
e. There were three survey sessions held on Day 083 and one on Day 084. Below are listed
sessions, occupation times and stations occupied for Day 083 and Day 084.
Day 083 Day 084
Session A Session B Session C Session A
0900-1000 1030-1130 1340-1540 1335-1535
HOYT WICKES WICKES HOYT
GENESSEE RUST RUST GENESSEE
HOLLAND HOLLAND JONAS JONAS
EWALD EWALD PARRISH PARRISH
H-2. Actual Survey
The survey was performed as planned, with three sessions on Day 083 and one session on Day 084. An
Observation Log for each station was recorded by the observer. This information was used during post-
processing.
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H-2
H-3. Data Processing and Adjustment
a. The GPS baselines were processed using Ashtech baseline reduction software LINECOMP
(GPPS-L, Version 4.5). All four sessions were processed. A typical output file from this program is shown
in figure H-4 (a-e). From these results, session 083 A & B and 084 seemed to be satisfactory. Session 083
C tagged all the float solutions except for the vector between 4008 and 4009. The plots for these vectors,
between 4008 and 4009, appeared to have been effected by the ionosphere.
b. After baseline processing was completed, a loop closure was performed--see typical output in
Figure H-5--and one was performed to show closures between the unknown control stations.
c. Once the loop closures were completed, a FILLNET (Version 3.0) free adjustment and
constrained adjustment was performed on all processed baselines for Julian days 083 and 084. Data shown
in Figure H-6 is typical of the input file used for the free adjustment. The constrained adjustment held fixed
station PARRISH (in X-Y-Z) and station JONAS (in X-Y). The results of the constrained adjustment are
shown in Figure H-7 (a-f).
d. After the final adjustment of the data, CORPSCON was used to convert the station latitude,
longitude to NAD 1983 SPCS coordinates. A sample output is shown in Figure H-8.
H-4. Station Descriptions
Station descriptions with adjusted coordinates for each control station set were formulated. A sample
description is shown in Figure H-9.
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H-3
Figure H-1. Preplanning survey diagram for station HOYT (Upper Saginaw River Project)
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Figure H-2. Satellite visibility diagram for elevation mask of 20 degrees
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Figure H-3. Satellite visibility diagram for elevation mask of 25 degrees
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H-6
Figure H-4a. Ashtech LINECOMP baseline reduction output file (Baseline 1001-4004)
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Figure H-4b. Ashtech LINECOMP baseline reduction output file (Baseline 1001-4004)
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H-8
Figure H-4c. Ashtech LINECOMP baseline reduction output file (Baseline 1001-4004)
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H-9
Figure H-4d. Ashtech LINECOMP baseline reduction output file (Baseline 1001-4004)
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Figure H-4e. Ashtech LINECOMP baseline reduction output file (Baseline 1001-4004)
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H-11
Figure H-5. Sample loop closure (Upper Saginaw River Project)
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H-12
Figure H-6. Partial sample of input file for FILLNET Free Adjustment
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H-13
Figure H-7a. Results of Constrained Adjustment (Upper Saginaw River Project)
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Figure H-7b. Results of Constrained Adjustment (Upper Saginaw River Project)
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Figure H-7c. Results of Constrained Adjustment (Upper Saginaw River Project)
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Figure H-7d. Results of Constrained Adjustment (Upper Saginaw River Project)
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Figure H-7e. Results of Constrained Adjustment (Upper Saginaw River Project)
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H-18
Figure H-7f. Results of Constrained Adjustment (Upper Saginaw River Project)
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H-19
Figure H-8. CORPSCON file of translated coordinates to NAD 83
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Figure H-9. Final station description of point RUST (typical)
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Appendix I
Application: Rio Guamani, Puerto Rico Section 205 Flood Control Project--GPS
Horizontal and Vertical Control Densification (Jacksonville District)
This appendix is an example of a constrained adjustment of a static GPS survey performed to set basic
horizontal and vertical control for a flood control project near Guayama on the south coast of Puerto Rico.
The survey was performed in March 2002 by Renan L. Lopez de Azua & Associates (RLDA) under
contract for the Jacksonville District. The Trimble GPSurvey screen capture below is a sketch of the 14
points that were occupied on this survey. GPS observations between points are shown by solid lines.
Nine of the 14 points were held fixed in the constrained adjustment Five new 3D control points were
located. No conventional observations were included in this sample adjustment although some
conventional leveling was performed. These leveling observations were later included in a subsequent
readjustment
Figure I-1. Diagram of constrained network adjustment
9 Fixed Points (X-Y-h):
PR 052
PR 053
PR 054 (X-Y only)
PR 204
PR 205
PR 206
PR 209
PR 210
PR 211
5 New Points (X-Y-h reqd):
PR 303
PR 304
PR 305
PR 306
PR 307
PR 308
(shown in italics)
PR 209
PR 306
PR 211
PR 210
PR 053
PR 206
PR 054
PR 307
PR 303
PR 304
PR 305
PR 205
PR 204
PR 052
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a. A total of 46 baselines were observed on the network shown in Figure I-1 above. Since
vertical densification was being performed, duplicate baseline observations were performed. One
baseline was subsequently excluded from the final constrained adjustment, resulting in 45 vectors. This
produced 135 3D observation equations in the final adjustment. With the 14 geoid heights, a total of 149
observations were adjusted.
b. Initially, a free adjustment was performed over the network and outliers are removed. Next,
the geoid model in inserted and adjusted and revised geoid model files are inserted back into GPSurvey
before the final constrained adjustment is run. These preliminary adjustments are not shown in this
example--only the final constrained adjustment is illustrated on the following pages.
c. The vertical orthometric datum used for this project in Puerto Rico is "Mean Sea Level,"
which is often termed NGVD 29 even though there is no direct relationship with the CONUS NGVD 29
datum.
d. The following pages contain excerpts from the Technical Instructions issued by the
Jacksonville District for this project.
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REQUEST FOR PROPOSAL
Design Branch
Mr. Renan Lopez De Azua
R. Lopez De Azua & Associates, Inc.
1959 Loiza Street
San Juan, Puerto Rico 00911-1422
Dear Mr. De Azua:
Reference contract number DACW17-02-D-0002 for Surveying and Mapping Services. The
Government desires to execute a delivery order under subject contract for the following project:
RIO GUAMANI AT GUAYAMA, SECTION 205,
FLOOD CONTROL PROJECT, ADDITIONAL SURVEYS,
PLANS AND SPECIFICATIONS SURVEY, GUAYAMA, PUERTO RICO (Survey No. 01-269)
Please review the enclosed scope of work outlining the technical requirements and submit an itemized
fee proposal for this work within 10 working days of receipt of this document. Please furnish this fee
proposal to the attention of the Chief, Design Branch.
This request does not constitute a notice to proceed for the delivery order. Please do not commence
work or incur any costs chargeable to the Government. You are cautioned that preparation of this fee
proposal is entirely at your own risk and the Government can assume no obligation for payment of any
related expenses incurred by your firm.
Mr. Robert Jenkins of the Survey Section is the point of contact. Please call him at 904-232-1610 if
you have questions or need additional information.
Sincerely,
Walter Clay Sanders, P.E.
Assistant Chief, Engineering Division
Enclosures
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TECHNICAL REQUIREMENTS
RIO GUAMANI AT GUAYAMA, SECTION 205 FLOOD CONTROL PROJECT, ADDITIONAL
SURVEYS PLANS AND SPECIFICATION SCOPE SURVEY,
GUAYAMA, PUERTO RICO (Survey 01-269)
1. LOCATION OF WORK. The project is located in the vicinity of Rio Guamani at Guayama, Puerto
Rico.
2. SCOPE OF WORK.
2.a. The services to be rendered by the Contractor include obtaining hydrographic and topographic
data of project features to be surveyed as shown on Enclosure 2 (plan plot). The project area was
originally surveyed by Survey No. 98-062. The required surveys are to provide additional information not
shown on the original survey. The additional data shall be merged with the original data and provide it as
a single survey. All survey work shall be done in the Metric System.
2.b. The services to be rendered by the Contractor include all the work described in these technical
requirements. Details not specifically described in these instructions are nevertheless a firm requirement
if they can be identified as an item, or items, commonly a part of professional grade work of a
comparative nature.
2.c. The Contractor shall furnish all necessary materials, labor, supervision, equipment, and
transportation necessary to execute and complete all work required by these specifications.
2.d. The Corps of Engineers, Survey Section shall be contacted the same day that the Contractor
plans to commence the work.
2.e. Rights-of-Entry must be obtained verbally and recorded in the field book before entering on the
private property. Enter in the field book the name and address of the property owner contacted for rights-
of-entry.
2.f. COMPLIANCE. : Surveying and Mapping shall be in strict compliance with EM-1110-1-1000 for
Photogrammetric Mapping, EM-1110-1-1002 Survey Markers and Monumentation, EM-1110-1-1003
NAVSTAR Global Positioning System Surveying, EM-1110-1-1004 Deformation Monitoring and Control
Surveying, EM-1110-1-1005 Topographic Surveying, EM-1110-2-1003 Hydrographic Surveying, EM-
1110-1-2909 Geospatial Data and System, Tri-Services A/E/C CADD Standards, Tri-Services Spatial
Data Standards, Related Spatial Data Products and Chapter 177, Chapter 472, and Chapter 61G17 of
the Minimum Technical Standards set by the Puerto Rico Board of Professional Surveyors and Mappers
2.f(1). STANDARDS FOR DIGITAL GEOSPATIAL METADATA.
Metadata are data about data. They describe the content, identification, data quality, spatial data
organization, spatial reference, entity and attribute information, distribution, metadata reference, and
other characteristics of data. Each survey project shall have metadata submitted with the final data
submittal. Furnish a digital file using CORPSMET 95 (Metadata Software) with the appropriate data
included. Enclosure 5 is an example of the metadata file printed. Point of contact in Survey Section is
William Mihalik at 904-232-1462.
2.g. All digital data shall be submitted on CD ROM's.
3. FIELD SURVEY EFFORT. The area of work is outlined in Enclosure 1 (technical requirements) and
depicted in yellow on Enclosure 2 (prints), Enclosure 3 (digital design file), Enclosure 4 (control
monuments and descriptions).
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Technical Requirements: Rio Guamani at Guayama, Section 205 Flood Control Project (Continued)
3.a. CONTROL. The Horizontal datum shall be based on the Lambert Projection for Puerto Rico and
the US Virgin Islands, North Zone (NAD 1983 meters). The vertical datum shall be NGVD of 1929. All
control surveys shall be Third Order, Class II accuracy. Establish (replace missing or disturbed control
monuments and/or set) by any of the following methods.
3.a(1) The basic control network shall be accomplished using precise differential carrier-phase
Global Positioning System (GPS). Differential GPS baseline vector observations shall be made in strict
accordance with the criteria contained in the engineering manual EM-1110-2-2003 and with the
Geometric Geodetic Accuracy Standards And Specifications For Using GPS Relative Positioning
Techniques by Federal Geodetic Control Committee, version 5.0.
3.a(2) Network design, station and baseline occupation requirements, for static and kinematic
surveys, satellite observation time per baseline, baseline redundancies, and connection requirements to
existing networks, shall follow the criteria given in the above said engineering manual. A field observation
log shall be completed at each setup in the field.
3.a(3) GPS derived elevation data shall be supplied in reference to the above said datum.
Existing benchmark data and stations shall be used in tandem in a minimally constrained adjustment
program to model the geoid. All supporting data used in vertical adjustment shall be submitted. The GPS
plan shall be submitted and approved by Mr. David J. Robar prior to commencing work.
3.a(4) Existing Corps of Engineers control data shall be utilized for horizontal and vertical control
at the project site. The GPS network shall commence from the control shown on Enclosure 3. All
established or recovered control shall be fully described and entered in a FIELD BOOK, in accordance
with the Technical Requirements of this contract. All control surveys shall be Third Order, Class II
accuracy. The Contractor shall submit the field data and abstracts for the control networks to Survey
Section for computation before commencing the mapping. The monument designations shall be
furnished as requested.
3.a(5) All horizontal and vertical control (double run forward and back) established shall be a
closed traverse or level loop no spur lines, with third order accuracy. All horizontal and vertical control
along with baseline layouts, sketches, and pertinent data shall be entered in field books.
3.a(6) All monuments, survey markers, etc., recovered shall be noted on the copies of control
descriptions. Control points established or recovered with no description or out-of-date (5 Years old)
description shall be described with sketches for future recovery use.
3.a(7) All original field notes shall be kept in standard pocketsize field books and shall become
the property of the Government. The first four pages of the field books shall be reserved for indexing and
the binding outside edge shall be free of all marking.
3.b. FIELD SURVEY EFFORT: A Contract Plans and Specification Scope Hydrographic, Topographic
and Utility Surveys are requested of the project area.
3.b(1) Topographic Survey: Take conventional spot elevations and cross sections (field data) at
intervals sufficient to calculate earthwork quantities for plans and specifications in accordance with FAR
52.236-16 QUANTITY SURVEYS. Collect additional data points necessary to define the existing terrain
at alignment and grade changes, and where roads, and other feature alignments cross through or run
adjacent to the survey area. The surface model shall be of adequate density and quality to produce a
one-foot contour interval derived from the original digital terrain model (DTM) file. Locate and detail
culverts, utilities, fences, and other structures. Locate tree lines and other planimetric features. Locate
all property irons and monuments in the survey area. Plot all field data points (x,y,z) unless thinning is
required for readability of text.
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3.b(1)a Locate all power poles, power lines, extend limits of fencing and extend
topography as noted on the enclosure.
3.b(1)b PR 53 Bridge: From north side of bridge to the intersection with PR3. Include
gabions at intersection of PR 3 and PR 53.
3.b(1)c Pozo Hondo Bridge: Bridge has been replaced since previous survey and
therefore must be resurveyed.
3.b(1)d At the west end of the project, determine limits of pavement, sanitary manhole and
distribution, extend topo to fence along back of housing project.
3.b(1)e Fill area near northeast corner of PR 3 and PR 53.
3.b(1)f For siphon structure crossing the river, determine location and top elevation. For
the structure along the edge of the street, determine location, top elevation, inverts and pipe sizes.
3,b(1)g Concrete irrigation channel, determine location, size and inverts at 50m intervals.
For structure, determine location, invert and pipe size.
3.b(1)h For channel, located on southwest side of project approximately 500 meters west
of PR 53, locate and provide topography from end of concrete to where it intersects with Rio Guamani.
3.b(2) PLANIMETRICS: All standard, geographic, and surface-visible features which are visible
or identifiable shall be located with (X, Y, & Z) angles and distances including land use features, structural
features, hydrographic features, and scale-dependent features.
3.b(3) LAND USE FEATURES: Land use features include parks, golf courses, and other
recreational areas, historic areas, archeological sites, buildings, fences and walls, canals, ditches,
reservoirs, trails, streets, roads, railroads, quarries, borrow pits, cemeteries, orchards, boundaries of
logged-off areas and wooded areas, individual lone large trees, the trace of cross-country telephone,
telegraph, and electric power transmission lines and their poles and towers, fence lines, billboards, rocks,
and other walls, and similar details.
3.b(4). STRUCTURAL FEATURES: Structural features include bridges, trestles, tunnels, piers,
retaining walls, dams, power plants, transformer and other substations, transportation terminals, and
airfields, oil, water, and other storage tanks, and similar detail.
3.b(5) HYDROGRAPHIC FEATURES: Hydrographic features included rivers, stream, lakes,
ponds, marshes, springs, falls and rapids, glaciers, water wells, and similar details.
3.b(6) CULVERT/WEIRS: Provide survey of the weirs and culverts and all appurtenances to
include invert elevation of outflow pipe, diameter of pipe, waterside length of pipe to discharge, and invert
elevation of pipe at discharge. Locate with X, Y, and Z all culverts and weirs. Obtain invert elevations,
top elevations at both ends, length of culverts, size, and direction for the existing culverts.
3.b(7) BRIDGE SURVEYS: Elevation shall be taken every 5 meter and at any grade change in
both directions. The limit shall extend 20 meter upstream and downstream of each bridge, and the width
of the adjacent channel survey. Survey shall be in accordance with US ARMY CORPS OF ENGINEERS
TECHNICAL REQUIREMENT FOR SURVEYING, MAPPING AND PHOTOGRAMMETRIC SERVICES
Section 12.7 Bridge Surveys.
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3.b(7)a An efforts shall be made by the survey contractor to obtain as-built data and prints
of these structures which can be field verified and incorporated into the final submission. Should the
survey contractor experience any difficulty in coordinating and obtaining information, the survey
contractor should seek assistance from CESAJ-EN-DT Mr. Rob Jenkins at 904-232-1610 and the local
sponsors designated representative.
3.b(8) Property Corners: Locate all property irons and monuments that are found (NO
PROPERTY SURVEY).
3.b(9) UTILITIES: The scope of this survey should include locating and providing data on all the
existing aerial/underground utilities within the two areas. Locate all the existing aerial/surface utilities.
Data required includes but is not limited to the field location of sanitary and storm sewer mains, trunks,
laterals, catch basin and manholes, potable water mains, meters and valves, fire protection mains,
electrical lines and poles and lowest point along the lines, transformers, junction boxes, and manholes,
telephone lines, junction boxes, and manholes, cable television lines and junction boxes and Gas/Natural
Mains. All utility information secured for this survey must be shown on the drawings.
3.b(9)a. SANITARY AND STORM SEWERS: The survey should include a manhole
diameter, manhole construction material, size of lines, type of pipe, line size invert elevations, drop
elevations in the manholes and top elevation of manholes. Obtain invert elevation and top elevations for
all catch basins.
3.b(9)b. POTABLE WATER: The survey should indicate the location and elevations of
the valves, meters mains.
3.b(9)c. FIRE PROTECTION MAINS: Locate all fire protection mains, fire hydrants, size of
mains, type of pipe, and the type and location of valves in the survey area.
3.b(9)d. ELECTRICAL POWER LINES AND TELEPHONE LINES AND BOXES: Locate
all aerial and underground lines and manholes within the survey area. Indicate the height and location (in
X-Y coordinates) of poles for all aerial lines. The survey shall include the channel crossing and a
minimum of two supporting structures (poles, towers,) beyond. In the event the crossing creates a
junction within the two supporting structures the survey shall include two supporting structures in the
direction of each leg created. Indicate the low wire elevation of all lines crossing the channel and at the
power pole. The survey Contractor shall indicate electrical lines supported on bridges, and sizes of
conduit, etc.
3.b(9)e. CABLE TELEVISION: Locate and name all aerial and underground cable
television lines and manholes. Indicate the height and location (in X-Y-Z coordinates) of poles or
manholes lines. Indicate the low wire elevation of all lines crossing the channel.
3.b(9)f. HIGHWAY RIGHT-OF-WAY/EASEMENTS. All highway or road right-of-way or
easements shall be researched for recorded as-built data. Obtain additional Real Estate data as
necessary including deeds, maps, title and parcel data in the vicinity to determine the correct positions of
the subject right-of-way or easements. Perform a field survey traversing and connecting all available
corners for each parcel or tract of land. The recorded data shall be included in the digital files.
3.b(9)g. UTILITY RIGHT-OF-WAY OR EASEMENTS. All electrical, telephone, sewer,
water, cable, and electrical easements shall be researched for recorded as-built data. Obtain additional
Real Estate data as necessary including deeds, maps, title and parcel data in the vicinity to determine the
correct positions of the subject parcels. Perform a field survey traversing and connecting all available
corners for each parcel or tract of land as needed. The record data shall be included in the digital files.
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3.c BREAKLINE. Breaklines shall be located for all natural or man-make features as needed (on
sections). The breaklines shall be located with X, Y, and Z and identified.
3.d DATA COLLECTION (KINEMATIC/RTK OR TOTAL STATION). Data collection will be allowed for
data points only, showing all instrument positions, calibration, backsites and closing readings in the field
book. Mr. Robar shall be contacted if you plan to use GPS (RTK) before utilizing. If RTK is utilized Q1
and Q2 files shall be furnished. Before using RTK, one session shall be performed around the expected
survey area. After observation of the primary control (four monuments; one on each corner of the work
area) the geoid model shall be prepared utilizing the four occupied monuments data. The geoid model
shall be furnished to the Corps of Engineers for review and acceptance. CAUTION, unless the one
session is observed with the four monuments before modeling the geoid, all data will be rejected and
returned to the Contractor.
4. DATA PROCESSING. The Contractor shall make the necessary computations to verify the
correctness of all measurements and apply the proper theory of location in accordance with the law or
precedent and publish the results of the survey. The Contractor shall submit advance copies of the
horizontal control so that USACE can compute the final positions before setting property corners that
shall be established. Compute and tabulate the horizontal and vertical positions on all work performed.
Review and edit all field data for discrepancies before plotting the final drawings.
4.a. Furnish X, Y, Z and descriptor ASCII file for each cross section and locate feature and one X, Y,
Z, and descriptor ASCII file with all sections and features included.
5. CADD. The survey data shall be translated or digital capture into Intergraph IGDS 3D design files
according to the specifications furnished. The survey data (cover, control, site plan, plan sheets, and
section drawings) shall be provided in Intergraph MicroStation (PC or 32) Version 4.0 or higher, AT&T
System V UNIX, CLIX R3.1 Vr. 6.3.2 format as shown in the letter dated 30 September 1992. The neat
mapping area on all sheets (covers and plans) shall be 30-inches by 25-inches.
5.a. GLOBAL ORIGIN. The IGDS 3-D design file shall be prepared with a global origin of 0,0,
2147483.658, Design file master units: MM., Sub units: 1,000, and positional units: 1. The file name shall
be the survey number prefixed to a "C," i.e., C269S1.DGN. All reference file's name shall commence with
the C269 also.
5.b. DIGITAL TERRAIN MODEL (DTM) DATA. The Contractor shall develop and deliver a surface
model of the survey area using Intergraph compatible Digital Terrain Modeling software and the model file
shall have the .dtm extension. The digital terrain model shall be developed from cross sections, spot
elevations, and breaklines. Breaklines should include ridges, drainage, road edges, surface water
boundaries, and other linear features implying a change in slope. The surface model shall be of
adequate density and quality to produce at 1-Foot minor contour interval and major contours on an
interval of 5-Foot derived from the original DTM (Digital Terrain Model) file. The contour data shall be
incorporated as a reference file into the final data set. All data used to develop the DTM's shall be
delivered in Intergraph 3-D design files.
5.b(1) CONTOURS. The contours shall be developed in the digital terrain model (DTM). The
contours shall be provided in one or more master DGN files and attached as a reference file to all sheet
files utilizing the clip bounds methods. Each contour shall be drawn sharp and clear as a continuous solid
line, dashed contours are not acceptable. Every index contour shall be accentuated as a heavier line
than the intermediate and shall be annotated according to its actual elevation above NGVD 29.
Whenever index contours are closer than one-quarter (1/4) inch, and the ground slope is uniform, the
intermediate shall be omitted (in this case only plot the 5-Foot contours). Labeling or numbering of
contours shall be placed on top of the contour line, so that the elevation is readily discernible, do not
break contours. Labeling of intermediate contours may be required in areas of low relief.
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
I-9
5.c. MASTER DGN FILES. (Scale 1:1)
5.c(1) The survey data (DTM data points) points shall be provided in one or more master DGN file
and attached as a reference file to all sheet files utilizing the clip bounds methods.
5.c(2) The planimetric data shall be provided in one or more master DGN file and attached as a
5.c(3) The culvert/weirs data shall be provided in one or more master DGN file and attached as a
5.c(4) The bridge data shall be provided in one or more master DGN file and attached as a
5.c(5) The road data shall be provided in one or more master DGN file and attached as a
5c(6) The utility data points shall be provided in one or more master DGN file and attached as a
5.c(7) The contours shall be provided in one or more master DGN file and attached as a reference
file to all sheet files utilizing the clip bounds methods.
5.c(8) The breaklines shall be provided in one or more master DGN file and attached as a
reference file to all sheet files utilizing the clip bounds methods DO NOT PLOT THE BREAKLINES.
5.d. COVER AND CONTROL SHEET. The first sheet shall be a cover sheet showing the control
sketch, survey control tabulation, sheet layout or index, legend, project location map, survey notes, north
arrow, graphic scale, grid ticks, and large signature block. Tabulate, plot, and list the horizontal control
used for the survey on the final drawings.
5.e. PLAN SHEETS: The plan sheets shall be prepared to a scale of 1:1000 and 1:200 (METRIC),
in the Corps of Engineers format (reference letter and instruction dated September 30, 1992) showing
notes, title block, grid, north arrow, graphic scale, legend, sheet index, and D. O. File Number. Sheets
shall be oriented with north to the top. The extreme right 177.8MM/7 inches of the sheet shall be left
blank for notes, legends, etc. The second sheet and all sheets following shall be a continuation sheet and
shall have a minimum of two notes, note 1: See Drawing number 1 for notes, note 2: Refer to Survey No.
01-269. Plans sheets title block shall be labeled as shown in Enclosure 4.
5,e(1) Section Views. The sections shall be extracted and displayed from the digital terrain
model (DTM OR TNT) utilizing INROADS OR INXPRESS. The sections shall be generated or extracted
along the same azimuth as the section was collected in the field. The sections shall be displayed at a 10
to 1 vertical exaggeration. The planimetric lines (alignment of extraction), alignment, stations, and cross
sections shall be displayed in one DGN file, DO NOT PLOT .
6. MAP CONTENT.
6a. Coordinate Grid: Grid ticks (English) of the applicable State Plane Coordinate System shall be
properly annotated at the top, bottom and both sides of each sheet. Spacing of the grid ticks shall be
127MM/5 inches apart.
6.b. CONTROL. All horizontal and vertical ground control monuments shall be shown on the maps in
plan and tabulated. In addition, show the channel limits (station, range and R/W) on the completed
drawings.
6.c. PLANIMETRIC. The maps shall contain all surface-visible utilities and planimetric which are
visible or identifiable.
6.d. TOPOGRAPHY. The map shall contain all representable and specified topographic features
which are visible or identifiable.
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
I-10
6.e. SPOT ELEVATIONS. Spot elevations shall be shown on the maps in proper position. In areas
where the contours are more than 3 inches apart at map scale, spot elevations shall be shown. The
horizontal distance between the contours and such spot elevations or between the spot elevations shall
not exceed two (2) inches at scale of delivered maps.
6.f. CONTOURS. The contours shall be developed in the digital terrain model (DTM). Each contour
shall be drawn sharp and clear as a continuous solid line, dashed contours are not acceptable. Every
index contour shall be accentuated as a heavier line than the intermediate and shall be annotated
according to its actual elevation. Whenever index contours are closer than one-quarter (1/4) inch, and
the ground slope is uniform, the intermediate shall be omitted. Labeling or numbering of contours shall
be placed on top of the contour line, so that the elevation is readily discernible, do not break contours.
Labeling of intermediate contours may be required in areas of low relief.
6.g. MAP EDIT. All names, labels, notes, and map information shall be checked for accuracy and
completeness. All commercial buildings, roads and man made features shall be labeled with the type of
construction, purpose and name. All residences shall be labeled with the type of construction.
6.h. SHEET INDEX AND LEGEND. On plan drawings a small scale sheet index shall be shown on
each sheet of the series; highlighting the sheets in the standard manner. Planimetric and topographic
feature legends shall be shown on each sheet. Contractor logo shall be shown on each drawing.
6.i. MAP ACCURACY. All mapping shall conform to the national map accuracy standards except that
no dashed contour line will be accepted.
7. SURVEY/QUALITY CONTROL REPORT. The Contractor shall furnish a digital (*.doc) file on the final
CD. The report shall include Right-of-Entry information, Control monuments Designation recovered,
destroyed, fixed, included in control network, tide gauge location and monument used, dates of field
survey collection, types of equipment used, quality control checks, and digital files. Unique
circumstances and/or issues related to this survey, general approach/methodology to this survey. Along
with any other data required in accordance with the law or precedent and for the Corps of Engineers to
publish the results of the survey.
8. DELIVERIES. On completion, all data required shall be delivered or mailed to Design Branch, Survey
Section at the address shown in contract, and shall be accompanied by a properly numbered, dated and
signed letter or shipping form, in duplicate, listing the materials being transmitted. All costs of deliveries
shall be borne by the Contractor. Items to be delivered include, but are not limited to the following:
8.a. GPS network plan, (before GPS work commences).
8.b. GPS raw data log sheets filled out in field with all information and sketches.
8.c. Plan sheet layout.
8.d. Computation files with Horizontal and Vertical abstracts along with any Q1 and Q2 files.
8.e. Horizontal and Vertical Field Books.
8.f. Furnish X, Y, Z, and descriptor ASCII file for each cross section and one merged with all data
collected for all cross section.
8.g. DTM File.
8.h. DGN files to a scale of 1:1000 and 1:200.
8.i. Furnish a digital file using CORPSMET 95 (Metadata Software) with the appropriate data included.
8.j. Advance paper plots of all plan sheets, cover sheet and control sheets for approval.
8.k. Final paper plots on standard sized (30-inches by 42-inches, 2 set paper plots).
8.l. Survey Report C269*.doc file.
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
I-11
I-1. Loading RINEX Files for Baseline Processing
This screen capture in Figure I-2 below shows how the RINEX baseline observation files (e.g., *.02o) are
loaded from the source file directory into the program GPSurvey. At this stage baselines can be
selectively included or excluded from the adjustment.
Figure I-2. Loading RINEX data files
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
I-12
The screen capture in Figure I-3 below taken from GPSurvey shows which files were actually selected to
be loaded for the project. In this example, all the observed lines were included.
Figure I-3. Selected files for baseline processing
This box shows the method that GPSurvey uses to load the files into
the program to process the baselines--using time as the way to see
what observations were taken at what times. This allows the user to
edit the points, and if they are good control points, to input the station
names and the correct coordinates.
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
I-13
This screen in Figure I-4 shows the RINEX navigation file (e.g., *.02n) that is selected for the processing
with the baseline file.
Figure I-4. Loading RINEX navigation files
This box shows the RINEX navigation file that goes with the
correct observation file.
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
I-14
This screen capture (Figure I-5) from the Trimble WAVE Baseline Processor shows what baselines will
be processed using the times of the observation as the key to processing.
Figure I-5. Trimble WAVE Baseline Processor file listing
This is the area of the computations that selects which files will be
used to process the observations using the start and stop times.
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
I-15
Figure I-6 depicts the files transferred and loaded for baseline processing. The files are sorted by
observation time. All files were selected for processing.
Figure I-6. Loaded files sorted by observation times
The files that are shown in the top FILES box area can be selected for
processing and will be moved to the SELECTED box below. The files can
be used for more than one processing due to the extended times of the
control point. The single baseline method was used on this project to allow
all of the baselines to be processed. The multi-baseline method can also
be used and then only the part of the baselines will be processed.
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
I-16
Figure I-7 shows the file loading status--with observation 11570791 currently loading.
Figure I-7. Loading individual baseline observation files
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
I-17
I-2. Static Baseline Processing (Trimble WAVE Baseline Processor)
This screen (Figure I-8) shows the setup for processing static baseline observations. Start and stop times
are indicated. In this example, "All Baselines" were selected. "Independent" or "User Defined" baselines
could have been opted at this stage.
Figure I-8. WAVE setup for baselines to be processed
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
I-18
This screen capture (Figure I-9) shows the Advanced Control options that can be specified--e.g., satellite
elevation mask, iterations, search times, etc. The Broadcast Ephemeris is selected in this example--if the
Precise Ephemeris were available, then this file could have been loaded. Residual Generation and
Antenna Phase Correction options are also turned on for these baseline reductions.
Figure I-9. Trimble WAVE Baseline Processor Advanced Controls screen
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
I-19
As baselines are being processed, this screen (Figure I-10) shows which specific baseline is currently
being processed and its completion status.
Figure I-10. Trimble WAVE Baseline Processor--Static Processing screen
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
I-20
As processing progresses, for each completed baseline the WAVE Baseline Processor outputs the display
shown in Figure I-11 below. From Station, To Station, Solution Type, Slope Distance, Ratios, Reference
Variances, and Antenna Height data are tabulated for code, triple, float and/or fixed solutions. The
adequacy of the baseline solutions is evaluated from the resultant ratios and variances, as was described in
Chapter 10. (A detailed baseline reduction summary report is not shown for lines on this project--see
Chapter 10 for a typical example).
Figure I-11. Trimble WAVE Baseline Processor--Static Processing screen
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
I-21
I-3. Constrained Network Adjustment (Trimble GPSurvey)
Figure I-12 below shows the screen that starts the loading of all of the baselines into the GPS network for
the free and final adjustments. During this process one can change the names of baselines if errors were
made and were not put on the observation log sheets.
Figure I-12. Trimble GPSurvey option screen
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
I-22
Fixed values are set for the known control points. (Only 6 of the 9 fixed points are listed below). All are
fixed in X, Y, and orthometric elevation, except point PR 054 which is fixed only in X-Y.
COORDINATE EDITING FIELD
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
PT# NAME NORTH/EAST ELL(H)/ORTH(h) FIX KNWN
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1 PR 052 215011.4802 -7.5431 YX-h YXHh
232319.5773 33.8990
2 PR 053 216017.8960 4.0567 YX-h YXHh
232771.9230 45.4270
3 PR 054 216466.5690 20.4581 YX-- YXHh
232394.4000 61.7864
4 PR 204 214840.3600 -10.9963 YX-h YXHh
232081.2180 30.4390
5 PR 205 214972.4560 -10.4586 YX-h YXHh
231867.1890 30.9650
6 PR 206 215719.3160 52.5379 YX-h YXHh
231966.5380 93.8970
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ESC=EXIT ENTER=SAVE ,TAB=CURSOR PgUp PgDn (ALT)F2-F5=(SET)CLEAR FIX
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
I-23
ADJUSTMENT ACTIVITY LOG
NETWORK = 01269
TIME = Tue Aug 20 13:09:54 2002
Adjustment process underway.
Computing closures.
Closures have been computed.
Indexing observation equations and unknowns.
Number of sub-networks = 1.
Number of inner constraints sub-network 1 = 0.
Sub-network 1: Fixed y = 9 Fixed x = 9 Fixed H = 0
Fixed h = 8.
Points included in sub-network 1:
PR 052
PR 053
PR 054
PR 204
PR 205
PR 206
PR 209
PR 210
PR 211
PR 303
PR 304
PR 305
PR 306
PR 307
Initializing parameter group 1: GPS Observations.
90 horizontal observations
45 vertical observations
45 observed azimuths
45 observed distances
Located in sub-network 1.
9 fixed latitudes
9 fixed longitudes
0 fixed ellipsoid heights
8 fixed orthometric heights
Y rotation parameter 1 = 31.
X rotation parameter 2 = 32.
Azimuth rotation parameter 3 = 33.
Network scale parameter 4 = 34.
Omitting parameter 5 by user choice
Initializing parameter group 3: Geoid Model.
0 horizontal observations
14 vertical observations
0 observed azimuths
0 observed distances
Located in sub-network 0.
0 fixed latitudes
0 fixed longitudes
0 fixed ellipsoid heights
8 fixed orthometric heights
Transformation 1 ruled ineligible.
Number of fixed horizontal coordinates = 18.
Number of fixed vertical coordinates = 8.
Number of observation equations = 149.
Number of vertical observation equations = 59.
Number of unknowns = 34.
Number of inner constraint equations = 0.
The following observations are excluded from the
adjustment:
# 39
# 40
# 41
The following points were excluded from the
adjustment:
none
Proceeding with observation equations.
Turning on graphics before going into adjustment
iteration.
Beginning adjustment iteration 1.
Forming observation equations.
Performing observation covariance inverses.
Forming constants and normal equations.
Computing normals inverse.
Computing observation residuals.
Solutions from iteration 1:
1 2.854913e-005
2 -2.935114e-005
3 -9.454666e-006
4 -1.135234e-006
5 -1.135234e-006
6 1.091846e-007
7 2.731083e-008
8 -5.073252e-006
9 1.715210e-005
10 1.715210e-005
11 -1.007466e-006
12 4.382808e-007
13 6.931903e-006
14 6.931903e-006
15 6.961781e-007
16 -2.403132e-007
17 8.987806e-006
18 1.346934e-005
19 1.346934e-005
20 2.070258e-005
21 1.626538e-005
22 1.626538e-005
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
I-24
ADJUSTMENT ACTIVITY LOG
(Continued)
23 -1.993965e-005
24 -4.512070e-007
25 -1.089678e-005
26 -3.463680e-006
27 -4.153571e-006
28 -4.153571e-006
29 6.861524e-007
30 -1.480108e-007
31 2.050461e-004
32 1.875429e-003
33 6.811946e-005
34 -6.488047e-010
Recomputing closures for check on residuals
Iteration check on residuals (tolerance = 1.0e-005):
eq # 1 obs # 1 = -1.172920e-002 - -1.172920e-002 = +1.809317e-015
eq # 2 obs # 2 = -2.725732e-003 - -2.725732e-003 = +3.192759e-015
eq # 3 obs # 3 = -3.388132e-021 - +0.000000e+000 = +3.388132e-021
eq # 4 obs # 4 = +2.743241e-003 - +2.743241e-003 = +4.312089e-015
eq # 5 obs # 5 = +1.184806e-003 - +1.184806e-003 = +1.869165e-016
eq # 6 obs # 6 = +1.445093e-002 - +1.445093e-002 = +1.059916e-015
eq # 7 obs # 7 = -9.747927e-003 - -9.747927e-003 = +5.759282e-016
eq # 8 obs # 8 = +1.903540e-003 - +1.903540e-003 = +1.575563e-015
eq # 9 obs # 9 = +3.920341e-003 - +3.920341e-003 = +1.554312e-015
eq # 10 obs # 10 = +0.000000e+000 - +0.000000e+000 = +0.000000e+000
eq # 11 obs # 11 = -8.470329e-022 - +0.000000e+000 = +8.470329e-022
eq # 12 obs # 12 = +2.117582e-022 - +0.000000e+000 = +2.117582e-022
eq # 13 obs # 13 = +0.000000e+000 - +0.000000e+000 = +0.000000e+000
eq # 14 obs # 14 = +6.776264e-021 - +0.000000e+000 = +6.776264e-021
eq # 15 obs # 15 = -6.987002e-001 - -6.987002e-001 = +3.958023e-011
eq # 16 obs # 16 = +3.973133e-003 - +3.973130e-003 = +3.200652e-009
eq # 17 obs # 17 = +5.760878e-002 - +5.760878e-002 = +1.616346e-013
eq # 18 obs # 18 = +1.586500e+000 - +1.586500e+000 = +5.998612e-008
eq # 19 obs # 19 = -2.164304e-002 - -2.164304e-002 = +5.047094e-009
eq # 20 obs # 20 = +6.403900e-003 - +6.403901e-003 = +7.033141e-010
eq # 21 obs # 21 = +2.027594e+000 - +2.027594e+000 = +2.697398e-011
eq # 22 obs # 22 = +4.625992e-002 - +4.625992e-002 = +5.238827e-010
eq # 23 obs # 23 = -6.325114e-003 - -6.325114e-003 = +1.996675e-013
eq # 24 obs # 24 = +9.153852e+000 - +9.153853e+000 = +3.238207e-007
eq # 25 obs # 25 = +6.079804e-003 - +6.079805e-003 = +1.324542e-009
eq # 26 obs # 26 = +1.030900e-002 - +1.030900e-002 = +2.308817e-010
eq # 27 obs # 27 = -1.284557e+001 - -1.284557e+001 = +4.230263e-007
eq # 28 obs # 28 = +1.100492e-002 - +1.100492e-002 = +1.224835e-009
eq # 29 obs # 29 = +3.674400e-002 - +3.674400e-002 = +5.064874e-010
eq # 30 obs # 30 = +9.199836e+000 - +9.199836e+000 = +6.668890e-007
eq # 31 obs # 31 = +7.156526e-002 - +7.156526e-002 = +1.585227e-009
eq # 32 obs # 32 = -8.199078e-003 - -8.199080e-003 = +2.176101e-009
eq # 33 obs # 33 = +3.572660e+000 - +3.572660e+000 = +6.910694e-011
eq # 34 obs # 34 = -6.813613e-002 - -6.813613e-002 = +4.435793e-009
eq # 35 obs # 35 = +1.161688e-002 - +1.161688e-002 = +1.747977e-013
eq # 36 obs # 36 = -4.230644e+001 - -4.230644e+001 = +2.053469e-012
eq # 37 obs # 37 = -6.084741e-002 - -6.084741e-002 = +8.463078e-010
eq # 38 obs # 38 = +1.902216e-002 - +1.902216e-002 = +9.575674e-016
eq # 39 obs # 42 = +6.152651e+000 - +6.152651e+000 = +5.531042e-011
eq # 40 obs # 43 = -4.564548e-003 - -4.564547e-003 = +1.372292e-009
eq # 41 obs # 44 = -5.731869e-003 - -5.731869e-003 = +1.098175e-013
eq # 42 obs # 45 = -7.877954e-001 - -7.877955e-001 = +1.334509e-007
eq # 43 obs # 46 = +3.354646e-002 - +3.354646e-002 = +1.968335e-009
eq # 44 obs # 47 = +1.752018e-002 - +1.752019e-002 = +5.410225e-010
eq # 45 obs # 48 = +6.442804e-001 - +6.442799e-001 = +4.696995e-007
eq # 46 obs # 49 = -8.173709e-003 - -8.173708e-003 = +6.671547e-010
eq # 47 obs # 50 = +4.028200e-003 - +4.028195e-003 = +4.943828e-009
eq # 48 obs # 51 = +7.818527e+001 - +7.818527e+001 = +5.998611e-008
eq # 49 obs # 52 = +4.574225e-001 - +4.574225e-001 = +5.047094e-009
eq # 50 obs # 53 = -2.897678e-001 - -2.897678e-001 = +7.036552e-010
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
I-25
ADJUSTMENT ACTIVITY LOG (Continued)
eq # 51 obs # 54 = -1.433430e+000 - -1.433430e+000 = +2.697398e-011
eq # 52 obs # 55 = +1.431538e-002 - +1.431537e-002 = +5.238827e-010
eq # 53 obs # 56 = -7.738471e-004 - -7.738471e-004 = +1.996680e-013
eq # 54 obs # 57 = -6.310346e+001 - -6.310346e+001 = +4.630607e-011
eq # 55 obs # 58 = +5.137484e-001 - +5.137484e-001 = +1.054321e-009
eq # 56 obs # 59 = -2.815387e-001 - -2.815387e-001 = +1.278977e-013
eq # 57 obs # 60 = +8.221172e+001 - +8.221172e+001 = +1.446183e-007
eq # 58 obs # 61 = +3.601027e-001 - +3.601027e-001 = +1.398636e-009
eq # 59 obs # 62 = -2.123748e-001 - -2.123748e-001 = +1.761587e-009
eq # 60 obs # 63 = +1.433463e+002 - +1.433463e+002 = +2.587701e-007
eq # 61 obs # 64 = +3.651871e-001 - +3.651871e-001 = +3.239688e-009
eq # 62 obs # 65 = -7.682988e-002 - -7.682989e-002 = +4.859315e-010
eq # 63 obs # 66 = -8.057405e+000 - -8.057408e+000 = +2.663404e-006
eq # 64 obs # 67 = -2.428793e-002 - -2.428794e-002 = +1.056293e-008
eq # 65 obs # 68 = +1.022291e-002 - +1.022291e-002 = +2.236477e-009
eq # 66 obs # 69 = +1.043459e+000 - +1.043459e+000 = +4.850657e-007
eq # 67 obs # 70 = +3.335514e-002 - +3.335514e-002 = +6.000156e-009
eq # 68 obs # 71 = -3.885174e-003 - -3.885173e-003 = +1.363619e-009
eq # 69 obs # 72 = -2.530377e+001 - -2.530377e+001 = +5.300641e-007
eq # 70 obs # 73 = +1.943408e-001 - +1.943408e-001 = +1.436075e-009
eq # 71 obs # 74 = +5.981976e-002 - +5.981976e-002 = +6.784776e-010
eq # 72 obs # 75 = -3.876707e+002 - -3.876707e+002 = +6.668890e-007
eq # 73 obs # 76 = -5.318146e-001 - -5.318146e-001 = +1.585227e-009
eq # 74 obs # 77 = -1.246179e-001 - -1.246179e-001 = +2.177010e-009
eq # 75 obs # 78 = -4.999991e+000 - -4.999992e+000 = +2.567016e-007
eq # 76 obs # 79 = -8.464778e-004 - -8.464774e-004 = +4.184973e-010
eq # 77 obs # 80 = +5.878313e-002 - +5.878313e-002 = +3.522176e-010
eq # 78 obs # 81 = -3.041574e+001 - -3.041574e+001 = +1.918465e-013
eq # 79 obs # 82 = +6.040496e-001 - +6.040496e-001 = +8.466833e-010
eq # 80 obs # 83 = -7.491374e-002 - -7.491374e-002 = +2.220446e-016
eq # 81 obs # 84 = -8.818368e+000 - -8.818368e+000 = +6.838974e-013
eq # 82 obs # 85 = +5.804676e-002 - +5.804676e-002 = +1.436223e-009
eq # 83 obs # 86 = -5.248905e-002 - -5.248905e-002 = +7.896461e-015
eq # 84 obs # 87 = -1.775986e+001 - -1.775986e+001 = +6.124193e-007
eq # 85 obs # 88 = +7.135368e-002 - +7.135368e-002 = +1.861621e-009
eq # 86 obs # 89 = -4.440025e-002 - -4.440025e-002 = +5.002584e-010
eq # 87 obs # 90 = -6.772805e+000 - -6.772805e+000 = +1.807343e-007
eq # 88 obs # 91 = -7.871768e-003 - -7.871767e-003 = +1.556578e-009
eq # 89 obs # 92 = -8.291872e-003 - -8.291872e-003 = +3.354864e-010
eq # 90 obs # 93 = -1.806235e+001 - -1.806235e+001 = +1.588827e-006
eq # 91 obs # 94 = -4.562904e-003 - -4.562893e-003 = +1.067908e-008
eq # 92 obs # 95 = -4.474693e-003 - -4.474691e-003 = +2.553851e-009
eq # 93 obs # 96 = +1.623485e+000 - +1.623485e+000 = +5.698642e-011
eq # 94 obs # 97 = +2.373179e-002 - +2.373180e-002 = +1.653033e-009
eq # 95 obs # 98 = +2.825941e-003 - +2.825941e-003 = +2.628063e-014
eq # 96 obs # 99 = -1.054534e+001 - -1.054534e+001 = +1.824318e-012
eq # 97 obs # 100 = -2.877803e-002 - -2.877803e-002 = +1.195649e-009
eq # 98 obs # 101 = -4.835661e-002 - -4.835661e-002 = +4.281298e-015
eq # 99 obs # 102 = -8.425857e+001 - -8.425857e+001 = +9.947598e-014
eq # 100 obs # 103 = +3.183408e-001 - +3.183408e-001 = +8.360663e-010
eq # 101 obs # 104 = +1.388665e-001 - +1.388665e-001 = +8.049117e-016
eq # 102 obs # 105 = -2.764462e-001 - -2.764464e-001 = +2.750273e-007
eq # 103 obs # 106 = -1.645783e-002 - -1.645783e-002 = +2.075703e-009
eq # 104 obs # 107 = -9.338660e-003 - -9.338667e-003 = +7.330924e-009
eq # 105 obs # 108 = -6.531868e+000 - -6.531868e+000 = +1.349563e-007
eq # 106 obs # 109 = -2.225955e-002 - -2.225956e-002 = +2.050959e-009
eq # 107 obs # 110 = -4.099432e-002 - -4.099433e-002 = +4.002003e-009
eq # 108 obs # 111 = -9.038680e+001 - -9.038680e+001 = +3.029304e-007
eq # 109 obs # 112 = +2.265426e-001 - +2.265425e-001 = +2.131102e-009
eq # 110 obs # 113 = +1.169143e-001 - +1.169143e-001 = +2.070887e-009
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
I-26
ADJUSTMENT ACTIVITY LOG (Concluded)
eq # 111 obs # 114 = +2.037355e+001 - +2.037355e+001 = +2.851333e-007
eq # 112 obs # 115 = +9.310192e-003 - +9.310186e-003 = +6.041398e-009
eq # 113 obs # 116 = +4.737690e-003 - +4.737689e-003 = +1.041203e-009
eq # 114 obs # 117 = -1.192683e+002 - -1.192683e+002 = +1.931255e-011
eq # 115 obs # 118 = +2.685878e-001 - +2.685878e-001 = +5.685091e-009
eq # 116 obs # 119 = +3.448002e-001 - +3.448002e-001 = +2.232659e-013
eq # 117 obs # 120 = -4.574976e+002 - -4.574976e+002 = +5.053889e-007
eq # 118 obs # 121 = +1.969103e-001 - +1.969103e-001 = +8.038071e-010
eq # 119 obs # 122 = +4.035390e-001 - +4.035390e-001 = +5.586175e-010
eq # 120 obs # 123 = +4.347293e+000 - +4.347293e+000 = +6.027581e-007
eq # 121 obs # 124 = +2.905365e-002 - +2.905365e-002 = +4.957338e-009
eq # 122 obs # 125 = +9.965576e-003 - +9.965577e-003 = +8.288416e-010
eq # 123 obs # 126 = -3.646539e+000 - -3.646539e+000 = +1.978812e-008
eq # 124 obs # 127 = -2.164740e-002 - -2.164740e-002 = +2.524004e-010
eq # 125 obs # 128 = -1.541062e-002 - -1.541062e-002 = +1.220997e-009
eq # 126 obs # 129 = +9.490985e+000 - +9.490985e+000 = +2.209788e-012
eq # 127 obs # 130 = +3.390364e-002 - +3.390364e-002 = +2.073581e-009
eq # 128 obs # 131 = +2.135251e-001 - +2.135251e-001 = +1.421085e-014
eq # 129 obs # 132 = -2.072900e+001 - -2.072900e+001 = +2.623430e-010
eq # 130 obs # 133 = +2.839774e-002 - +2.839773e-002 = +9.410564e-009
eq # 131 obs # 134 = +1.905402e-002 - +1.905402e-002 = +1.155499e-013
eq # 132 obs # 135 = +5.346306e+001 - +5.346306e+001 = +1.856001e-006
eq # 133 obs # 136 = -4.327163e-002 - -4.327162e-002 = +1.013239e-008
eq # 134 obs # 137 = -2.995442e-003 - -2.995444e-003 = +2.334752e-009
eq # 135 obs # 138 = +9.531944e-001 - +9.531939e-001 = +5.226953e-007
eq # 136 obs # 139 = -5.585728e-003 - -5.585722e-003 = +5.518201e-009
eq # 137 obs # 140 = +7.454290e-003 - +7.454295e-003 = +4.226804e-009
eq # 138 obs # 141 = +2.174733e-001 - +2.174733e-001 = +2.825215e-011
eq # 139 obs # 142 = +1.392240e-002 - +1.392241e-002 = +3.276267e-009
eq # 140 obs # 143 = +2.256987e-002 - +2.256987e-002 = +1.521283e-013
eq # 141 obs # 144 = +1.819094e+000 - +1.819094e+000 = +3.490333e-007
eq # 142 obs # 145 = +2.807063e-002 - +2.807064e-002 = +6.859983e-009
eq # 143 obs # 146 = +2.239743e-003 - +2.239741e-003 = +1.289568e-009
eq # 144 obs # 147 = -1.721200e+001 - -1.721200e+001 = +1.612694e-006
eq # 145 obs # 148 = +7.842632e-003 - +7.842637e-003 = +4.262680e-009
eq # 146 obs # 149 = -3.978830e-003 - -3.978828e-003 = +2.201065e-009
eq # 147 obs # 150 = -6.138768e+000 - -6.138769e+000 = +7.859648e-007
eq # 148 obs # 151 = +2.141678e-002 - +2.141677e-002 = +5.741399e-010
eq # 149 obs # 152 = +8.847308e-003 - +8.847305e-003 = +2.683643e-009
Successful adjustment 1 iterations
Beginning adjustment summary in stats.log.
Beginning coordinate adjustment in coords.log.
Coordinate adjustment summary complete.
Beginning plots of error ellipses.
Ellipse plotting complete.
Proceeding with adjustment of observations.
Observation adjustment complete.
Statistics summary complete.
Plot histograms.
Histogram plotting complete.
Computing covariances in azimuth, distance and height.
Covariance processing complete.
Iterations complete, so turning graphics off.
Graphics turned off.
Closing activity log.
TIME = Tue Aug 20 13:09:56 2002.
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
I-27
CLOSURES LOG
NETWORK = 01269
TIME = Tue Aug 20 13:09:54 2002
OBS# TYPE BACKSIGHT FORESIGHT CLOSURE TRANSFORM
1 hgoid PR 052 -0.011729m 0.000000m
2 hgoid PR 053 -0.002726m 0.000000m
3 hgoid PR 054 0.000000m 0.000000m
4 hgoid PR 204 0.002743m 0.000000m
5 hgoid PR 205 0.001185m 0.000000m
6 hgoid PR 206 0.014451m 0.000000m
7 hgoid PR 209 -0.009748m 0.000000m
8 hgoid PR 210 0.001904m 0.000000m
9 hgoid PR 211 0.003920m 0.000000m
10 hgoid PR 303 0.000000m 0.000000m
11 hgoid PR 304 0.000000m 0.000000m
12 hgoid PR 305 0.000000m 0.000000m
13 hgoid PR 306 0.000000m 0.000000m
14 hgoid PR 307 0.000000m 0.000000m
15 gpsaz PR 206 PR 204 -0.698700" -3.394764"
16 gpsht PR 206 PR 204 0.003973m -0.228487m
17 gpsds PR 206 PR 204 0.057609m 0.083265m
18 gpsaz PR 206 PR 305 1.586500" -3.391457"
19 gpsht PR 206 PR 305 -0.021643m -0.216107m
20 gpsds PR 206 PR 305 0.006404m 0.054952m
21 gpsaz PR 206 PR 052 2.027594" -3.393058"
22 gpsht PR 206 PR 052 0.046260m -0.263303m
23 gpsds PR 206 PR 052 -0.006325m 0.074304m
24 gpsaz PR 305 PR 205 9.153853" -3.394245"
25 gpsht PR 305 PR 205 0.006080m 0.082280m
26 gpsds PR 305 PR 205 0.010309m 0.056380m
27 gpsaz PR 305 PR 204 -12.845573" -3.394136"
28 gpsht PR 305 PR 204 0.011005m -0.011935m
29 gpsds PR 305 PR 204 0.036744m 0.050882m
30 gpsaz PR 305 PR 052 9.199836" -3.392437"
31 gpsht PR 305 PR 052 0.071565m -0.046754m
32 gpsds PR 305 PR 052 -0.008199m 0.027313m
33 gpsaz PR 052 PR 205 3.572660" -3.392647"
34 gpsht PR 052 PR 205 -0.068136m 0.129742m
35 gpsds PR 052 PR 205 0.011617m 0.042640m
36 gpsaz PR 052 PR 204 -42.306444" -3.392533"
37 gpsht PR 052 PR 204 -0.060847m 0.035526m
38 gpsds PR 052 PR 204 0.019022m 0.027557m
39 gpsaz PR 204 PR 205 31.946543" -3.390954"
40 gpsht PR 204 PR 205 -0.010386m 0.095248m
41 gpsds PR 204 PR 205 0.062515m 0.023619m
42 gpsaz PR 206 PR 205 6.152651" -3.394882"
43 gpsht PR 206 PR 205 -0.004565m -0.134274m
44 gpsds PR 206 PR 205 -0.005732m 0.070769m
45 gpsaz PR 206 PR 307 -0.787796" -3.386272"
46 gpsht PR 206 PR 307 0.033546m -0.101236m
47 gpsds PR 206 PR 307 0.017520m 0.074743m
48 gpsaz PR 206 PR 304 0.644280" -3.390719"
49 gpsht PR 206 PR 304 -0.008174m -0.189596m
50 gpsds PR 206 PR 304 0.004028m 0.047512m
51 gpsaz PR 206 PR 305 78.185273" -3.391457"
52 gpsht PR 206 PR 305 0.457422m -0.216107m
Geoid Model
Closures
GPS Baseline
Closures
azimuth (")
height (m)
distance (m)
Excluded from
adjustment
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
I-28
CLOSURES LOG (Continued)
53 gpsds PR 206 PR 305 -0.289768m 0.054952m
54 gpsaz PR 206 PR 052 -1.433430" -3.393058"
55 gpsht PR 206 PR 052 0.014315m -0.263303m
56 gpsds PR 206 PR 052 -0.000774m 0.074304m
57 gpsaz PR 206 PR 053 -63.103459" -3.386483"
58 gpsht PR 206 PR 053 0.513748m -0.178852m
59 gpsds PR 206 PR 053 -0.281539m 0.080682m
60 gpsaz PR 304 PR 054 82.211724" -3.385721"
61 gpsht PR 304 PR 054 0.360103m 0.223656m
62 gpsds PR 304 PR 054 -0.212375m 0.096682m
63 gpsaz PR 304 PR 307 143.346314" -3.386373"
64 gpsht PR 304 PR 307 0.365187m 0.088764m
65 gpsds PR 304 PR 307 -0.076830m 0.072159m
66 gpsaz PR 304 PR 305 -8.057408" -3.391576"
67 gpsht PR 304 PR 305 -0.024288m -0.026103m
68 gpsds PR 304 PR 305 0.010223m 0.013164m
69 gpsaz PR 304 PR 052 1.043459" -3.393177"
70 gpsht PR 304 PR 052 0.033355m -0.073299m
71 gpsds PR 304 PR 052 -0.003885m 0.040451m
72 gpsaz PR 304 PR 053 -25.303768" -3.386585"
73 gpsht PR 304 PR 053 0.194341m 0.011146m
74 gpsds PR 304 PR 053 0.059820m 0.065489m
75 gpsaz PR 305 PR 052 -387.670687" -3.392437"
76 gpsht PR 305 PR 052 -0.531815m -0.046754m
77 gpsds PR 305 PR 052 -0.124618m 0.027313m
78 gpsaz PR 305 PR 053 -4.999992" -3.385844"
79 gpsht PR 305 PR 053 -0.000846m 0.037693m
80 gpsds PR 305 PR 053 0.058783m 0.077383m
81 gpsaz PR 052 PR 053 -30.415742" -3.384242"
82 gpsht PR 052 PR 053 0.604050m 0.085161m
83 gpsds PR 052 PR 053 -0.074914m 0.103621m
84 gpsaz PR 053 PR 054 -8.818368" -3.389982"
85 gpsht PR 053 PR 054 0.058047m 0.212127m
86 gpsds PR 053 PR 054 -0.052489m 0.055061m
87 gpsaz PR 053 PR 307 -17.759856" -3.390630"
88 gpsht PR 053 PR 307 0.071354m 0.077236m
89 gpsds PR 053 PR 307 -0.044400m 0.019765m
90 gpsaz PR 307 PR 054 -6.772805" -3.390188"
91 gpsht PR 307 PR 054 -0.007872m 0.134036m
92 gpsds PR 307 PR 054 -0.008292m 0.035398m
93 gpsaz PR 209 PR 306 -18.062349" -3.391626"
94 gpsht PR 209 PR 306 -0.004563m -0.062671m
95 gpsds PR 209 PR 306 -0.004475m 0.019314m
96 gpsaz PR 206 PR 054 1.623485" -3.385611"
97 gpsht PR 206 PR 054 0.023732m 0.033654m
98 gpsds PR 206 PR 054 0.002826m 0.080868m
99 gpsaz PR 209 PR 054 -10.545342" -3.394912"
100 gpsht PR 209 PR 054 -0.028778m -0.156773m
101 gpsds PR 209 PR 054 -0.048357m 0.073623m
102 gpsaz PR 209 PR 053 -84.258567" -3.395767"
103 gpsht PR 209 PR 053 0.318341m -0.369270m
104 gpsds PR 209 PR 053 0.138867m 0.119357m
105 gpsaz PR 306 PR 307 -0.276446" -3.394771"
106 gpsht PR 306 PR 307 -0.016458m -0.231562m
107 gpsds PR 306 PR 307 -0.009339m 0.083548m
108 gpsaz PR 306 PR 054 -6.531868" -3.394121"
109 gpsht PR 306 PR 054 -0.022260m -0.096678m
110 gpsds PR 306 PR 054 -0.040994m 0.055759m
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
I-29
CLOSURES LOG (Continued)
111 gpsaz PR 306 PR 053 -90.386796" -3.394977"
112 gpsht PR 306 PR 053 0.226543m -0.309177m
113 gpsds PR 306 PR 053 0.116914m 0.100033m
114 gpsaz PR 054 PR 307 20.373552" -3.391484"
115 gpsht PR 054 PR 307 0.009310m -0.136809m
116 gpsds PR 054 PR 307 0.004738m 0.035406m
117 gpsaz PR 054 PR 053 -119.268323" -3.391690"
118 gpsht PR 054 PR 053 0.268588m -0.214424m
119 gpsds PR 054 PR 053 0.344800m 0.055080m
120 gpsaz PR 307 PR 053 -457.497609" -3.391042"
121 gpsht PR 307 PR 053 0.196910m -0.078470m
122 gpsds PR 307 PR 053 0.403539m 0.019768m
123 gpsaz PR 211 PR 306 4.347293" -3.397813"
124 gpsht PR 211 PR 306 0.029054m 0.299146m
125 gpsds PR 211 PR 306 0.009966m 0.131473m
126 gpsaz PR 209 PR 307 -3.646539" -3.395561"
127 gpsht PR 209 PR 307 -0.021647m -0.291657m
128 gpsds PR 209 PR 307 -0.015411m 0.102740m
129 gpsaz PR 211 PR 209 9.490985" -3.397023"
130 gpsht PR 211 PR 209 0.033904m 0.358618m
131 gpsds PR 211 PR 209 0.213525m 0.131534m
132 gpsaz PR 211 PR 210 -20.728997" -3.389977"
133 gpsht PR 211 PR 210 0.028398m 0.026161m
134 gpsds PR 211 PR 210 0.019054m 0.015150m
135 gpsaz PR 210 PR 303 53.463059" -3.390187"
136 gpsht PR 210 PR 303 -0.043272m 0.015632m
137 gpsds PR 210 PR 303 -0.002995m 0.011081m
138 gpsaz PR 210 PR 306 0.953194" -3.398670"
139 gpsht PR 210 PR 306 -0.005586m 0.269392m
140 gpsds PR 210 PR 306 0.007454m 0.138704m
141 gpsaz PR 210 PR 209 0.217473" -3.397880"
142 gpsht PR 210 PR 209 0.013922m 0.328864m
143 gpsds PR 210 PR 209 0.022570m 0.136789m
144 gpsaz PR 303 PR 306 1.819094" -3.399319"
145 gpsht PR 303 PR 306 0.028071m 0.250078m
146 gpsds PR 303 PR 306 0.002240m 0.145324m
147 gpsaz PR 306 PR 209 -17.212003" -3.390045"
148 gpsht PR 306 PR 209 0.007843m 0.056902m
149 gpsds PR 306 PR 209 -0.003979m 0.019312m
150 gpsaz PR 211 PR 303 -6.138769" -3.389327"
151 gpsht PR 211 PR 303 0.021417m 0.045389m
152 gpsds PR 211 PR 303 0.008847m 0.026218m
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
I-30
SUMMARY OF COVARIANCES
NETWORK = 01269
TIME = Tue Aug 20 13:09:55 2002
Definition of precision (E x S) = C + P:
Horizontal:
(standard error of adjusted horizontal distance)
3-Dimensional:
(standard error of adjusted slope distance)
Using orthometric height errors
FROM/ AZIMUTH/ 1.00 DISTANCE/ 1.00 HOR PREC/
TO DELTA H 1.00 DELTA h 1.00 3-D PREC
PR 052 -**- -**- -**- -**- -**-
PR 053 +11.5998m 0.0292m -**- -**- -**-
PR 052 -**- -**- -**- -**- -**-
PR 054 +28.0013m 0.0395m +27.8874m 0.0414m -**
PR 052 -**- -**- -**- -**- -**-
PR 204 -3.4532m 0.0290m -**- -**- -*

PR 052 -**- -**- -**- -**- -**-
PR 209 +41.5643m 0.0307m -**- -**- -**-
PR 052 -**- -**- -**- -**- -**-
PR 211 +46.9522m 0.0294m -**- -**- -**-
PR 052 2916'46" 1.46" 3173.919m 0.0172m 1: 184743
PR 303 +46.7669m 0.0541m +46.5919m 0.0547m 1: 184743
PR 052 854'01" 7.71" 430.678m 0.0158m 1: 27341
PR 304 +3.2057m 0.0535m +3.1648m 0.0584m 1: 27341

PR 053 3158'26" 2.25" 2077.146m 0.0170m 1: 122324
PR 303 +35.1671m 0.0539m +35.0639m 0.0547m 1: 122324
PR 053 21334'58" 5.08" 697.314m 0.0146m 1: 47849
PR 304 -8.3941m 0.0569m -8.3632m 0.0584m 1: 47849
PR 053 20902'33" 2.34" 823.967m 0.0086m 1: 96335
PR 305 -8.7670m 0.0481m -8.7264m 0.0509m 1: 96335

(a total of 91 precisions are output ... all similar to the above examples)
This adjustment output file shows the precision of
the 3D line vectors between each of the points in the
network. Since 14 points were in this network (9
fixed and 5 new), a combination of 91 connecting
lines are output ... only a selected few of which are
shown in this tabulation. The precisions shown are
from each point in the survey to every other point in
the survey even if there wasnt a baseline measured
between the points. This summary is used to show
the precision even though the baselines were not
measured and how the entire network fits relative to
the 9 fixed control points.
PR 054 "h" not held fixed
Precision between two fixed points
Precision between fixed
points and new points
1- azimuth accuracy
1- distance accuracy
Precision ratio
distance
1- ortho elev accuracy
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
I-31
OBSERVATION ADJUSTMENT SUMMARY
NETWORK = 01269
TIME = Tue Aug 20 13:09:55 2002
OBSERVATION ADJUSTMENT (Tau = 3.50)
GPS Parameter Group 1 GPS Observations
Azimuth rotation = +3.3908 seconds 1.00 = 1.2360 seconds
Deflection in latitude = -45.7925 seconds 1.00 = 6.9026 seconds
Deflection in longitude = -62.5723 seconds 1.00 = 7.5689 seconds
Network scale = 0.999906082080 1.00 = 0.000005772833
1 -**- hgoid -**- -**- -41.4304m 0.0223m 0.40
1 PR 052 -**- -41.4421m 0.0207m
-**- 1 -0.011729m 0.0084m
2 -**- hgoid -**- -**- -41.3676m 0.0223m 0.12
2 PR 053 -**- -41.3703m 0.0214m
-**- 1 -0.002726m 0.0065m
3 -**- hgoid -**- -**- -41.3282m 0.0223m OPEN
3 PR 054 -**- -41.3282m 0.0223m
-**- 1 +0.000000m 0.0000m
4 -**- hgoid -**- -**- -41.4381m 0.0223m 0.12
4 PR 204 -**- -41.4353m 0.0213m
-**- 1 +0.002743m 0.0065m
5 -**- hgoid -**- -**- -41.4248m 0.0223m 0.05
5 PR 205 -**- -41.4236m 0.0212m
-**- 1 +0.001185m 0.0070m
6 -**- hgoid -**- -**- -41.3735m 0.0223m 0.36
6 PR 206 -**- -41.3591m 0.0192m
-**- 1 +0.014451m 0.0114m
7 -**- hgoid -**- -**- -41.2740m 0.0223m 0.42
7 PR 209 -**- -41.2838m 0.0213m
-**- 1 -0.009748m 0.0067m
8 -**- hgoid -**- -**- -41.2747m 0.0223m 0.08
8 PR 210 -**- -41.2728m 0.0211m
-**- 1 +0.001904m 0.0072m
9 -**- hgoid -**- -**- -41.2858m 0.0223m 0.16
9 PR 211 -**- -41.2819m 0.0212m
-**- 1 +0.003920m 0.0070m
10 -**- hgoid -**- -**- -41.2671m 0.0223m OPEN
10 PR 303 -**- -41.2671m 0.0223m
-**- 1 +0.000000m 0.0000m
This is the adjustment
summary of all of the
control that was used in this
survey. The points have a
difference in the geoid,
horizontal and vertical
observations that were
performed in this survey
based on the geoid model
that was used to adjust the
observation data from the
RINEX files.
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
I-32
OBSERVATION ADJUSTMENT SUMMARY (Continued)
11 -**- hgoid -**- -**- -41.4013m 0.0223m OPEN
11 PR 304 -**- -41.4013m 0.0223m
-**- 1 +0.000000m 0.0000m
12 -**- hgoid -**- -**- -41.4110m 0.0223m OPEN
12 PR 305 -**- -41.4110m 0.0223m
-**- 1 +0.000000m 0.0000m
13 -**- hgoid -**- -**- -41.2891m 0.0223m OPEN
13 PR 306 -**- -41.2891m 0.0223m
-**- 1 +0.000000m 0.0000m
14 -**- hgoid -**- -**- -41.3539m 0.0223m OPEN
14 PR 307 -**- -41.3539m 0.0223m
-**- 1 +0.000000m 0.0000m
15 1 gpsaz -**- -**- 17234'03.2773" 5.7761" 0.04
1 PR 206 -**- 17234'02.5786" 1.2360"
PR 204 1 -0.698700" 5.6423"
16 1 gpsht -**- -**- -63.3097m 0.0807m 0.02
1 PR 206 -**- -63.3058m 0.0370m
PR 204 1 +0.003973m 0.0717m
17 1 gpsds -**- -**- 886.2649m 0.0238m 0.71
1 PR 206 -**- 886.3225m 0.0051m
PR 204 1 +0.057609m 0.0233m
18 2 gpsaz -**- -**- 13608'10.5143" 7.3927" 0.07
1 PR 206 -**- 13608'12.1008" 3.1584"
PR 305 1 +1.586500" 6.6841"
19 2 gpsht -**- -**- -57.0105m 0.0777m 0.10
1 PR 206 -**- -57.0322m 0.0461m
PR 305 1 -0.021643m 0.0625m
20 2 gpsds -**- -**- 584.9467m 0.0261m 0.08
1 PR 206 -**- 584.9531m 0.0099m
PR 209 1 -0.003979m 0.0133m

150 46 gpsaz -**- -**- 813'20.3253" 19.3844" 0.15
1 PR 211 -**- 813'14.1866" 15.1696"
PR 303 1 -6.138768" 12.0680"
151 46 gpsht -**- -**- -0.2522m 0.0570m 0.19
1 PR 211 -**- -0.2308m 0.0470m
PR 303 1 +0.021417m 0.0323m
152 46 gpsds -**- -**- 279.1379m 0.0253m 0.15
1 PR 211 -**- 279.1468m 0.0192m
PR 303 1 +0.008847m 0.0164m
Observations 21 thru 149 similar
(#39, 40, 41 excluded)
Azimuth (gpsaz)
Height (gpsht)
Distance (gpsds
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
I-33
ADJUSTMENT STATISTICS SUMMARY
NETWORK = 01269
TIME = Tue Aug 20 13:09:54 2002
ADJUSTMENT SUMMARY
Network Reference Factor = 1.00
Chi-Square Test ( = 95%) = PASS
Degrees of Freedom = 115.00
GPS OBSERVATIONS
Reference Factor = 1.00
r = 114.04
GPS Solution 9 Reference Factor = 1.00 r = 0.00 *
* excluded baseline
Degrees of Freedom =
No. of obs - no. of unk = 149-34 = 115
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
I-34
GEOID MODEL
Geoid Heights: Reference Factor = 1.00 r = 0.96
Delta Geoid Heights: Reference Factor = 1.00 r = 0.00
WEIGHTING STRATEGIES:
GPS OBSERVATIONS:
Scalar Weighting Strategy:
Station Error Strategy:
H.I. error = 0.0030
Tribrach error = 0.0030
GEOID MODEL:
Scalar Weighting Strategy:
Results of adjusted Geoid model:
Noise in vertical GPS observations: 0.31669041
Variance of geoid model: 0.00049794
Further use of correlated Geoid Model not recommended
**** Adjusted Coordinates ****
Projection Group: NAD-83 SP Lambert
Zone Name: P.R. and V.I.
Linear Units: meter
Angular Units: degrees
Datum Name: NAD-83
Station North East Ortho.
Short Name Height
PR 052 215011.48020 232319.57730 33.89900
PR 053 216017.89600 232771.92300 45.42700
PR 054 216466.56900 232394.40000 61.85600
PR 204 214840.36000 232081.21800 30.43900
PR 205 214972.45600 231867.18900 30.96500
PR 206 215719.31600 231966.53799 93.89700
PR 209 217248.07400 232454.47800 75.30500
PR 210 217663.82000 233850.78100 79.55900
PR 211 217503.61100 233831.92799 80.69100
PR 303 217779.91745 233871.84091 80.47200
PR 304 215436.97244 232386.20863 37.04600
PR 305 215297.53496 232371.91574 36.72700
PR 306 217049.36699 232507.43018 68.77300
PR 307 216167.62873 232624.01503 50.46767
***** End of Report *****
[See Figure I-16 for screen capture view of the adjusted points]
Fixed Points
New Points
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
I-35
I-4. Adjustment Output Plots
Horizontal and elevation errors are graphically depicted, as shown in Figures I-13 and I-14 below. Figure
I-13 contains fixed points, so no error ellipses are generated. Station PR 054 was held fixed in position
but not in elevation; thus, the elevation and height standard errors are shown.
Figure I-13. Trimble GPSurvey positional error plots
This graph depicts the one-sigma error at each of the various points in
the adjusted network. For both the horizontal and vertical scales, each
of the bar ticks equals a centimeter. These error values will change after
the geoid is added and some of the higher error observations can be
taken out of the adjustment.
EM 1110-1-1003
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I-36
This GPSurvey output graph shows one-sigma error ellipses and scales for some selected new points in
the adjustment. Displays should be set to depict 95% accuracies instead of one-sigma values.
Figure I-14. Trimble GPSurvey positional error ellipses at adjusted points
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
I-37
The following screen capture (Figure I-15) of the adjustment output shows a histogram of the network's
standardized (or normalized) residuals. The top figure shows the histogram for combined horizontal and
vertical residuals. These residual plots should resemble a bell curve, as is apparent. A rough evaluation
of potential outliers can be observed by noting residuals falling outside the 3-sigma level. As can be seen
below, a few observations are outside the 3-sigma level, but none exceed 4-sigma.
Figure I-15. Trimble GPSurvey Standardized Residual histograms
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
I-38
Figure I-16 is a screen capture of the adjusted coordinates.
Figure I-16. Trimble GPSurvey listing of adjusted coordinates
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
J-1
Appendix J
Application: Upland Disposal Area GPS Control Survey--Manatee Harbor, FL
GPS Survey Report for Manatee Harbor Upland Disposal Area Static Control Survey
Project: Manatee Harbor Upland Disposal, Plans and Specifications Scope Survey,
Manatee Harbor, Manatee County, FL
Project No.: USACOE 01-260, Foresight Surveyors, Inc. 11058
Purpose: To verify and / or establish horizontal coordinates for the upland disposal site control.
Date for Work Done : October, 2001
Equipment Used: Trimble 4700 / 5700 Dual Frequency GPS Receivers in Static mode.
2 - 4700 (Part No. 35846-56): Serial No. 0220137053 0220137059
2 - 5700 (Part No. 40406-46): Serial No. 0220240528 0220240619
Control Points Used:
Horizontal Pts .: NGS and Manatee Co., M 006, M 007, M 009, M 011, and Gillette. (all are First
Order Horizontal control points)
Vertical Pts.: US Army Corps Survey Points MAN MN H 0002, MAN MN H 0004, MAN MN H
0014, MAN MN H 0015, MAN MN H 0016, MAN MN H 0018, MAN MN H 0019, and JEG
FLDNR 092 all of which are Second Order Vertical control points.
* Please see file 01-260Cntrl.doc for control point descriptions sheets.
Horizontal Datum / Projection Used: All coordinates are based on the 1983 North American Datum
(83/86 adjustment), Florida West Zone (0902) of the State Plane Coordinate projection system. The units
are U. S. Feet.
Vertical Datum Used: NGVD 1929, with the units being Feet.
Static Data Collection: All static data was collected using the following parameters:
Epoch logging rate: 15 sec.
Minimum logging time: 1 hr.
Elev. Mask of: 13 deg.
Minimum No. of Satellites: 5
Each static session utilized four (4) Trimble dual frequency GPS receivers collecting at least one hour of
raw data simultaneously. The sessions were planned using independent baselines in order to build a
geometrically strong and complete network. This network has a minimum of three baseline ties for each
of the thirteen points observed. For any sessions which required (because of logistics) the same receiver
to repeat a session at the same point, the tripod / antenna setup would be broken down and re-setup.
EM 1110-1-1003
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J-2
Static Data Collection Cont:
No adverse types of weather conditions occurred during the days of data collection. The days were clear
with higher numbers of satellites during the daylight hours. Overall the data collection phase of the
network went well.
GPS Antenna Height Measurements :
4700 Antenna
The two Trimble 4700 GPS receivers used the Trimble Microcentered L1/L2 GPS antennas with Ground
Planes (Part No. 33429-00) set on standard land surveying tripods with optical tribrachs. The antenna
height for these two 4700 setups was measured using the Trimble, screw together, GPS Antenna HI Rod.
Three measurements were taken around the sides of the antenna to give an average height from the top
center of the monument to the bottom of the notch, at the outside of the ground plane (See R2 in diagram
below). The three measurements were taken each time the antenna was setup.
Trimble Micro Centered L1/L2 GPS Antenna with Ground Plane (Part No. 33429-20)
Dimensions Descriptions
A 0.205 ft. 0.0625 m. Bottom of antenna mount to Nominal Phase Center
B 0.011 ft. 0.0034 m. Top of ground plane to Nominal Phase Center
C 0.022 ft. 0.0069 m. Bottom of ground plane to Nominal Phase Center
R1 0.766 ft. 0.2334 m. Radius to inside of ground plane notch
R2 0.792 ft. 0.2413 m. Radius to outside of ground plane
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
J-3
GPS Antenna Height Measurements Cont.:
Antenna / Tripod Setup for 4700 Receivers with Micro Centered L1/L2 Antenna
* Measurements were to the outside, bottom of the ground plane notch
EM 1110-1-1003
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J-4
5700 Antennas
The two 5700 receivers used the Trimble Zephyr GPS antennas. One had the Zephyr Geodetic (Base)
antenna (Part No. 41249-00), which has a built in ground plane. The other receiver used the Zephyr
(Rover) antenna (Part No. 39105-00) and it does not have a geodetic ground plane. Both receivers used
2.0 meter fixed height tripods and height measurements were from the top, center of the monument, to the
bottom of the antenna mount. Using the fixed height tripod gave us a true height (not uncorrected) of
2.0m to the bottom of the antenna mount.
5700 Base Receiver using the Zephyr Antenna with Ground Plane:
(Receiver Serial No. 0220240619)
* See diagram below.
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1 Jul 03
J-5
Antenna/Tripod Setup for 5700 Base Receiver with Zephyr Antenna (with Ground Plane)
* This setup used a 2.0 meter fixed height tripod.
* Antenna height measurement was to the bottom of the antenna mount.
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
J-6
5700 Rover Receiver using the Zephyr Antenna without Ground Plane:
(Receiver Serial No. 0220240528)
* See diagram below.
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
J-7
Antenna/Tripod Setup for 5700 Rover Receiver, Zephyr Antenna (without Ground Plane)
* This setup used a 2.0 meter fixed height tripod.
* Antenna height measurement was to the bottom of the antenna mount.
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1 Jul 03
J-8
Baseline Processing and Adjustment: The post-processing was performed using Trimbles baseline
processing software, Trimble Geomatics Office (TGO). The network configuration was built in TGO by
selecting certain independent baselines. Once the baselines had been chosen and the known points had
been coordinate seeded, then the processing began. The network consisted of 5 known horizontal (First
Order) points, 6 known vertical (Second Order) points, and 8 unknown points on which coordinates were
established.
Network:
13 points (4 pts as unknowns)
30 baselines
Longest baseline: 16064.1 US Ft.
Shortest baseline: 858.2 US Ft.
Average baseline: 7724.2 US Ft.
Network Configuration:
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
J-9
Baseline Processing and Network Adjustment Cont.
* For complete results please see the subdirectory 01260\Report\Final, which contains files:
GPS Vector Data.htm
BLSummary.html
Recompute Report.htm
The least squares adjustment procedure initially applied the proper amounts of weighting to account for
the systematic and random errors, minimally constrained the network, then progressively held control
points for the best fit overall. The points held fixed are listed below.
Horizontal Pts Held Fixed: NGS and Manatee Co., M 006, M 007, and M 011.
Horizontal Check Points: Gillette and M 009.
Vertical Pts Held Fixed: US Corps Survey Pts: MAN MN H 0002, MAN MN H 0004, MAN MN H
0014, MAN MN H 0016.
Vertical Check Points: MN MAN H 0015, MN MAN H 0018, MN MAN H 0019.
Again, the purpose of the network was to confirm the horizontal control being used and to establish NAD
83/86 coordinates on those surrounding control points. The network tied in well between the NGS points,
but showed a difference with the given NAD 27 State Plane Coordinate values for points H-14, H-15, and
H-16. The average difference between the known values and the static values was an average of N =
1.372 ft and E = 2.596 ft. The resulting values for the three control points (H-14, H-15, H-16) were
different from the existing values, but consistent in the amount and direction that each of the points
varied. The network results can be seen by viewing the point comparison chart on the next page and by
viewing the listed files below.
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
J-10
Comparison of Known vs. Established Coords. for Port Manatee Disposal Area (11058, 01-260)
* Differences are Known values - GPS established values in US Ft.
Pt. No. Northing Easting Elev. Description Control Use Diff. N. Diff. E. Diff. El.
1204123.388 481367.520 6.22 MN MAN H 0014 Fixed Cntrl (V)
14 1204122.023 481365.022 6.22 H-14 GPS 1.365 2.498 0.00
1200858.621 481330.503 10.06 MN MAN H 0015
Cntrl Check
(V)
15 1200857.194 481327.865 10.10 H-15 GPS 1.427 2.638 -0.04
16 1200876.318 479826.925 8.34 H-16 GPS 1.325 2.651 0.00
1204223.158 478775.329 3.00 M 007 Fixed Cntrl (H)
17 1204223.159 478775.329 3.67 M 007 GPS -0.001 0.000 -0.67
6.09 JEG FLDNR Extra Cntrl
18 1201407.569 478755.971 6.09 JEG FLDNR GPS 0.00
1185702.573 485334.530 36.90 GILLETTE
Cntrl Check
(H)
20 1185702.566 485334.577 36.23 GILLETTE GPS 0.007 -0.047 0.67
21 1199657.705 475075.060 7.93 H-2 GPS 0.971 2.816 0.00
22 1200488.395 475290.494 8.70 H-4 GPS 1.115 2.846 0.00
1196102.473 487107.435 27.06 MN MAN H 0018 Extra Cntrl
23 1196102.242 487105.881 26.81 H-18 GPS 0.231 1.554 0.25
1196217.929 485367.492 18.92 MN MAN H 0019 Extra Cntrl
24 1196217.498 485365.950 18.63 H-19 GPS 0.431 1.542 0.30
1188126.786 478648.027 4.00 M 006 Fixed Cntrl (H)
25 1188126.787 478648.027 3.26 M 006 GPS -0.001 0.000 0.75
1188044.468 494781.041 27.00 M 009
Cntrl Check
(H)
26 1188044.478 494781.032 27.51 M 009 GPS -0.010 0.009 -0.51
1204097.907 495355.333 20.00 M 011 Fixed Cntrl (H)
27 1204097.907 495355.333 21.13 M 011 GPS 0.000 0.000 -1.13
Results are also listed in the subdirectory 01260\Report\Final, which contains files:
Network Adjustment Report.html
Loopclosure.html
PtCompare.xls
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
J-11
The resulting coordinates are being given in two different forms: Latitude, Longitude, and Ellipsoid
Height (NAD 83/86, US Feet), as well as State Plane Coordinates (NAD 83/86, Florida West Zone
(0902), US Feet).
Horiz Datum: NAD 83 (86)
Vert. Datum: Ellipsoid Height, Feet
Pt. Name Latitude Longitude Height Description
14 27 38 42.94971 N 82 32 23.78105 W -74.10 MN MAN H 0014
15 27 38 10.61915 N 82 32 24.03548 W -70.21 MN MAN H 0015
16 27 38 10.74326 N 82 32 40.72479 W -71.94 MN MAN H 0016
17 27 38 43.83820 N 82 32 52.58217 W -76.61 M 007
18 27 38 15.95690 N 82 32 52.65850 W -74.18 JEG FLDNR
20 27 35 40.72588 N 82 31 38.76784 W -44.82 GILLETTE
21 27 37 58.46608 N 82 33 33.49749 W -72.27 MN MAN H 0002
22 27 38 06.70136 N 82 33 31.14401 W -71.51 MN MAN H 0004
23 27 37 23.78053 N 82 31 19.56840 W -53.56 MN MAN H 0018
24 27 37 24.84864 N 82 31 38.91726 W -61.72 MN MAN H 0019
25 27 36 04.44314 N 82 32 53.20380 W -76.95 M 006
26 27 36 04.30391 N 82 29 53.87980 W -52.93 M 009
27 27 38 43.29243 N 82 29 48.21374 W -59.41 M 011
Horiz Datum / Proj :NAD 83 (86), SPC FL West Zone (0902), US Feet
Vert. Datum: NGVD 1929, Feet (from network)
Pt. Name Northing Easting Elev. Description
14 1204122.023 481365.022 6.22 MN MAN H 0014
15 1200857.194 481327.865 10.10 MN MAN H 0015
16 1200876.318 479826.925 8.34 MN MAN H 0016
17 1204223.158 478775.329 3.67 M 007
18 1201407.569 478755.971 6.08 JEG FLDNR
20 1185702.573 485334.530 36.23 GILLETTE
21 1199657.705 475075.060 7.93 MN MAN H 0002
22 1200488.395 475290.494 8.70 MN MAN H 0004
23 1196102.242 487105.881 26.82 MN MAN H 0018
24 1196217.498 485365.950 18.62 MN MAN H 0019
25 1188126.786 478648.027 3.25 M 006
26 1188044.468 494781.041 27.51 M 009
27 1204097.907 495355.333 21.13 M 011
Coordinates can also be found in the subdirectory 01260\Report\Final, which contains files:
01-260LLH.doc
01-260NEE.doc
End of Report
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
Glossary-1
Glossary
Absolute Positioning
The unique ability of a GPS receiver to produce positional values without another receiver for reference.
Ambiguity
The unknown number of whole carrier wavelengths between the satellite and the receiver. Also called cycle
ambiguity.
Anywhere Fix
Receiver with unique ability to calculate positions without being given an approximate location and time.
Antispoofing (A/S)
An encryption technique developed by the US Department of Defense (DoD) that when implemented,
denies access to the P-code by any unauthorized users. With antispoofing on, the user will need a DoD-
issued "key" in order to gain access to the P-code.
Apogee
The point in the orbit of a satellite about the earth that is the greatest distance from the center of the earth.
Autocorrelation
In reference to code, a plot of the scalar product of the noise sequence with a delayed copy of itself.
Bandwidth
A measure of the width of the frequency spectrum of a signal expressed in Hertz.
Baseline
The resultant three-dimensional vector V between any two stations from which simultaneous GPS data have
been collected and processed. Generally given in earth-centered Cartesian coordinates where:
V = (x, y, z)
Beat Frequency
Either of the two additional frequencies obtained when two signals of two frequencies are mixed, equal to
the sum or difference of the original frequencies.
Binary Pulse Code Modulation
A two-state pulse modulation using a string of binary numbers or codes. The coding is generally
represented by 1 and 0 with definite meanings attached to each.
Binary Biphase Modulation
Phase changes on a constant frequency carrier of either 0 or 180 degrees. These represent the binary digits 0
and 1, respectively.
Binary Code
A system used in communication where selected strings of 0's and 1's are assigned definite meanings.
Broadcast Ephemeris
The ephemeris broadcast by the GPS satellites.
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
Glossary-2
Canadian National Convention (CNT)
The Canadian standard transformation program for converting between NAD 27 and NAD 83. Accuracy
is often in the range of 0.10 meter and it predicts to within 0.50 meter for 93 percents of all cases.
C/A-Code
The standard Course/Acquisition GPS code, sometimes referred to as the Clear Access Code, also known as
the S- or Standard Code. This code contains a sequence of 1023 pseudo-random binary biphase
modulations on the GPS carrier at a chipping rate of 1.023 MHz, thus having a period of 1 ms.
Carrier
A high-frequency radio wave having at least one characteristic (frequency, amplitude, or phase) which may
be varied by modulation from an accepted value. In general, the carrier wavelength is much shorter than the
wavelength of the codes.
Carrier Beat Phase
The difference between the phase of the incoming Doppler shifted satellite carrier signal and the phase of
the nominally constant reference frequency generated in the receiver.
Carrier Phase
The phase measurement of the carrier wave. The percentage value is usually converted to millimeters.
Carrier Frequency
The frequency of the unmodulated fundamental output of a radio transmitter.
Cartesian/Geocentric Coordinates
A system of defining position which has its origin at the center of the earth with the x- and y-axes in the
plane of the equator. Typically, the x-axis passes through the meridian of Greenwich, and the z-axis
coincides with the earth's axis of rotation. The three axes are mutually orthogonal and form a right-handed
system.
Channel
A channel of a GPS receiver consists of the hardware and the software to track the signal from one satellite
at one of the two carrier frequencies.
Chip
a. The minimum transition time interval for individual bits of either a 0 or a 1 in a binary pulse code,
usually transmitted in a pseudo-random sequence. b. A tiny square piece of thin semiconductor material on
which an integrated circuit is formed or to be formed.
Clock Bias
Difference between clock's indicated time and true universal time.
Code
A system for representing information, together with rules for using the system.
Code Receiver
An instrument that requires a knowledge of the P- or C/A-code to complete its measurements. This type of
receiver will also record the broadcast ephemeris.
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
Glossary-3
Codeless Receiver
An instrument that does not require a knowledge of the P- or C/A-codes to perform measurements. This
type of receiver does not record any ephemeris data. Therefore, before a baseline solution is computed, an
ephemeris file must be obtained from another source.
Collimate
To physically align a survey target or antenna over a mark.
Complete Instantaneous Phase Measurement
A measurement of carrier beat phase which includes the integer number of cycles of phase since the initial
measurement. See Fractional Instantaneous Phase Measurement; Integer-cycle Ambiguity.
Control Points
A point to which coordinates have been assigned. These coordinates can then be held fixed and are used in
other dependent surveys.
Control Segment
A worldwide network of GPS monitoring and control stations that ensure the accuracy of the GPS satellite
orbits and operations of their atomic clocks. The original control segment consists of control facilities in
Diego Garcia, Ascension Island, Kwajalein, and Hawaii, with a master control station at the Consolidated
Space Operations Center (CSPOC) at Colorado Springs, Colorado.
Correlation Type Channel
A channel that uses a correlator to maintain alignment between a receiver generated code and/or carrier
frequency and the incoming satellite code and/or carrier frequency.
Cycle Ambiguity
See Ambiguity.
Cycle Slip
A discontinuity in measured carrier beat phase resulting from a temporary loss of lock in the carrier tracking
loop of a GPS receiver.
D-code (Data Message)
A 1500-bit message included in the GPS signal which reports the satellite's location, clock corrections, and
health. Included is rough information on the other satellites in the constellation.
Datum
A horizontal or vertical reference system for making survey measurements and computations. A set
parameters and control points used to accurately define the three-dimensional shape of the earth. The
datum defines parts of a geographic coordinate system that is the basis for a planar coordinate system.
Horizontal datums are typically referred to ellipsoids, the State Plane Coordinate System, or the Universal
Transverse Mercator Grid System. Vertical datums are typically referred to the geoid. The vertical datum
used in the United States is the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 (NGVD 29), formerly referred to
as the Sea Level Datum of 1929. This datum has been upgraded to the North American Vertical Datum of
1988 (NAVD 88).
Datum transformation, geographic transformation
A method that converts data between two geographic coordinate systems (datum).
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
Glossary-4
Deflection of the Vertical
The angle between the perpendicular to the geoid (plumb line) and the perpendicular to an ellipsoid.
Delay Lock
A code correlation technique where the code received from a satellite is compared with "early" and "late"
versions of the reference code generated by the receiver to obtain a bipolar discrimination function.
DSARC
Defense System Acquisition Review Council, the DoD body which must authorize any major defense
system acquisition.
Delta Pseudo-range
See Reconstructed Carrier Phase.
Differencing
A technique used in baseline processing to resolve the integer cycle ambiguity and to reduce a number of
error sources including oscillator variations and atmospheric and orbital modeling errors. This technique
"differences" the measurement of the carrier beat phase across time, frequency, receivers, satellites, or any
combination of these. The most popular differences are described below:
A single difference between receivers is the instantaneous difference in the complete carrier beat phase
measurements made at two receivers simultaneously observing the same signal.
A double difference between receivers and between satellites is found by differencing the single difference
for one satellite with the single difference for another satellite where both single differences are from the
same epoch.
A triple difference between receivers, between satellites, and between epochs (time) is the difference
between a double difference at one epoch and the same double difference at the following epoch.
Differential Positioning
The determination of the position of an object station relative to a reference station when receivers at each
station are simultaneously tracking the same signals.
Dilution of Precision (DOP)
A measure of the geometric contribution to the uncertainty of a position fix. The more popular terms are
given below:
GDOP - Geometric Dilution of Precision - measurement accuracy in three-dimensional position and time.
PDOP - Position Dilution of Precision (PDOP) - measurement accuracy in three-dimensional position.
HDOP - Horizontal Dilution of Precision (HDOP) - measurement accuracy in two-dimensional horizontal
position.
VDOP - Vertical Dilution of Precision (VDOP) - measurement accuracy as standard deviation of vertical
height.
RDOP - Relative Dilution of Precision (RDOP) - measurement of the quality of baseline reductions.
EM 1110-1-1003
1 Jul 03
Glossary-5
Doppler-aiding
Signal processing strategy that uses a measured Doppler shift to help the receiver smoothly track the GPS
signal, allowing more precise velocity and position measurement.
Doppler Shift
The apparent change in frequency of a received signal due to the rate of change of the distance between the
transmitter and receiver.
Dynamic Positioning
Determination of the position of a moving receiver such as one mounted in a boat. Generally, each set of
coordinates is computed from a single data sample. The GPS was originally conceived for dynamic
positioning of a single receiver; however, it may be used in a differential mode to increase relative accuracy.
Also, referred to as kinematic positioning.
Eccentricity
The ratio of the distance from the center of an ellipse to its focus on the semi-major axis.
Elevation
The height of an object above some reference datum.
Ellipsoid
A geometric shape formed by revolving an ellipse about its minor axis. The term is used interchangeably
with spheroid. An ellipsoid is defined by the length of its semi-major axis a and its flattening f, where:
f = (a - b)/a
and b = length of the semi-minor axis.
The most commonly used ellipsoids in North America are:
Clarke 1866
Geodetic Reference System of 1980 (GRS 80)
World Geodetic System of 1972 (WGS 72)
World Geodetic System of 1984 (WGS 84)
Prior to January 1987, the GPS operated with reference to WGS 72. Since January 1987, it has been
referenced to WGS 84. For most purposes, the GRS 80 and WGS 84 can be considered identical.
Ellipsoid Height
The elevation h of a point above or below the ellipsoid.
Ephemeris
A tabular statement of the positions of a celestial body (satellite) at regular intervals.
Epoch
A period of time or a date selected as a point of reference.
Fast Switching Channel
A switching channel with a time sequence short enough to recover the integer part of the carrier beat phase.
The switching time is generally between 2 to 5 ms.
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Flattening
See Ellipsoid.
Fractional Instantaneous Phase Measurement
A measurement of the carrier beat phase that does not include any integer cycle count.
Frequency Band
A range of frequencies in a region of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Frequency Spectrum
The distribution of signal amplitudes as a function of frequency of the constituent signal waves.
Fundamental Frequency
The GPS fundamental frequency F is 10.23 MHz. The carrier frequencies are:
L1 = 154 * F = 1575.42 MHz
L2 = 120 * F = 1227.60 MHz
Geographic coordinates
A measurement of a location of the earths surface expressed in degrees of latitude and longitude. See
also projected coordinates.
Geoid
An equipotential surface approximating the earth's surface and corresponding with mean sea level in the
oceans and its extension through the continents. In other words, the geoid would coincide with the surface
to which the oceans would conform over the entire earth if the oceans were set free to adjust to the
combined effect of the earth's mass attraction and the centrifugal force of the earth's rotation.
Geodetic Leveling Network
A network of vertical control or benchmarks whose heights are known as accurately as possible, and whose
horizontal position are known only approximately.
Geoid Height
The elevation N of the geoid above or below the reference ellipsoid.
GPS
Global Positioning System. The GPS consists of the NAVSTAR satellites in six different orbits, five
monitor stations, and the user community.
GPS Time
The broadcast GPS time signals are synchronized with atomic clocks at the GPS Master Control Station.
These clocks are in turn periodically synchronized with Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). However,
UTC is incremented by "leap seconds" to correct for the slowing of the earth's rotation with respect to the
sun; GPS time is not. As of July 1990:
GPS time = UTC + 4 seconds
The fundamental time scale for all the earth's timekeeping is International Atomic Time (TAI). It is a
continuous time scale not corrected by "leap seconds." There is a constant offset of 10 seconds between
GPS time and TAI such that:
GPS time = TAI - 10 seconds
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Handover Word
The word in the GPS message that contains time synchronization information for the transfer from the
C/A-code to the P-code.
Horizontal Geodetic Network
A network for which the horizontal coordinate, latitude, and longitude of the control points in the network
are determined as accurately as possible, and heights are known only approximately.
Independent Baseline
Those baselines that provide a unique position solution for a given station.
INS
Inertial Navigation System, which contains an Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU).
Integer-cycle Ambiguity
The unknown integer number of whole carrier cycles between the satellite and receiver.
Integrated Doppler
The accumulation of measured Doppler frequency multiplied by the time interval of measurement, so as to
approximate the integral over time of the Doppler frequency.
Interferometry
See Differential Positioning.
Ionosphere
Region of the earth's atmosphere between the stratosphere and the exosphere approximately 50 to 250 miles
above the surface of the earth.
Ionospheric Refraction Delay
A delay in the propagation of the GPS signal caused by the signal traveling through the ionosphere.
IRON
Inter Range Operation Number. A random number assigned to various orbiting objects assigned by the joint
US/Canadian North American Air Defense Command (NORAD). Each of the GPS satellites has an
individual IRON.
JPO
GPS Joint Program Office, originally located at the US Air Force Space Division at El Segundo, California.
The JPO consists of the US Air Force Program Manager and Deputy Program Managers representing the
Army, Navy, Marine Corps, Coast Guard, Defense Mapping Agency, and NATO.
Kinematic Positioning
Often used to describe dynamic positioning. A GPS differential surveying technique, whereby one GPS
unit, the fixed receiver, stays fixed on a known control point, while another GPS unit, the rover, collects
data on a constantly moving vehicle, all the time continually tracking four or more satellites during the
observation period. This process is done in an effort to ascertain the location or position of the rover
receiver.
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L-band
The radio frequency band from 390 MHz to 1550 MHz. The primary L-band signal radiated by each
NAVSTAR satellite is L1 at 1575.42 MHz. The L1 beacon is modulated with the C/A- and P-codes, and
with the NAV message. L2 is centered at 1227.50 MHz.
L1
See L-band.
L2
See L-band.
Lock
The state of noninterruption in the reception of a radio signal.
Monitor Station
One of five worldwide stations maintained by the DoD and used in the GPS control segment to monitor and
control satellite clock and orbital parameters. Corrections are calculated and uploaded to each satellite at
least once per day. See Control Segment.
Multipath
A phenomenon similar to "ghosts" on a television screen whereby GPS signals from a satellite arrive at an
antenna having traversed different paths. The signal traversing the longer path may have been reflected off
one or more objects--the ground, a vehicle, boat, building or some other surface--and once received by the
antenna, will yield a larger pseudo-range estimate and increase the error. Multipath usually results in
multipath error.
Multipath Error
A positioning error resulting from radio signals traveling from the transmitter to the receiver by two paths of
different electrical lengths.
Multichannel Receiver
A receiver containing multiple channels.
Multiplexing Channel
A receiver channel that is sequenced through a number of satellite signals, each from a specific satellite.
NAD 27
The North American Datum of 1927 uses the Clarke 1866 spheroid to represent the shape of the earth.
The origin of this datum is a point on the earth referred to as Meades Ranch in Kansas. Many NAD 1927
control points were calculated from observations taken in the 1800. These calculations were done
manually and in sections over many years. Therefore, errors vary from station to station.
NAD 83
Many technological advances in surveying and geodesy since the establishment of NAD 27-electronics
theodolites, GPS satellites, very Long Baseline Interferometry, and Doppler systems-revealed weaknesses
in the existing network of control points. Differences became particularly noticeable when linking
existing control with newly established surveys. To address these problems, the North American Datum
of 1983 was developed. It consistently covers North America and surroundings areas and is based upon
both earth and satellite observations using the GRS 80 spheroid. The origin for this datum is the earths
center of mass rather than the point on the earth (as with NAD 27), which causes the locations of previous
control points in North America to shift, sometimes as much as 500 feet. A 10-year multinational effort
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tied together a network of control points for the United States, Canada, Mexico, Greenland, Central
America, and the Caribbean. Because NAD 83 is an earth-centered coordinate system, it is compatible
with GPS data. The raw GPS data is actually reported in the World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS 1984)
coordinate system.
NADCON (North American Datum CONversion)
The standard NAD 27-NAD 83 datum transformations program, created by the United States National
Geodetic Survey. Transformation is derived from a minimum curvature surface from the National
Geodetic Reference System. Approximate accuracy of 0.15-0.50 meter. NADCON is the fastest,
simplest, and most accurate datum transformation for mapping at scale of 1:200 and smaller and is
intended for conversion of NAD 27 to NAD 83 in the continental United States, Puerto Rico, and the
Virgin Islands.
NAV Data
The 1500-bit NAVigation message broadcast by each satellite at 50 bps on both L1 or L2 beacons. This
message contains system time, clock correction parameters, ionospheric delay model parameters, and the
vehicle's ephemeris and health. This information is used to process GPS signal to obtain user position and
velocity. Sometimes referred to as the Navigation message.
Navigation Message
See NAV data.
NAVSTAR
NAVSTAR is the name given to GPS satellites, originally manufactured by Rockwell International.
Observing Session
The period of time over which data are collected.
Orthometric Height
The elevation H of a point above or below the geoid. A relationship between ellipsoid heights and
orthometric heights is obtained from the following equation:
h = H + N
where
h = ellipsoidal height
H = orthometric height
N = geoidal height
Outage
The period of time when a Dilution of Precision exceeds a specified maximum.
Precise or Protected Code (P-Code)
A sequence of pseudo-random binary biphase modulations on the GPS carrier at a chip rate of 10.23 MHz
which repeats once every 267 days. Each 1-week segment of code is unique to a particular GPS satellite
and is generally reset each week.
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Perigee
The point in the orbit of a satellite about the earth that is the least distant from the center of the earth.
Phase Lock
The technique where the phase of a signal is set to replicate the phase of a reference signal by comparing the
phase of the two signals and then using the resultant phase difference to adjust the reference oscillator to
eliminate the difference.
Phase Measurement
A measurement expressed as a percentage of a portion of a wave (e.g., a sine wave). For example, a
complete wavelength is 100 percent; one-half is 50 percent; etc.
Phase Observable
Polar Plot
A circular plot in which elevation and azimuth as a function of time for each satellite, with respect to a
specified location, are predicted and plotted.
Positioning
Determination of a position (usually a GPS antenna) with respect to a coordinate system (WGS 84, UTM,
State Plane, etc.).
Precise Ephemeris
The ephemeris computed after the transmission of the satellite signal and based on satellite tracking
information.
Precise Positioning Service (PPS)
Dynamic positioning of a single receiver based on the P-code. Currently, the PPS is the most accurate
dynamic positioning service offered with GPS.
Projected coordinates
A measurement of locations on the earths surface in a two-dimensional system that locates features based
on their distance from an origin (0,0) along two axes, a horizontal x-axis representing east-west and a
vertical y-axis representing north-south. A map projection transforms latitude and longitude to x,y
coordinates in a projected coordinate system. See also geographic coordinates.
Projected coordinate system
1. A reference system used to measured horizontal and vertical distances of a planimetric map. A
coordinate system is usually define by a map projection, a spheroid of references, a datum, one or
more standard parallels, a central meridian, and possible shifts in the x-and y-directions to locate
x,y positions of points, line, and area features.
2. In ArcInfo, a system with units and characteristics defined by a map projection. A common
coordinate system is used to spatially register geographic data for a given area.
3. A reference system consisting of a set of points, lines and/or surfaces and a set of rules used to
define the position of points in space either in two or three dimensions.
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Projection
A mathematical formula that transforms feature locations between the earths curved surface and a maps
flat surface. A projected coordinate system includes the information needed to transform locations
expressed as latitude values to x,y coordinates. Projections cause distortion in one or more of these
spatial properties-distance, area, shape, and direction.
Pseudolite
A ground-based GPS station that can be used in a ranging solution. The station transmits a signal with a
structure similar to that of an actual GPS satellite.
Pseudo-Random Noise (PRN)
When used as a description of code, it indicates that the code has some random noise-like properties. Each
GPS satellite has a unique PRN number assigned to it.
Pseudorange
The time shift required to a align a replica of the GPS code generated in the receiver with the code received
from the satellite, scaled into distance by the speed of light. The time shift is the difference between the
time of signal of reception and the time of signal transmission where the reception is measured in the
receiver time reference and the transmission is measured in the satellite time reference. Therefore, the
pseudo-range contains several errors including satellite/receiver time offset, and satellite ephemeris error.
Pseudorange Difference
Pseudorange Observable
The difference between the time of transmission and the time of arrival of a particular signal transmitted by
the satellite.
Reconstructed Carrier Phase
The difference between the incoming Doppler-shifted carrier phase and the phase of a nominally constant
reference frequency generated in the receiver. In dynamic applications, the reconstructed carrier phase is
sampled at epochs of the received message code, and the difference in reconstructed carrier phase between
consecutive code epochs is a measure of the change in satellite-to-receiver range between epochs. This is
referred to as the pseudo-range difference, or the delta pseudo-range. In static positioning, the reconstructed
carrier phase is sampled at epochs determined by the receiver clock. The reconstructed carrier phase
changes according to the continuously integrated Doppler shift of the incoming signal, biased by the integral
of the frequency offset between the satellite and receiver oscillators. The reconstructed carrier phase can be
referred to the range between satellite and receiver once the phase ambiguity has been resolved. One cycle
change in the reconstructed carrier phase is one wavelength of the carrier signal change in the range from
satellite to receiver.
Relative Positioning
S-Code
Another name for the C/A-Code.
Satellite Constellation
The arrangement of a set of satellites in space.
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Satellite Message
Sometimes, referred to as the Data (D) code. A low-frequency (50 Hz) stream of data on both carriers (L1
and L2) of the satellite signal. The stream of data is designed to inform the user about the health and
position of the satellite. The satellite message can be decoded by the receiver and used for positioning in
real time.
Selective Availability (S/A)
The policy of the DoD to intentionally degrade the accuracy obtainable from GPS by civilian users.
Simultaneous Measurements
A measurement or set of measurements referred to the same epoch.
Slow Switching Channel
A channel that switches with a period too long to recover the integer part of the carrier phase.
Space Segment
The portion of the GPS system with major components in space (e.g., GPS satellites).
Spheroid
Used interchangeably with ellipsoid.
Squaring-type channel
A receiver channel that multiplies the received signal by itself to obtain a second harmonic of the carrier
which does not contain the code modulation.
Standard Positioning Service (SPS)
Positioning of a single receiver based on the C/A-Code. Also see PPS.
Static Positioning
Determination of the position of a stationary receiver.
Stop-and-Go Kinematic Surveying
A GPS differential survey technique whereby one GPS unit, the fixed receiver, remains fixed on a known
control point, while the other, a rover receiver, collects signals on a point of unknown position for a short
period of time, usually minutes, and then moves to subsequent points to collect signals for a few more
minutes, all the time continually tracking four or more satellites during the observation period. This process
is done in an effort to ascertain the position of the object stations occupied by the rover receiver.
Switching Channel
A channel that is sequenced through a number of satellite signals at a rate that is slower than and
asynchronous with the message data rate.
Time Tag
The time appended to an actual measurement.
Translocation
Troposphere
Inner layer of the atmosphere, located between 6 and 12 miles above the earth's surface.
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User Equivalent Range Error (UERE)
A term for GPS measurement accuracy which represents the combined effects of ephemeris uncertainties,
propagation errors, clock and timing errors, and receiver noise. A high UERE may indicate that S/A has
been imposed on the satellite used.
User Segment
The portion of the GPS with major components that can be directly interfaced by the user (e.g., GPS
receivers).
Visibility Plot
A plot against time of day of the number of satellites which are visible from a specified location.
Y-code
The P-code after encryption.
Z-count Word
The GPS satellite clock time at the leading edge of the data subframe of the transmitted GPS message.

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EM 1110-1-1003

/ 9999.6 = 0.010 / 9999.6 = 1:967,000 [acceptable]

= 1.335 m or 1 part in 25,638.2/1.335 = 1:19,200

Directly solving for and h:

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