First-order Circuits

In the previous two chapters we studied in detail the three basic types of circuit element and analyzed some simple circuits. We considered series and parallel connections of circuit elements of the same kind. We showed in examples how to obtain equivalent one-ports and how to find their solutions. In these examples we used both graphical and analytical approaches. In either approach we needed only algebraic operations; differential equations are not involved in the solution of circuits with one kind of element, no matter how complicated these circuits may be. In this chapter we shall analyze circuits with more than one kind of element; as a consequence, we shall have to use differentiation and/or integration. We shall restrict ourselves to circuits that can be described by first-order differential equations; hence, we give them the name first-order circuits. As a starting point we shall analyze a circuit that contains a linear time-invariant resistor and capacitor. We shall use this simple example throughout the chapter to introduce some basic facts concerning linear time-invariant circuits and systems. First, we shall present the concepts of the zero-input response, the zero-state response, and the complete response, along with a review of solutions of linear nonhomogeneous differential equations. We shall then review the step and impulse functions and show how to find the step and impulse responses. The treatment of higher-order circuits, that is, circuits described by a higher-order differential equation, will be covered in later chapters. Finally, simple nonlinear and time-varying first-order circuits will be treated briefly at the end of this chapter. Our purpose is mainly to introduce simple but useful techniques that are effective for solving circuits with time-varying and nonlinear elements, and thereby to point out the differences between these circuits and circuits containing linear and time-invariant elements. To simplify a number of descriptions in the remainder of this book, we adopt the following terminology. A lumped circuit is said to be linear if each of its elements is either a linear element or an independent source. Similarly, a lumped circuit is said to be time-invariant if each of its elements is either a time-invariant element or an independent source. Thus, the elements of a linear time-invariant circuit are either linear time-invariant elements or independent sources. Similarly, a circuit containing one or more nonlinear elements that are not independent sources is called nonlinear. A circuit containing one or more time-varying elements that are not independent sources is called time-varying. The reason why independent sources are considered separately will become clear later on.

109

1.1
(1.1) ( 1.2)

Chap. 4

First-orderCircuits 110

Linear Time-invariant First-order Circuit, Zero-input Response

In the circuit of Fig. 1.1, the linear time-invariant capacitor with capacitance C is charged to a potential Jtijby a constant voltage source. At t 0 the switch k1 is opened, and switch k2 is closed simultaneously. Thus, the charged capacitor is disconnected from the source and connected to the linear time-invariant resistor with resistance Rat t = O. Let us describe physically what is going to happen. Because of the charge

stored in the capacitor

(Qo

= CVo) a current

will flow in the direction

spec-

ified by the reference direction assigned to i(t), as shown in Fig. 1.1. The charge across the capacitor will decrease gradually and eventually will become zero; the current i will do the same. During the process the electric energy stored in the capacitor is dissipated as heat in the resistor. Let us use our knowledge of circuit theory to analyze this problem. Restricting our attention to t 2::0, we redraw the RC circuit as shown in Fig. 1.2. Note that the reference directions for branch voltages and branch currents are clearly indicated. Jtij,along with the positive and negative signs next to the capacitor, specifies the magnitude and polarity of the initial voltage. Kirchhoff's laws and topology (the parallel connection of Rand C) dictate the following equations:
KVL: vc(t)

= vJ!...t)

t 2::

KCL:
Resistor:

ic(t) + iJ!...t) =0
VR

t 2::0

The two branch equations for the two circuit elements are

(1.3)

= RiR
and

(1.4a) Capacitor:

. dve le= C dt

vc(O)= Vo

or, equivalently,
(lAb) vc(t)

= Vo+ b f~ ic(t') dt'

~,'
E="..l o T
Fig. 1.1
V (0)

k2

~~

i(t) R

..~ =

Vo+

~C

A charged capacitor is connected to a resistor (k1 opens and k2 closes at t = 0).

Sec. 1

Linear Time-invariant First-order Circuit, Zero-input Response 111

iC(t) + vC(o) = Vo

+ vc (t)

Fig. 1.2

An RC circuit, vc(O) = Vo.

In Eq. (1.4a) we want to emphasize that the initial condition of the capacitor voltage must be written together with ic= Cdvc/ dt,' otherwise, the state of the capacitor is not completely specified. This is made obvious by the alternate branch equation (lAb). We have four equations for the four unknowns in the circuit, namely, the two branch voltages Vc and VRand the two branch currents ic and iR. A complete mathematical description of the circuit has been given, and we can go on to solve for any or all of the unknown variables. Suppose we wish to find the voltage across the capacitor. Combining Eqs. (Ll) to (1.4a), we obtain, for t ~ 0,

Cdvc = ic = -iR = _ VR = _ Vc dt R R
or
(1.5) Cd;;,. +

and

vc(O)= va

~ =0

t~ 0

and

vc(O)= va

This is a first-order linear homogeneous differential equation with constant coefficients. Its solution is of the exponential form
(1.6) vc(t) = Ksot where

(1.7)

1 So= -- RC This is easily verified by direct substitution of Eqs. (1.6) and (1.7) in the differential equation (1.5). In (1.6) K is a constant to be determined from the initial condition. Setting t = 0 in Eq. (1.6), we obtain vc(O)= K = Vo. Therefore, the solution to the problem is given by

(1.8) vc(t) =

VOC(lI RC)t

t~ 0

It is important to note that in Eq. (l.8), vc(t) is specifiedfor t ~ 0 sincefor negative t the voltage across the capacitor is a constant, according to our original physical specification. Yet Eq. (1.8), without the qualification of t ~ 0, gives an exponential expression even for negative t. The voltage Vc is plotted in Fig. 1.3 as a function of time. Of course, we can immedi-

Chap. 4 Vc (t)

First-order Circuits

112

T =RC

3T

r4T

/0.0184

8' t

V0

Fig. 1.3

The discharge of the capacitor of Fig. 1.2 is given by an exponential curve.

ately obtain the other three branch variables once Ve is known. (1.4a) we have ( 1.9) ic(t)

From Eq.

= C dve dt = _

Vo C(lIRC)t

> - 0

From Eq. (1.2) we have (LlO)

, t2::0

idt) = -ic(t) = VoC(lIRC)t R

(Lll)

vdt)

= vc(t)

= JIOC(lIRC)t

These curves are plotted in Fig. 1.4. Exercise Show that the light line in Fig. 1.3, which is tangent to the curve Ve at t = 0+, intersects the time axis at the abscissa T. '
Let us study the waveform vc( . ) more carefully. We say that the voltage across the capacitor decreases exponentially with time, as shown in Fig. 1.3. Since exponential curves and simple RC circuits occur very often in the everyday life of electrical engineers, it is important to know their properties precisely. An exponential curve can be characterized by two numbers, namely, the ordinate of the curve at a reference time, say t = 0,

and the time constant T, which is defined by fit) =fiO)ct/T. In the curve of Fig. 1.3 we havefiO) = JIO and T = RC. It is convenient to remember some simple facts about the exponential curve. Assume that JIO = 1; that is, ve(O)= 1; at t = T, ve(T) = c1;:::::0.368, and at t = 4T, ve(4T) =
c4;::::: 0.0184. Thus, at a time equal to the time constant, the exponential curve reaches approximately 37 percent of the starting value, and at four times the time constant, the exponential curve reaches approximately 2 percent of the starting value.

Sec. 1

Linear Time-invariant First-order Circuit, Zero-input Response 113

Remark

The term So -liT = -1/ RC in Eqs. (1.6) and (1.7) has a dimension of reciprocal time or frequency and is measured in radians per second. It is called the natural frequency of the circuit. The concept of "natural frequency" is of great significance in linear time-invariant circuits, as will be illustrated in later chapters. Recall that the unit of capacitance is the farad and the unit of resistance

Exercise

the ohm.

Show that the unit of T

= RC is the second.

is

In circuit analysis we are almost always interested in the behavior of a

Vo -R

t
Fig. 1.4 Network variables ie. in. and Un plotted against time for I 2': o.

Chap. 4

First-order Circuits

114

sources that we consider as inputs or to the initial condition, or to both. In the present example, there is no input, and the response is due to the initial voltage of the capacitor; therefore, we call this response the zero-input response. In ~eneral we give the name zero-input response to the response vf a circuit with no applied input. This zero-input response depends on the initial condition and the characteristics of the circuit. The zero-input response of the simple RC circuit is an exponential curve; it is completely specified by the natural frequency So = -lIRC and the initial voltage J.-O.

1.2

The RL

(Resistor-Inductor) Circuit

The other typical first-order circuit is the RL circuit. We shall study its zero-input response. As shown in Fig. 1.5 for t 0, switch k1 is on terminal B, k2 is open, and the linear time-invariant in~uctor with inductance L is supplied with a constant current 10. At t 0 switch k1 is flipped to terminal C, and k2 is closed. Thus, for t 2::0 the inductor with initial current 10 is connected to a linear time-invariant resistor with resistance R. The energy stored in the magnetic field as a result of 10 in the inductance decreases gradually and dissipates in the resistor in the form of heat. The current in the RL loop decreases monotonically and eventually tends to zero. We can similarly analyze this circuit by writing Kirchhoff's laws and the branch equations. For this purpose we redraw the circuit for t 2::0, as shown in Fig. 1.6. Note that the reference directions of all branch voltages and branch currents are clearly indicated. KCL says iR -h, and KVL states VL - VR O. Using the branch equations for both elements,

<

that is, VL

= L(diddt), =0

iL(O)= 10,and VR= RiR, we obtain the following

differential equation in terms of the current iL: (1.12)

. L -dh + R lL dt

t2::0

h(O)

= 10

Fig. 1.5

For t < 0, switch k1 connects terminal A to terminal B, and k2 is open; therefore, for t < 0, the current 10goes through the inductor L. At
t 0, switch k1 is flipped to C, and switch k2 closes; the current source is then shorted on itself and the inductor current must now go through the resistor R.

Sec. 1

Linear Time-invariant First-order Circuit, Zero.input Response

115

i L (t) 10 0.36810

Fig.1.6

An RL circuit with iL(O)= 10and the waveforms for t 2: O.

This is a first-order linear homogeneous differential equation with constant coefficients; it has precisely the same form as the previous Eq. (1.5). Therefore the solution is the same except for notation:

(1.13) h(t)

= 10C(R/L)t

Z0

where L/ R
quency.

= T is the time constant and So - R/ L is the natural freThe current iL and the voltage VL are plotted in Fig. 1.6.

1.3

The Zero-inputResponse as a Functionof the Initial State For the RC circuit and the RL circuit considered above, the zero-input . responses are, respectively,

(1.14)

vet)

= VOCtiRC

i(t)

= 10C(R/L)t

Z0

The initial conditions are specified by Voand 10, respectively. The numbers f'Oand 10 are also called the initial state of the RC circuit and of the RL circuit, respectively. Now if we consider the way in which the waveform of the zero-input response depends on the initial state, we reach the following conclusion: For first-order linear time-invariant circuits, the zero-input response considered as a waveform defined for 0 :S t < 00 is a linear function of the initial state. Let us prove this statement by considering the RC circuit. We wish to show that the waveform v( ) in Eq. (1.14) is a linear function of the initial state Vo. It is necessary to check the requirements of homogeneity and

Chap. 4

First-order Circuits

116

additivity for the function (see Appendix A, Sec. 2.3). Homogeneity is obvious; if the initial state is multiplied by a constant k, Eq. (1.14) shows that the whole waveform is multiplied by k. Additivity is just as simple. The zero-input response corresponding to the initial state V&is v'(t)

= V&ct/RC
= V6'Ct/RC

t 2 0

and the zero-input response corresponding to some other initial state

t20

Then the zero-input response corresponding to the initial state V&+ V6'is
(V& + Vr)')Ct/RC

This waveform is the sum of the two preceding waveforms. Hence, additivity holds. Since the dependence of the zero-input response on the initial state satisfies the requirements of homogeneity and additivity, the dependence is a linear function. Remark This property does not hold in the case of nonlinear circuits. Consider the RC circuit shown in Fig. 1.7a. The capacitor is linear and time-invariant and has a capacitance of I farad, and the resistor is nonlinear with a characteristic

The two elements have the same branch voltage v, and expressing the branch currents in terms of v, we obtain from KCL dv . dv C - + IR = - + v3 = 0 v(O)= J'O dt dt
Hence dv
v3

_ _

dt

If we integrate between 0 and t, the voltage takes the initial value J'Oand the final value v(t); hence I I

- 2[v(t)]2+ 2J'02 = -t or
( 1.15) Vo
v(t)

vlf+"2

J'02t

This is the zero-input response of this nonlinear RC circuit starting from and J'O
Vo

the initial state J'Oat time O. The waveforms corresponding to J'O= 0.5

= 2)

= 2 are plotted
cannot

be obtained

in Fig. 1.7b. It is obvious that the top curve (for from the lower one (for J'O = 0.5) by multi-

Sec. 1 Linear Time-invariantFirst-orderCircuit, Zero-inputResponse

117

~ C =1 F
(a)

iR ~ v~

v(t) 1 2.0
dv 3 dt +v =0

1.5 2 1

0.5

Va= 0.5
t

o
Fig. 1.7

2 (b)

Nonlinear RC circuit and two of its zero-input responses. The capacitor is linear with capacitance C = 1 farad, and the resistor characteristic is iR = VR3.

plying its ordinates by 4. Clearly the zero-input response is not a linear function of the initial state. From an experimental point of view, this is very important. Suppose we have in our laboratory notebook the scope picture of the zero-input response of a first-order circuit, say, for JIO = 1. If the circuit is linear, the ordinates of the zero-input response for any initial state, say, JIO = k, are simply k times the ordinates of the recorded curve. In the nonlinear case we have to go back to the laboratory or solve
again the differential equation for the initial condition Vo

= k.

1.4

Mechanical Example Let us consider a familiar mechanical system that has a behavior similar to that of the linear time-invariant RC and RL circuits above. Figure 1.8