. l:3i6 a1.

*"'l"t<a
f

REA.DINGS

IN

PSYCT{OLOG\'
experir,nentalists has hitherto ex.

q#

a doubt-I venEure to assert that no one ever will-as gl the t: io-porice natur0 of the emotive pFocess-'* - !/is reasoirable agreethere been that has the argument of The burden of e .experiinentai the purely as posflrla&s to cantp, the within rnenq ,t*"cot"l psvchologtr:, v'hereas therels pretqy radical'disagreement amottg now, tlrat that thls this be .supposed, now' of 'f.pnction' f.gncdon. Let ir not bethe psycholtigists osvcholtigists of rhe 'stipposed' lon"i i.tt" oiafiairs is hrlythlng else than a diiadvantage for ps-1:cholo5.v-at large; abor.e all. let it n\ be thougire that the_eriPefimentalist reioices his .eolleagrres. It is a commonplace of at thJ hck of unanimiry "mlt{,g and function are cogelative t:rms: rtruq-qr. sciences itr"t the biological and rhar idortr"" in knorvledge-.dt,rhe one conditions and is condirioned by advance in the underst""'tii"g'"f tn" oth-er. Onll-, iL-tsl.ch.ol.ogv, funccional analysis-requifdd by the livine of our daily life-had- been carried out to ; degreo'sufficient for thE'quccessful prosecucion of ana' tomical t'ork, befpre the experimental ri'p. thod appeared. Structural lai nn Iven if ihe the osvcholoEv psvchology of way, tven on its r"vavpsychologv mig"hf'proceed fai -""^hnln-rr mioh#"nrnceed I believe at Aristbtle. magtei-, that for Kant or, i.rncdonfiad.nlttea ar that physiqltigical psychologv (in the sense of this paper) has a great fucuie;'arid f subsiribe fuliy to all that has been said of the critical subde# of Brentano's discussio.s, of the delicacyi of discrimination shou6.'in Stoug'5 recent book, of the genius of Jarnes' \r'ork. Nevertheless, I believe CI firorty that dre best f,ope for psr,-choloby lies today in and that the srudy of funcrion v'ill a condnuance of smritural "gely:pit, :untiL-it can be cdrntrslled - by'tho.genetic 'aod, still s1qt, Field "-finel-f,rilit the form both of laboratoqr exmeghod*in experirnental the nrori, by
oressed
"

rrvo standpoints. No one among the

Ed"uard f,ee Thorndike: tt74-tg4g *<&O>--*

ANIA,IAL INTELI"IGENCE'F
r

898

been no exrended resea.fches of a characrer similar to the presen[ one q subjeqr-mar{er or experimental method, it is necessar} to explain :itlg briefl.y its sandpoinr. Ou1 knowl"dgg the mensl life of animals equals in the rnain our koowledge of their "f sense-powers, of their insti'cs or reacdons oerformed rvithout experience, and of rheir reacrions w-hich are buik up Ly experience, Confining our arrention ro the latter, rl-e find it the opinion oi the
b.ettiq,observers and anah'srs

iHts monograph is an arrempt ac an esplanation of the nature of the r process of associarion in rhe aninral nrind. lnasmuch as rhere have

thrt

perimeniing andbf interpreation of rhar natural. experimeot rvhich rneets us in certain pathological cases.

they har.e satisfed- ys as rvell as rhev have \just thar they ar so vague. }tr'e say rh-at.the kitren associates rhe soundi,.kiny kitqy,, lvirh the experience of nice milk to drinlq .v'hich does veiy rv'ell foi a conunonsense anslr,er. It also suffices as.a rebuke to those rvho rvould have the kinen ratiocinate abour the marrer, Q.ut ir fails to rell what real mental conccnt is presenr. Does the kitren fe\"sound of call, memory.image of milk

+ie of animals'fiqds no counterpart in the realm of asiciacions and habirs. We do not k'ngrv horv delicace or how cornplex or how permanenr are the possible absqciarions of any given grouf of animals. And alchough one. rvould be raih. who said that our iTresent equipment of facrs about instincts 'lvas suficieih$ or rhar our cheories abouf ii ruere surely sound, yet our norion of what\ccurs rvhen a chick grabs a worm are fuminous and infallible cornpared notion of ivhat happens -to. 9or rvhen a kitrpn runs into rhe houie ar the',farniliar call. The ..rrori lhrr
sense-organs

the ordinary'associacive processes,rv-irhour aid from abstracr, dorr".p..rri, inferenria{ thinking. These associacive processes therr, as present in animals' mind\d as displar"ed in their ala. are my subieci-matrer. Any one familiar irr..even a general way rvirh the litirarure of comparatiJe psycholog-v w-ill rbqall thac rl'ris parr of rhe freld has received faulw and unsuccessful -ffearmeht{ The carlful #inure and sotid'kno|ledgatr

these reacrions can all beixplained by

b' pcrmission of the Amcrican Psychololical Assotiation ani the author-Th"6;ii.-;t *9".gllh:!1.,y: ll ::!::h are rcproduced here, rvas among the earliest hboraronl researchcs on rrnlmsl lexrnlng.
377

* From rhc Psyc.hologital

Reri.'t! .uo\agrtpls suppletnerrrr, rgqg, l\-o. g.

Reorinred

378

READINGS

IN

PSYCHOLOGY

ANIJ\{AL INTELLIGENCE

l 79

in a saucer in the kitchen, thought of running into the house, a feeling, finally, of 'I will run in"') Doqs he perhaps feel only the sound of the bell and an impulse to rur in, similar in qualiqy to the impulse's rvhich make a tennis player run ro and fro rvhen playing? The word "association" may cover a multitude of essentially different processes, and rvhen a rvriter atribures anyrhing rhat an animal may do to association, his
starement has"only the negrtive value of eliminating reasoning on the one hand and instinct on the orher. His pasition is like that of a zoologisr

about a scientific fact is rvorrhless unless he is a crained scientisq rhere are really in this field special objections co th acceprance of rhe testimony about animals' intelligent bcts rvhich one gets from anecdoces. Such testimony is by no meansjs*dgq wirh testimony abouc rhe size of a fish or the migration of birds, etc. For here one has to deal oor merely rrich

ignorant or inaccurate testimony, but also rvith prejudiced testimon!'. Human folk are as a matter of fact eager to find intelligence in animrls. Thev lik_e_gr. And lvhen rhe animal observed is a pet belonging to them or their $'ier\ds, or rvhen the story is one rhat has been told as a stor\r to entert;in, \urrher complicationi are incroduced. Nor is this all. Besides commonltr- missradng u;hat facts ther- reporr, chet report onl.t' snch
facts as shorv the animal at his best. Dogs ger lost hundreds of times rnd no one ever nodces it or sends an account of it to a scientific magazine. But ler one 6nd hq rvay from Brooklyn to Yonkers and che fact immcdiately becomes a ci\uiating anecdoti. Thousands of cats on thousands of occasions sir helpiessly yos'ling, and,nct one takes thoughr of ir or t'rites ro his friend, the profesor; buu/et onc cat clalr' at the knob of a door supposedlv as a si$nal to be lE'our, rnd straighnlay phis car becomes rhe representative'of rhe lit-mind in all rhe books. The unconscious distordon of thb facts'is olmosr harmless compared to the unconscious neglect of an i.nimal's mental life uncil ic verges on the unusual and marvelous. It is,ris. if some denizen of a planet where communicadon u'as trr thoughp-uariqference, u'ho s,as suiveving humankind -arrd repssttg d-tet psyc-ho-log1.-, should be oblivious to rll o-ut intercom. munic?ljg save such as lthe ps)'chicel-research.societl- hrs noted. It: he

its faults. In'the firss

, but rather a eulogy, intelligence, never about

I I It
:-f;

j
I tende4cy ry--"tt:iglt-,*iversal .lrherevef ig can. lVe wqnfu:

in human narr.lre ro find the marvelous thit rhe*;tars arc so big and so far aparc,

.t s
if.

.7

that the microbes are ss' small and',st thick togetheL-and for much, the same reason rvonder ar the things animals do. They:used ro be u'onderful because of the mvsierious, GJd-given faculqy of instincq rvhich could
almosr remove rpountains. More larcly they have been w'ondered at
marvelous mental pow'ers in profiring by experience. Now imagine'an asuonomer tremendously eagir to pioni thd stars as big as pffiibte, or a bacreriologist rvhose great scientific desire is to demonstrate she microbes to be very, verv littlel l-er there has been .a similar eagerness on the pan of many recen[ writers on anirnal psychology to praise the abiliries of animals. trr cannor help leading ro parrialiw in because

Itr
3

should further misintetpret the casqg

of

mere coincidence

of

thoughu

of theii

'2"

stl
-s!

JII
"&

wrong rhan some give reallv the abnormal or supernormdl psr-chologr- of animals. Further, it rntrst be .cpnfessed thar these r-ices har-e been onlv ame[o-

to telepathic confununicarion, he would noc be more of the anirnrl psychologiscs. In short, the anecdotes

4{ ,:1

q
:\tq
t":
rr

i+*l -t* ,i;j

:rl

rated. noc olfft;i,id.a,{v6en the observarion is firsr-hand. is maie br- rhe psychologist himself. For as men of the urmost skill hare failed to prore good observers in the field of spiritualistic phenomena, so biologism and

deductions from facts and more especiallv. in the choice of facm for investigacion. Horv can scientists rvho ririte like larvyers, defending animals against rhe charge of having no power of rationaliqy, be ar the same time impanial iudges on the benchi Unforrunately the real v'ork in this field has been done in rhis spirir. The levelheadid thinkers v'ho might have l'on valu*ble resr-rlrs har,-e conrenred thcnrselves rvith arguing againsr the theories of rhe eulogisrs; The.t' have not mrde investigarions

'vt

psychologists before the pet terrier or hunted fox ofren become like They, too, hlve looked for rhe intelligent and unusurl and neglected the stupid and normal.
Samson -qhorn

_{
{11

t
a

't

of their orvn. In dle secorttl

place, the f,rcts have gerterall-r' been derived frorn anecdotes. Norv quite apaft fronr such pedlntrt' as insists that a man's rvord

Finalll', in all cases, rvhether of direcr observation or report by good observers or bad, there have been three defects. Onlt a sinqle case is studied, ancl so the resuls are.not necessarilr- tnre of thi wpe;-the observation is nc[ repeared, nor xre the condirions pertecrh- regulated; rhe prevbus trisfon- of the animal in quesrion is not knos'n. Such obsen'ations mal' tell us, if the obsefr-er is perfecth- reliable. thrt a cerrain thing trkes pl*ce; but dtev candot flssur trs thac ic u'ill take plrce universrllv anrong the animals of that speciss, or unirersally s'irh rhe same animal.

380

READI}{GS IN PSYCHOLOGY
be estimated.

ANIIIAL
AII
rhis refers

INTELLiGENCE

387

Nor can the influence of prer.ious exprience

to means of getting knot'ledge about t'har animals do. The next questic,n is, 'Itrlrhat',do.they feeli'rl Previous rvork'has'not furnished'an ans\r,er,or the nraterial for an ansrver to this more important qqestion. Nothing but carefully designed, crucial experiments ian. In- abandoning the old nrethod one ought to seek above all to replace it by one s'hich rvill not onl.r'tell rsof, accrratel)' w,hat they do, and give much-needed informadon horv they do ig bur plso inform us what they feel rvhile they act. To remedy these defects, experiment must be substituted for o$sen'ation and the collection of anecdotes. Thus you immediately get iid of severel of them. You can rpeat the conditions at u'ill, so as to see rvhether or not the animal's behavior is,due to mere coincidence. A number of animals can be subjected to the sarne test, so as to attain qypical results. The animal may be put in situarioo: rvhere its conduct is especially insuuctive. After considerable preliminary observation of animals' behavior under various condidons, I chote for mv general rnethod one which, srnple as it is, possesses several other rnarked advancages besides those rvhich accompany experimeot of any sort. Ii was merely to

the'rt', unless I trvas sure that his moti'e rvas of the standard srrengrh. \\'irh chicks this is not pracricable, o. accounr of rheir dericacr.. Bur riirh thenr dislike of. loneliness ac$ as a unjlorm mori'e ro gec 6:rck ro the other chicks. cacs (or rarher kittens), dogs and chicks riere the subjecrs of rhe experiments. All rvere apparentlv in excellent heairh, ,rr.i "n occasional chick.
DPSCRIPTION OF JPP^S.L,I.TUS

The shape and general appararus of the boxes rvhich rvere used tbr the cam is shorvn bv rhe accompanying dra*.ing of box K. Unless special

put animals t'hen hungw in inclosures from which they could escape by sorne simple acg such as pulling at a loop of cord, pressing a leter, or stepping on a platform. (A detailed description of these boxes and pens ' will be given later.) The anirna.l lvas put in rhe inclosure, food rvas left outside in sighc, and his actions observed", Eesides recording his general behavioq 5p'ecial nodce rvas raken of how he succeeded in doing the neceiEery ait lin case he ditl succeed), and a record rvas kepr of *re dme that he was in the box before performing the suqcessful pull, or clawing; or bite. This rvas repeated uniil the animal had forrned a perfect association befween the sense-impre5sion of *re interior of that box and the impulse leading to the successful movement. When the association n'as thus perfect, the time taken to escape was, of course, pracrically constant
*nd very short.

I
'F
+
1 e

{ ,d

Frc.

If, on the other hand, afrer a certailr tirne the animaFdid not succeed, he was taken oug but not fed. If, afrer a s'n{ficient number of trials, he failed to get ous, the case was recorded as one of complete failure. Enough different sorts of methods of escape vrere tried to make it fairly sure thaf association in general, not association of a particular sort of impulse, was being studied. Enough aniurals were taken v'ith each box or pen to make it sure thaq the results were .riot due to individual peculiarities. None of the animals used had any previous acquaintance rvirh any of phe mechanical conrrivances by which the doors urere opened. So far as possible the animals rvere kepr in a uniform srate of htinger, rvhich lvas practically utter hunger, That is, no cat or dog 'ivas experimented on, rvhen the experimenr invoh'ed any irnportant qqqstion of fact or

,Y#

,#
.s .s

#'
,&
,tft

e
,iii
-.1

figures are giren, ir should be understood that each box is approximately :o inches long, by 15 broad, by rz high. Excepc rvhere meniion is made to the conffarr-, ihe door rvas pulled open by a rveight.arrached to a string rvhich ran over a pulley and was fasrened ro the door, )i.rsr as soon as the animal loosened rhe bolt or bar which held it. Fspecial care rvas taken no[ to have the *.idest openings betw'een the bars at all.near the ler-eq or rvire loop, or s-hat not, s'hich governed the bolr on the door. For the aninral instinctir-ely attack the large openings firsc, and if the mechanism 'which governs the opening of the door is situared near one of rhem, the *nimal's trsk is rendered easier. You do not.then get the associrrionprocess so free from the helping hand of instincr as vou do if vou make the box rvirhour reference ro the posicion of rhe mechanism to be set

i' :i

rti
.iis

{S

,*t

t3

:
READTNGS
.t

IN

PSYCHOLOGY

ANI A IAL I.\*TE LLIGENCE

38i

it. These various mechanisnrs are so sinrple that a verbal desJriocion rvill suffice in mosr cases. The facts *'hich the reader should ,rorl *" the natute of the.,'movernent' rvhich the cat had to make, the .*r" of rhe object at which rhe moyement r,l'as directed, and the..posifion of the objecr in the box." In some special cases attention will also tle called to thi force required. In general, horver'e!, that was very slight (?o to roo giams if applied airectly). The various boxes will be desiguo $-ichin
nared by capital leners. A. A suing attachd to the bolt s'hich held the door ran uP over a oullev on the- front edse of the box, and 'w'as ded to a rvire loop (zrz! in.to i" diameter) haiging 6 inches above the l'loor inTronc center of box, Clawing or biting ir, or rubbing against ir even, if in a certain lval',

back instead of running over a pulley and ending in a rrire loop. trVe tnay call it "String zd." E. A string ren from the bolt holding rhe door up over a pulley and down to the floor outside the box, rv'here it ryas fastened r inches in fronr

of the box and, tt/z

inches to the lefr of the door (looking from the inside). By poking a palv our berrveen the bars and pulling rhis string inward rhe door would be opened. We rnay call E "Srring ou$ide." E]IPERIMENTS I\-ITH
CA,TS

In these various boxes rvere pur ca$ from among the follorving. approximarely their ages while under erperiment.
No. No.

I givc

opened the d-oor. We-may call this bos A "O et front"' "8. A srriog anached to the bolr ran uP over a pulley on th.e front edee of rhe door, rhen across rhe box ro anorher pulley screrved into the inslde of the back of the box r J/a inches belorv che top, and passing over ir ended in a wire loop (i inches in dirrmeter) 6 ioches abol-e the floor in back cenrer of box.-Force apptied to rhe loop or to the sfflng as it ran across rhe top of the box benieen rwo bars lvould open the door. We

t. 9-to montht 2. t:7 montht J. 5-t t montbs 4. S-8 wonths

may call B "O at back." Br. In Br the sffing ran outside the box, corning dorvn through a hole ar rhe back, aod wri therefore inaccessible and invisible from lvirhin. Only by puiling the loop could the door be opened. Br may be called 'iO at baqk zd." ' -C. t door of the usual position and,sizE (as in Fig. r ) lv*s kept cioseri by a wooden button l% inches long, le inch wide, % nch thick' This nrmed on a nail driven into the box lz inch above t'he middle of the top edge of the door. The door'rvould fall inrvard as soon as the bu[tofl wa-s turned from its vertical to a horizontal position. A pull of r z 5 grams wculd do this if applied sideways at the lowest poinr of the bunon z 1/+ inches belortr its pivot. The cats usually clarved the button round by downward pressure on *ts top e@e, which was r% inches above the nail' Then, of .6orr", more force *ni n.".tttty. C may be called "Button." D. The doorlvas in the extreme right of the front. A srring fastened to rhc bolt rvhich held it ran 4tp over a pulley on the toP edge and back to the top edge of the back siJe of the box (3 inches in from the right side) and was there firmly fastened. Th.e lop of the box was of wire screening anrl arched .ver the string % inci above it long im entire t*grh. A slight pull wr the srrittg rnvrvhere opened the door- This box \r':rs !o t 16, but a space 7 X 16 was partitioned off at the left by a wire scr6s{1. D may be called "String." D rlvas the same box as B, but had the sring fastened firmly at the

7. 3-5 n onths 8. 64% momths to. 4-S months rr. 7-8 montht rz. 44 mantbt 13. t8-t9 ,nontht
pracrically the same. trVhen put

into the box the car would show evideor signs of discomfort and of 'an
impulse

to escape from confinernent. Ir tries to sgueeze through any op-ning; ic clarvs and bices at the bars or w'iie; it thrusts irs paws out tfuough any opening and clarvs ar everyrhing-it'reaches; it continues its efforts when it strikes anything loose and shaky; ir may claw er things within'the box. It does noc pay very much attention to the fbod outside,
but seems simply to strive instinctively to escape frorn confinemenE. The

'sf

{1

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-i

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+l
arH

'.i

1I
'!irri

vigor wich which it srruggles is exraordinary. For eight or ten minutes it wfli clarv and bite aod squeze incessnnclv. lVith r3, an old caq and r t, an uncommonly sluggish cat, rhe behat'ior rvas different. They did not strugglep vigorously or conrinually. On some occasions ahel did not even stnlggle ar all. It was thfdodd necessery to ler them out of some box a few times, feeding them each time. Afrcr rhey thus associare climbing out of the box with getting food, they rvill try to gt out whenever put in. They do no[, even then, struggle so vigorously or get so excited as the rest. In either case, whether the inrpulse to struggle be
due

to

an instinctive

resftktr to confineinent or to an association, it

is

likely to succeed in lerting the cau- our of the box. The car that is ciawing all over the box in her impulsire scruggle u'ill probably clau' rhe.string or loop or burton so as to open the door. And graduallv all the other' nonsuccessful impulses rvill be starrrpecl out f,rld the particular impulse leading to the successful act t'ill be..ff1p5.ilin bv the resuiei;rq grlcasure,

"t

,84
w,ir.

.R.E'dDINGS IN }SYCEIOLOCY

r'!I

nBnr Ri.k. ,he c,i NilL

crn\'the button or r@p in aderinirc Thc srdrting ponlr for the formlrjon of !n)- x!v,cirti,{ h rllcsc ctttts. thcn, is drc sci;f instinctivc acrivitiet which arc tro'rs.d $hcn ! cft fcds di'comfort in dle box either bccrusc oI connnmcnt or o dcsin for food. Thi, dilcomfon, plu| cha smsc-implrsion of r sunoundinS, co lining \r1ll, cxplcrscs isclf, prior rny qp*incc, in squcczingE cla\rings. birin6.;tc. From.m;nc rhcs. flormen6 ofl! is ,.l.c!ed bi sL'cc.st. n"t itr; is ttre soninE ooilt only in thc ca; of rh. 6ric l ox cxioricnce'j. r.frer thrt dlc cct hri;ssoci.ri with dlc f..ling of confincrncirt ccrriir inrpulsas \rhich har. l.d to succ.si more $an- orhc6 lnd rre rhird,]' *ing'trrcnerl A .rr thn h.! I..m.d to 6qpc frotrr A bl. cl.wing bd, wlren put iuto C or G, a greater tendencr to clalv.at things than it instinccir-.elv had.ac the 5gart,and a less tendencl' to squeeze through holes. A very plensani form of this clecrease in instiirctive inrp,rlses u'ai noticed in the: gradual cessatiori of horvling and rneu'ing. Hon'ever, thi useless
insrincrite impulses imnrrlses die out orrt slou'ly, slou'lv- and often nlav arr imoortant Dart ofcen plai.an.important instinctTve Part even after the cat hes had experience with six or eight boxes. And what is the activitl previous statement, namell', important in _our fra,t, 1l'1: animal u'hen first put into a nes'box is not directed by anv appreciation of that hox's chaircter, but by certain generol impulses to actr is not
"and

i{). r!,i

ho

in rrrc box, i

;Edi,,.r.r

i;;,1";,1:: *i:.TT"l,'Ji ',*1f',il:il'i;ili'fi t'";xT',*":il: ;"1r";;;-;';";. i;;6;";+a'y;;-i-;''sry rhac hun6r is thc I ll

ll I ll 1 I I 1.^ r 3j^4. .
ll ll ll ll ll ll
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II
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rltl

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I

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t?iaAl
;| ,l \

f\ ^ t^^^ VU ;;;;---T*

affected by this nrodification. r\{ost

standbyinstinct.^.;'I.#"TJii.ii"'ir-ffii,'jl""'i*,il^"*iii-:' outexperience.Itthusinclr'desurtconscio.rrsasrl.el|;.11cqnsciotlsocts, -':ll l"y i""uon, tr'""" t miuy irc* pt'"."i'.cr4 l"t'a$ fir$.*pcricncd, ,i ,. v l be cdkd.Gstinctiyc 4oyj 9p,F ihea. fclt rirll 6c"dl4T,i.-:.t . :on . thc nciitiirs danous:rysrcfi :ystcirr of 0n Ihstinc6 in;ludi{,hddr* ineluda {,hdtEr* ihc imDuls.. Ihstini6 lrincrive i-pulsc. ' 'ti*riv" l\t1-.usc of ttrc uoia *i4 t t'9p. ir crpable * r"i .,,r':.. _ot ""i.'t'*ji+ ",iirn"r, .cvcr{\tL.Ri'rn'k.tbr*1qtf{d{maid.Jf.*..r$9:{.q"T.;.|:.fr::''.'.....]\''
tJi^

l-reredity; iome of it, by previous expeiienci. : ' My use of the rvordi instinctive and.impulse may- cause some deriianding gnless explained here. trf us. ihroughout this book,

of this activity is deter-nrined

by

misununder-

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t ..:. \l..;;;;t--. t Avtruiiiri A . : :-,':.',' :"'I'-^ . ,. .. .,.,.'....

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rh.i. use btie.

+.

0 muscurlr rnn'r!'oon xlP'rtsi '1 r".p.*f.'-",T.,h".{::u:{"I6:,f!'cnd-:i,S_t:-.:,i':lC11::l{.L":i. llo.mPcnjldC

lf rl rnc drr.ct-rcJlhg

.:-:

one

;;;;;;;;L;ilG",i"ii..i;iJ,:r;p.l*;;;ilil:I;;
acr throughour,

vho thinki thrr'rhi acr 6r.rshi not to bc tfii,s rob,ti\id;d into i$ib;6

if

he

$ill fenlenrb.r

thar rhe

lct iri rh;s-r+acr of bejng

i o:'

ItL,ADti+GS
as

i:\

PSf

Ct{0Lt}G}.

,\Ii.\tAl- l\

t L.Lt_lut,-\rit_

iu:

felr as to tre done or

rlr.ing rvhich gets :rssociated,

doing is in aninrals tfie inrportant thing, is tlre t'hile the acr cs done. as vie$:ed from outside.

'

'consciousncss

I prefer to h:rt'e ir separate \t'ord' impulse, for the and keep tlre u'ord acr for the ldrrer, rl'hich ic conulr'rttly nteans. f..rrnrcr,
iecondan' affair.
Starring, then, t'ith its store of instincdve impulses, the cat hits upon rhe successful rnor-ernent,- and gradually associates it 'ivith the $gnffL' impression of the interior of the box until the connection is Perfcct, so
.

tIiiffirfornls

The foirnntion of erch

the act ts soon as confrontcd l'ith the *!i9i$Piggi9l' association mav be represented graphically o'y a time-curve, In rhese curves lengths of ot'tc rrriilirneter along the airscissr represinc successive experiences in dre box, and heights of one-millirneter abtlve it each represents ren seconds ,of time' l'he curve is fornled b'y I lnlnioining the tops of peipendiculars erected afong -1he. abscissa apart lthe firsc-perpendiculrr coinciding rvith the v line), erch perpendicolar repret.nting the time the cat rras in the bo:( llefore escaping. Thus, in Fig. r the cun'e marked r z in A shou's thai, in z4 experiences or

of an.\-irnportant srocli of'free jtl.els or irnpulses, ancl so hrrs dcnicd thnr rnirnrl rtssocirrion is lrr-rnrologons rvith the rrssgciatjon r:f Itrrrnan ps.r'chology'. It hrs honrologized it t'ith ir ccrrain lirnitccl frlrrn of ltunran astuci;rtir.rn, [r hirs proposed, as necessary stcps in the evolurion of hr"rman facrrlty, a r,'trst inciease in tl're number of associarions, signs of u'hich aPPear in the prinrates, antl a freeing of the elernents thereo-f inro independent existence. It has give' an lncre.sed insighr into ':s 'arious mental processes. Tt lrls convinced the l'rire r, if nor theleader, th.ar the

rials-in box.A., cat 12 tooli the follorving tirnes to perform the act, t6o sec.o 30 sec., 90 sec., 60, tj, 28, :o, 3o, 22, tt, l1t zo, 12, 1c', t1, ro,8, 8, 5, lo, B, 6,6,7. Ashort vefiicsl line belowthe abscissa denotes thet an inten'al of approximately :4 hotirs elapsed before the next trial.

trVhere the interval u'as longer ic is desi.gnated trv a figrrre z for ru'o d,r1-s, is 3 for three d'alt, Etc. lf the incerr"al tr':rs shorter, the uutr-rber of hours sgnle in failed cases the.aninral specified b.t* i hr', r lrfs',.eic' In inanl' tiibl to perform the act in ten or fifteert rninutes and wai 'then tbken but by me. Such failures are denoted br- a break ifi the curt:e eithef it its start oi alorrq its course. .In some cases'there are sltorc curves after the main on"r. 'ih.r., as shorvn by t-he figures beneath, rePresent the animal's mastery of the associaiion afrer: a verr long inteival gf tinr"e, and may be

'

c;lled nrernorl' ctlryes.

..

. -

.
,

'

avi{ence, {or thq exteric of gerritory tover'ed har.e ptevgrue$ cogigtelgncss in txplanntion or oftb-rci-it1' antl rhe:need t.ilirisrration.,if-tt't..us"deq carqs heiq, at the lnd,-'t6'htrve dre--:bieadest ' possible statbqrenc of our conclrrsiuns atr.d 'wj'll take qli!: to supply

do not thintri it is rilvisablc bcre, at the close ot rhis paper, to give i suninlen- of its resttlgs: 'Ihe:ptper.itself is reallr- onty sui'ir.n summar)'

'l

of tlre hrost importqnf

-the

' . '

crude lrut proruising,- tnil'has rrirdc 'tlrc beginning Qf tln -exdcr dstimtte -of iLrsr-ir-h,rr nssociirions,- sirtrplc aprl conrp,ir.itrtl, an attirnal 'cru ltc,rIn, 0o1v quiclilr-'he fornrs.srern,.and'fiou'-long-fre rbt*hts thenr..le-has describetl theinethod of ftirmation, and, on tf,e c:ondition tlmt ottr- siibiccts
pbr-' .reDresentative. or infererice, rehson. cr:mparison bnmparisnri oF' reiected teason, iejeqted \\'efe has tias u:ere.representati;, L:-._-r. . -r l_... ..'l - -: -' s.inrilarit\', ancl imitation. Ic has denied the eris e-\lstenca tn anlmal of ceptign --

intportance. i beliere thar our liest ser'r,ici hrrs been to shorv thnr animul inteliection is made up of a lot of specific connecrions, rvhose elemenrs are . restricted to ihem, and rvhich subsen.e pracrical ends directlv, and to homologize it u'ith the intellection involied in such human aisociations ' as regulate the condrtct of ir rnrrn plrrling tennis. The funclarnent,rl phenomenon ri-hich I find presented in rnimal consciousness is one *'hich . can lrlrden inro inherired ionnecrions rnrl relicxes, on rhe one hintl, rnd rhus connecr nitulalir' .*jirh a hrxr c,f th-e'phen,.rnrena of airimal life; on the other hancl, ir enrphqsizes the frrc.r rlrat'o.r nrenral life has g.;;; ;; as a mediation bbni.ee''irinrtil's anci rerction. The old r.i.*, If hu*r'n' consciousness is ihat it is built up our of elementrr,r'sensation5, that.r,erv . bi,rs of cirnsciousness eome firsr and gradtialrv get built into linutc 'p litrre the compler r'eb. Ir lool;s for'tdb beginninfs or ..onrJio,,rness tJ feqiings. This, our aboiishes and declaies thar the progres! ir nor _ ': 'ie*' from lirtle ,rnd sinrple to big and complicnred, bur from tdirJ., tions ro"indirecr coirnectioJrs-iq lifrich-" stock of isolared elemenrs "o,i,r..llays a ' prrr, is from "purd ex-perience" or rrndiffererltiired.ieelings. ro clisciimina' : tiori, on rhe-one-lrand. to g.n.ralizrnns, abstracrionr, Jn rh. other. 'If, -'. . - :as seerris proba{;le, the prirnrrcs-rlispla.r a vo5t incr.cise of '*ipcinriont, "nj , .. -. 'd stock of free-srvimlrring ide4q bur gi'es to the line .f desc,.enr.-a ,":' , , rneaning s'hiclr ii'neger could have m'ie*: t"ngii the quebribn rvrs the r-rrgue . olg. of riro'e. er less."intelligeirce." Ir ir-ill, I lrope, w-hbir support"dir-_ an-inv-estigatjnn of qhe: menrrrtr life r:rf the p-rirnrres and of rtotp.iloa iii . .child tite tr'li*,rr-these djrecllp pincticrrl asioci*ions bec.*.,.".'urlergr-o\r.n br-c'epid lusuri*nce of free idee$,'shorr us the re:rr t.'isrorr-of rhe"origin hulrrn frculrr:. It trrrqs-orrr a-p6mrenrrl' thac a nrodbsr ,nidv of it. 3t. _ {.itr'of associa.tion in animals haig+r*rt .ii." rig,rli-lng hr-pothdsis,for a ..
_

frorn the truth, a;rd-nor ol1 ihe r-old to ir. -l Fin:rllr', * ish to sar thaq alrhouqh rhe chlngcs proposctr in rrre co'ception of nre'tal developnrent have been suggeired- somervhat frag. rnentarily and in various connections, drrr hirs not been done becausJl think rhenr uniurportanr. on rhe conrrar''l-. I rhink thenr of che tirmost
"

old speculnrions about $'hxr 3rl anim,rl could do. l'hrt it thouqht..rnd hori' rih:rt it thouqht greri-into rvh;rt hunrln t,eings thinl<, .,'er. * long uar-