1.

Verbs

Formal classification: Simple Be, have, come, go... Finite and non-finite forms: - The finite forms of the verb can indicate the following categories: person, number, aspect, tense, mood and voice. These forms are e pressed b! s!ntactical forms " # pla!, he pla!s, he pla!ed...$ or anal!tical forms " # am wor%ing, # have wor%ed, he ma! go...$ " con&ugation$ He broke the contract. - The non-finite forms of the verbs are the participle, the infinitive and the gerund. - can e press time relations 'erund: Reading a book is useful. #nfinitive: He was reported to live in Africa. (articiple: I can see a boy reading a book. ). *umber and (erson +e can distinguish between singular and plural onl! in the third person, where the sibilant suffi -,e,s --. ,-s, -i. / is added to the verb stem. 0. 1spect Common aspect -represents the act as a whole He wakes up early every morning. -the action is alwa!s thought of as completed -e presses general or habitual fact, or a particular fact Progressive: a. Durative: The progressive aspect can e press duration onl! with verbs whose meaning is durative: wor%, read, lie... He works n his garden every day. b. #terative: +ith iterative verbs, which e press repetition, iteration, the progressive form conve!s the meaning of both duration and repetition. Leaves are dropping from the trees. c. #ngressive: (oint-action verbs net to an act as a whole, but to onl! one point, either the beginning or the end. Im getting tired. ) Progressive aspect -represents the action as progressing (roceeding, as not ended. 1ccording to the meaning of the verb, it can e press duration, repetition, beginning or end of an act. Derivative undress, rewrite, widen... Compound whitewash, underline...

d. 2ffective: #f the verb indicates that the action or state is approaching, is progressing toward and end. He is getting deaf. The following verbs are rarel! found in progressive: (erception: see, hear, smell, notice, recogni.e. Thought: thin%, forget, remember, %now, understand, suppose, mean, believe, recall, recollect. +ill: want, wish, desire, refuse, forgive. 2motion: care, love, li%e, be found of, adore, hate, be angr!, be anno!ed, be pleased. 3iscellaneous: seem, appear, signif!, belong to, contain, hold, matter, consist of, posses, have, be 4. Tense " Time is philosophical categor!, Tense is grammatical$ The word tense stands for a verb form or series of verb forms indicating a time relation. (rimar! tenses: simple, continuous "common, progressive aspect$ 5. 3ood 3oods are the changes in form of the verb to show the various wa!s in which the action or state is thought of b! the spea%er. a. #ndicative: represents something as a fact, or as in close relation with realit!. He goes home in the evening. b. #mperative: e presses commands, re6uests, entreat!, warning, prohibition. Go home !e "uiet c. Sub&unctive: represents something as a desire, wish, volition, plan... He should go home at once. 7. 8oice a. 1ctive voice: indicates that the sub&ect does something, or is becoming something. #he sun shines. I am happy. $pring is coming. b. (assive voice: represents the sub&ect as acted upon. #he house is being built. Secondar! tenses: perfect tenses " relative tenses$

2. Simple Tenses
). (resent Simple: e presses:

- 1ctions permanentl! characteri.ing the sub&ect. He writes beautifully. - 9abituall! or recurrent actions: I get up early. %ou have lessons every day. #n these sentences repetition is usuall! denoted b! a fre6uenc! adverb: always, usually, generally, regularly, (very) often, sometimes, rarely, seldom, hardly ever, never + expressions like every two/three weeks, every second week, once/twice/X times a day/week/month. eneral truths! The sun rises in the East. - "ith certain ver#s having no progressive form an action going on at the moment of speaking. I know what you mean. What do you see? - $ast event! historic present - %nstead of the $resent $erfect to express that an action or state has #egun in the past, with such ver#s as to learn, to tell, to hear, to forget& I forget what he said. - 'uture time when it is used to descri#e a predetermined action. The ship sails tomorrow. - %n su#ordinate clauses& If I see him, Ill tell him. 0. $ast (imple - )o express actions associated with a point or period of time completely past #efore the time of speaking (common tense of narrative) Byron was born in London in !"". - )o represent an act as regularly, ha#itually done. Whene#er he $ame to town, he $alled on me. - )o replace the $resent in indirect speech. %e told me he was a student. - %n su#ordinate clauses to express something desira#le or conceiva#le (*nreal $ast) I wish I knew him. & )o make suggestions. If you went to bed earlier, you would not be so tired in the mornings. +. 'uture (imple - Will is used for more distant future, and is often used with the expressions belie#e, hope, think and other expressions with opinions. 4

)ypical adver# phrases used with future are one day, some day, sometime or when + a su#ordinate clause. - Something une pected, not prepared. Ill take my car to the garage &something is wrong with it'. I feel sick. I will see my doctor today. - Shall is used is the )st person, will in 0nd and 4rd. - +hen future events... are not influenced b! willingness, intention, li%elihood, we ma! spea% of :pure future;. #he holidays will soon be here. How long will the work take( ) The Future Tense is not used in clauses introduced b!: if, when, until, whenever, before, after...

3. Progressive Aspect
-represents the action as progressing ). (resent Continuous

- The actual present, something ta%ing place at the moment of spea%ing. It is raining.
- 3ore general present. *hat are you reading( Im reading a novel by... - The statement is not general, but refers to a particular case.,different from the usual, I generally have breakfast at + oclock, but this week Im having it at -, because I am on holiday. ) # ma! have emotional character, e pressing &o!, sorrow, pleasure, praise, consure, emphasis... *hat are you doing( %ou are always beating that dog. - +ith reference to an action in the near future. *e are having a few guests tonight. 0. (ast Continuous - To indicate an action begun before and completed after a given moment or period in the past. I was reading a book when he entered. - To indicate that two or more activities were continuing at the same time. .ather was reading a book while I was writing a letter and /ary was playing with her doll. ) To e press a continuous action in the past, stressing its continuit!. I was working all day yesterday. ) For repeated actions in the past often with a suggestion of irritation. He was always telling me to do things I didnt want to do. 4. Future continuous - To e press an action that will begin before and continue at a given point or period of future time. *hen I get back, they will be having supper. 5

- To indicate an action that will e tend over a future period of time. 0ohn will be doing his military service ne1t year. - To show that an event will occur as part of a pla! or programme. I shall be seeing you tomorrow.

4. Perfect Tenses
The perfect aspect is a grammatical aspect that refers to a state resulting from a previous action "also described as a previous action with relevance to a particular time, or a previous action viewed from the perspective of a later time$. 1. (resent (erfect ). #t ma! denote an action or a state beginning in the past and continuing up to the moment of spea%ing. <C=*T#*>1T#82 (erfect. He has been ill since last month. 0. #t denotes a past action the result, conse6uence of which is felt at the present moment. <?2S>@T1T#82 (erfect. I have opened the window. 4. #ntermediate between continuative and resultative when the reference is to a period of time that is not !et over. "this wee%, this !ear, toda!A$ I have worked very hard this week. 5. completed activities in the immediate past, with the adverb &ust. /y friend has 2ust arrived. "ButB +ith &ust now, the past tense is used /y friend arrived 2ust now. ' 7. The (erfect of 2 perience "e periencial$ e presses what has happened once or more often within the spea%erCs e perience. I have already met with sick people. 3very time Ive said a thing like that, Ive been sorry for having said it. D. +hen the time of the action is indefinite. Ive lost my pen. I have already made plans for my summer holiday. E. #t ma! replace the Future (erfect in subordinate clause e pressing or impl!ing future time. *hen we have reached the end of this lesson we are going to have some coffee. F. The (resent (erfect of the verb get has the force and meaning of the present tense. *hat have you got in your hand( Ive got a fountain)pen. I have got a bad cold. 1dverbs used with the (resent (erfect , with the e ception of &ust, indicate points or periods of time that e tend to the present: Since: I havent seen him since 4hristmas. For5 I havent seen him for three years.

Get, alread!: "!et- interrogative$ Have you made plans for the summer holiday yet( 6o, I havent thought about them yet. %es, I have already made plans to spend my holidays in 3ngland. 2ver, never: Have you ever been to $cotland( 6o, I have never been there. Fre6uenc! adverbs: often, sometimes, alwa!s, seldom, rarel!... $he has often been late. *ow, toda!, this wee%, up to now, so far, latel!, recentl!... Have you done much work today( $o far we had no trouble. I haventt seen him lately. B. (resent (erfect Continuous ). 1n action or state that began in the past, continues until the present and ma! continue in the future. I have been learning 3nglish for three years. I have been waiting for two hours, but she has not come yet. 0. #t ma! indicate an action begun in the past, continued up to the present, but not continuing now. There is an emphasis on the fact that the action has been uninterrupted, as an e planation of or e cuse for something. I am cold because I have been swimming for an hour. I dont feel like going out this evening..Ive been working in the garden all day. 4. The (resent (erfect (rogressive ma! be used to give emotional colouring to the statement. $omebody has been sitting in my chair C. (ast (erfect ). 1 past action or state as completed at or before a certain time. *hen he had finshed reading the book, /r. !rown went to bed. !y that time the children had already gone to school. +hen two actions closel! follow each other. *hen I entered the room, I noticed that somebody was sitting at the table7 I noticed that somebody was sitting at the table only when I had entered. 0. To denote an action begun before a given past moment and still going on at that past moment. I had lived in the town for years when I first met her. 4. #n indirect speech instead of the past tense or the present perfect. He said5 8 I was ill last week.9 He said he had been ill the week before. 5. To e press a past condition or supposition with an implied negative. If #om had worked hard, he would have passed the e1amination.

7. The (ast (erfect is usd with such verbs as: hope, e pect, thin%, intend, mean, suppose, want to indicate that a past hope, e pectation, intention... was not realised. *e had intened to go to 3ngland this summer. Con&unctions used with (ast (erfect: when, before, after, until, once, now that, as soon as. *hen we got to the hall the concert had already started. *e got to the hall after the concert had started... D. (ast (erfect Continuous ). 1n action begun before a given moment in the past and continued to the past moment, indicating that the activit! was continuous. He had been walking for an hour when he last found the house. 0. #n indirect speech to e press the (resent (erfect (rogressive or the (ast (rogressive. He said 5 I have been waiting for an hour. He said he had been waiting for an hour. 4. To e press an action begun before a given moment in the past but no longer going on at the time of the second past action. I was cold because I had been swimming for an hour. 2. Future (erfect ). To e press that an action will be completed at or before a certain time in the future. He will have completed the work by evening. :. To e press probabilit!, assumption in the 0nd and 4rd person. %ou will have heard the news &;you have probably heard the news.' He will have dined on the train, but he must be hungry by now. F. Future (erfect Continuous To e press an action begun before a given moment in the future and continued up to that future moment. !y the end of this academic year you shall have been learning 3nglish grammar for two years.

5. !t!re
" Time is philosophical categor!, Tense is grammatical$ The word tense stands for a verb form or series of verb forms indicating a time relation. (rimar! tenses: simple, continuous "common, progressive aspect$ E Secondar! tenses: perfect tenses " relative tenses$

). (resent simple, continuous (resent Simple referring to future is ver! formal. Time adverb must be given. #he participants arrive on <th 6ovember. (resent Continuous referring to future is informal. Time adverb must be given. *e are watching #= tonight. 0. to be to This form refers to an obligation to do something at a time later than now. #t is similar to >must>, but there is a suggestion that something has been arranged or organised for us. "defintine plans$. #he ?rime /inister is to open the new stadium tomorrow. to be about to This form refers to a time immediately after the moment of speaking, and emphasises that the event or action will happen ver! soon. #he children are about to leave the house. 4. 'oing to vs. +ill +ith the e pression going to we can e press premeditated, planned actions, "intention, prediction$. I am going to take my car to the garage. I was operated last week. Im going to see my doctor tomorrow. #f there are certain signs: #he sky is cloudy. It is going to rain. +ill " modal au .$ Something une pected, not prepared. I will take my car to the garage &sg is wrong with it'. I feel sick. I will see my doctor today. The Future Tense is not used in clauses introduced b! if, when until, whenever, before, after... 5. Future continuous "if the action doesnCt depend on !our will$I will be teaching 3nglish at @A tomorrow. a. To e press an action that will begin before and continue at a given point or period of future time. *hen I get back, they will be having supper. b. To indicate an action that will e tend over a future period of time. 0ohn will be doing his military service ne1t year. c. To show that an event will occur as part of a plan or programme. I shall be seeing you tomorrow &and then we can talk the matter over. 7. Future (erfect ). to e press that an action will be completed at or before a certain time in the future. He will have completed the work by evening. 0. To e press probabilit!, assumption in the 0nd and 4rd person. %ou will have heard the news. F

". T#e Passive Voice

- The (assive 8oice represents the sub&ect as acted upon. The (assive 8oice is an anal!tical form made b! putting the verb to be into the same tense as the active verb and adding the past participle of the active verb. - The (assive 8oice is a grammatical device for "a$ bringing the ob&ect of a transitive verb into prominence b! ma%ing it the sub&ect of the sentence. - 1ll tenses of the Common 1spect are to be found in the (assive 8oice, but onl! two of the (rogressive 1spect. Common 1spect (resent: # am ta%en (ast: # was ta%en (res.(erfect: # have been ta%en. (ast (erfect: # had been ta%en. Future: # shall be ta%en. Future (erfect: # shall have been ta%en. =b&ect: #n 2nglish grammar, the ob$ect of a sentence is a noun or noun phrase that usuall! comes after the verb. This noun is usuall! the thing that is receiving the action. There are three t!pes of =b&ect: - direct ob&ect: 1 %irect ob$ect is a noun or pronoun that receives the action of a verb or shows the result of the action. #t answers the "uestion H+hatIH or H+homIH after an action verb. 1n action verb with a direct ob&ect is called a transitive verb. - indirect ob&ect: 1n in%irect ob$ect precedes the direct ob&ect and tells to &#om or for &#om the action of the verb is done and who is receiving the direct ob&ect. There must be a direct ob&ect to have an indirect ob&ect. #ndirect ob&ects are usuall! found with verbs of giving or communicating li%e give, bring, tell, show, take, or offer. 1n indirect ob&ect is alwa!s a noun or pronoun which is not part of a prepositional phrase. - prepositional ob&ect: the ob&ect governed b! a preposition (assive 8oice is used: - when the sub&ect of the active construction is un%nown or vague: somebod!, the!, one.../ilk is used for making butter and cheese. - when we t%e greater interest in the ob&ect than in the sub&ect of the action. #his poem was written by Beats. The construction beJ past participle ma! e press two 6uite different things condition or action. K (rogressive 1spect (resent: # am being ta%en. (ast: # was being ta%en

). The Statal (assive e presses the state or condition resulting from the action indicated b! the verb. #he trees are covered with snow. +hat verbs can be transformed into passive form activeI =nl! transitive verbs "verbs that are followed b! an ob&ect$ can form the passive. 9ere are some common intransitive verbs: agree, arrive, come, cr!, depart, e ist, fall, go, happen, live, occur, rain, rise, sleep, sta!, ta%e place, stand, wal%. These verbs will not form the passive voice. Verbs which re6uire a direct ob&ect to succeed them unless the! are made passive are called transitive verbs, while verbs which re6uire no direct ob&ect and cannot be made passive are called intransitive verbs 1 monotransitive verb is a verb that ta%es two arguments: a sub&ect and a single direct ob&ect. For e ample, the verbs buy, bite, break, and eat are monotransitive in 2nglish. 1 %itransitive verb is a verb which ta%es a sub&ect and two ob&ects. GiveC tell me the truth. 1 comple' transitive verb is followed b! a direct ob&ect and a complement describing the direct ob&ect. e.g. LThe teacher made the lesson ...#he cat bit him in the arm.

(. Con%itional Sentences
The conditional sentences have two parts: the if-clause and the main clause. ). ?eal Condition This time of sentence implies that the action in the if-clause is 6uite probable. The verb in the if-clause is in the present tenseM the verb in the main clause is in the future simple. If I meet him I will7may7can tell him the news. Time reference is future "or presentI$. 0. >nreal Condition Time reference is present "or futureI$. The past tense in the if-clause is not a true past but a sub&unctive, which indicates unrealit! or improbabilit!. The verb in the if-clause is in the past tenseM the verb in the main clause is in the conditional tense. This t!pe is used: a. +hen the supposition is contrar! to %nown facts: If I lived near my office Id be in time for work. If I were you Id plant some trees round the house. b. +hen we donCt e pect the action in the if-clause to ta%e place: If a burglar came into my room at night Id scream. If I dyed my hair blue everyone would laugh at me. c. Sometimes, rather confusingl!, this t!pe can be sued as an alternative to t!pe ) for )N

perfectl! possible plans and suggestions. *ill /ary be in time if she gets the ten oclock bus( 6o, but shed be in time if she got the nine)thirty bus7 6o, but shell be in time if she gets the nine)thirty bus. If we won the 2ackpot we would7could7might buy a house. #fJ past continuous : "+eCre going b! air and$ # hate fl!ing. If we were going by boat Id feel much happier. If my car was working I would7could drive you to the station. #fJ past perfect: If he had taken my advice he would be a rich man now "mi ed$. #mpossible Condition The verb in the if-clause is in the past perfect tenseM the verb in the main clause is in the perfect conditional. The time is past and the condition cannot be fulfilled because the action in the if-clause didnCt happen. If I had talked to him he would7could7might have gone to the party. The continuous form of the perfect conditional ma! be used: 1t the time of the accident # was sitting in the bac% of the car, because TomCs little bo! was sitting beside him in front. If #oms boy had not been there I would have been sitting in front. +e can use the past perfect continuous in the if-clause: I was wearing a seat belt. If I hadnt been wearing one Id have been seriously in2ured. 9ad can be placed first an the if omitted: #f !ou had obe!ed orders this disaster would not have happened. 7 Had you obeyed orders this disaster would not have happened. 3i ed Condition The if-clause is in the past, the main clause in the present. If I had taken my mothers advice I would be happy now. If I won the 2ackpot I may buy a house ne1t year. >nreal (ast Tense He would rather go to the restaurant than stay here I would rather you went to the restaurant. I wish you went there now &!Drcsak oda mennEl' I wish you had gone there yesterday &!Drcsak oda mentEl volna' If only you were here. ))

I wish to go home. I wish you would come here &future ref.' I wish you came here now &present ref.' I wish you had come yesterday &past ref.' Its &high' time to go home. Its &high' time we went home.

). A!'iliaries
Besides helping to form tens, aspect, mood, voice, the au iliaries also help to e press various finer shades of meaning. 3odal au iliaries are special au iliar! verbs that e press the degree of certaint! of the action in the sentence, or the attitude or opinion of the writer concerning the action. 3odals are: can, could, may, might, must, need not, ought to, shall, should, will, would. Temporal au iliaries are to form tense, aspect, voice. 1 notional verb is followed b! a noun or gerund. 1u iliaries are followed b! "bare$ infinitive. *otional verb: %ou need some sleep. %ou need going to holiday. 1u .: %ou dont need to come. 7%ou neednt come to university ne1t /onday. 1fter au iliaries !ou use bare infinitive: - #f it refers to present infinitive O must go J bare inf. - #f it refers to past perfect infinitive O must have gone The modal verb must can e press ")$necessit! and "0$ strong probabilit!. ). =ne must eat to live. Gou must read this boo%. Gou werenCt to read this boo%. "-$ Gou mustnCt read this boo% , Gou neednCt read this boo%. 0. 9e must spea% 2nglish "because he has lived in the >S1 for F !ears.$ "-$ 9e canCt spea% 2nglishA 9e must have spo%en 2nglish in his childhood. "-$ 9e canCt have spo%en 2nglish in his childhood. =ther meanings of must: 4. obligation: Gou must do as !ou are told. 5. emphatic re6uest: Gou must come and see us some time.

*. +#at a!'iliaries e'press abilit,- permission an% possibilit,.

1bilit!: )0

). Can: ph!sical: I can swim. mental: I can speak 3nglish. depending on the ver! circumstances: I can swim because there is water in the swimming pool. - Can J bare infinitive - The au iliar! can can e press ")$ abilit!, "0$ permission and "4$ possibilit!. 0. To be able to I have been able to swim since I was A. !eing able to speak 3nglish I was asked to interpret the te1t. (ermission: ). 3a! - /a, as an au iliar! verb means Hto be permitted to.H ) /ay we talk( 0. Can - Can as an au iliar! verb means Hto be able to.H ) 4an I smoke here( 3a! and can is followed b! the bare infinitive. (ossibilit!: ). Can ) #his can be the house I have been looking for. 0. 3a! ) It may rain tonight ) %ou may go by plane, or you may go by train, but you cannot go by ship. ) /y friend may have had a meeting "7N-7NP$ 4. 3ight ) It might rain today "less probable$ ) /y friend might have had a meeting.

10. 1escribe t#e vario!s f!nctions of !se% to- to be to- %are- %o.
To be to ). Command: %ou are to be here at eight sharp. 0. #n 6uestions as%ing for instructions"< shall, should$ *hat are we to do( Are we to wait( 4. Definite plan, arrangement: I am to leave ne1t week. )4

5. (rohibition"<mustnCt$ %ou are not to smoke in the reading room. 7. Destin!: !yron was never to see 3ngland again. +as,were J perfect infinitive: unfulfilled plan: #he ?rime /inister was to have opened the new stadium. Do ). To form the negative and interrogative of full verbs: He doesnt speak .rench. I didnt feel well. Font worry. 0. To form the negative and interrogative of have in the sense of: a. e perience, en&o!, sufferAFid you have any difficulty in finding your way( Fid you have a good time( b. cause : *hen did you have your hair cut( c. have Jnoun : Fid you have a good swim( d. with reference to regular activities or permanent states : Fo you have much work to do( 4. +ith to be in the imperative: Font be late 5. +ith let in the negative: Font let us forget to post the letter. 7. #n the affirmative for emphasis: I do hope you will come. D. To avoid repetition: Fid you find it( %es, I did. E. #n case of inverted word order. 6ever did I see such a sight. Dare 1s an au iliar!: ). To venture, have the courage: I dare not tell him. 0. 9ave the impudence: How dare you talk to me like that. 1s a full verb: ). To ventureA He doesnt dare to speak. 0. #n the interrogative there is sometimes a difference in meaning: Fo you dare to call me names( To suggest li%elihood dare sa! is used. I dare say she will come later. >sed to ). To contrast past and present to e press sg that e isted or was done in the past: I used to live in that house. 0. For repeated on continued action in the past: He used to come every $aturday.

)5

11. 2nfinitive
The non-finite forms are those verbal forms which are not limited b! person, number and mood. There are three such forms: infinitive, gerund and participle. @i%e the finite verb, the infinitive has two voices- active and passive, but onl! two tenses O present and perfect O in both aspects. 1ctive (resent (erfect (resent (rogressive (erfect (rogressive to ta%e to have ta%en to be ta%ing to have been ta%ing (assive to be ta%en to have been ta%en

The tenses of the infinitive e presses time relativel! to that of the principal verb. The present tense indicates time simultaneous or future with reference to that of the principal verb: I want to see him. He is happy to be with us. The perfect tense of the infinitive indicates time prior to that of the principal verb. I am happy to have met him. +ith au iliaries that point to the future the perfect infinitive represents the action as completed at a point of time in the future. I shall have completed it before you return. 1fter should, could, need not, ought to, was to the perfect infinitive shows that the action was not carried out. %ou could have caught the train if you had hurried. (lain #nfinitive The infinitive ma! occur either with or without the to. The infinitive without to is %nown as the plain infinitive. The plain infinitive is onl! used in verbal, never in nominal function. The plain infinitive is used: ). after the modal an tense au iliaries may7might, can7could, must, shall7should, will7would and after the negative and interrogative forms of dare and need. He may come any moment. I can speak .rench. I shall do it. :. after do when used as an au iliar! of emphasis and periphrasis "%QrRlSrTs$. He didnt bring the book he had promised. *hat do you think of her( 4. after the e pressions had better, had best, had7would rather, would sooner72ust as soon, cannot but, do nothing but. I would rather stay at home. $he does nothing but crying all day long. 5. in some more or less stereot!ped phrases. =h, let it hangB 9e made believe he was rich. 7. The plain infinitive is also used in the so called 1ccusative "tTrg!as$ Owith O #nfinitive construction. )7

a. after verbs of perception: see, behold, hear, feel, observe, notice, watchAI saw a plane fly over the house. b. after bid, let and causative ma%e and have: Bid him come. Let me see. He made me laugh. The plain infinitive ma! be used b! itself in 6uestions beginning with wh! or wh! not. *hy stay at home( *hy not go for a walk. #nfinitive with to ). with to have "to$, ought "to$, used "to$M sometimes with to dare and to need. I have to get up early every day. 0. after to begin, come, seem, appear, happenAIt began to rain. 4. after the lin% verb to be. *e are to meet at eight. 5. as an attributive to a preceding noun. He is not a man to trifle with. 7. as a complement to an ad&ective used predicativel!. He was unable to move. D. as an adverbial modifier to e press purpose, resultAHe came here to learn 3nglish. E. 1lwa!s in nominal function: a. as a sub&ect: #o be or not to be, that is the "uestion. b. as an ob&ect. He began to eat. c. as the nominal part of the predicate. His only ambition was to become a doctor. F. sometimes in e clamator! "fel%iTltU$ sentences e pressing a wish unli%el! to be reali.ed or surprise. Gh, to be 3ngland, 6ow thats Aprils there K. #n the 1ccusative- with- #nfinitive construction after verbs li%e to allow, as%, command, order, force, permit, persuade, re6uestAHe asked me to come for a tea. )N. The *ominative with #nfinitive is a passive construction on the analog! of the active accusative with infinitive construction. He was seen to leave the house in the morning. Sub&ect of the #nfinitive The sub&ect of the #nfinitive is often not e pressed in the clause, but is some noun or pronoun performing some function in the main clause and at the same time serving as sub&ect of the infinitive. This ma! be: ). the sub&ect of the principal verb: $he promised to write every day. 0. the ob&ect of the principal verb: I told him to come early. 4. the sub&ect is often implied in a preceding possessive ad&ective: It is my earnest desire to do it. 5. (rovided the conte t ma%es the reference clear, the inf. can be emplo!ed even though there is no word in the main clause that can serve as its sub&ect. )D

For J 1ccusative with #nfinitive #f there is no word in the main clause that can serve as the sub&ect of the inf, the inf. can have a sb&ct of its own which is introduced b! for. I am an1ious to return H I am an1ious for him to return. ). after ad&ectives used predicativel!. I should be sorry for you to think that. #he tea is too hot for me to drink. 0. after nouns of indefinite pronouns. Ive bought some books for you to read. 4. after verbs that normall! ta%e the preposition for. #hey were waiting for the dinner to be ready. The for J 1ccusative with #nfinitive construction can be used instead of a subordinate clause. ). 1 sub&ect clause: .or me to back out now would be cowardice &If I backed out now it would be cowardice. 0. =b&ect clause: I planned for him to go. &I planned that he should go' 4. Clause of purpose: I stood aside for her to enter. &I stood aside that she should enter'. 5. Clause of result5 He was too near for me to avoid. &He was so near that I couldnt avoid him' 7. (redicate clause: #he main thing is for you to get the passport in time. & #he main thing is that you should get the passportI' D. 1ttributive clause: #here are still serious difficulties for you to overcome. &Ithat you must overcome'

12. 3er!n% an% 2nfinitive

The gerund can be used in the following wa!s: - as sub&ect of a sentence: Fancing bored him. - as complement of a verb. Her hobby is painting. - after prepositions. He was accused of smuggling. - after certain verbs - in noun compounds: a diving board. 8erbs followed b! the gerund: a%mit- anticipate- appreciate- avoi%- consi%er- %efer- %ela,- %en,- %etest- %isli4e- %rea%en$o,- escape- e'c!se- fanc,- finis#- forgive- imagine- involve- 4eep- loat#e- mean- min%miss- par%on- postpone- practise- prevent- propose- recollect- remember- resent- resistris4- save- stop- s!ggest- !n%erstan%A The 'erund often competes with the #nfinitive, but in the following cases the gerund has to be )E

used: ). as ob&ect after all prepositions. I apologiJe for being late. 0.1s part of a prepositional ad&unct. He is above doing such things. How about having a rest now( 4. 1s a direct ob&ect or ad&unct of certain verbs and verbal phrases, avoid, dela!AIve en2oyed talking about old times. 5. 1fter li%e, worth and the phrase there is no. I dont feel like going out tonight. 1fter a number of other verbs and verbal phrases either the gerund or the infinitive ma! occur. a%vise- agree- allo&- begin- can- co!l%- bear- cease- contin!e- forget- #ate- inten%- li4elove- mean- nee%- permit- prefer- propose- recommen%- regret- remember- re5!ire- startstop- tr,- !se% to- &ant. =therwise an infinitive is used: $uddenly it began to rain. 1fter the verbs hate, li%e, disli%e, prefer the infinitive is mostl! used with reference to a special occasion, the gerund for a more general statement. I like dancing. I should like to dance with you. 1fter stop the meaning of the sentence is entirel! changed. #hey stopped talking. #hey stopped to talk. 1fter mean5 $he meant to stay for a week. #his meant getting home late. The gerund, li%e the infinitive, can be used for the abridgement "rQvidStVs$ of an adverbial clause: ). Clause of time: I must to my shopping before going to the office. 0. Clause of manner: He spends his spare time in reading. 4. Clause of cause: He was angry with her for being late. 5. Clause of purpose: He came for the purpose of making a speech. 'erund I started learning 3nglish in my childhood. #*T2*T#=*1@ I forgot sending a letter. 2lfele&tettem, hog! mTr feladtam I tried opening the door. 1..al prUbTl%o.tam, hog! %in!itottam "si%eres$ )F #nfinitive It started to rain. >*#*T2*T#=*1@ I forgot to send the letter. 2lfele&tettem feladni. I tried to open the door. 3egprUbTltam %in!itni.

I regret buying this house. Sa&nTlom hog! megvettem. I remember meeting him. 2mlV%s.e% hog! mTr talTl%o.tam vele.

I regret to say, that I have bought it. Sa&nTlattal %Q.lQm, hog!. I will remember to meet him. *em fogom elfele&teni, hog! talTl%o..a% vele.

13. Present an% Past Participle

- the third non-finite form (articiples (resent (articiple attributive- predicative (articiples ?elated 4oming home I met a friend of mine. >nrelated #he weather being terrible we couldnt go out. 1bsolute #aken everything into consideration the sub2ect has been decided. ). (resent (articiple Form: the infinitive Jing < wor%ing The (articiple has the characteristics of an ad&ective and partl! those of a verb: it can be used as an ad&ective either attributivel!: the rising sun, a dancing doll or predicativel!: he is amusing or verball!: he was rising from his chair. - #n attributive use the present participle usuall! stands before the noun. #he following day, a running dog. - The present participle is used predicativel! with some intransitive verbs: come, go, stand, sit, lie. He came running in. - 1 parallel construction to the accusative with infinitive is the accusative with the present participle after to hear, see, feel, watch, have "<ma%e$. I saw him lying under a tree. I heard him coming up the stairs. The above e amples the present participle refers to an action as having duration, as being in progress. #n the corresponding infinitive construction the action is referred to as a fact. I heard him come up the stairs few minutes ago. Sometimes the distinction is between completion and incompletion. I saw him walking across the road "in the middle of the act, incomplete$M I saw him walk across the road &act completed$. (ast (articiple attributive- predicative

)K

1fter the verbs %eep, leave, set, send, catch, start there is no alternative infinitive construction. Font keep me waiting. He left the water running. 1ll these verbs ma! also stand in the passive construction "e cept have$ called *ominative with (resent (articiple. ?elated (resent (articiple The present participle ma! be e6uivalent to an adverbial clause. #f a word in the sentence can be considered its sub&ect it is a so-called ?elated (articiple. ). as an adverbial modifier of manner it usuall! stands after the main clause: #he children ran down to the river, laughing and talking. 0. an adverbial modifier of time or cause usuall! precedes the main clause but ma! also follow. 4oming home I met a friend of mine. >nrelated (resent (articiple #f the participle does not refer to an! particular word in the sentence that can be considered its sub&ect, it is called >nrelated participle. #aking all things into consideration, his life is a happy one. K Generally speakingC strictly speaking. 1bsolute (resent (articiple The participle can have its own sub&ect without grammatical relations to the principal clause. He being absent, nothing could be done. (erfect (articiple - Form: having J past participle < having done. 0. (ast (articiple - Form: adding Oed "e cept irregular verbs$ to the infinitive - #n attributive use the meaning of the past participle of a transitive verb is usuall! passive. #.e. the person or thing denoted b! the noun has usuall! undergone the action e pressed b! the participle. A deserted village, a broken chair, an unopened letter. - The (ast participle of a transitive verb ma! e press the state or condition resulting from the action indicated b! the verb. #n this predicative use the participle is connected with its sub&ect mostl! b! to be , but also b! appear, seem, loo%, remain, feel, lie. #he door was locked. #hey remained seated. $he felt disappointed. - 1n 1ccusative with (ast participle construction ma! be used after the verbs to see, hear, feel, li%e, want, wish, order, find, get, ma%e. I have often seen it done. I want the work done by five. 0N

?elated (ast (articiple - @i%e the present participle, the past participle of transitive and few intransitive verbs ma! be used in ?elated participle constructions. !orn in better times, he would become a great poet. 1bsolute (ast (articiple - The participle can have its own sub&ect without grammatical relation to the principal clause. All things considered, we may say that the party was a success.

14. 6o!ns
- +ords are mar%ed as nouns b! determinatives: the, a"n$, ever!, no, m!, this,these, all, each, an!, some, man!, both, either... - 1ccording to morphemic structure: Simple - house, sheep, man... Derivative: - nouns coming from verbs: reader, teacher, agreement, appearance, building... - nouns coming from ad&ectives5 long)length, greatness, 2ustice, bravery... - nouns coming from other nouns: kingdom, childhood, friendship, hostess... " composition combined with derivation5 housekeeper, narrow)mindedness...$ *ouns converted from ad&ectives: ): original ad&ectives and participles that share all the characteristics of class nouns 0. ad&ectives and participles that are either plural or singular in reference 4. ad&ectives and participles that are preceded b! the definite article the and have either collective plural meaning 5. ad&ectives that are used onl! with the plural suffi 7. ad&ectives and participles that are used without the articles in the singular in certain idiomatic set phrases. ). a7the relative, relatives, two7many7some relatives...criminal, female, 3uropean, Hungarian, browns &shades of brown', the white, the black :. the accused, the deceased, the 4hinese, two 4hinese A. the poor, the unemployed, the old, the deaf and dumb, the useful, the beautiful, the unknown, the impossible L. goods, vegetables, sweets, young marrieds <. to leave for good, to take for granted, he speaks very good 3nglish 0) Compound - homewor%, blac%bird Forget-me-not Derivative - teacher, length, %ingdom

(lural of nouns ) The living plural: III 0. The #solated (lurals a. 8oicing (lurals - -f becomes Ov before Oes -v./: leaf H leaves, calf H calvesC loaf, sheaf, thief, half, elf, )self, shelf, wolfC )fe becomes Hve before Hs MvJN knife H knives, life, wife butB Fwarfs, beliefs, cliffs, chiefs - -th becomes -ths : path O paths - -se becomes Oses: house O houses b. 3utated (lurals - man H men, woman H women, foot H feet, goose H geese, tooth H teeth, mouse H mice, louse) lice c. Oen (lurals - o1 H o1en, child H children, brother H brethren d. >ninflected (lurals - one deer H two deer, sheep, fish, aircraft 4. Foreign (lurals - 'ree%5 phenomenon ) phenomena, criterion H criteria, thesis H theses, basis H bases - @atin5 bacillus H bacilli, larva H larvae, datum H data, medium H media, memorandum H memoranda, species H species, series H series, appendi1 H appendices, fungus H fungi7funguses, inde1 H indices7inde1es - French: beau H beau1 MJN &lovag', chateau H chateau1 &nagy vidEki hDJ', plateau H plateau1 - #talian: dilettante H dilettanti &mOkedvelP', virtuoso H virtuosi - 9ebrew: cherub H cherubim &angyal', seraph ) seraphim

15. Co!ntables- 7nco!ntables- Pl!raria Tant!m

). >ncountables This large class can be divided into the following groups: a. +hen the noun denotes an abstract idea5 courage, luck, peace, strategy, life, literature, the genuine, the impossible b. +hen the noun is the name of a material: air, barley, coke, earth, fruit, wine c. The noun denotes a uni6ue thing: the earth, the moon d. The noun is a proper name: $hakespeare, London, $cotland, the Atlantic e. The noun has more or less collective sense: furniture, information, intelligence, luggage, 00

advice, gossip, remorse, knowledge f. The noun denotes a group and has a collective plural force: cattle, poultry, infantry, horse, police, &clergy' g. The words people, fol% "men in general$ have indefinite plural meaning in carefulA h. Some nouns denoting collective groups, bodies of peopleA gentry, peasantry, nobility, press, public, Labour &party'I 0. Countables - Countable nouns usuall! ta%e the plural suffi 9ere the singular form is used because the noun has commonl! no plural form, or the singular has a special function and meaning. The following groups of nouns denoting Wcountable; ideas are not used with a plural suffi : a. The word fish and names of fishes: cod, trout, salmon, mackerel, pike b. names of animals that are hunted: duck, wildfowl, antelope, giraffe, buffaloC deer, sheep, swineC species, series c. aircraft d. names of inhabitants of countries, citiesAending in a sibilant: $wiss, 0apanese *ouns a-d are freel! used with the indefinite article and an! of the plural attributive words. e. a few substantivi.ed participial ad&ectives li%e: the accused f. most substantivi.ed ad&ectives and participles: the poor, the rich, the blind, the wounded Singular form is used with some special function in the following instances: a. the numeral words: do.en, score, hundred, thousandC two doJen eggs, five hundred houses b. the words brace, couple, !o%e and gross: yoke of o1en, si1 gross pen c. the words of weight and measure: stone, hundredweight: :Q hundredweight is a stone. Foot often remains singular when followed b! a numeral indicating inches: hes five foot ten. !ut hes si1 feet tallC hes five feet ten inchesC twenty s"uare feet d. in the literar! phrase all manner of. e. names of plants though having a plural form, are often used in the singular in a collective sense: #he oak was replaced in this region by elm and bench. f. similarl! to e. countables m! be used in the singular in a material or abstract sense: Gak is used form making furniture. g. the singular of a countable noun is used with an article to the whole classA #he horse is a useful animal. #he pen is mightier than the sword. h. countable nouns denoting groups of people ma! be used in the singular form with plural force: audience, class, crew, commission, committee, famil!, government, &ur!, part!, race, staff, teamAHer family are nice people. All the staff have left. 04

i. Countable nouns in attributive function either in compounds or separatel!, are used mostl! in the singularA: ). with se -indicating nouns li%e bo!, girl: boy friend&s', girl friend&s' 0. the attributive,genitive nouns refers to more than one: girls school H girls or girls schoolsC birds eggs 4. the attributive noun is evidentl! plural in its reference: class struggle 7struggle of the classes7 5. the noun remains singular even when preceded b! a numeral: a five day visit, a nine storey building, the five year plan, si1teen year old boy 7. some nouns used in the plural when alone, occur in the singular when compounded: a holiday course, sight)seeing Xuite often the noun %eeps its plural suffi even in a compound: the arms race, a goods train, gallows)bird, Rnited 6ations head"uatersC two)thirds ma2ority 4. (luraria Tantum - some words are onl! used in plural ). the following groups of nouns are usuall! singular , the verb, the attributive words and referring pronouns are in the singular, a. names of games: billiards, dominoes, draughts b. names of diseases: measles, mumps c. names of sciences: mathematics, statistics, physics, phoneticsIHis mathematics are very poor d. miscellaneous nouns: news "6o news are good news', gallows &a%as.tUfa$ e. the proper names: >nited States,*ations, 1thens, Brussels . Athens is the capital of Greece. f. the collo6uial 6uantitive e pressions lots of, heaps ofA #heres lots of fun and theres lots to follow. #here was heaps of money on the table. 0. the following groups pf nouns are usuall! construed as plurals, the verb, the attributive words and referring pronouns in the plural. a. names of things that consist of two s!mmetrical parts: braces, drawers, pants, trousers, scissors, spectacles, lungs b. nouns that denote things and notions consisting of several parts, itemsA: annals, arms, belongings, clothes, goods, /iddle Ages, notes, remains, savings, sights, thanks c. nouns denoting groups: the commons, betters, elders, troops d. proper names5 the Alps, the !alkans, the 6etherlands. e. the following nouns are used in the plural form with plural force, but the singular also occurs with singular force: lodging7s7, ash7es, wage7s7 05

4. 1 third categor! pluralia tantum is constituted b! nouns that are treated as either singular or plural according as what number is thought of: barracks, bellows, means, head"uarters, surroundings, shambles, works. 3very means has been tried. #he college building has been used as a barracks. #he barracks were built in @-+Q. #here was a 7there were two7 gas)works in the town. - pants, p!&amas, trousers O 'enitive (artitive "rVs.menn!isVget %ife&e.Y birto%os$ with plural verbsA a pair of trousers, a piece of informationA iron- uncountable an iron<vasalU, irons< vasalU%, bilincs J is colours< .Ts.lU J is, s.Sne% customs< vTmJ is , nVps.o%Tso% papers- pieces of paper, papers< Z&sTg, dolgo.at letters< levele%, bet[% , irodalom Jis "man of letters$ spirits < s.elleme%, alcohol J is penn!- pence<VrtV%, pennies< VrmV%

1". Case of 6o!ns ). The use and meaning of the 'enitive , The (ossessive Case
Case is a grammatical categor! "two cases in modern 2nglish: possessive case, common form- after prepositions$. The free use of the s-genitive is now confined to names of living beings: /arys eyes, /others birthdayA #n plural: the students work, womens workI - Flectional genitive: \s is added to the word stem5 the boys book - 'roup genitive: \s is added to the last member of a s!ntactic group pf words: my brother)in) laws book 9owever, the genitive occasionall! also occurs with names of inanimate things: ). in e pressions of distance, time and value: yards distance, <Q milesC a days work, todays papers, but A :L hours strike, an - hour dayIa shillings worth, thirty pounds value 0. in a number of traditional set phrases: a needles eye, in my minds eye, to have a sub2ect at ones fingers ends &; to know it very well', to be at deaths door K forIsake5 for heavens sake, for arts sakeI 4. in literar! st!le: novelCs categor!, Hungarys history, the waters edge, the ships crew7captainI

07

0. The independent 'enitive

=ccasionall!, an inflected genitive occurs in 2nglish without a head-word e pressed. This happens in two cases: ). when the head-word, if e pressed, would be identical with a word alread! mentioned, or about to be mentioned: she put her arm through her mothers. #oms was the only face she knew there. 0. @ocal 'enitive: The genitive of a proper name, or of a noun denoting relationship or trade, ma! be used independentl! when the head-word, if e pressed, would be a noun li%e: church, hospital, par%, business, firm, stores, shop, school, houseA with which the bearer of the name is connected as owner or patron or founderA $t. ?auls 4athedral, Hairdressers &shop', my friends &house'

4. The Functional Classification of the 'enitive

). Specif!ing 'enitive: +hen the noun in the genitive refers to a particular person "thing$: my brothers picture, the strikers demands 0. Classif!ing 'enitive: +hen the noun in the genitive denotes the class or %ind to which the head-word belongs: a doctors degree, childs play, cats paw, birds nest, peoples republic

5. The Semantic Classification of 'enitive

). (ossessive 'enitive +hen the head-word denotes an ob&ect and the genitival noun the possessor: 0ohns hat, my brothers picture&owned by him' 0. 'enitive of =rigin The genitival noun ma! stand in source or author relation to its head-word: 0ohns son, $hakespeares works, my brothers pictures &painted by him' 4. Sub&ective 'enitive The noun in the genitive denotes the agent, the head-word the action: #he ?rime /inisters speech, the teachers lecture 5. =b&ective 'enitive +hen the head-word stands in the relation of agent or activit! to an ob&ect denoted b! the genitival noun: the childrens education, my brothers picture &painted of him'

7. The (repositional 'enitive

0D

>sed with nouns denoting inanimate things, in ordinar! st!le. >sed with the following %inds of nouns: - with nouns denoting inanimate things: the window of the room, the streets of London - with names of animals other than larger domestic animals: the song of the lark, the wings of a butterfly - with substantivi.ed ad&ectives denoting living beings with plural force: the condition of the poor, the speech of the deaf and dumb ). (artitive 'enitive the bottle of wine, a gang of armed soldiers, a crowd of people 0. Xualitative 'enitive: a man of action, a matter of importance 4. 1ppositive 'enitive the ?eoples Republic of 4Jechoslovakia, the city of Rome

1(. Articles
pronunciation: the -#/- before vowels determinatives: articles "a"n$, the$, numerals "one, twoA$, indefinite pronouns "some, all, an!, both$, demonstrative pronouns "this, thatA$, possessive pronouns "m!, !ourA$

). The definite article and its positive uses

The definite article the is used with all %inds of nouns, singular and plural, in 5 ma&or functions: 1. Countable *ouns: ). Deictic Function: wea%ened demonstrative meaning: #he man sitting on the chairII 4ant remember for the moment. 0. 1naphoric Function: the article refers bac% to a particular thing or living being introduced earlier: A goat and an ass were kept by the same master. #he goat was 2ealous of the ass. 4. Defining Function: The signals that a definite, particular, specific item is or items are meant. The noun is limited: - b! a prepositional phrase: the wheels of a car, the age of $hakespeare - b! an infinitive or gerund: He has the nerve for motoring. - b! a clause: #he man I loved - b! a defining ad&ective: the 3nglish language, the same colour - b! an attributive ad&ective in the superlative: the best way - b! an ordinal numeral: in the first7fifth chapter *ouns which are uni6ue of their %inds have the article: the sun, the moon, the sky, the stars, 0E

the !ible, the Armada. 5. Classif!ing Function: 1 singular class-noun preceded b! the ma! stand for, denote, a whole class of things or living beings. He looks the happy lover7 he is like all happy lovers. #he eagle is a bird of prey. a. names of musical instruments in e pressions with Wto pla!; :He plays the piano and the violin. b. certain names of the parts of da! in adverbial e pressions answering WwhenI; in the morning7evening B. >ncountable,abstract, collective material *ouns ). 1bstract and material nouns ma! ta%e the article but onl! when the! are restricted to a special case: the poetry of $hakespeare, the theory of relativity 0. The definite article imparts collective meaning to certain abstract or class-nouns in the singular: the drama, the novel 4. The classif!ing article turns ad&ectives and participles into abstract "a$ or collective plural nouns "b$ a. the beautiful and the sublime b. none but the brave deserve the fairC the wounded 5. =n groups5 the si1 of us 7. (opular names of diseases: Hes got the measles7smallpo1 D. The names of the cardinal points: #he horseman came from the east and the west. C. (roper *ames ). when the famil! denoted b! that name is collectivel! meant: the #udors 0. when proper names are limited b! defining elements: #he Hungary of the AQs. #he early $hakespeare is different from the $hakespeare of the last plays. - in titles: the Reverend 4anon H. !. Howard, the Honourable 0ames !rown 4. The article ma! turn a proper name into a s!mbol of the 6ualitiesA of the Woriginal; a. the Achilles, the $ir Lancelot b. Fid you buy the .ord you saw( 5. geographical proper names: a. rivers, seas, la%es, channelsA: #he Fanube, the river #hames, the /editerranean $ea b. mountain ranges: the Alps, the 4arpathians c. names of lands, islands, countriesI5 the Hebrides, the *est Indies, the R.$.$.R, the R$A, the 6etherlands, the 4rimea, the Rkraine, the $ahara, the Hague

0F

7. proper names denoting public institutions, buildings, streetsA: #he Royal Albert Hall, the Bremlin, the !ritish /useum, the $trand, the !righton Road, the 3nglish $tudies 1dverbial use of the: #he more we have the more we want.

0. The #ndefinite 1rticle and its positive uses

The indefinite article a"n$ can occur onl! before nouns with singular reference. 1. Countable *ouns ). *umerical function: Rome was not built in a day. Ill come back in a day or two. *egative: not a single one 0. #ndividuali.ing Function: signals that a single, indefinite item is meant of the things pr living beings denoted b! the class-noun: He got a letter form a lady a week ago. 4. Classif!ing Function: 9ere a"n$ assigns the thing or living being to a class or %ind. A liaris worse than a thief. idioms: to be in a hurry, to take an interest in sgI B. >ncountable *ouns ). the use of a"n$ is a sign that the abstract or material noun is ta%en as a class-nounM ver! often indicates W%ind of;, Winstance of;, Wa piece of;A I have a headache. Its a pleasure. *hat a pity. 0. uni6ue things: a red sky, a full moon, a hot sun C. (roper *ames: ). Wa certain;- A /r $mith calles this morning 0. with a proper name without an! title, a"n$ indicates \li%e the personAC: Hethinks hes a 6apoleon. 4. indicates an aspect of, or a temporar! stateA$haw showed an Ireland very different from what the Lady %eats made her out to be 5. sometimes a proper name is turned completel! into a class-noun: He bought a new .ord. 7. in boo% titles: An Introduction toI K a great7good manyIa fewIa little7 a doJenI The adverbial use of a"n$ - distributive function: $he comes twice a day7week7month7year.

4. ]ero 1rticle
) 1bstract or 3aterial *ouns 0K

a. #hey discussed art, literatureI b. 6ight had fallen. I woke at dawn c. the name of a language: #ranslate from 3nglish into Hungarian 0. (roper *ames a. names of persons, countries, da!s, boo%titlesA Have you met Bitty( b. .ortune, .ate. ?rovidenceC Heaven and HellC ?urgatory and ?aradise c. geographical names preceded b! mount or la%e: Lake !alaton, /ount 3verest d. single mountain pea%s: =esuvius, and 3tna are in Italy. e. geographical names with proper names first: *indsor .orest, /argaret Island f. names of institutionsA with proper names as first element: !uckingham ?alace, #rafalgar $"uare, Hyde ?ark g. a group with a descriptive ad&ective: %oung $hakespeare, ancient 3gypt, medieval London 4 Countable class-nouns in the plural are without the when ta%en in a broad, general, indefinite sense: 4hildren like games. *e need new schools and teachers. 5. Countable class-nouns in the singular a. 3an woman: /an is mortal &mankind'. /an is weak but men are strong. b. names of the four seasons when thought of as a natural phenomenon5 #hey had done with summer before the summer. c. some nouns on predicative function: He was fool enough to refuse. d. predicative nouns in front shifted position: S%etch as it is, the boo% is no more compilation. e. class-nouns used in a material or abstract sense. *e had chicken for dinner. f. idioms: to stand guard, to break new grounds g. nouns denoting office, ran%A. He was appointed Ambassador to Ghana h. -^direct address: ?rofessor74aptainI i. 4arpenters mate, farm labourer 7. *ouns denoting meals"a$, periods "b$ and institutions pr places "c$ a. the name of the meal indicates the occasion of ta%ing food: *e had a very substantial dinner. b. the words Wterm; and Wbrea%; . #erm begins in Gctober and ends in Fecember. c. nouns li%e : school, college, church, hospital, prisonA when the! refer to the function or purpose for which the building e ists: He went to school at si1 table, town, bed : I usually go to bed at @@. D. *ames of familiar persons, such as members of the famil!A Foctor says I smoke too much. Good morning, mother.

4N

The .ero article is generall! found before an adverbial superlative. I work best at night *e t and last followed b! nouns li%e wee%, monthAta%e no article when is viewed from the present. 6e1t week, last /ondayI

1). 8elative Prono!ns

(ronouns are to substitute nouns. pronouns: personal, demonstrative "this, thatA$, possessive, relative, indefinite " some, an!, somewhereA$, emphatic, refle ive " washed m!self$, interrogative - have two functions: attributive: m! pen, this houseA substantial: this pen is mine - relative pronouns are used in relative clauses Defining "?estrictive$ /y sister who7that7which lives in London is a doctor *on-defining " *on-restrictive$ /y sister&, who lives in London,'is a doctor. ). Defining relative clauses: that, which and who"m$ +e tal% about defining relative clause when there is restricting information following the noun "without which we would not %now what is meant e actl!$. #n this case there is no comma. a$ #f the pronoun refers to the sub&ect, it cannot be omitted. +e use who and that for living beings and which and that for non-living things. 9e was a bo! who,that hated to lose. 9ere is a boo% that,which teaches !ou how to drive b! the 9ighwa! code. b$ +hen the pronoun refers to the ob&ect, it can be omitted. #n the case of living things whom can be used as well as who and thatM for non-living things which and that. The bo! that,who,whom she loved wrote poetr!. The bo! she loved wrote poetr!. The boo% that,which # would li%e to write is based on a true stor!. The boo% #Cd li%e to write is based on a true stor!. c$ #f the verb has a preposition, there are two possible uses of relative pronouns. First, the preposition might come at then end of the clause. For living things who, that and whom can be used, whereas in the case of non-living things which and that are both correct. Still, the simplest solution is to leave out the pronoun altogether. 4)

The boo% that,which !ou are tal%ing about has &ust come out. =? The boo% !ou are tal%ing about has &ust come out. 9e had a daughter that,who,whom # soon became good friends with. =? 9e had a daughter # soon became friends with. Second, the preposition might come before the pronoun. 9ere onl! whom and which can be used. This structure is more formal. There are 6uite a few leaders about whom # am not enthusiastic. This is the boo% in which the hero dies in the end. The chic%ens for which Tess was responsible lived in an old cottage. d$ >suall! that and which are interchangeable, but that "or no relative pronoun$ is much more fre6uent after words li%e all, everything and the structure \superlative ad&ective K nounC. The! will tr! to do all that,ever!thing that the! possibl! can. =? The! will tr! to do all,ever!thing the! possibl! can. "*=T The! will tr! to do all which,what the! possibl! can.$ "*=T >S>1@ The! will tr! to do ever!thing which the! possibl! can.$ The most e pensive ingredient that # used was a fresh tomato. "*=T >S>1@ The most e pensive ingredient which # used was fresh tomatoes.$ She is the most selfish person "who,that$ #Cve ever met. e$ #he first, the last, the ne1t, the only can be followed b! the infinitive as well as a relative clause. 1s usual, # was the last one to finish. =? 1s usual, # was the last one who finished. *ote: #f there is a noun or pronoun J infinitive, relative pronouns cannot be used. 9owever, if there is a preposition, the relative pronouns which and whom are possible after the preposition, but not before. #Cm afraid there wonCt be an!bod! to support m! proposal. "*=T #Cm afraid there wonCt be an!bod! whom to support m! proposal.$ 9e wonCt be long unless he sees somebod! to tal% to. "*=T 9e wonCt be long unless he sees somebod! whom to tal% to.$ # have nothing to wear tonight. 40

#s there an!bod! to whom we could tal% about thisI =? #s there an!bod! "who$ we could tal% about this toI "*=T #s there an!bod! whom we could tal% about this toI$ 0. *on-defining relative clauses: which and who"m$ +e tal% about non-defining relative clause when there is some e tra information after the noun, which is less important because the meaning is clear without it too. +e t!picall! use a non-defining relative clause when someone or something is uni6ue: after famous people and places or other proper names, after possessive pronouns, or when there is onl! one of something. #n this case the relative pronoun cannot be left out. #n )KFN #is mot#er- &#o was then fift!-one, married a widower. a$ #f the pronoun refers to the sub&ect, we can use who for living and which for non-living things, but not that. /aril,n /onroe- &#o had a ver! difficult childhood, suffered a lot. 9!r comp!ter- &#ic# has &ust been repaired, is giving out strange sounds again. *ote: #f the sub&ect of the main clause and the non-defining relative clause is the same, and the verb in the relative clause is to be, both the pronoun and the verb can be left out. :ill Clinton- ;&#o is< t#e e'-presi%ent of the >S1, is to visit 9ungar! ne t wee%. +e were so tired that even Vienna- ;&#ic# is< a bea!tif!l cit,, seemed disappointing. b$ #f the pronoun refers to the ob&ect or the verb has a preposition, we can use who, whom for living and which for non-living things, but not that. T#e neig#bo!r=s %a!g#ter- &#o;m< we almost lost in the shopping centre, is a ver! naught! girl. /ar,=s #o!se- &#ic# !ouCll see in a moment, is the best place for garden parties. 9is estate was left to his wife, /ar,- &#o>&#om we %now nothing abo!t. 9is estate was left to his wife, /ar,- abo!t &#om we %now nothing. "*=T 9is estate was left to his wife, 3ar!, we %now nothing about.$ T#e ?onica camera- &#ic# # have alread! told !ou abo!t, is going to be a present for m! father. =?

44

T#e ?onica camera- abo!t &#ic# # have alread! told !ou, is going to be a present for m! father. c$ The onl! e ception when there is a comma before that is the e pression that is "aJaJ, tudniillik in 9ungarian$, which is preceded and followed b! a comma. Ton! Blair- t#at is- the current (rime 3inister of 'reat Britain, is having a holida! in #tal!. 3. Sentential &#ic# =nl! which can be used if the relative clause refers to the whole clause before it. 1 comma is alwa!s used in this case and it means the same as a new sentence starting with it,this. *aturall!, there might be a preposition before which or at the end of the clause "should the verb re6uire it$. 9e shot t#e cat &#ic#>t#at anno!ed me. "that and which refer to the cat$ @e s#ot t#e cat- &#ic# anno!ed me. "< 9e shot the cat. #t,This anno!ed me.$ @e #a% #is bac4 to me- for &#ic# # was grateful. "< 9e had his bac% to me. # was grateful for this.$ @e #a% #is bac4 to me- &#ic# # was grateful for. +ho, what and which are used to introduce dependent clausesM who, which, that introduce attributive clauses. There are two %inds of attributive relative clauses in 2nglish. =ne restricts, defines its antecedent "elYtag$ or gives some essential information about it. < ?2ST?#CT#82 clause. The other simpl! gives some additional information about the antecedent in the wa! of casual remar%. < *=*-?2ST?#CT#82 clause. 8elative prono!ns in %efining cla!ses Fefining relative clauses "also %nown as restrictive relative clauses$ provide some essential information that e plains the main clause. The information is crucial for understanding the sentence correctl! and cannot be omitted. Defining clauses are opened b! a relative pronoun and A8A 69T separated b! a comma from the main clause. The table below sums up the use of relative pronouns in defining clauses: ?eference to 45

Function in the sentence Sub&ect =b&ect (ossessive A'amples

(eople who, that whose

Things , concepts (lace Time ?eason which, that where when wh! whose, of which

"that, who, whom$_ "which, that$_

8elative prono!n !se% as a s!b$ect: #his is the house that had a great 4hristmas decoration. It took me a while to get used to people who eat pop)corn during the movie. 8elative prono!n !se% as an ob$ect: )$ 1s can be seen from the table, referring to a person or thing, the relative pronoun ma! be omitted in the ob&ect position: #his is the man &who 7 that' I wanted to speak to and whose name I>d forgotten. #he library didn>t have the book &which 7 that' I wanted. I didn>t like the book &which 7 that' 0ohn gave me. #his is the house where I lived when I first came to the R$. 0$ whom: #n 1merican 2nglish, whom is not used ver! often. Whom is more formal than who and is ver! often omitted in speech: #he woman &whom' you have 2ust talked to is my teacher. &6ote that who is also possible here' However, whom may not be omitted if followed by a preposition5 I have found you the tutor for whom you were looking. 8elative prono!n !se% as a possessive:

47

+hose is the onl! possessive relative pronoun is in 2nglish. #t can be used with both people and things: The famil! whose house burnt in the fire was immediatel! given a suite in a hotel. The boo% whose author is now being shown in the news has become a bestseller. 8elative Prono!ns in 6on-1efining Cla!ses *on-defining relative clauses "also %nown as non-restrictive, or parenthetical, clauses$ provide some additional information which is not essential and ma! be omitted without affecting the contents of the sentence. 1ll relative pronouns 2`C2(T that can be used in nondefining clausesM however, the pronouns 31G *=T be omitted. *on-defining clauses 1?2 separated b! commas. The table below sums up the use of relative pronouns in non-defining clauses: Function in the sentence Sub&ect =b&ect (ossessive (eople who, that who, whom whose which, that which whose, of which where when wh! ?eference to Things , concepts (lace Time ?eason

a. 8elative prono!n !se% as a s!b$ect: The writer, &#o lives in this lu urious mansion, has &ust published his second novel. b. 8elative prono!n !se% as an ob$ect: The house at the end of the street, &#ic# m! grandfather built, needs renovating. c. 8elative prono!n !se% as a possessive: +illiam aellogg, &#ose name has become a famous brea%fast foods brand-name, had some weird ideas about raising children.

1*. 2n%efinite prono!ns

+ords e pressing totalit! "all, whole, every, each$ or indefinite numerical or 6uantitive

4D

meaning "many, much, few, little, none, any, no, none, oneC other, another and those that refer to two: " both, either, neither$$ are often called indefinite pronouns. 1ll, ever!, each 1ll Wthin%s; of the members of a group collectivel!, as an aggregateM 2ver! is individuali.ing in that it Wadds up; the members one b! one, stressing what the members have in commonM 2ach Wthin%s; of the members of a well-defined group as separate, often stressing points of difference between them. 1ll 1ttributivel!: 1ll is used with singular nouns "a$"countables and uncountables$ and with plural countable nouns "b$ or pronouns "c$. a. All his money is spent. Its beyond all doubt. b. All honest men want peace. All the books on this shelf are 3nglish grammars. c. %ou may take all those there. He spoke against redtape and all that. Substantivall!: 1ll is used with singular reference "a$ "<ever!thing$ or with plural meaning "b$ "<all men$. #t is also used alone with plural meaning when the noun is understood "c$. a. Alls well that ends well. All is not lost. b. All are welcome. All of them are good. c. Are all these books yours() %es, all are mine. 1ppositionall!: 1ll ma! be used in apposition to a noun or personal pronounM in both cases all ma! either follow closel! the "pro$noun "a$ or the au iliaries of the predicate "b$. a. #he students all agreed that the concert was good. b. #he students have all agreedI#hats all very simple. 2ver! 2ver! is onl! used attributivel! with singular nouns, countable "a$ and uncountable "b$. a. 3very character in the book is well)drawn. b. I shall give them every assistance. 2ver! doesnCt occur with attributive pronouns, but occurs with other or ordinal numerals followed b! a singular noun "a$ or b! few or cardinal numerals followed b! a plural noun "b$. a. He doesnt come every day but only every other day. b. #he conference is held every three years. The basic meaning of ever! is contained in its compounds: ever!thing, ever!bod!A

4E

2ach 1ttributivel!: 2ach is onl! used with singular class-nouns: it refers to two or more. 3ach time he came he brought something. 3ach child had a friend. Substantivall!: each is ver! fre6uent with (artitive of. 3ach of the children received a present. 1ppositionall!: "hTtravetett$ #he boys each received a present. #hey each signed the paper. 3an!, much 3an! is numerical, much is 6uantitive. 3an! is used with countable nouns in the plural, much is used with singular nouns in uncountable sense. 1ttributive man!: /any people think so. Foes he read many novels( Substantival man!: /any of the student had to stop and rest. How many do you want( 1ttributive much: /uch care has been taken to avoid mistakes. Fo you eat much fruit( Substantival much: /uch depends on what he will say tomorrow. /uch of the novel is not worth reading. 3uch is also used as an adverb: I dont like it &too' much. Few, little Few is numerical "opposite of man!$, little is 6uantitive "opposite of much$. Few is used with countable nouns is the plural, little is used with uncountable nouns. He has few &; hardly any' friends. .ew people think so. Little hope is left. I have little money but what little I have Ill share with you. +hile few and little have negative implication, a few, a little have positive meaning. He has a few &some' friends. #ake a little more of that. Some, an! 1n! is ver! common in !es or no 6uestions, in negative and conditional conte ts, while some is especiall! usual in affirmative conte ts. Some is used attributivel! and substantivall!: ). with or instead of plural noun: I want some new shirts. $ome people like 2aJJ, others dont. 0. with a plural noun preceded b! a numeral: I want some money. $ome of the music was "uite good. I like some 2aJJ music. Font drink too much but some cant do any harm. 1n! is used both attributivel! and substantivall!, with plural or singular reference. 1. unstressed an! ). with or instead of plural noun: Have you got any blue shirts( I you have any "uestions, please come forward. 0. with or instead of singular noun: Have you got any money left. Is there any difference 4F

between them( 1. emphatic an! *e cant accept any terms. I wont take any, only the best is7are. *either,none *either refers to 0 persons, and we use singular after it. 6either parent wants to go on holiday. *one refers to 4 or more persons, and we use plural after it. 6one of the girls want to go to the party. 2ither: J singular : 3ither my mother or my father will go to the meeting. Both: J plural - 1ttributivel!: !oth countries want peace. - Substantivall!: !oth are mine. - 1ppositionall!: #hey both agreed that the concert was good. =ne another, each other =ne another is used to the e clusion of each other when the number of people concerned is indefiniteM each is preferred when onl! two persons are involved reciprocal activit!. ?eople often help each other. #wo girls, sitting opposite one another, occupied the corner seats.

20. A%$ectives
The order of ad&ectives: opinion "terrible$, si.e "vast$, age "ancient$, shape "circular$, colour " transparent$, origin "!ritish$, material "metal$, purpose "hunting$ J noun "rifle$ 3orphemicall!: Simple big, good, nice, decent, general (articipial 1d&ectives from present participle: amusing, interesting, good)looking, hard)working A from past participle: swollen, shrunken, drunken, aged, learned, old)fashioned, home)madeA Comparison S!nthetical or anal!tical. 4K Compound snow-white, life-long, over-polite Derivative cloud!, lovel!, boo%ish, selfish, personal, famous

S!nthetical comparison. The infle ions Oer and -est are usuall! or normall! ta%en b!: ). monos!llabic ad&ectives: short H shorter ) shortest, big H bigger H biggest. 0. dis!llabic ad&ectives, when: a. heavil! end-stressed: polite H politer H politest, complete, remoteA b. ending in s!llabic -l/: subtle H subtler H subtlest, noble, gentle, able c. ending in Oer, -o&, -,, -some: tender H tenderer H tenderest, narrow, lucky, handsome d. a few miscellaneous ad&ectives: civil, common, often, pleasant, stupidA 1d&ectives of the above-mentioned t!pes with negative prefi es are also common with the infle ions: unkind, impolite, incomplete, unpleasant, unhappy. - The short consonant after a stressed vowel is doubled: hot H hotter H hottest - Terminal mute Oe is dropped: large H larger H largest - Consonant O! is changed into cons. b "I$: easy H easier H easiest butB Gay H gayer H gayest shy H shyer H shyest , dry H drier H driest 1nal!tical comparison ). 1ll ad&ectives not covered b! the t!pes above, including participial ad&ectives " earnest, comic, useful, recent, hostile, intelligent, up)to)date, strained, pleased, fatigued, learned, afraid, charming$. 0. 1 few monos!llabic ad&ectives, which do not naturall! incline to comparison, such as like, real, right, wrong. 4. 1d&ectives stressed in their final s!llable and ending in two plosives: e1act, correct, abrupt, distinct. 5. 1d&ectives in Oer, where the preceding consonant is not homorganic with the Or : proper, eager 7. 1d&ectives which are e clusivel! used as predicate ad&ectives: akin, alert, alone, aware, content. D. +hen a noun is compared. $he was more than wife. He was more of a teacher than a dramatist. #rregularities Some ad&ectives have comparative and superlative forms which deviate from the stem phoneticall!, and to some e tent, semanticall! "1$, or have no phoneticall! related stem form "B$, or are irregular in some other wa! "C$.

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1. far H farther H farthest : distance in time or space far H further H furthest : in se6uence Late H later" c-^ earlier$ ) latest " c-^ earliest$ O regular, Late H latter "c-^ former$ O last " c-^ first$ O mar%ing the end of a series or referring to an immediatel! preceding period "last wee%$. He was the first to come and the last to leave. #his is the latest book but we all hope not the last. I met ?eter and Favid. #he former went to the shop and the latter to the cinema. Gld H older H oldest Oregular Gld H elder H eldest O referring to famil! relations, onl! used in attributive function. 3! elder sister. 9is eldest son is two !ears older than his eldest daughter. 6ear H nearer H nearest 6ear H nearer H ne1t O refers to a position is a series "c-^ last$ #he ne1t house we had to call at was not the nearestC it was in the ne1t village, some ten miles away. B. good H better H best bad H worse H worst evil, ill H worse H worst /any7much H more H most Little) less) least O refers to 6uantit! amount Inner) innermost &inmost', utter) uttermost &utmost', upper H uppermost &upmost$ 3ast7north7south7west H eastern, westernA .ore H former H foremost , hind H hinder H hindmost 1d&ectives from @atin: inferior, superior, minor, ma&or, seniorA"comparative degree$ /y boss is senior to me. Comparative structures: ). Comparison of 26ualit!: He was as good as his word 0. Comparison of #ne6ualit!: He was not so stressed as his friend. 4. Comparison of Superiorit!: Gur result was better than theirs. *hich is the longest river in the world( 5. Comparison of #nferiorit!: 0ohn is less talented than his friend. 5)

7. 1bsolute Comparison: the upper lip, outer space, the lower classesC 3verybody was most kind. Ill do it with the greatest pleasure.

21. A%verbs
formal classification: Simple: here, now, never, ver!, fast, too, on, out, up, !es, tomorrow, !esterda!, also, onl!, ago, across, below, seldom, rather Compound: somehow, somewhere, sometime, an!how, an!where, ever!where, an!wa!, overnight, nowada!s, indoors, narrow-mindedl! (hrasal: earl! on, near b!, on and off, ver! much, far off, far between, in full, at last, for good, for ever, later on, in an! case, over there, little b! little Derivative: eagerl!, nicel!, freel!, latel!, matter-of-factl!, latterl!, charmingl!, smilingl!, decidedl!, undoubtedl!, mista%enl!M firstl!, secondl!M namel!, partl!, purposel!M aloud, ahead, homewardA Converted 1dverbs These have come about b! direct conversion from other word-classes, chiefl! ad&ectives. There are several sub-groups here. ). the ad&ective has a different meaning when used as adverb: he feels rather poorly "<unwell, ill$ O hes poorly off &< has ver! little mone!$M it would be well "<well$ to start now H to sleep wellI 0. the adverb is now homophonous with the "non-derivative$ ad&ective and has the same meaning: far, fast, low, straightC so also the indefinite pronouns: any &;better', all&round', much, little and the comparatives: better, best, worse, worst, more, most, less, least. 4. the simple present participle is used also as adverb of degree. FaJJling &;white', soaking&;wet', piercing &;cold', e1ceeding &;strange'. 5. the adverb has double form, a simple one, identical with the ad&ective, one ending in Ol!. #n vigorous collo6uial st!le the simple form of man! short ad&ectives is often preferred. 4heap, fine, loud, "uick, right, sharp, slow. I bought it cheap&ly'. Font speak so loud. He turned sharp&ly' to the left. idioms: take it easy, to look sharp, to drink deep, to play high7fairI The (lace of 1dverb The place of the adverb depends on its ). meaning, 0. manner of modification, 4. emphasis, 5. 50

the structure of the sentence, and fre6uentl! the combination of all these factors. 1dverbs ma! rarel! come between the verb and its ob&ect unless the latter is a long group or has a defining clause of its own. A. The place of the a%verbial particles follow the verb ")$ if there is no ob&ect , "0$ the! can follow or precede a noun ob&ect, "4$ must alwa!s come after a pronominal ob&ect. ). He looked up7downI*e rushed in. 0. He looked up the word. He looked the word up. 4. I shall look it up for you. :. 1dverbs of (lace: ")$these normall! ta%e end-position, "0$ if parentheticall! used, the! are put before the notional verb, "4$ of made emphatic, the! are front-shifted, which ma! or ma! not cause inversion. ). He is upstairs. I couldnt them anywhere. 0. I will here remark thatI 4. Here came the others. The adverbs of numerical order: firstl!, secondl!A come first in the sentence. First and last come before the notional verb. I first met him in :QQS. C. 1dverbs of Definite Time: these are normall! placed ")$ last in the group, "0$ in the first place if special emphasis is to be imparted to them, "4$ the! also ma! come before the notional verb if ver! light. ). I bought it yesterday. :. #omorrow Ill be far away. A. I now see that I was wrong. 1. 1dverbs of #ndefinite Time. These in group are placed ")$ last, "0$ or occasionall! in front. @. I went there immediately. :. Immediately I rang him up. 1dverbs of 3anner "e.g.: slowl!, carefull!, awfull!$ These adverbs are put behind the direct ob&ect "or behind the verb if thereLs no direct ob&ect$. s!b$ect 9e 9e verb;s< drove drove %irect ob$ect the car a%verb carefull!. carefull!.

1dverbs of (lace

54

"e.g.: here, there, behind, above$ @i%e adverbs of manner, these adverbs are put behind the direct ob&ect or the verb. s!b$ect # 9e verb;s< didnLt see sta!ed %irect ob$ect him a%verb here. behind.

1dverbs of Time "e.g.: recentl!, now, then, !esterda!$ 1dverbs of time are usuall! put at the end of the sentence. s!b$ect verb;s< in%irect ob$ect %irect ob$ect time # will tell !ou the stor! tomorrow. #f !ou donLt want to put emphasis on the time, !ou can also put the adverb of time at the beginning of the sentence. time s!b$ect verb;s< in%irect ob$ect %irect ob$ect Tomorrow # will tell !ou the stor!. 1dverbs of Fre6uenc! "e.g.: alwa!s, never, seldom, usuall!$ 1dverbs of fre6uenc! are put directl! before the main verb. #f LbeL is the main verb and there is no au iliar! verb, adverbs of fre6uenc! are put behind LbeL. #s there an au iliar! verb, however, adverbs of fre6uenc! are put before LbeL. a%ver

s!b$ect a!'iliar,>be # 9e +e # doesnLt are have

main verb ob$ect- place or time b often go swimming in the evenings. alwa!s pla! tennis. usuall! here in summer. never been abroad.

22. Prepositions
1 preposition is a part of speech that introduces a prepositional phrase. #t is alwa!s followed b! a noun. 55

formal classification: Simple: at, b! ,for, from, in, on, of, to, with, about, across, after, below, beneath, behind, beside, since, untilA Compound: into, on to, out of, upon, within, inside, outside, towards, throughout, withoutA (hrasal: noun flan%ed b! two prepositions: instead of, in spite of, b! means of, in front of, in order to, with regard to, for the sa%e ofA ad&ective or participle J preposition : close to, near to, ne t to, prior to, according to, owing to, ahead of, because of, round about, over and above, side b! side with, as far asA Converted: from participles: : concerning, during, e1cepting, pending.

as a modifier to a verb o sleep throughout the winter o %ance% atop the tables for hours as a modifier to a noun o the &eat#er in 1pril o c#eeses from France with live bacteria as the complement of a verb o insist on sta!ing home o %ispose of unwanted items as the complement of a noun o a t#irst for revenge as the complement of an ad&ective or adverb o attentive to their needs o separatel, from its neighbors as the complement of another preposition o !ntil after supper o from beneath the bed

Simple vs comple' Simple adpositions consist of a single word, while comple' adpositions consist of a group of words that act as one unit. Some e amples of comple prepositions in 2nglish are:

in spite of, with respect to, e cept for, b! dint of, ne t to

Classification b, complement 1lthough noun phrases are the most t!pical complements, adpositions can in fact combine with a variet! of s!ntactic categories, much li%e verbs.

noun phrases: It was on Tthe tableU. 57

adpositional phrases: 4ome out from Tunder the bedU. ad&ectives and ad&ective phrases: #he scene went from Tblindingly brightU to Tpitch blackU. adverb or adverb phrases: I worked there until recently infinitival or participial verb phrases: Let>s think about solving this problem. interrogative clauses: we can>t agree on Twhether to have children or notU full sentences "see Con&unctions below$

Semantic classification 1dpositions can be used to e press a wide range of semantic relations between their complement and the rest of the conte t. The following list is not an e haustive classification:

spatial relations: location "inclusion, e clusion, pro imit!$, direction "origin, path, endpoint$ temporal relations comparison: e6ualit!, opposition, price, rate content: source, material, sub&ect matter instr!ment, manner ca!se, p!rpose, agent

23. Cla!se of P!rpose

Con&unctions if the sub&ect of the subclause < sub&ect of the main clause: to- so as to> so as not to- in or%er to - sub&ect of the subclause < sub&ect of the main clause: I came here so as to7 in order to help you Onon)finite clause I came here so that I could read this article. He switched on the #= so as to listen to the news. *e worked hard in order to earn more money. I dont eat sweets so as not to get fat. Con&unctions if sub&ect of the subclause < sub&ect of the main clause: Bso t#atB&ill>can >; &o!l%> co!l% <- if the main clause is in past tense Bin or%er t#atB &ill>can > &o!l%> co!l%

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I came here so that7 in order that you could7 should help me. Hdifferent sub&ects # have come here so that !ou can,will,ma! help me. #Cm writing a letter to him so that, in order that will %now where # am. # wrote a letter to him so that, in order that would %now where # was. Con&unctions: Afor fear thatA will,can, would,could - attUl tartvTn, hog!A Alest s! should do sg -nehog! vala%i valamit csinTl&on. He put on his slippers for fear that he would step on some broken glass. I put on my slippers lest I should step on some broken glass. .or fear that the children could not fall asleep, he turned the #= down.

24. Cla!se of time

- #f !ou refer to a future time, !ou canCt use future tense. *e will meet when you arrive home. - 1fter until !ou canCt use negation or future tense. *e wont meet until you arrive home. - #n a time clause "in past$ !ou neednCt change past simple to past perfect. *hile I was washing up the dishes, my husband was watching #=. *hile the children were going to school, they were eating sandwiches. *hile going to school the children were eating sandwiches.

25. 8eporte% Speec#

There are two wa!s of relating what a person has said: #n direct speech we repeat the original spea%erCs e act words: He said VI have lost my umbrella. #n indirect speech we give the e act meaning of a remar% or a speech, without necessaril! using the spea%erCs e act words: He said &that' he lost his umbrella. Direct speech I never eat meal. He e1plained Im waiting for Ann. I have found a flat. Ive been waiting for ages. 5E #ndirect speech He e1plained that he never ate meal. He said that he was waiting for Ann. He said that he had found a flat. He said he had been waiting for ages.

I took it home with me. I will7 shall be in ?aris on /onday.

$he said she had taken it home with her. He said he would be in ?aris on /onday.

I will7shall be using my car myself on the :Lth. He said he would be using the car himself on the :Lth. I would7should like to see it. Xuestions in indirect speech The interrogative form of the verb changes to the affirmative. The 6uestion mar% is therefore omitted. He said V*here does she live( He asked where she lived. #f the introductor! verb is sa!, it must be changed to a verb of in6uir!: as%, in6uire, wonder, want to %nowA $he said V %ou mustnt leave home. $he ordered that I wasnt to leave home. $he said V %ou neednt go home. $he said I didnt have to leave home. ?eported Xuestions Gou have to change the word order. Are you hungry( $he asked if I was hungry. Have you been talking to your friend( $he asked me if I had been talking to my friend. Xuestions with shall $hall we be working here this time ne1t year( $he asked if they would be working there that time the following year. Temporal au . $hall we go to the cinema tonight( $he asked if they should go to the cinema that night. 3odal au . ?eported commands Go home. $he told7asked7commanded me to go home. Augh $he has stepped on my toe. $he e1claimed with pain and remarked that she had stepped on her toe. *hat a nonsense. $he was upset ofI Conditionals in reported speech If I meet him I will tell him the truth. $he said that if she met him she would tell him the truth. 5F I said I would7should like to see it.

0nd, 4rd conditionals will remain unchanged. $he said VIf I met him I would tell him the truth. $he said that if she met him she would tell him the truth. I wish he won the race $he said that she wished he won the race. I wish he had won the race $he said that she wished he had won the race. %ou mustnt cross the street on red light. $he said that I mustnt cross the street on red light Heternal prohibition %ou mustnt read this letter tomorrow. $he said that I wasnt to read that letter the following day. Temporal prohibition. %ou must have been writing a letter at < yesterday. $he said that I must have been writing a letter at < on the previous day. H strong probability

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