Mathematicsforen01roseuoft BW

m
:<"?>
nil
OBBB^BK *ra#&$#
<!4c<-<X-^.<S:ccC'
MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

PART
I
The Directly-Useful Technical

See Detailed Prospectus
Series
Mathematics for Engineers

Part II
By W. N. ROSE,
440 pages.
B.Sc. Eng. (Lond.)

8vo. 13/6 net.
Demy
two volumes of Mathematics for Engineers form a most comprehensive and practical treatise on the Great care has been taken to show the direct subject.
bearing of
all
principles to engineering practice,
and the
complete book will prove a valuable reference work embracing all the mathematics needed by engineers in their practice, and by students in all branches of engineering
science.
The second part is on similar lines to the present, and contains exhaustive chapters on the following
INTRODUCTION TO DIFFERENTIATION DIFFERENTIATION OF FUNCTIONS APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION METHODS OF INTEGRATION MEAN VALUES, R.M.S. VALUES, CENTROIDS, MOMENT OF INERTIA, ETC. POLAR CO-ORDINATES DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS APPLICATIONS OF CALCULUS HARMONIC ANALYSIS SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY
MATHEMATICAL PROBABILITY,
ETC.
Particulars of other books in this Series are given on page 515.
The Directly-Useful
Founded by the
late
D.U.
J.
Technical Series
WILFRID
LINEHAM, B.Sc., M.Inst.C.E.
Mathematics for Engineers

PART
I
INCLUDING
ELEMENTARY AND HIGHER ALGEBRA, MENSURATION AND GRAPHS, AND PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
BY
W. N.
ROSE
;
B.Sc. ENG. (LOND.)

Late Lecturer in Engineering Mathematics at the University of London, Goldsmiths' College Teacher of Mathematics
at the
Borough Polytechnic Institute
THIRD EDITION
-
(p
LONDON CHAPMAN & HALL, LTD.

II
HENRIETTA STREET,
1922
W.C* 2
FEINTED IN GRF.AT BRITAIN BY RICHARD CLAY & SONS, LIMITED,

BUNGAY, SUFFOLK.
EDITORIAL NOTE"
THE DIRECTLY USEFUL TECHNICAL SERIES
by way
of introduction.
requires a few words
Technical books of the past have arranged

:
themselves largely under two sections

Practical.
the Theoretical and the
Theoretical books have been written
more
for the train-
ing of college students than for the supply of information to

in practice,
men
character.
and have been greatly filled with problems of an academic Practical books have often sought the other extreme,
all good practice is built, The present series is intended to The information, the problems, and
omitting the scientific basis upon which
whether discernible or not.
occupy a midway position.

the same time be
the exercises are to be of a directly useful character, but must at
wedded
to that proper
amount
of scientific ex-
planation which alone
will satisfy the inquiring
mind.
We
shall
thus appeal to
all
technical people throughout the land, either
students or those in actual practice.

.
THE EDITOR.
AUTHOR'S PREFACE
AN endeavour has here been made to produce a treatise so thorough and complete that it shall embrace all the mathematical work needed by engineers in their practice, and by students in all branches of engineering science. It is also hoped that it will prove of special value for private study, and as a work of
reference.
Owing to the vast amount of ground to be covered, it has been found impossible to include everything in one volume and accordingly the subject-matter has been divided into two portions, with the first of which the present volume deals. Stated briefly, Part I treats fully of the fundamental rules and processes of Algebra, Plane Trigonometry, Mensuration, and Graphs, the work being carefully graded from an elementary to an advanced stage while Part II is devoted to the Calculus and its applications, Harmonic
: ;
Analysis, Spherical Trigonometry, etc. It is felt that the majority of books on Practical Mathematics, in the endeavour to depart from a theoretical treatment of the
subject, neglect many essential algebraic operations, and, in addition, limit the usefulness of the rules given by the omission of the
proofs thereof. Throughout the book great attention has been paid to the systematic development of the subject, and, wherever
Practical applications are possible, proofs of rules are given. added in the greater number of instances, the majority of the
exercises,
both worked and set, having a direct bearing on engineerand ing practice, thus fulfilling the main purpose of the book strictly academic examples are only introduced to emphasise
:
mathematical processes needful in the development of the higher

stages.
In order to
as a
make
the
work
means
of reference,
many
of the greatest use to the engineer practical features have been intro-
viii
AUTHOR'S PREFACE
:
Calculation of Weights, Calculation of Earthwork Volumes, Land Surveying problems, and the Construction of PV and T diagrams or other general Practical Charts; and great care has been exercised in order that the best possible use may be made of mechanical calculators, such as the slide rule and the
duced, including
planimeter.
Chap. I deals with methods of calculation. The method of approximating for a numerical result, introduced by Mr. W. J. Lineham, has been found to be very effective and easily grasped;
and
and
it is felt
units could be
that the device here described for investigation for more universally employed, because of its simplicity
directness.
Simple, simultaneous, quadratic, cubic and all equations solvable by simple algebraic processes are treated in Chap. II also factorisation by the simple methods, including the use of the Factor
:
theorem, and the simplification of algebraic fractions. Great stress is laid on the importance of facility in transposing both terms and factors from one side of an equation to the other; and in this
respect
numerous literal equations are considered. The various rules of the mensuration of the simple areas and
;
solids are stated in
Chap. Ill the conic sections being included in view of their importance in connection with the theory of structures and strength of materials. The chapter concludes with the applia variety of types cation of the rules for the calculation of weights of machine parts being treated.
;
All the elementary graph work is included in Chap. IV, in which attention is specially directed to the derivation of one curve from another, necessary, for example, in the case of efficiency
curves.
The usefulness of graphical solutions for the problems on arithmetical and geometrical progression is emphasised in Chap. V, in which also methods of allowing for depreciation of plant are introduced as illustrations of the commercial use of series. Here also are numerous examples on evaluation of formulae containing fracand negative powers; and in these examples the absolute necessity of analysing compound expressions into their elements is
tional
made
clear.
VI a departure is made from the old convention of the measurement of angles from a horizontal line, calling them Plane positive if measured in a counter-clockwise direction.
In Chap.
Trigonometry has its widest application in land surveying, in which angles are measured by a right-handed rotation from the
AUTHOR'S PREFACE
North direction.
ix
Hence the north and south
line is here
taken as
the standard line of reference and all angles are referred to it. Also by doing this the mathematical work is simplified, since the
trigonometrical ratio of an angle does not alter; the angle of any " equivalent acute angle," viz. magnitude being converted to the
the acute angle made with the north and south line. The calculation of co-ordinates in land surveying is introduced as a good
for instance of the solution of right-angled triangles. Many rules " " sine the solution of triangles are stated, but two only, viz. the " " This cosine and the rules, are recommended for general use.
chapter contains much of importance to the electrical engineer, in the way of hyperbolic functions and complex quantities. The mode of utilising the planimeter for all possible cases is shown in Chap. VII, including the case in which the area to be measured is larger than the zero circle area. Graphic integration is introduced, in addition to the rules usually given for the measureof irregular curved areas. Chap. VIII should prove of great value to railway engineers and to surveyors, since in it are collected the various types of earthwork problems likely to be encountered. Chap. IX deals with the plotting of difficult curve equations, and in this chapter it is demonstrated how a curve representing a rather complex equation may be obtained from a simple curve by suitable change of scales. Thus all sine curves have the same form, and accordingly the curve representing the equation io6) can be obtained directly from the simple y =* 72 sin(ioo7r/ sin x. The work on the construction and use of PV sine curve y and T< diagrams should commend itself to students of thermo-
ment
dynamics. In Chap.
emphasis
is
laid
on the advantage
of
making
suit-
able substitutions
when transforming any equation
into the linear
form for the purpose of determining the law correlating two

variables.
Chap.
XI
methods used
detail,
provides a novel feature in its presentation of some in the construction of charts applicable to drawing
office practice.
Alignment charts are here explained in the
fullest
hoped that the explanation given will further the more universal employment of these charts. Chap. XII embraces the more difficult algebra, necessary chiefly in the study of the Calculus; and in addition, the application of
it is
and
continued fractions to dividing-head problems. For extremely valuable advice, helpful criticism and assistance
AUTHOR'S PREFACE
at all stages of the progress of the book the Author desires to tender his sincere thanks to MESSRS. W. J. LINEHAM, B.Sc., M.I.C.E.,
BALE, C. B. CLAPHAM, B.Sc., and G. T. WHITE, B.Sc. While it is hoped that the book is free from errors, it is possible that some may have been overlooked; and notification of such will be esteemed a great favour. W. N. ROSE.
J. L.
Goldsmiths' College, New Cross, S.E., January, 19 iS.
NOTE TO SECOND EDITION

THE early demand for a second edition of this volume has afforded an opportunity for making a number of corrections both
in the text
and
in the illustrations;
whilst a few exercises have
been added.
To those who have contributed to the improvement thus made, whether by notifying errors or by offering valuable suggestions, the Author's sincere thanks are proffered.
November,
NOTE TO THIRD EDITION

THE
favourable reception accorded the
first
and second
editions
inspires the hope of similar appreciation of the third edition. In this edition the need for the inclusion of some explanation
mode of expression employed in treatises on aerodynamics has been recognised by the addition of a section dealing with determinants. The work has been subjected to thorough revision, corrections being made where necessary, and further exercises have been
of the determinant
added.
December, 1921.
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTORY
....
and abbreviations
Tables
of
PACE
i
Previous knowledge Definitions weights and measures Useful constants.
CHAPTER
AIDS TO CALCULATION
tables.
2.
.
Methods of approximation
plications of logarithms
Indices Logarithms: i. Reading from Determination of characteristic Antilogarithms Ap-
Investigation for units.
CHAPTER
EQUATIONS
Solution of simple equations
i.
II
31
Solution of simultaneous equations With three unknowns Methods of
:
factor theorems Simplification Solution of quadratic equations : i. By of algebraic fractions 2. By completion of the square. factorisation. 3. By use of a formula Solution of cubic equations Solution of simultaneous
factorisation
With two unknowns. 2. The remainder and
quadratic equations
Solution of surd equations.
CHAPTER
MENSURATION
III
79
Area of rectangle and triangle Area of parallelogram and rhombus Areas of irregular quadrilaterals and irregular polygons Areas of regular polygons Circle: i. Circumference and area. 2. Area of annulus. 3. Length of chord and maximum height of arc. 4. Length of arc by true and by approximate rules. 5. Area of sector. 6. Area of segment by true and by approximate rules Area and perimeter
of the ellipse The parabola The hyperbola Surface area and volume of prism and cylinder Surface area and volume of pyramid and cone Frusta of cones and pyramids The sphere : i. Surface area. 2. Volume. 3. Volume and surface area of a zone. 4.
Volume
of a segment. Relations between sides, surface areas, and volumes of similar figures Guldinus' rules for surface areas and volumes of solids of revolution Positions of centroids of simple
figures
of plane figures
Calculation of weights Tables of areas and circumferences Tables of volumes and surface areas of solids.
xii
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
INTRODUCTION TO GRAPHS
Object and use of graphs
IV
PAGE
148
Rules for plotting graphs Interpolation The plotting of co-ordinates Representation of simple equations by straight-line graphs Determination of the equation of a straight line Plotting of graphs to represent equations of the second i. By use of a graph. degree Solution of quadratic equations 2. On the drawing board Plotting of graphs to represent equations of degree higher than the second Graphs applied to the solution of
:
maximum and minimum
problems.
CHAPTER V
FURTHER ALGEBRA
Variation
193
treated
Arithmetic and geometric progression,
both
and graphically Practical applications of geometric progression The laws of series applied to the calculation of allow" " ance for depreciation of plant The value of e Napierian logarithms i. Reading from tables. 2. Calculation from common logarithms Use of logarithms in the evaluation of formulae conLogarithmic equations. taining fractional and negative powers
algebraically
:
CHAPTER
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
Definitions of the trigonometric ratios trigonometric ratios from the tables
VI
232
Reading the values of the Solution of right-angled Reading the values of the trigonometric ratios from the triangles Calculation of co-ordinates in land surveying Meaning slide rule " " and " whole-circle " bearing in reduced bearing of the terms surveying Rules for the determination of the trigonometric ratios of angles of any magnitude Table of signs of the trigonometric Rules for the solution of triangles, for any given conditions ratios " The " ambiguous case in the solution of triangles Proof of the " " Use of tables of the logarithms rule for the area of a triangle s
of
sin
the
trigonometric
B), etc.
ratios
(A
Ratios of 2 A,
The expansion of sin (A + B), A 3 A and 4 A in terms of the

,
A Rules for the change of a sum or difference of two trigonometric ratios to a product, and vice versa Solution of trigonometric equations Hyperbolic functions Complex quantities Inverse trigonometrig Rule for addition of vector quantities
ratios of
functions.
CONTENTS
xiii
CHAPTER
VII
PACE
AREAS OF IRREGULAR CURVED FIGURES

Areas of irregular curved figures by various methods
:
:
300
I.
By
the
use of the Amsler planimeter and the Coffin averager and planithe use of the Amsler planimeter for large areas being meter 2. By averaging boundaries. 3. By counting fully explained. 5. By the trape4. By the use of the computing scale. squares. 6. By the mid-ordinate rule. zoidal rule. 7. By Simpson's rule.
8.
By
graphic integration.
CHAPTER
VIII
CALCULATION OF EARTHWORK VOLUMES

Volumes of prismoidal solids Volume of a wedge-shaped excavation Area of section of a cutting or embankment Volume of a cutting having symmetrical sides Volume of a cutting having unequal sides Net volume of earth removed in making a road by both cutting and embankment Volume of a cutting with unequal Surface areas for cuttings and embanksides, in varying ground ments Volumes of reservoirs.
319
CHAPTER IX
THE PLOTTING OF DIFFICULT CURVE EQUATIONS Curves representing equations of the type y = ax"
log-log scale
.
336
Use of the
on the slide rule Expansion curves for gases Special construction for drawing curves of the type pv n C Equations to the ellipse, parabola and hyperbola The ellipse of stress Curves representing exponential functions The catenary Graphs Use of the sine curve " template " Simple harof sine functions
of tan x Compound periodic oscillations Curve of logarithmic decrement Graphic solution of equations insolvable or not easily solvable by other methods Construction of PV and r<j> diagrams i. Drawing PV and TQ diagrams. 2. Drawing primary adiabatics and constant-volume lines. 3. Drawing secondary adiabatics. 4. Plotting the Rankine 5. Plotting the common steam-engine cycle for two drynesses. diagram for an engine jacketed and non-jacketed. 6. Plotting
monic motion
Graph
Equation of time
quality curves. 7. Calculating exponents for adiabatic expansions. PV and T$' diagrams for the 8. Plotting constant heat lines Stirling, Joule and Ericsson engines.
CHAPTER X
THE DETERMINATION OF LAWS
Laws
of the type
:
396
y
i.
+-;
bx*, etc.
2.
= ax"
the usefulness of the slide rule for log plotting being demonstrated. n ae bx a+bx+cx*. 5. y 3. y 4. y #+b.x y nx m fo ; y = y == {?
ws
xiv
CONTENTS
CHAPTER XI
PAGE
THE CONSTRUCTION OF PRACTICAL CHARTS
.419
Correlation charts, including log plotting Ordinary intercept charts of various types Alignment charts, their principle and use Alignment charts involving powers of the variable Alignment chart for four variables.
CHAPTER
PART
II
XII
VARIOUS ALGEBRAIC PROCESSES, MOSTLY INTRODUCTORY TO

448
Continued fractions Application of continued fractions to dividinghead problems Resolution of a fraction into two or more partial Determination of limiting values of expressions Perfractions mutations and combinations The binomial theorem i. Rule for the expansion of a binomial expression. 2. Rule for the calculation Use of the binomial of any particular term in the expansion theorem for approximations The exponential and logarithmic series Calculation of natural logs - Determinants.
:
ANSWERS TO EXERCISES
TABLES
:
479
Trigonometric ratios
Logarithms
Antilogarithms Napierian logarithms Natural sines Natural cosines Natural tangents
.
.
491 492 494

.
.
Logarithmic sines Logarithmic cosines Logarithmic tangents Exponential and hyperbolic functions
496 498 500 502 504 506 508
.510
511
INDEX

INTRODUCTORY
Previous Knowledge.
all
While
this
work
is
intended to supply
the mathematical rules and processes used by the engineer, certain elementary branches of the subject have necessarily been
omitted.
It is assumed that the reader has a sound working knowledge of arithmetic, and also is acquainted with the four
simple rules of algebra, viz. addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Thus the meaning of the following algebraic processes
should be
known
a?
= axaxa;
2 9
(*
i2c)
= 30*2
= #18 O% _
4
x 45
;
xs
=-
= x*;
i-25y;
\)
426+72^;
'5#
(40-76) (0
Again, the use of the lo-inch slide rule
is
not explained in detail

;
as regards multiplying, dividing, involution and evolution but the special application of the slide rule is dealt with as occasion arises.
Definitions and Abbreviations. An expression is any mathematical statement containing numbers, letters and signs. Terms of an expression are connected one with another by
+
or
or
The
signs. factors of
literal,
an expression are those quantities, numerical which when multiplied together give the expression.
Thus considering the expression
2ga?xb
and io8ay 6 are terms; and each

e. g.
of these
terms can
be broken up into a number of factors;
Again (ga 46) (5^+76) +7^) are the/ac/ofs of 45 B
= i$xaxaxb. = 45a +43& 286

2
2
;
and (9^46) and
When an expression depends for its value on that given to one of the quantities occurring in it, the expression is said to be a function of that quantity. Thus gx3 7# 2 is a function of x;
+5
and
this relation
would be written
9*
3
in the shorter
form
7*2+5 =/(*).
If a letter or number is raised to a power, the figure which denotes the magnitude of that power is called the exponent. An obtuse angle is one which is greater than a right angle.
one which is less than a right angle. has three unequal sides. The locus of a point is the path traced by the point when position is ordered according to some law. The abbreviations detailed below will be adopted throughout.
acute angle
is
An
scalene triangle
its
= +
x
T.*.
stands for
,,
,,
,,
,, ,, ,, ,,
?,
,, ,,
> <
Qce
oc
co
/_
,,
,, ,, ,,
,,
,,
,, ,,
,, ,, ,, ,, ,,
,,
A
li
,,
or 4!
,,
"P,
"C,
,, ,,
" " " or is equal to." equals " plus." " minus." " multiplied by." " divided by." " therefore." " plus or minus." " greater than." " less than." " circle." " circumference." " varies as." " infinity." " angle." " " " or area of triangle." triangle " factorial four "; the value being that of the product 1.2.3.4 or 2 4" the number of permutations of n things taken two at a time." " the number of combinations of n things taken two at a time."
nt
7)
,, ,,
,,
n
"
,,
,, ,, ,,
(n
i)
(n
2).
a 6 I.H.P.
efficiency." " angle in degrees."
"
,,
,, ,, ,, ,,
"
" " " " "
angle in radians." indicated horse-power."
B.H.P.
m.p.h.
r.p.m.
r.p.s.
,, ,, ,, ,,
,,
brake horse-power." miles per hour." revolutions per minute." revolutions per second."
I.V.
independent variable."
INTRODUCTORY
" stands for F " C ,, " L.C.D. " E.M.F. ,, ,, "
1
,,
degrees Fahrenheit." degrees Centigrade." lowest common denominator." electro-motive force."
moment
the the
of inertia."
E
Sn S OT
"
,,
,, ,,
"
"
,,
Young's modulus of elasticity."
,, ,,
2
B.T.U. B.Th.U.
T
p.
"
,,
sum to n terms." sum to infinity (of sum of."

Board of Trade unit."
British thermal unit."
terms)."
" "
"
,, ,, ,,
,,
sin -1
e
,, ,,
,, ,, ,,
g cms.
grins.
,,
,,
absolute temperature." " coefficient of friction." " the angle whose sine is x." " the base of Napierian logarithms." " the acceleration due to the force of gravity." " centimetres." "
"
limit to
,,
,,
Ly.
*-* a
grammes." which y approaches as x approaches

the value a."
Tables
of
Weights and Measures.

BRITISH
TABLE OF LENGTH
(ins.)
12 inches 3 feet
(ft.)
5j yards (yds.) 40 poles (po.)

8 furlongs
I nautical mile i i
(fur.)
= I foot = i yard = i pole =i furlong = i mile.
knot
fathom
= 6080 feet = i nautical mile per hour = 6 feet.
SQUARE MEASURE
144 square inches (sq. ins.) 9 square feet (sq. ft.) 30^ square yards (sq. yds.) 40 square poles 4 roods or 4840 sq. yds. 640 acres
= i square foot = i square yard = i square pole = i rood

i
acre
square mile.

CUBIC MEASURE
1728 cubic inches (cu. 27 cubic feet (cu. ft.)
= I cubic foot = i cubic yard. Weight of i gallon of water = 10 Ibs. of water = 62-4 Ibs. Weight of i cu. = 6-24 gallons. i cu.
ins.)
ft.
ft.
METRIC TABLE OF LENGTH

I kilometre (Km.)
hectometre (Hm.) I dekametre (Dm.) metre (m.) i decimetre (dm.) i centimetre (cm.)
I i millimetre
= =
1000 metres 100 10

-i
(mm.)
= 39-37" = metre = -01 (2-54 cms. = i".) = -ooi
LAND MEASURE
= i chain = 66 feet = i furlong = i mile 10 square chains = i acre.

100 links chain 10 chains 80 chains
i
Useful Constants.
= 271828 = 2-3026 = log.N X -4343 log MN

<?
log<io
i horse-power 33000 foot Ibs. Absolute temperature r /C.+273 or tF.-\-^6i. i radian 57-3 degrees. 14-7 Ibs. per sq. in. pressure of one atmosphere i sq. in. i inch == 2-54 centimetres. 6-45 sq. cms. i kilogram i kilometre 2-205 Ibs. -6213 mile.
= 3-14159 = -4343 logeN = log N X 2-303 g = 32-18 per sec. per sec. = min. per 746 watts.
TT
Iog 10 e
10
ft.
i Ib.
= 453-6 grms.
The following
to
which reference
Euc.
I.
are the statements of the propositions in Euclid, is made in the text

is
47.
In any right-angled triangle, the square which
INTRODUCTORY
described on the side subtending the right angle is equal to the squares described on the sides which contain the right angle.
circle,
Euc. III. 35. If two straight lines cut one another within a the rectangle contained by the segments of one of them shall be equal to the rectangle contained by the segments of the other.
Euc. III. 36.
there be
Corollary.
If
from any point without a
circle
by
straight lines cutting it, the rectangles contained the whole lines and the parts of them without the circle equal
drawn two
one another.
Euc. VI. 4. The sides about the equal angles of triangles which are equiangular to one another are proportionals. Euc. VI. 19. Similar triangles are to one another in the duplicate ratio of their homologous (i. e., corresponding) sides. Euc. VI. 20. Similar polygons have to one another the duplicate ratio of that which their homologous sides have. [From this statement it follows that corresponding areas or surfaces are proportional to the squares of their linear dimensions.]
CHAPTER
AIDS TO CALCULATION
Approximation for Products and Quotients.
desirable,
Whatever
may be the calculations in which the engineer is involved, it is always

to obtain some approximate result on that obtained by the use of the slide rule or logarithms only in this way is confidence in one's working assured. Speed in approximation is as important as reasonable accuracy, and the following method, it is hoped, will greatly assist in such
to serve as a check
;
and even necessary,
The great trouble

47-83
acceleration, especially in the cases of products and quotients. in the evaluation of such an expression as
x 3-142 X 9-41 X -0076

33000
is
..,<-. the fixing
of
the position
of
the
decimal point. The rules usually given in handbooks on the manipulation of the slide rule may enable this to be done, but they certainly give no ideas as to the actual figures to be expected. The method suggested for approximation may be thus stated
Reduce each number to a simple integer, i. e., one of the whole numbers I, 2, 3, etc., if possible choosing the numbers
so that cancelling may be performed ; this reduction involving the omission of multiples or sub-multiples of 10. To allow " " for this, for every omitted place one stroke multiplying 10 in the corresponding line of a fraction spoken of as a point " " fraction, and for every dividing 10 place one stroke in the
Thus two fractions are obtained, the number fraction, giving a rough idea of the actual figures in the result, and the point fraction from which the position of the decimal point in the result is fixed. Accordingly, by
other line of this fraction.
combining these two fractions the required approximate

is
result
obtained.
illustrate
To
the
application
of
the
method consider the
following
AIDS TO CALCULATION
Example
I.
7
*o ^
.r-
Find an approximate value of the quotient

fraction
be written approximately as and IT (the point fraction) that is, we state 4-81 as 5 (working to the nearest integer). By so doing we are not multiplying or dividing by any power of ten, so that there would be nothing to write in the point fraction due to this change
The whole
may
| (the
number
fraction)
but by writing 5 in place of -05, we are omitting two dividing tens therefore, since 5 is in the numerator of the number fraction, two strokes appear in the denominator of the point fraction. The number and the point fraction indicates that the result fraction reduces to i of the number fraction is to be divided by 100, since two strokes, corresponding to two tens multiplied together, appear in the denominator. Hence, a combination of the two fractions gives the approximate result as i -f- 100 or -01.
;
;
"
"
It may be easier to effect the combination cf the two fractions according to the following plan The result of the number fraction being !; shift the decimal point two places to the left, because of the presence of the two strokes in the denominator of the point fraction, thus
01
Example
2.
Determine the approximate value of ^|-i

28-4
x -00074
the method to this example State 9764 as 10,000, i. e., write i in the numerator of the number fraction and four strokes in the numerator of the point fraction. For -0213 write 2 in the numerator of the number fraction and two
To apply
strokes in the denominator of the point fraction. The strokes are placed in the denominator because in substituting -02 for 2 we are multiplying by 100, and therefore, to preserve the balance, we must divide the result by 100. For 28-4 we should write 3 with i stroke in the denominator, and for -00074 we should write 7 with 4 strokes in the numerator.
Thus
Number fraction.
Point fraction.
1111
1X2
3><7
.
1\\\
\
\\
e.,
-i
and
result
is
-i
by
cancelling.
;
Hence the approximate
x io
5
,
i. e.,
10,000
or, alter-
natively, the shifting of the decimal point
would be
effected thus
10000
8
It will

be seen from this method that
it is
to express a very large or very small
number
often an advantage as an equivalent
simpler number multiplied by some power of ten. Not only is a saving of time obtained, but the method tends to greater accuracy. Thus 2,000,000 may be written as 2 X io 6 a very compact form also it is far more likely that an error of a nought may be made in " " the extended than in the shorter form. for Young's modulus 6 steel is often written as 29 X io Ibs. per sq. in., rather than
, ;
29,000,000
Ibs.
per sq.
in.
Example
3.
Find the approximation for

47'83
x 3-142 x
9-41
-0076
33000
The method
will
;
previous examples point fraction.
and
be understood from the explanation given in the for clearness the strokes are separated in the
is
The approximation
5x3x1x8
3
\ 111
which reduces to
40
'.
im
e.,
40
-r-
io 5
-0004.
The change
in the position of the decimal point
would be -00040'
Further examples on approximation

to 21.
will
be found on pp. 18
tension of this
Approximations for Squares and Square Roots. An exmethod can be made to apply to cases of squares
and square roots, cubes and cube roots. As regards squaring and cubing, these may be considered as cases of multiplication, so that nothing further need be added. To find, say, a square root approxi2 mately, we must remember that the square root of 100 or io is 4 2 root of io is io and the so on the io, square approximation, therefore, must be so arranged that an even number of tens are omitted or added. Hence the rule for this approximation may be
, ;
expressed
Reduce the number whose square root is to be found to some number between i and 100, multiplied or divided by some even power of ten then the approximate square root of this number, combined with half the number of strokes in the
;
point fraction, gives the approximate square root of the number.
AIDS TO CALCULATION
some number between
In the case of cube roots, the number must be reduced to i and 100 multiplied or divided by
3, 6 or 9 ... tens; then the approximate cube root of this number must be combined with one-third of the strokes in the
point fraction.
Example
4.
Find an approximation for ^498-4.

,
In place of 498-4 write 500, which can be written as 5 x io 2

or as
11
5
is
Then the approximate square root

If
2-2
or
22.
the
number had been 4984 the number would read

5o
^
-,
and the square root

7
22;
Example
If for
5.
Find approximately the cube root of -000182.

write 200, then -000182
is
182
we
replaced
by
111111
so that the cube root of -000182 is that of 200 divided by io a since two strokes (viz. ^ of 6) appear in the denominator of the point fraction. Thus, the cube root is
,
s-s
n
or -058.
Example
6.
Evaluate approximately
I/
154
x 2409
Disregarding the square root sign for the moment, the approximation gives
2X
,'.*,
1-5x2
-67
J i
n
this
\_
iu
For the application of the method of would be written 67

of which the square root
is
paragraph this result
8-2
is -082.
or the approximate square root
io

Exercises 1.
On
Approximations.
i
Determine the approximate answers for Exercises

1.
to 20.
3. ?
49-57 x -0243
8-965
2.
-00517 x -1724
23 4
4.
6>
x 72-49 x 4-176 X 25400 ~

87235
'094
5.
-1167 x -0004 x 98-1 x 2710
_ 7
154 X -00905
-
"-847
x -3276 x 3-142 x -0078 11540 -
"00346 x -0209
Indices. The approximation being made, the actual figures can be determined either by logarithms or by the slide rule.
Napier, working in Scotland, and Briggs in England, during the period 1614-17 evolved a system which made possible the evaluation of expressions previously left severely alone. Without the aid of their system much of the experimental work of modern times
would
lose its application, in that the conclusions to be drawn could not be put into the most beneficial forms and failing logarithms, arithmetic, with its cumbersome and exacting rules, would dull our faculties and prevent any advance.
;
great virtue of the system of logarithms is its simplicity with which we have long been acquainted are put into a more practical form and a new name given to them. Many are 3+4 familiar with the simpler rules of indices, such as a 3 X a4 a7 3X4 a 6 (a3) 4 a8 2 a 12 etc. a8_i_02 Following along these lines we can find meanings for *, a, and a~ 3 i. e., we can establish rules that will apply to all cases of Thus, to find a positive, negative, fractional or integral indices. meaning for a fractional power, consider the simplest case, viz. that in which the index is J. When multiplying a 3 X a4 we add the indices this can be done whatever the indices may be, hence
rules
The
=
,
=a =a
i. e.,
a*
is
that quantity which multiplied
by
itself is
equal to
a,
or
in other words, a Ms the square root of a.
AIDS TO CALCULATION
In like manner, since a&
as
-ty'a.
n
a?
x a$ x a&
= a = a,
1
For example, 27^ = ^27 = 3. To carry this argument a step further we may consider a numerical example, e. g., 64$, and from the meaning of this, derive a meaning
for a*
may
be written
Thus 64^ might be written as 64^ X 64^, which again may be 2 put into the form ^64 X ^64, i. e., (^64)* or ^S^ Hence the actual numerical value = ^64 x 64 = 16.
.
We
root,
see that the
denominator of the exponent indicates the

p
and the numerator the power; thus a To find a meaning for a

am
= â
r
t
xa
m
,
=
a
m+0
m
.
Dividing through by a
raised to the zero
=
i
i,
:
i. g.,
any number or
465
letter
4*0
= 4 x i = 4.
Assuming
power equals
e. g.,
i;
-2384
i;
this result for
a, we can show how
to deal with
negative powers, for
am xa~ m
= am ~ m = a = i.
a"
1 ,
Hence, dividing through by

-m
a"
Accordingly, in changing a factor (such as a" ) from the top to the bottom of a fraction or vice versa, we must change the sign
1
before its index.
Thus
b~ 7
Example
7.
Simplify
(- 6 6 2c 8
2
)
Va 3 &- 4c 6
. .
The expression
=
=
a~
10
&Vxa^&~^
c 6 +3
.
Removing
brackets.
o~ 10+i 6 4 - 2
Collecting like letters.
=
Example
8.
a -17,29 -y-b c
6V =.
or
6V
Vfl 17
Simplify
(64*"')*
2(5 AT
2 3
)
The expression
2X5 3* 6
2XI25X*
25QX~
12
12

Exercises
1.
2.
On
Indices.
Express with positive indices
2.
Find the numerical values of

6 4 -f;
32!;
3.
4. 5.
(j)~*;
6x512$;
fox #6^*} +
b- 5c)-^.
{i 5
2 3 Simplify (sa 6c- ) x
(â
-r
Simplify
Simplify
"343^-*^
8ix~ ly
na
6crf
x
TJ^
6 3 (a~*b c )-^
n
6.
Find the value of
7.
Find the value of
and pv n
8.
C.
r
Simplify
V/
_
4U
i
WI} n -.-^-
~^
in terms of
n
i
v,
when
1-37.
vnCv~
2
,
in terms of
p when n =1-41
^Tj
f
a formula referring to the flow of a
gas through an
9.
orifice,
a being the ratio of the outlet pressure to the
pressure in the vessel.

e
Simplify
8 (**)
()**
-i-
r
,
(e ')*
and
find
its
value
when
2-718. 10. Simplify the expression
11.
t/i
The work done
in the adiabatic expansion of a gas
from volume
If
to volume w,
1
may
be written
W=
Q 1 -" ^(Vt
v^
-").
p tv t
piUi
= C, by
substituting for C, find a simpler expression for
W.
Logarithms. It is necessary to deal with indices at this stage, because logarithms and indices are intimately connected. io 2 and the logarithm of 100 to the base For example, 100 Here are two different ways of 2 (written Iog 10 100 10 2). stating the same fact, for 2 is the index of the power to which the base io has to be raised to equal the number 100; but it is also called the logarithm of 100 to the base io, i. e., the index viewed from a slightly different standpoint is termed the logarithm. Hence the rules of logs (as they are called) must be the same as those
connecting indices. In general The logarithm of a number to a certain base is the index of the power to which the base must be raised to equal the * number. It is not necessary to understand the theory of logs to be able to use them for ordinary calculations, but the knowledge of the
:
principles involved is of very great assistance.
AIDS TO CALCULATION
Consider the three statements
13
64
Iog 264
=2
6
;
64
=4
3
;
64
=8
2
.
These could be written in the alternative forms

2; 3; Iog 8 64 Iog4 64 where the numbers 2, 4 and 8 are called bases. It will be noticed that the same number has different logs in " " " " base or datum from the three cases, i. e. if we alter the
t
= 6;
which measurements or calculations are made, we alter the log; in consequence, as many tables of logs can be constructed as there This shows the need for a standard base, and are numbers.
accordingly logs are calculated either to the base of 10 (such being called Common or Briggian Logarithms) or to the base of e, a letter written to represent a series of vast importance, the approximate value of which is 2-718. Logarithms calculated to the base of e
we
At present are called Natural, Napierian or Hyperbolic Logarithms. shall confine our attention to the Common logs; in the later
parts of the work the natural logs.
we
shall find the
importance and usefulness of
From the foregoing definition of a logarithm the logs of simple 3, powers of ten can be readily written down thus, Iog 10 iooo io 3 Iog 10 ioooooo since 1000 6, etc. ; Iog 10 iooo 3 is usually written in the shorter form log 1000 3, the base io being under-
stood
when the small base

,
figure is omitted.
For a number, such as 526-3, lying between 100 and 1000, between io 2 and io 3 the log must lie between 2 and 3, and must therefore be 2 -f- some fraction. To determine this fraction recourse must be made to a table of logs. To read logs from the tables. The tables appearing at the end of this book are known as four-figure tables, and are quite full enough for ordinary calculations, but for particularly accurate work, as, for example, in Surveying, five- and even seven-figure One soon becomes familiar with the method of tables are used. using these tables, the few difficulties arising being dealt with in
*. e.,
the following pages. To return to the

of its logarithm
is
number 526-3
the fractional or decimal part

:
down
at the
to be found after the following manner Look " " the first column of the table headed logarithms (Table II
line until
is
end of the book) till 52 is reached, then along this " " under the column headed 6 at the top the figure 7210
"
found;
this is the decimal part of the log of 526, so that the 3 is at present unaccounted for. At the end of the line in which 7210 occurs
are
what are known as
"
difference
columns.
Under that headed
14
"

"
and in the same line as the 7210, the fourth figure of our 3 number, the figure 2, occurs; this, added to 7210, making 7212, completes the decimal portion of the log of 526-3. The figure from the tables is thus 7212, and since this is to be the fractional portion
the decimal point
is
placed immediately before the
first
figure.
The log
of 526-3 is therefore 2-7212, or, in other words, 526-3 10 raised to the power 2-7212; similarly the log of 52630 must be 4-7212, because 52630 is the same proportion of a power of 10
above 10,000 as 526-3 is above 100, and also it lies between io 4 and io 5 so that its logarithm must be 4 some fraction. The log thus consists of two distinct parts, the decimal part, which is always obtained from the tables and is called the mantissa, and the integral or whole-number part, settled by the position of the decimal point in the number, and called the characteristic or The logs of 526-3 and 52630 are alike as regards the distinguisher. decimal part, but must be distinguished from one another by the
,
addition of the relative characteristic.
When the number was 526-3, i. e., having 3 figures before the decimal point, the characteristic was 2, i. e., 3 I when the number was 52630, i. e., having 5 figures before the decimal point, the characteristic was 4, i. This method could be applied e., 5 for numbers down to i, i. e., 10, but for numbers of less value we are dealing with negative powers, and accordingly we must
;
*'.
investigate afresh. So far, then, we can formulate the rule " When the number is greater than 1, the characteristic of its log is positive and is one less than
:
the
number
of figures before the decimal point."
E.g., if the number is 2507640, the characteristic of its log is 6, because there are seven figures in the number before the decimal point.
Referring to the figures 5263 already mentioned, place the decimal point immediately before the first figure, giving -5263.
The number now
lies
between
-i
and
i.
Now
=
io
io -1 and i
10
i and o, being greater than so that the log of -5263 lies between i a fraction. The i and less than o, and therefore is
i as before, viz. 7212, hence log -5263 -7212, the minus as it is or, sign being placed over usually written, 1-7212, the i to signify the fact that it applies only to the i and not to the 7212, which latter is a positive quantity and must be kept as such.
mantissa
is
1-7212 actually means, then,
-7212, or, in fact,
-2788.
AIDS TO CALCULATION
The
figures
15
accordingly the form 1-7212
taken from the tables are always positive, and is adhered to throughout.
From
similar reasoning, log -005263
and log -00005263

:
= 3-7212 = 5-7212
....
(i)
(2)
We can conclude, then, that When dealing with the log of a decimal fraction the mantissa is found from the tables in just the same way as for a number larger than I, or, in other words, no regard is paid, when using the tables to find the mantissa, to the position of the decimal point in the number whose log is required. The characteristic of the log, however, is negative, and one more than the number of zeros before the first significant figure. In (i) there are 2 noughts before the first significant figure; therefore the characteristic is 3. In (2) the characteristic is 5, because there are 4 noughts before the first significant figure. For emphasis, the rules for the determination of the characteristic of
If the
the log of any
number
are repeated
number is greater than 1, the characteristic is positive and one less than the number of figures before the decimal point : if the number is less than i, the characteristic is negative and one more than the number
of noughts before the first significant figure. It will be observed that in the earlier part of the table of logarithms at the end of the book there are, for each number in the " " first column, two lines in the difference column. This arrangement (the copyright of Messrs. Macmillan & Co., Ltd.) gives greater accuracy as regards the fourth figure of the log, since the differences in this portion of the table are large. The log is looked out as explained in the previous case, care being taken to read the " " difference figure in the same line as the third significant figure of the number whose log is being determined.
Thus the log of 1437 while the log of 1487
is is
3-1553
3-1703
+ a difference of 21 = 3-1574, + a difference of 20 = 3-1723.

down
the value of the log of
We
are
now
in a position to write
any number, and a few examples are given

Number.
40760 2359
70-08
Log.
4-6102 1-3728 1-8456 4-9542
5
-~
0009 500000
(The mantissa for the log of

90, 900,
9,
and 9000
is
-9542.)
i6

Values of log 1 and log
0. If a be any number, then, as or in the log form, loga I o. Thus the log of i to any base o. The log of o to any base is minus infinity or if a be any number,
earlier,
proved
loga o
<x.
For,
by writing
this
statement in the alternative form

a'
=o
where x is the required logarithm, we see that x must be an infinitely small quantity in fact, the smallest quantity conceivable. Antilogarithms. Suppose the question is presented to us in " Find the number whose logarithm is 2-9053." the reverse way The table of antilogarithms (Table III) will be found more convenient for this, although the log tables can be used in the reverse way. Just as the mantissa alone was found from the log tables
;
finding the logarithm, so this alone is used to determine the In the case under actual arrangement of the figures in the number. consideration the mantissa is "9053, hence look down the first
when
column until -90 is reached, then along this line until in the column " " headed 5 8035 is read off to this must be added 6, the number " " " column headed 3," so that the actual difference found in the
:
figuring of the number is 8035 The characteristic 2 must
+ 6 = 8041.
now be
considered so as to
fix
the
Referring to our rule, we see that position of the decimal point. less than the number of figures before the is one characteristic the
decimal point (since 2 is positive), hence, conversely, the number of figures before the decimal point must be one more than the characteristic; in this case there must be 3 figures before the
decimal point,
If
i. e.,
the required
we had been asked to through -09 would havebeen

and the antilog
distinction is
is
number is 804-1. find the antilog of 2-0905, the line
followed and not that through -90, Many errors occur if this not appreciated; and the actual mantissa must be
found to be 123-1.
dealt with in its entirety, no noughts being disregarded wherever they may occur.
Examples
Log.
AIDS TO CALCULATION
Failing a table of logs, the log scale on the slide rule can be used in the following manner. Reverse and invert the slide so that the S scale is now adjacent to the.D scale: place the ends of the D and S scales level: then using the D scale as that of numbers, the corresponding logarithms are read off on the L scale it being remembered that although the scale is inverted the numbers increase towards the right. The mantissa alone is found in this way, whilst the characteristic
is
settled according to the ordinary rules. Fig. i shows the scales of an ordinary 10" Slide
Rule lettered as they will be referred to throughout On the front are the scales A, B, C this book. " and D, the B and C scales being on the slide." If the slide is taken out and reversed the S, L and T scales will be noticed (see right-hand end of
to
Any special markings referred to throughout the text are also indicated, and it is to this sketch that the reader should refer, no other sketch of the slide rule being inserted. The slide rule is referred to from time to time, wherever its use is required, and a word or two is then said about the method of usage, but no special chapter For a full explanation of is devoted to its use. the method of using the slide rule reference should be made to Arithmetic for Engineers* Applications of Logarithms. It will be granted that 2+4 6
figure).
or
log 100
+ log 10,000 = log 1,000,000 from definition. = 100 x 10,000 x /.log(ioo 10,000)= log 100 + log 10,000.
But 1,000,000
Simple powers of ten have been taken in this example, for convenience, but the rule demonstrated is perfectly general, holding for all numbers. In general, log (AxB) = log A+ log B, where A and B are any
numbers.
HEUlJH
Thus, the log of a product = the sum of the logs of the factors. This and the succeeding rules hold for bases other than 10; in
fact,
they are general in
all respects.
* Arithmetic forÊngineers,
by Charles B. Clapham, B.Sc.
Chapman
and
Hall, Ltd., ?s.'6d. net.
i8 In like

manner
it
can be shown that

log(
= =
)
\o/
log
log
B
and
i.
e.,
the log of a quotient =- the difference of the logs of numerator
denominator.
Again,
.'.
3x2
3Xlog 100
=6 = log 1,000,000 = log (ioo)

3
or in general, log (A)

E.g.,
(a)
1*
= n log A, this holding whatever value be given to n.

^4^76 =(42 -76)*
6
log (-05I7)4 -*
(b)
= =
J log 42-76.
4-2
:
log -0517.
of a
Stated in words this rule becomes

a power
is
The log
number
raised to
equal to the log of that number multiplied by that power. Summarising, we see that multiplication and division can be
performed by suitable addition and subtraction, whilst the troublesome process of finding a power or root resolves itself into a simple multiplication or division. (The application of logarithms to more
difficult calculations is
taken up in Chap. V.)
In any numerical example care should be taken to set the work out in a reasonable fashion ; especially in questions involving the use of logs.
Example
9.
Find the value of 48-21 x 7-429. Approximation
Actual Working
50x7 =
350.
Let x = 48-21 X 7-429 then log x = log 48 -2 1 + log
7-429= 1-6831
/.
+ -8709 = 2-5540 = log 358-1 from the antilog tables. = 358-1.
Example
10.
If
V C=^,
a formula relating to electric currents,
find the value of C, is 28-7. resistance
a current, when the voltage
is
2-41
and the
Substituting the values of
V and R
A pproximation.
2J4 3
i. e.,
.'.
log
/.
C = log 2-41 log 28-7 = 3820- 1-4579 = 2-9241, since 2 subtracted = log -08397 C = -08397-
-8
-7-
10 or -08
from
AIDS TO CALCULATION
Example n. If F, the find its value when
centrifugal force
v = 4-75,
on a rotating body,
W = 28,
g=32-2,
a
r=
1-875.
Substituting the numerical values in place of the letters
F F=
28 x
32-2
(4-75)
1-875
Approximation..
Taking logs throughout

log
(log
+ 2 log 4-75) - (log 32-2 + log i -8 75) = I> 447 2 _ i '579

28
1-3534
3x5x5
3x2
i. e.,
\
\
12-5.
2-8006
1-7809
'
F- 10-47.
12.
= 2-8006 1-7809 = 1-0197 = log 10-47
Explanation.
.\2xlog 4-75 =
log
475=
'6767
1-3534-
Example
If/=~r, an equation giving the
j?
acceleration
32-2,
pro-
duced by a force P acting on a weight W, find / when g = and m = 487.

Substituting the numerical values , 32-2 x 5-934
P = 5-934,
487
Approximation.
Taking logs
log/=
(log 32 -2 + log 5-934) -log 4' 8 7 = (i'5079 +7734) -2-6875 = 2-2813 2-6875 = T-5938 = log -3924 /. / = -3924.
3x6
5
i. e.,
\_ \1
3-6 -^ 10 or -36.
Example
Let
13.
Find the value of
-*
001872
-05229 -001872 then log x = log -05229 log -001872 = 2-7184 3-2723 = 1-4461 = log 27-94
~~
.'.
A pproximation. Ul 5
2
i. e.,
2-5
\\ 10
or 25.
^=27-94.
Note. In the subtraction the minus 3 becomes plus 3 (changing the bottom sign and adding algebraically) and this, combined with minus 2, gives plus i.
;
20

Example
14.
Find the value of the expression
=
47-61
QII54
x -0000753
log s
= log -01154 (log 47-61 + log -0000753) = 2 -0622 (l -6777 + 5-8768) = 2-0622-3-5545 = -5077 = log 3-219 /. s = 3-219.
Taking logs
A pproximation.
4-8
7-5
\\\
i. e.,
-033
x 100
or 3.3.
In this subtraction the i borrowed for the 5 from o should Note. be repaid by subtracting it from the 2, making it 3 this, combined with + 3 (the sign being changed for subtraction), gives o as a result. Alternatively, the 3 must be increased by i to repay the borrowing, so that it becomes 2 and 2 subtracted from 2 gives o.
: ;
Example
15.
The formula
r.
V = -X3-i42xr3
gives the
volume of
a sphere of radius
Find the volume when the radius r
is -56.
Substituting the numerical values
Approximation.
X 3-142 x
4x3x6x6x6
3
i. e.,
Hi
864 -f- 1000 or -864.
Taking logs
log
.'.
V = (log 4 + log 3-142 + 3 log -56) -log 3 = (-6021 + -4972 + 1-2446) - -4771 = '3439 -'4771 = 1-8668 = log -7358 V = -7358.
Example
16.
log -56 = 1-7482 3 x log -56 = 1-2446 i. e., there is + 2 to carry from the multiplication of
Explanation.
the mantissa and this, together with 3 which is obtained when T is multiplied
by
3,
gives T.
Find the
fifth root of -009185.
Let x= -009185 = (-009185)^ then log x = \ log -009185

* =\x = Jx 3^9630 {5 + 2 -9630} = 1-5926 = log -3913 *= -3913.
.-.
* We must not divide 5 into 3-9630 because the 3 is minus, whilst the -9630 is plus but the addition of 2 to the whole number and of + 2 to the mantissa will permit the division of each part separately, while not affecting the value of the quantity as a whole.
;
AIDS TO CALCULATION
Example
17.
21
Evaluate
(2 1 64)* x
(-001762)4
(49'i8)f
= x. Then log x = {3 log -2164 + \ log 745-4}

Let the whole fraction
(J log -001762
+ f log 49-18}.
Explanation.
(2-0059+1-4362)
log -2164
(1-5410+ -6767)
x log -2164
lo
= 1-4421 --2177
= 1-3353 = 2-0059 745 '4 = 2 -8724 = 3-2460 = 1-5410
jxlog 745-4=1-4362
log -001762
= 1-2244 = log
-1677
\ x log -001762
log 49-18
.-.
^=-1677.
If
Example
18.
-- x= \/ v 9004 x
X log 49-18 .\fxlog49-i8

2
5
=1-6918 =3-3836
-6767.
find the value of x.
-0050
Taking logs log x =
.-.
- (log 9004 + log -0856)} {(log 29-17 + log -1245) = & (I-4649+ 1-0951) ~ 03-9544 + 2-9325)} = (-5600 - 2-8869) = t(3-673i) = i(8 + 5-673I). = 1-7091 = log -5118 x = -5118.
slide rule.
The following examples are worked by the

Example
19.
Find the buckling
stress
for a
from the formula
P=
--
column of length
/;
when
kz
-575, c
and
/ = 180.
Substituting these numerical values
48000
30000 -575, denominator must be worked apart from
The second term

the rest
of the
eed as foUows 30000 x -5 75 Approximation. Actual figuring, found from the slide rule, is 751, so that, in accordance with the approximation the value of this term is
Thus, to evaluate
4X 180x180
4x2x2
3x6
-88
\\\\1
\\\\
i. e.,
x 10
or 8-8.
22

Example
20.
Find the value of E, Young's modulus for

2 ( z~\ ~~c E = W/ \(Tr + jr\
I
steel,
from the formula
which expresses the
result of a
bending test on a girder.
Given that
A= D=
F
-924
-07
= =
60
11-15.
W = 5000
5 \ -924!
Substituting values
5 000
x 60 / 60 x 60 -07 1 6 x 11-15
= =
Exercises 3.
536000 {53-75
8 31-7 x io
.
5-41}
On
the Use of Logarithms
and Evaluation
rule,
of Formulae.
Evaluate, using logarithms or the slide approximations wherever possible.

1.
Exs.
to 32; using
85-23x6-917
75-42 x-ooo2835
2.
876-4 x -1194x2-356
4
_
3.
4.
5.
-005376 x -1009
9543 08176
-0005
'
2-896x347-2
f]
g
"
i2-o8x-02H2
-01299
1
81-48
1Q
4843^29-85
75132
13
._
'
154 x -07648
-007503
'*
-009914x36-42
-9867 x -4693 -0863 x -1842 24-23 x -7529 x -00814 3000 x-o 115x45 -27"
36-87x2-57
..
x 13-77 x -05 -572 x -0086 -4539 x -0037 x -059

-085
16. 19.
V94-03
"IX
17. (-0517)3
3
18.
21.
(-00
769)
20.
v (-1182)3
23
'
22
'
^fx^ xV2
2
'
253)3X
*^
(-0648)
-753
2g '
('275)
2
(-2347)
3
^94-72x853^9" x 5x10*
OR
(9i'56)
x(3-i8 4 )l
(4-72)
(2- 3 )
2
x V26-43
xV8^
28.
7 008
'
0372
29.
?^;,
42-3x1-05
2
/-O5Oo6\
_.
'
V -6463 x (-086)
x log 10 3-476 B V('4349) x 5-007x1

(27-63)
33.
The formula
/
V=
= 3-142,
nr zl gives the volume of a cylinder.
If r
12-76 find V,
AIDS TO CALCULATION
34.
23
Given that
L=
a
find
Find
/
L when
=11-7,
0-87. '
^B =
175-5.
35. If
36.
R = 7-+ oa
when
=J 5-1
and a =
The velocity
-s
the formula
ratio of a differential pulley block is
found from
VR = 2.dL(where d d "a~~ a Find VR when ^!= 14-57,

lt
and d a are the diameters of the

^2
2
pulleys)
37. If v = u+ft and = 350, / = 27, and = 4-8.

t
= 5'72, ^3 = 4-83. 5 = ^+i// find values

,
of v
and
when
38.
Find a velocity,
v,
from
when
g= 32-2,
i
<Z= 0-84, A
= 30, /= 5000.
39. If
p= (-7854
-04
/.
;
ft=6, d =
40.
is
x + d, find its value when fs = $, t = o-J5 *~) the pitch of rivets, of diameter d, joining plates
of thickness
Find the weight of a roof principal from Merriman's formula
W=
41.
alii-i
when a=io and /=8o.

by gas and
electricity the
b
To compare the
is
cost of lighting
~~
-5
f
following rule
often used, a
of i Board of Trade (B.O.T.) unit in pence b = price watts per candle power (C.P.) per 1000 cu. ft. of gas in pence; e = candles per cu. ft. of gas per hour; c = cost in pence of lamp renewals per 1000 candle hours. Find the equivalent cost per electric unit when lamps take 2-5
where a
= price
d=
watts per C.P., e = 42. The length

is
2, c
/
and gas
8d 2
-^-. 3^
is 25.
zd.
per 1000 cu.
ft.
of a trolley wire for a span
given by the formula
/= L+
Find
/,
L when the sag is when L = 500, d= 12,
43. The input of an electric motor, in H.P., is measured by the product of the amperes and the volts divided by 746. What is the input in the case where 8-72 amps, are supplied at a pressure of 112-5 If the efficiency of the motor at this load is 45 %, what is its volts ? output ? (Output = efficiency x input.) The specific 44. 2-4 Ibs. of iron are heated from 60 F. to 1200 F. heat of iron being -13, find the number of British Thermal Units = weight x rise in temp, x (B.Th.U.) required for this, given B.Th.U.
specific heat. 45. The following rules for the rating of
motor-cars have been stated
at various times. (a) By Messrs. Rolls Royce, Ltd.
where d = diameter of cylinder in inches, S = stroke in inches.
N = no. of
cylinders

(6)
By
the Royal Automobile Club
-i97d(d- i)(r+ 2)N meanings as before, and r = ratio of stroke Find the rating of a 4-cylinder engine, whose cylinders are to diameter. of 4" diameter, and stroke 8-6" by the use of each of the rules. 46. 130 grms. of copper (W) at 95 C. (T) are mixed with 160 grms. (w) Calculate of water at ioC. (t), the final temperature (t^ being iGC. the specific heat (s) of copper from
H.P.
where
N and d have the same
~ <*<47. The volume t; of a gas at a temperature of oC., or 273 C. absolute, and at a pressure corresponding to 760 mms. of mercury is Find its volume at temperature t C. and pressure 17-83 cu. ins. = 797 from the formula where t = 83-7 and
V48. If
P=
=
find its value
when
/=!.
=8, L=I2,
y = 80000. L = length
of a railway spring on each side of the buckle, n thickness of leaves, of leaves, / working stress, P load width of leaves. applied and b 49. The increase in length of a steel girder due to rise of temperature can be found from the formula, new length = old length (i at) when coefficient of linear expansion. Find rise in temperature, and a t the increase in length of a girder of 80 ft. span due to change of -000006. of 150 F. when
number
/=
temperature
50. If c
a= = *fo V(i ip + id) (p + id),

c will
The meaning of shown in Fig. 2.
find its value when p = 3", d = } *. be understood by reference to the riveted joint
(tj of
51. Find the thickness from the B.O.T. rule
a butt strap
p-d\.
when p = 4f *,
52.
/
= !",
d=
\%'.
(t)
Find the thickness
pressure p Ibs. per dia. = d, from
sq. in.,
when
of a pipe for internal
d=2,
53.
Taking
=45p =
Fig. 2.
which gives the principal (or maximum) stress p due to a normal stress /and a shearing stress determine p when /= 3800, s= 2600. s
:
Riveted Joint.
54. If
P=
1500
(Gordon's formula for the buckling load
on
struts), find
P when F =
38,
d=
15,
T=
AIDS TO CALCULATION
55. If
25
p=
,s 2
(Rankine's formula for the buckling load on

/
struts), find
p when /
= 48000, =
,
14 \
x
3
12, c
--
A2
= 30-7.
56.
The deflection d of a
helical spring
can be obtained from
6^wnr
''
CD*
'
Find the deflection for the case in which
w= 48, D = J n= 12-73, C= 12 X IOr=i-5.

6
.
57. If the deflection d of a beam of radius a and length J, due to a is measured, Young's Modulus for the material of which the load of
beam
is
composed, can be found from
E=
4\V7 3
,
the deflection was 4-2; and W, /, a and IT 14-8, 17-56, 39 and 3-142 respectively, find the value of E. 58. For oval furnaces, if A = difference between the half axes before straining. after 8=
37ra 4 had the values
..
If in
a certain case
D = diameter of
AX32EI 32EI
I
==rf
E = Young's
p = pressure
in Ibs. per sq. in.
Modulus.
furnace.
Find the value of

-0104. 59. The
when A =
-5,
D = 40, p= 100, E = 30 x io
and
modulus of rigidity C of a wire of length / and diameter d be found by attaching weights of m { and 2 respectively at the end of the wire and noting the times, t l and t z respectively, taken for a complete swing. The formula used in the calculation is
may
p_
I
I28irl(m 1
2
2)
= 4-83,
Find C when w^g-S, m t = !$, t 1 = 2-i, /, = 1*6, a = -97 and ?r = 3-142. in tons of a flywheel is given by 60. The weight
=32,
d=
-126,
RN
3
Find the weight when

61.
R=
-2,
n=
30,
N = 120, H = 70.
The approximate diameter
current
C with
of wire (in inches) to carry a given
rise in
temperature can be obtained from
ir
= 3-142.
Find
when
-0935,
&
= 35.
c=
55.
m=
>O02 5
62. Find the dimensions for the flanged cast-iron pipe shown in Fig. 3 (in each case to the nearest ^th of an inch), when P 85,
PD
d=
There are n bolts and n
-6D+?,
26

Investigation for Units.
train covers a distance of 150

?
miles in 5 hours
what
is its
average speed
.
^,
...
it is
Obviously
It
150 miles 5 hours
i. e., '
30 miles ,
hour
or 30 miles per hour.
could with equal truth be expressed

',
by J
*-*
60
60
sees.
i. e.
t '
i sec.
or 44
ft.
per second.
The
figures in the results differ
is
because they are measured in terms of different quantities, and it essential that the units in which results are expressed should be clearly
stated.
Here we have another form of investigation to be performed before the actual numerical working is attempted. To find the units in which the result is to be expressed, these units, with their
proper powers attached, are put down in the form of a fraction, all figures and constants being disregarded, and are treated for cancelling purposes as though they were pure algebraic symbols. Suppose a force of 100 Ibs. weight is exerted through a distance
of 15
15 or 1500 units obtained by multiThis statement might be written in the plication of Ibs. by feet. If now we are told that the Ibs. X feet foot Ibs. form, Work time taken over the movement was 12 minutes we can determine the average rate at which the work was done. The work done in i minute is evidently obtained by dividing the total work done
ft.,
then the work done by this force
is
100
these units will be "foot Ibs." since the result
is
in 12
minutes by the number of minutes

-
thus, rate of working

Ibs. of
125.
This figure gives the number of foot
work
done in one minute, and the result would be expressed as, average rate of working 125 foot Ibs. per minute. It will be seen from this and from the previous illustration that the word per implies division.
To obtain a
miles,
must be divided by the number

.
velocity in miles per hour, the distance covered, in of hours taken, or

of miles - number more shortly, number of hours or,
,
,,
miles
velocity (miles per hour)
j^.
An
acceleration
= rate of change of speed = feet per second added every second

feet
sees.
(say)
feet
QJ* 2
sees.
(sees.)
it
Hence, wherever an acceleration occurs

distance
-T-.
TJ.
must be written as
in the investigation for units.
,,
,.
,.
.,
AIDS TO CALCULATION
The
"
27
" g
so frequently
ft.
met with
in engineering formulae is
-.
an
acceleration, being 32-2
per sec. per sec. or 32-2
'-^, 4 (sees.)
and
therefore
must be treated as such wherever it occurs.

21.
Example
65 Ibs. per sq. is 87 sq. ins.
pressure, as recorded by a gauge, is the area of the piston on which the steam is acting What is the total pressure on the piston ?
in.
;
The steam
Total pressure
= area x intensity of
is
pressure
*. e.,
and
Jprgfy. Ibs
is
in Ibs.
The true pressure is 65 14-7 Ibs. per sq. in., because the gauge records the excess over the atmospheric pressure
.*.
total pressure
= 79-7 x 87 Ibs. = 6930 60 Ibs.
10 tons
Example 22. Find the force necessary to accelerate a mass of by 12 ft. per sec. in a minute. The formula connecting these
is
quantities
P = w/
where
W = weight, / = acceleration and g has
its
usual meaning.
Dealing merely with the units given, and forming our investigation
for units
_
It will
(sees.)
~~ X
8
feet
sees,
x mins.
be seen that no cancelling can be done until the minutes are brought to seconds then we have
;
P=Tons x
To
t. e.,
find the force, therefore, the minutes must be multiplied by 60; the denominator must be multiplied by 60.
Hence
P= 10 x
32-2
x |^ = oo
-0621 ton or 139-2 Ibs. -^^ ^
Example 23. The modulus of rigidity C of a wire can be found by noting the time of a complete swing of the pendulum shown in * = where / is Fig. 4 and then calculating from the formula, C
,
the length of the wire, d
is its
diameter, I
is
the
moment
of inertia
28

and
t
of the brass rod about the axis of suspension
is
the time of one
swing.
If / and d are measured in inches, / in seconds, and I in Ibs. x (feet) 2 [I being of the nature of mass x (distance) 2], in what units will C be expressed ?
Investigating for units

I287T
/
C = constant x
ins. Ibs.
x
x
Ibs.
feet 2
feet
ins. 4
sec.
constant x
feet
ins. 3 If
the numerator
is
multiplied
Ibs.
.
by
12,
then
constant x
ins.
_
~~
Ibs.
ins 2
ins.*
or the result would be expressed in Ibs. per sq. in. provided that the numerator was multiplied by 12.
Example
formula h
long,
24.
-03
.
The head
I
lost in
its
a pipe due to friction

value
if
is
given by the
v2
.
.
-r
Find
the pipe
is
3"
dia.,
56 yards
and the velocity of flow is 28 yards per min. The meanings of the various letters will be better understood by
Dealing only with the units given, and disregarding the constants
reference to Fig. 5.
Head
This
is
lost
= yards
i
-.
ins.
2 X yards 2 9 x
.
sees. 8
-7
rmns.
feet
all
not in a form convenient for cancelling; accordingly, bring distances to feet and all times to seconds.
Then the head
feet 2
sees.
2
sees. 2
feet.
feet
feet
Fig.
5.
Flow
of water through a pipe.
Substituting the numerical values in place of the symbols^3 x 56 3 x X2 x 28 x 3 x 28 x 3
Head
lost
= *= =
x_ 3 x 60 -612 foot.
x 60 X
64-4
AIDS TO CALCULATION
29
Example 25. Find the maximum deflection of a beam 24 ft. long, simply supported at its ends and loaded with 7 tons at the centre.
The moment of inertia I of the section is 87-2 ins. 4 units, and Young's Modulus E for the material is 30 x io 6 Ibs. per sq. in.
The maximum deflection
3 = W/ orT
-,
>
40!
The investigation
for units, as given, reads
W
Deflection
i
/
T
ins. 4
=
-.
E
x TC IDS.
tons x feet 3 x
No
cancelling can be attempted until the tons are brought to Ibs. and the feet to inches or vice versa assuming the former, then
;
Deflection
Ibs.
ins. 3
ms. 4
-.
x ^^-^ Ibs.
ft.
3
ins
ins.
So that, since 7 tons
=7x
2240
Ibs.
and 24
= 288 ins.
ins.
Deflection
7 x 2240 x 288 5* ~ ^ 6 48 x 87-2 x 30 x io
Calculation
A pproximation
log d
(log
= (-845 1 + 3-3502 + 7-3782) - (1-6812 + 1-9405 + 7'477 = 11.5735- 11-0988

.*.
7+log 2240 + 3 log 288) (log 48+ log 87-2+ log 30,000,000)
J)
7x2x3x3x3 5x9x3
or 2-8.
UUVWU
= log 2-984 deflection = 2-984 ins.

'4747
Explanationlog 288 3
x log 288 =
= 2-4594
7-3782.
Exercises 4.
1. In what units will in Ibs. per sq. in. and
On
the Finding of Units.

if
D in ins.
/ be expressed
?
6E / = -^ and
8 is in inches,
2. If a H.P. = 33000 foot Ibs. of work per minute, find the H.P. necessary to raise 300 cwts. of water through a vertical height of i6 yards in half an hour.
f2
3. If
E = 13000
4.
H=-^-g:
per
find
;
in yards
when /
ft.
= 18
tons per sq. in.;
sq. in.
p = 480 Ibs. per cu.
Determine the stress / in a boiler plate in tons per sq. in. from bd when / = -63 in., d = 8 feet, p = 160 Ibs. per sq. in. f=
t is the thickness of plate, the diameter of the boiler.
is
the pressure inside the boiler, and d
is
30
5.

The jump
H of the
wheels of a gun
is
given by
Find the jump in inches when
P=475
6.
cwts.,
R= 1-15
If
tons,
40 M= 1-2 tons, W = g cwts.

ins.,
A=
A=io
ft.,
h=i
yd.,
The tension
in a belt
due to centrifugal action can be calculated

per foot run of belt in
Ibs.,
from
ft.
T=
8
sec.,
If,
w = wi.
its
= veloc.
in
?
per
7.
and g has
usual value, in what units will
T be
expressed
in the previous example, -43 Ib. per foot length of belt per sq. in. of surface, find a simple relation between the stress (in Ibs. per sq. in.) and the velocity (ft./sec.).
8.
w =
The I.H.P.
of
an engine
is
determined from the formula

33000
IHp=2 PLAN
effective pressure in Ibs. per sq. in., stroke in revolutions per minute. feet, piston in sq. ins., and 2 If / is the stroke in ins. and '7854D show that this equation may
where
P = mean A = area of
be written I.H.P.
9.
1,000,000
in Ibs. per cu. in., veloc. in feet per sec. (a formula relating to tensile stress in revolving bodies). Arrange the formula so that / is given in Ibs. per sq. in.
,
Given that /
= tw^
A=
J
N=
L=
approximately.
where
w = weight
v
10. Investigate for units answer in the following formula for the Horse Power transmitted by a shaft. where R is inches, N is Revolutions per minute, H.P. = 33000 IT is a constant, and p is in Ibs. per sq. in. If these are not found to be H.P. units, viz. foot Ibs. per minute, state what correction should be made.
the quantity of water Q = a t a, \f -f^ *-f{ gives ~a t i P\ a i a Venturi Meter. passing through In what units will Q be expressed if a t and a, are in sq. ft. p^ and p 2 in Ibs. per sq. ft. g in feet per sec. per sec. p in Ibs. per cu. ft. ? 12. Given that i Ib. = 454 grms., i*= 2-54 cms. i erg. = work done when i dyne acts through i cm. i grm. weight = 981 dynes. and i watt = io 7 ergs per sec.; find the number of watts per H.P.
11.
The formula
CHAPTER
II
EQUATIONS
Simple Equations. A simple equation consists of a statement connecting an unknown quantity with others that are known; " " is that of and the process of Solving the equation finding the the unknown that of satisfies the statement. To value particular
this chapter, on the methods of solving equations and of transposing formulae, must be as important and useful as any in the book, for it is impossible to proceed very far without a working knowledge of the ready manipulation of formulae. The methods
many,
always followed is the isolation of the unknown, involving the transposition of the known quantities, which may be either letters or numbers, from one side of the equation to the
of procedure other.
The
deal
transposition
first
and the
rule for each
may be of either (a) terms change will now be developed.

of terms
:
or
(b)
factors
To
with the transposition
turning the spindle shown in Fig. 6 it was necessary to calculate the length of the " " portion, or the length marked I plain turned The conditions here are that in the diagram. the required length, together with the radius
*375"
When
must
add
to
1-5".
A
i-5-
conditions
may
thus be made,
"in
statement of the form
*+
if
'375
The truth of this statement will be unaltered the same quantity, viz. -375, is subtracted from each
I
side, so
that
'375
'375
or
= i'5 - '375 - -375 = 1-125. 1-5

;
Thus, in changing the -375 from one side of the equation to the other, the sign before it has been changed -375 on the one side
becoming
-375
when
transferred to the other side.
Again, suppose the excess of the pressure within a cylinder over that of the atmosphere (taken as 147 Ibs. per sq. in.) is 86-2
32
Ibs.

per sq.
in.,
and we require
to determine the absolute pressure

i. e.,
in the cylinder.
Let p represent the absolute pressure,

pressure.
the excess over zero
Then
p
14-7
side
= 86-2.
To each
add
14-7; then
-f-
P = 86-2
I4'7
iQQ'9 Ibs. per sq. in.
Thus, 14-7 on the left-hand side becomes ferred to the right-hand side of the equation.
:
*4'7
when
trans-
When transferring a TERM from Accordingly, we may say that one side of an equation to the other, the sign before the term must be
changed, plus becoming minus, and vice versa. To deal with the transposition of factors
:
Suppose we are told that 3 tons of pig iron are bought for we should say at once that the price per ton was \ of 7 los.
:
ios.,
or
2 IDS.
might, however, use this case to illustrate one of the most vital rules in connection with transpositions, by expressing the statement in the form of an equation and then solving the equation.
called
We
The unknown p shillings.
in this case is the price per ton,
which
may
be
Our equation then becomes
3x^
is
150
(i)
Divide both sides by 3, which is legitimate, since the equation not changed if exactly the same operation is performed on either side.
:.
^=
=^
so
(2)
or the cost
we
per ton. been told that | a ton could be bought for 255. had we Again, could express this in the form
is 505.
\P
If
(3)
we multiply both sides by 2 we find that
= 25x2 = 50
(4)
which, of course, agrees with the above. It will be seen that, to isolate p and so find its absolute value, we transfer the multiplier in equation (i) or the divider in equation when its effect is exactly reversed thus the (3) to the other side, hi equation (i) becomes a divider when transferred multiplier 3 and the dividing 2 in to the other side of the equation, as in (2)
:
equation
(3)
becomes the multiplying 2
in equation (4).
EQUATIONS
The motion
of a swinging
33
furnishes an illustration
pendulum
of the transposition of a factor which is preceded by a minus sign. The acceleration of the pendulum towards the centre of the move-
ment
increases proportionately with the displacement
away from
and the
the centre.
relation
Taking a numerical
case,
suppose that we wish to find
the displacement s
when the
s
acceleration
255. is/ Substituting the numerical value for/
between/ and
is
4-6 units
4-6
255.
To
isolate s
we must
divide both sides of the equation
by
25,
and then
-25
or
" -s s =
'184 unit.
The
rule for the transposition of factors can
now
be stated,
viz.
a multiplier or a divisor) from one side of an (i. e., equation to the other, change also its position regarding the fractional dividing line, viz., let a denominator become a numerator and conversely ;
To change a
FACTOR
and
let the
sign of the factor be kept unchanged.
have thus established the elementary rules of term and The following examples, as factor changing in simple equations. illustrations of these fundamental laws, should be most carefully
studied, every step being thoroughly grasped before proceeding to another.
*\X 7 the equation, *-" r*g I *O
*4.
We
Example
i.
Solve for
x, in
Transferring the 5 and 4 so that x is by itself, the 5 must change from the top to the bottom and the 4 from the bottom to the top, since
5
and 4 are
factors.
Then'Example
2.
* = -?5
Solve for
a, in
10
= 3-ii. x4 5
40+17 = 2-509.
the equation,
side Transposing, to get the unknowns together on one
4-2-50 =
Here the change
is
9-17.
that of terms, hence the change of signs. Grouping, or collecting the terms = 26 i-â
-26
34
Example 3. The weight of steam required per hour for an engine was a constant 60 Ibs., together with a variable 25 Ibs. for each H.P. developed. If, in a certain case, 210 Ibs. of steam were supplied in an hour, what was the H.P. developed ?
Let h represent the unknown H.P. Then 25^ represents the amount of steam for this H.P., apart from the constant, and the equation including the whole of the statement
of conditions
is
Transferring the term
= 210. 25/1 + 60 + 60 to the other side, where 60 = 150. 25& = 210

h
it
becomes
60,
Dividing throughout by 25
or,
^2.
the H.P. developed was 6.

to degrees Centigrade
Example
use
is
4.
To convert degrees Fahrenheit
made
of the following relation
F-3, =
Find the number of degrees
Substituting for
C.,
|C.
corresponding to 457 F.
F its
numerical value
457-32
'
|C
5=
236-1
Transposing factors 5 and
9,
= C
F.
i.e.,
236
C. correspond to 457
It might happen that in an engine or boiler trial only thermometers reading in Centigrade degrees were available, whereas for purposes of calculation it might be necessary to have the temperatures expressed in degrees Fahrenheit. This would mean that a number of equations would have to be solved but the work
;
involved could be shortened by a suitable transposition of the formula given above.
F- 3 2 =
F
Equation
(i),
........... = c+ 3 2 .........
C
(i)
(2)
(2) is
far
more
is
suitable for our purpose than equation
although the change
so slight.
EQUATIONS
Example
5.
35
Convert 80, 15, 120, and 48 C. to degrees F.

so on.
:
When C = 80, F = (% x + 32 = 176, and 80)

Or,
we might
tabulate, for the four readings given, thus

C
36

all
Here L is the unknown, since the values of supposed to be known.

Clearing of brackets,
the other letters are
wTwt = qL+^T
wT
q,
Transposing terms,
r~
wt
^-pT = qL
Transposing the factor
wTwtti + T - = L
Example
9.
Solve the equation
4*
7* 8-1 5~2 + T
_
:
i-gx
7-21
~5
3~'
The L.C.M. by
(4*
of 5,
this figure will
2, 4 and 3 is 60, and multiplication throughout remove the denominators.
12)
(7*
30)
+ (8-1 x
15)
48* 48*
or
2io#+
2IOX
121-5
22-8*
184-8*
= (1-9* x 12) + (7-21 x = 22-8^+144-2 = 144-2121-5 = 22-7
20)
Example 10. The electro-motive force E of a cell was found on open circuit, and also the drop in potential V when a resistance of R was placed in the circuit. The internal resistance of the cell may be
calculated from the equation (E
resistance.
V)
Vx R = -~
where R<
is
the internal
Find the internal resistance for the case for which
V = -8965 and R = 5.
It
E = 1-34,
being required to find R<
we transpose
the
;
V
^-
and treat the
bracketed letter as one quantity for the time being
then
*(E-V) = R,
which completes the transposition.
R<=
'
^siV
34
"' 896 ^
= =
2-47 ohms.
Example n.
Solve the equation

,
16
Before proceeding to find the L.C.M. it will be found the safest plan to place brackets round the numerators of the fractions. This
EQUATIONS
emphasises the fact that the whole of each numerator Thus as one quantity.
(3y
5)
is
37
to be treated
(7^+9)
rz lo
(Sy+ig)
Q o
1
69 _ " cf
o
Failing this step, mistakes are almost certain to arise, especially with signs, e. g., the minus before the second fraction applies equally
to the 9
and to the 7y. This fact would probably be overlooked bracket were not inserted. Multiplying throughout by 16, the L.C.M. of 4, 16 and 8
4(3y-5)-(7y-l-9)+2(8y+i9) + (2X
i.e.,
.*.
if
the
I2y 20 7y 9+i6y+38+i38 = o I2y 7y+i6y = 20+938138 2iy = -147 ~ T 47 v -
69)
~î
Example
on the plate
12.
If
is
of outside diameter
is
and
the intensity of pressure over an annular plate inside diameter d, then the total pressure
given by
are known, transpose this equation into Assuming that p, P and a form convenient for the calculation of the value of d.
Treating the -785^ as one quantity, and transposing
it
Transferring
-r
7854^
8
to the right-hand side
P
Changing signs throughout
-Taking the square root of both

sides
7854 p
Example
13.
If
2n-
/-, giving the time in seconds of

/
swing
(periodic, or to and fro) of a simple pendulum of length expression for /.

It will
feet
find^
an
the square root sign which
be easiest in this case to square both sides (i. e. to remove is merely one form of bracket).
t
Then
or,
^S
2
*.
transposing the factors,
4,
n-
and
ef*
-
g,
38
Example 14. Transpose for g, the dryness fraction of steam found by the Barrus test for superheated steam, in the equation 4 8(TA -T B -w) = (i-j)L+- 4 8(Ts -T). TA TB, Tg and T are temperatures, L is the latent heat of the steam, and n = loss of temperature of the superheated steam when the supply of moist steam is cut off.
,
Treating -48^3
side with
T) as a term, change of sign before it

4 8(TA
it
may
be transferred to the other
-TB -w)-. 4 8(Ts -T) = -TB -w-T8 + T} =

L
(i-g)L
it
or, since -48 multiplies
each bracket, we can take
outside one large
bracket
4 8{TA
(i-ff)L.
Dividing both sides by
(i-q)
q
^{TA -TB-W-TS +T}
= I-
= W(H+e) refers to the stress â on to the by weight falling through a height produced bar. Transpose this equation for / and also for e.
Example
15.
The equation
in a bar
To find/:
Transposing factors,
/*
= W x 2E ^r (H+ e)
**
Extracting the square root of both sides of the equation.
V/
EW(H+e)
AL
To
find e
2EW
/2AL
2EW
glow lamps, each of 150 ohms ampere, are connected in parallel.
volts,
resistance
will
Example 16. One hundred and each requiring
electric
-75
How many
cells, each of -0052 ohm resistance and giving 2-08 be required to light these lamps ? (Cells to be in series.)
Total resistance
External
= Internal resistance + external resistance. resistance = -- = i-<5 ohms (because lamps in

100
i. e.,
parallel
offer less resistance,
an
easier
path
is
made
for the current).
EQUATIONS
Suppose x
required Total E.M.F. Total internal resistance Total resistance
cells are
39
Current
= #x 2-08 = x x -0052 = -0052*+ 1-5 = * M *'

'
Resistance
and 100 x
Multiplying across,
i. e.,
-75
0052* +
1-5*
multiplying throughout by the
common
denominator -0052*+
1-5.
75 (-0052*+ 1-5) *39# + 112-5

112-5
.-.
= = = =
z-o8x 2-08* 2-o8x 66-6
'39,v
1-69,1;
Or 67
cells
would
suffice.
Exercises 5.
On
Simple Equations and Transpositions.

i
Solve the equations in Exs.

1-
to 6
5*+7(*~2) = 3-4(*+
6)
2.
g+-,
5--
2fl
3'
4'2ft
=
.
.
7-45
9-58 4-69
52
-y
3^5 =
1-08
37-5
"*"
6. 7.
8-2^
9-n -475(3 -2x) + 2-14(5^ +7) =

2-95
c in the
t),
17
-(i- -8^) +
5'43
Transpose for
equation
=
7
8. If
P=
9.
H = ws(T If P = CTAE,
5c
C
find
find
E when A =
an expression
for T.
19-25,
-000006,
T=
442,
1,532,000.
for L, the latent heat of steam, in the equation hence find its value when Wi -*, / x 212,
w i(ti~ T+L) = w(T t), and w = i J, T = 145, and t = 70.

11.
is
10. Transpose
formula occurring in connection with Tacheometric Surveying
fS D =-+/+(?.
Determine the value of
to
satisfy this
when
D = 3600, /=
12.
it
6 and S = 36. 12, d Using the equation in Exercise n, find the value of /to = 310-7, S = 4'63, 8 =-015, and ^=-5. when
13. If
'
satisfy
c =
1400.
** = w= 83 5> d = 4> and ^^-V find S when w = 8 15 l 5 an external load w is the weight of a girder in tons to carry
' '
'
40
tons, d is the effective depth of the girder in feet, s is the shearing stress in tons per sq. in., and c is a coefficient depending on the type of girder.
14. If TM
HA
i-\
m/
= 7^,
L/
find
in terms of
for the case
when
m = 4.
V=
10,
In other words, find the relation between Young's modulus and the " " Poisson's ratio is 4. Rigidity modulus when
15.
97-9,
Find the value of
R,-
from
V E V= ~ xRj when E=
in
136-4,
R = 5-
The
letters
have the same meanings as

-,
Example
page 36.
16.
its
Given that
A=
-- -1^
transpose for
and hence
find
value
17.
when
A = 35, D = 6-5, d= 4-7, a= -25.

^
The equation
= (i8*+2x6^x^)X5X4&
occurred
when
an
finding the thickness of the flange of the section of a girder for overhead railway. Find the value of t to satisfy this.
18. Transpose for q in the equation W(A, the dryness fraction of a sample of steam.] 19.
i '8
A x)
= w(qL+h
h t).
[q is
How many electric cells, each having an internal resistance of ohms, and each giving 2 volts, must be connected up in series so that a current of -686 amperes may be passed through an external
resistance of 12-2
20. If 21.
is
ohms?
D=
SC
+K, find n when D = 500, S =
12,
C=
950,
and
K= 1-5.
The
tractive pull
that a two-cylinder locomotive can exert
given by
~D~
where p = steam pressure in
in ins., inches.
is
8pd*L
Ibs.
L = stroke
in ins.,
and
per sq. in., d = diameter of cylinders D = diameter of driving wheels in
Find the diameter of the cylinders of the engine for which the pull x 19,000 Ibs., the steam pressure 200 Ibs. per sq. in., the stroke 2 -3", and driving wheels are 4'-6" in diameter.
22.
To determine the diameter of a crank the

P/
following rule
is
used
Put
this
equation in a form convenient for the calculation of the

d.
value of
23. Lloyd's rule for the strength of girders supporting the top of
the combustion chamber of a boiler

centre L = of girder at the centre
;
is
P = 7vfr
(W
chH
T\TVF
where
P=
working
pressure in Ibs. per sq. in.; width between tube plates

;
and
D=
thickness of girder at the ; p = pitch of stays h = depth distance from centre to centre of the
;
t=
pjDL,
girders.
h=
Find the value of p when

61,
and
P=
c=
825,
W= 27, L= 2j, D=
7^,
i J,
160.
EQUATIONS
24. Find the thickness of metal from each of the given formulae (a) Board of Trade rule
t
41
for Morrison's furnace tube
(ins.)
p_
(6)
14000*
Lloyd's rule
p_
where
1259(161-2)
P= pressure
in Ibs. per sq.
corrugations.
Given that
P= 160
in.,
and
and
D = diameter D = 43*.
A
(ins.)
outside
25. (a) Transpose the given equation for
where 8 = proof strain of iron, a = area of section of bar of length / is dropped from a on to which a weight A being height h inches
the extension produced.

(b)
Find the
value
of
/,
which equals
-?,
when
=30x10*;
a=
i'2, 3
=
/
-ooi,
h
\
i
132,
T
'
and
W= 40.
L when
26. If
= \
find the value of
W = 7000, A = 8000,
and t=
27.
1-62.
Find the pitch p of the rivets in a single-riveted lap joint from 2 = (p - d)tft where d = t + fa t= J, /, = 23, and ft = 28. 7 8 54 d /,
28. Calculate the value of
B= CVpA. when C=
29.
The
stress
to satisfy the equation -02, 200, 2-53. in the material of a cylinder for a steam-engine
A=
B=
may
per
be found from
t~, + \
14",
where p
= steam
pressure
80 Ibs.
sq. in.,
d = diameter =
and t= thickness of metal
".
Find
/for
this case.
30.
when/, =
31.
(pd)tf = i'57irf /,, relating to riveted joints, 23, ft =28, d= i, and /= f. The diameter of shaft to transmit a torque T when the
2
t
Determine the value of p to satisfy the equation
stress
allowable
is
/ is found from
T = ^/^
3
-
Find the diameter of shaft to
transmit a torque of 22,000 Ibs. ft., if the maximum permissible stress in the material is 5000 Ibs. per sq. in. (IT = 3-142).
32.
The formula d
V/ v
design. Find
33.
M (a bending moment) when b g,c= 600, x -36, ^=15-3. D = dY-- is Lamp's formula for thick cylinders of outside
D
and
xbc(i-\x)
r~\
occurs in
reinforced concrete
diameter
34.
is
D= 9-5*, d= 6",
An
the bending
JP inside
and
/= 6
diameter d. Calculate the value of p when tons per sq. in.

is
important formula in structural work
M= E
y
R
where
moment
applied to a beam, I
is
the
moment
of inertia
of the section of the
beam,
is
Young's modulus for the beam, and
42

is
R
I
the radius of curvature of the bent beam.

in.* units,
=-7854
E =28x10*
Ibs.
If 5600 Ibs. ft., per sq. in.; find the value of
M=
R, stating clearly the units in which it is expressed. 35. Compare the deflection d m of a beam due to bending with that d, due to shear, for the following cases
length = 10 x depth, length = 3 X depth. You are given that
(a)
i. e. t I
moment
lod.
b)
dm
36. If
48EAA 2
Q ~.
W/ 3
k
r
,,
d,
i- 5
oo
rr
mc =
I
W/ \-x-, 4AC
,.
..
ft
d*
12
andE = 2'5U.
,
and
= 2tr -r-,
R
find
an expression for
-36,
r in
terms of
and k
hence find
its
value
when
m=
15.
37. If
E = 3K(i--)
and
E = 2C(i+i),
find the relation
between
K, the bulk modulus, and C, the rigidity modulus. Find also an expression for E, Young's modulus, in terms of
only.
38.
K and
Find an expression for x from the equation
i6W* _ i6W(r-x) + ird 3 Trd 3

39.
2W
ird*
Find the internal pressure p for a thick cylinder from Lamp's formula
where
D= 12-74*. d = 9* /= 2IO
Given that
Ibs.
/D".
State the units in which
is
expressed.
40.
W=
**
nX
T
pv
~
J.
i
T
*,
a formula occurring in Ther-
modynamics, and also that \V= 33000, T, is fTj, T!= 2190, v= 12-4, and p =2160, find the value of n. 41. A takes 2 hours longer than B to travel 60 miles but if he trebles his pace he takes 2 hours less than B. Find their rates of walking.
;
42. If
H=4=^r
2gd
and
/= 0-01(1 + -^,), I2d'
find v
when
H = 22-i, d=
/
i,
1=
380,
and
g= 32.
of pipe of
(H
is
diameter
43. If
field,
the head lost when water flows through a length d, and / is the coefficient of resistance.)
p = time
M = moment
= strength of the of a magnet, of a complete oscillation of the magnet, and I

magnet, then
of inertia of the
M= d T
3
= moment
earth's
(expressing the result of a
deflection experiment, d being the distance between the centre of the magnet and that of the needle, and T being a measure of the deflection)
and
also
3L MH = 47T
(expressing the result of an oscillation experiment).
Find the values of
and
T= -325.
M and H when
^=20,
169,
p=
13-3,
TT
3-142,
44. In finding the swing radius k following measurements were made :
(ins.)
of a connecting rod, the
EQUATIONS
lime of a complete oscillation = 2-03 sees. p = distance of centre of gravity from the centre of suspension
/
43
3I-43"If h = distance of centre of percussion from centre of suspension
t=27r*/-;
Find k in inches
45.
{n-
and
also k z
2
= ph.
3-142,
g= 32-2
f.p. sec.
}.
/= 4700, D = diameter of cylinder = 14, d= diameter of rod = 2-5, p = steam pressure at mid stroke = 65, v = velocity of crank, r = crank radius = 8, and = length of connecting rod = 60, find the value of v.
If
/
The maximum stress in a connecting rod can be found from the vW , D*p equation /= i -05-^ + -00429
,
46. It is required to find the diameter
equivalent to pipes of length

tively,
/j
and
lz
from
5
and diameters d^ and d t respec-
of one pipe of length L,
I, I, J, D ~ d? + J?
Put
this equation in
a form suitable for this calculation.
/'
47. If
-
\"
i
/ I
^j
the
find
an expression
for y.
48.
_y
equation
n
-,
Transpose
o^
,
2/t -\~2Cn
-;
occurring
in
structural design, to give an expression for y.
ties
Simultaneous Equations. So long as only one of the quantiwith which we are dealing is unknown, one equation, or one
statement of equality, is sufficient to determine its value. Cases often present themselves in which two, and in rarer cases then the equations three or even more, quantities are unknown formed from the conditions are termed simultaneous equations. Taking the more common case of two unknowns, one equation would not determine absolutely the value of either, but would simply connect the two, i. e., would give the value of one in terms
;
For two unknowns we must have two sets of contwo equations. This rule holds throughout, that for complete solution there must be as many equations as there are unknowns. The treatment of such equations will be best understood by the aid of worked examples.
of the other.
ditions or
Example
17.
What two numbers add up
to 5-4 and differ by 2-6?

;
For shortness, take x and y to represent the numbers these to form an equation to satisfy the first condition
5'4
substituting
(J )
............
44
Here, values of
by taking various values of y we could calculate corresponding " solutions." x, and there would be no limit to the number of first statement in the question is, however, qualified by the second, The from which we form equation (2), viz.
x
If
y=2-6
2X =
8-0
(2)
equations
(i)
and
(2)
are added
.'.
*=4;
or, in other words, y has been eliminated, i. e., the number of unknowns " has been reduced by one. Our plan must therefore be to eliminate,'' some one unknown at a time until all become " knowns." means, by This method will be followed in all cases. Reverting to our example, x is found, but y is still unknown. To find y, substitute the value found for x in either equation (i) or equation (2). In (i) 4+y = 5-4
and
y x y
= = =
5'4~4
4-0 \ i'4J
1*4
and we have completely solved our problem.
Example
18.
Determine values of a and

40 + 36
3
6 to satisfy the equations

(i) (2)
26
=43 =11
If equations (i) and (2), as they stand, were either added or subtracted, both a and b would remain, so that we should be no nearer a To eliminate a, say, we must make the coefficients of a the solution. same in both lines.
be multiplied by 3 be multiplied by 4, each line would contain I2a, so that the subtraction of the equations would cause a to vanish.
E.
g., if
equation
(i)
and equation
(2)
Thus
Subtracting
120+96
I2
whence
= 129 = 44 176 = 85 6=5.

86
(2)
Substituting this value for b in equation 3a 10 = ii = 21 3
Grouping the results

If it were desired to eliminate 6, equation (i) would have to Note. be multiplied by 2 and equation (2) by 3, and the resulting equations 66 below, added, since there would then be +66 in the top line and which on addition would cancel one another.
EQUATIONS
Example
19.
45
screw jack,
The effort E, to raise a weight W, by means of a given by the general formula, E=aW+6. If =2-5 when 20, find the values of a and 5; and if =5-5 when b, and thence the particular equation connecting E and W.
is
W=
W=
Substituting the numerical values for E and 2-5= 5 a +*>
W
(i)
;
...........
thus eliminating
b.
In this case
it is
easier to subtract straight
away
Thus
or
Substituting in equation
3=
(i),
i5a
2-5
= i+b
so that
E= -2W+I-5.
Example 20. Keeping the length of an electric arc constant and varying the resistance of the circuit, the values of the volts V and amperes A were taken. These are connected by the general equation
_
Find the value of
and n
for the following case

~\
V = 54-5 when A = 4 V = 48-8 when A = ioj

54-5 48-8
Substituting the numerical values, in the general equation
n = w+,
m+^
(i) (2)
Changing the fractions into decimals to simplify the calculation

54-5 48-8
Subtracting
= m+'in 5-7 = -15^ M = f^ = 38

(2)
=w+*25n
Substituting this value in equation

48-8
or
21.
= w+3-8 m = 45 V
Example
a wire in
given by For copper (unannealed)
Ibs. is
Karmarsch's rule states that the total strength Pof P= ad+bd z where d is the diameter in inches.
,
P= 55212
P=42i
when when
d= d=
Find the actual law connecting
P and
d.
46

By
substitution of the numerical values
55212= (ax 1-2)+

To
eliminate a multiply equation
(6 xi -44) 421= (ax -i)+(6x -01)
(i) (2)
(2)
by
12 and subtract.
Thus
Subtracting
55212 5052 50160

6
= i-2a+i'44& = i-2a+ -126. = 1-326 = 5i6o

1-32
(2)
/.
421 ia a
=
=
-ia+38o
41 410.
P= 410^ + 380000?
i. e.,
for a diameter of -5", the total strength is
(410
-5)
+ (38000 x -25) =
9705
Ibs.
Solution of Equations involving three unknowns. These also be solved by the process of elimination, the method being similar to that employed when there are two unknowns only. Three and are these be taken in necessary may together equations pairs, the same quantity being eliminated from each pair, whence the question resolves itself into a problem having two equations and two unknowns.
may
Example
equations
22.
Find
the
values
of
a,
and
c to
satisfy the
(i)
(2) (3)
4~5 6 +7c =
90+2&+3C =
-14
47
ii
a-b-y =
The unknowns must be eliminated one at a time. Suppose we decide to commence with the elimination of c. This may be done by taking equation (i) and equation (2) together, multiplying equation (i) by 3 and equation (2) by 7, and then subtracting; an equation containing a and 6 only being thus obtained. For complete solution one if other equation must be found to combine with this equation (2) and equation (3) are taken together, equation (2) must be multiplied by 5 and equation (3) by 3 and the resulting equations then added. Hence, considering equations (i) and (2), and multiplying according
;
to our scheme
I2a
I5&+2IC
63a+i4&+2ic
Subtracting
= =
42
329.
5ia-29&
371
(4)
EQUATIONS
Combining equations and equation (3) by 3
(2)
47
(2)
and
(3),
multiplying equation
by
Adding
Equations
eliminated.
(4)
45a+io& + i5C 3a- 36-15^ 480+ jb

and
(5)
= 235 = 33 =268
..........
(5)
5)
may now
be combined and either a or b

(4)
To
eliminate a, multiply equation
by 16 and equation
and add.
by 17
ThenAdding
8i6a
4646
8i6a+ii9& -345&
6=
= 5936 = 4556 = -1380

4
(5)
Substitute this value of 6 in equation
and the value
for a
is
found
i. e.,
or
480 + 28 480
= =
268 240
For a write
5,
and
for b write 4, in equation
(2).
Then
or
Collecting the results
45 + 8+35
47
for the
law is required, in the form 23. a+6T+cT calibration of a thermo-electric couple. The corresponding values of and T are
Example
E=
(C.)
48

Thus
.*.
5600 3900
= a + 10006 + looooooc = a+ 6006 -f 3600006

4006+ 6400006
3600006 100006
1700=
........
(4)
Also
eliminate and subtract.
To
b,
5006+ 3500006 ........ multiply equation (4) by 5 and equation (5) by
3900=0+ 6006+ 450 = a+ 1006+
345=
5)
4,
Then
8500 = 20006 +32000006 13800 =20006+14000006 18000006 5300 = 5300 c = -o^- - = -00294 1800000
(4)
or
1700 4006
b
= 40061884 = 3584 = 8-96.

(3)
Substituting for b and c in equation
450 a
= a+8g6 = -417.
is
29
Hence the law of
calibration
E =
Exercises 6.
4I7+8-96T--OQ294T*.
On
Solution of Simultaneous Equations.

i
Solve the equations in Exercises

1.
to 9.
3.
?x+3V = i 35* 6y = i sm6n = 6-6 nn 25 = 2m
2 * 2a ~ 9&
4.
3a+io6
5.
y+i-37=4*
gx-ijy =-49-87
'
'
4X-yy_
8.
= 32 =i 48* 27^ = 48 y$ix = 51 '\x-\V = &*+-&& 19^+27 = 268 2a+ 3 6+ 5C=-4- 5 3C 7a+ 156 = 62-7
9.
2p- 55+4^ = -33

3 P-I2*
10. If
for
E= a+6*+c/
E
t
2
,
and
also
+ 2S =
'-
89
values
4-6
-4-5
10
b,
we
have
find the values of a,
11. If
and
c.
P= ad-}- bd
and
P= 17830 P= 2992
when when
in
d= d=
-5)
-2)
find the values of a
and 6. (P and d have the same meanings as
Example
21,
page
45.)
EQUATIONS
E
49
12. You are given the following corresponding values of the effort on a machine. Find the connection necessary to raise a load in the form E=aW+&, given that between E and when = 80. and E = 14-2 when 20 13. Corresponding values of the volts and amperes (obtained in a
W W
E=7
-8.
test
on an
Find
V = 48-75 when A = 4 and V = 75-75 when A = the law connecting V and A in the form V=
;
electric arc) are
14. The I.H.P. (I) of an engine was found to be 3-19 when the B.H.P. (B) was 2, and 6-05 when the B.H.P. was 5. Find the I.H.P. when the B.H.P. is 3-7. {I = aB + 6.} 15. The law connecting the extension of a specimen with the gauge length may be expressed in the form, e = a + feL, where L = length
and e extension on that length. The extension on 6" was found to be 2-062", and that on 8" was Find the values of the constants a and b. 2-444*. 16. The electrical resistance R< of a conductor at temperature t may be found from R == R (i + at) where R = resistance at o, and
a
If the resistance at 20 is 5-38 ohms and at 90 is 7-71 ohms, find the resistance at o and also the temperature coefficient. 17. Find a simple law connecting the latent heat L with the temperature t when you are given that
= temperature
coefficient,
50
22.

Repeat as
for
No.
21, the values of
/and
(for cast
phosphor-
bronze) being
EQUATIONS
Methods
to the
5I
word
"
of Factorisation. Reference has already been made " factor as denoting a number or symbol that multi-
plies or divides
Thus
3x5
= 15,
some other numbers or symbols and 3 and 5 are called factors

is 15.
in
an expression.
i.e.,
of 15,
when
multiplied together their product
260? Again 2Xi3XaXaXa. Here the quantity has been broken up into 5 factors. The process of breaking up a number or expression into the simple
is
quantities, which, when multiplied together, reproduce the original, known as factorisation. Little is said about this in works on
Arithmetic, but the process is used none the less for that. To illustrate by a numerical example
Find the L.C.M. of 18, 24, 15, and 28. These numbers could be factorised and written as follows
2x3x3, 2x2x2x3, 3x5, 2x2x7.

The L.C.M. must contain each
contain the
first,
any factor
of these; it must, therefore, in the second not already included,
and so on
*. e.,
for the four.
L.C.M.
= 2x3x3
,
2x2 x ^-^ x
2nd
5 7 ^^ X ^^ =
2520.
ist
3rd
4th
The necessity
group should be
in the
for the presence of the

realised.
two 2's in the second There must be as many 2's as factors
result as there are 2's in the

:
number having
there
the greatest
2's
quantity of 2's in its factors as factors in the result.

It is,
i. e.,
must here be three
however, in Algebra that this process finds its widest Rather difficult equations can often be put into simpler forms from which the solution can be readily obtained, and by its use much arithmetical labour can be saved. Generally speaking, the factorised form of an expression demonstrates its nature and properties rather more clearly than does its original
application.
will
For practical purposes the following methods of factorisation be found sufficient. Rule i. Often every term of an expression contains a common this factor can be taken out beforehand and put outside a bracket. factor
form.
:
The multiplication
is
then done once instead of

is,
many
times.
But
35+6055 we know = 40 35+60-55 = (5X7) + (5Xi2)-(5Xii)

5
is
and the factor
common
outside a bracket, the
If this factor is taken to each term. arrangement then becomes 5(7+1211),
52
or 5

x8
which agrees with the previous result. The final to be preferred, because the numbers with which arrangement we have to deal are much simpler. Hence for this numerical case we see that the common factor must be taken outside a
is
= 40,
bracket, ^vhilst the terms inside are the quotients of this factor derived from the original terms.
the
Numbers have been taken method holds equally well

Example
24.
for
for clearness of demonstration, but symbols of all kinds.
Factorise the expression, 7a 4 fc 2
28a 36c 2
3
6 3 4 42a 6 c
In this expression, 7 is common to each, term, a is the highest of a common to each term, 6 the highest power of b, whilst no c occurs in the first term, and c is, therefore, not a factor common to all terms. Then, the factor to be taken outside a bracket = ja?b. Hence the expression = ya 3b(ab~ 4C 2 +6a 3& 2c 4 ), or we have broken
power
it
up
into
two
factors.
Example
12
ft.
Find the volume of a hollow cylindrical column, 25. long, i ft. external radius, and 9 ins. internal radius, from the
formula
Volume
of a cylinder
z irr l
(r=
3-142)
In this case the net volume will be the difference between the volumes of the outside and inside cylinders
.*.
V=
=
(ffXi xi2)
i27r{i
2
2
(7rx(J)
xi2)
.........
a factor
(|) }
because
16*48 cu.
i2?r is
common
working in feet. to both terms.
=
Rule
If
2.
ft.
factors are
A 2 -B 2
The expression may be of a form similar to one whose known, and the factors may be written down from inspection. (A+B) be multiplied by (A B) the resulting product is
.
Conversely, then, the factors of

or
i.e.,
A2 B
are (A
A 2 -B 2
B) and (A+B),
of the
(A-B)(A+B),
to factorise the difference of
quantities by their difference.
two squares, multiply the sum This rule is of wide application.
Example
26.
Write down the value of 9154*

is
Squaring each and subtracting the results use of the rule just given
far longer
than making
Thus
9i54
-9i5 l2 = (9154+
9i5 I )(9i54- 9I5 1 ) 18305 x 3 = 54915-
EQUATIONS
Example
8ia 8
27.
53
166*.
Find the factors of 8i
166*
and therefore
= =
4 2
2 2
(9
4
(4&
2
which
-f
is
the difference of two squares,
(9
4& )(9
4&
2
)
In this example the rule
is
applied twice.
Two
is
by no means
other standard forms are here added, although their use so frequent as that of the above.
A3 -B 3 = (A-B)(A +AB+B A3 +B 3 = (A+B)(A -AB+B

2 2
2
)
2
).
Example
Let
28.
Find the factors of 2ja*b
i25
c 9.
denote the expression, then a 3 (27a 36 3 + 1256')
E=
by Rule
i.
Rule
3.
In
many
cases of trinomial,
trial,
i. e.,
three-term expressions,
the factors
must be found by
at
any rate
to
a very large extent.
followed
There are certain rules applying to the signs, which can best be by first considering the following products
:
(*-5)(*
6)
= =
=
* 2 +ii*+3o * 2 -n*+3o
.......... ..........
(i)
(2)
(x-5)(x+6)
In
x*+x-3o
...........
(4)
(i) (2) there are like signs in the brackets and a plus sign third term in the expansion, which must be written in the precedes the order of ascending or descending powers of x or its equivalent.
(3) and (4) there are unlike signs in the brackets and a mintts before the 30. Hence the first rule of signs may be comes sign stated So arrange the signs that the one before the first term is plus, an adjustment of signs throughout being made if necessary. Look to the sign before the third term of the expression if this
and
In
is
a plus then
we conclude
like,
and
if
this sign is
that the signs in the brackets will be a minus then the signs in the brackets will be
they are to be like, they must be either both plus or both minus, and the sign before the second term in the given expression indicates which of these is accepted. Thus, a plus sign before the second term indicates that the signs in the brackets are both plus.
unlike.
If
54
If,
however, the signs in the brackets are to be unlike, one product sign before the second term indicates whether it is the product obtained by using the plus or the minus
must be the greater and the

sign.
E.
g.,
in (3)
we have
30 as the third term

:
accordingly the
is
also the second term signs in the brackets will be unlike so that the minus product is to be the greater; hence the sign in the brackets must be before the 6.
x minus
The actual numbers in the brackets must be found by trial. They must in each of the four instances multiply together to give 30 also, in (i) and (2) they must add together to give n, and in (3) and (4) their difference must be i.
;
Example
29.
Find the factors of # 2 + ijx
no.
In the given expression the third term is no, so that there must be unlike signs in the brackets. Also, the + product must be the greater, since +17* is the second term. Since the signs in the brackets are to be unlike, two numbers must be found which when multiplied together give no, and which differ
by
17.
;
These numbers are 5 and 22 and the signs placed before these must be so chosen that + ijx results when the brackets are removed. Thus the plus sign must be placed before the 22, and hence
x z + ijx
no =
(x -f 22) (x
5).
Example
30.
Factorise the expression

i
2X 2
z8x
go.
Applying Rule
The expression
2(#
+ 14*+
45).
(Note the adjustment of signs, to ensure + before the first term.) Dealing with the part of the expression in brackets plus signs hence two numbers are required throughout denote -f in brackets that multiplied give 45, and added give 14; these being 9 and 5.
: ;
/.
The
factors =
z(x+ 9)(*+
5).
Example
31.
Find the factors of
6m 2 +
nm
35.
This expression could be reduced to the form of the previous examples 6, but the fractions so obtained would render the further It is better, therefore, to proceed as follows involved. rather working There will be unlike signs in the brackets, since the sign before the third term is minus, and the factors of 6 have to be combined with those of 35 to give a difference of products of +n. The varying of the factors at either end may result in many arrangements being tried
by dividing by
EQUATIONS
55
before the correct one is found. After a little practice, however, the student disregards absurd arrangements and so reduces his work.
The correct arrangement in this case is (yn 5)(2nt+j). The first terms when multiplied together give 6m 2 the last ones lorn, give 35, the extreme terms give +2im, and the middle terms i. e., the last two combine to give +nw. The arrangement is more clearly shown if written down as
,
(3xx5)
The end terms are easily settled, but for the middle term the multimust be performed as indicated by the arrows, and the results must be added or subtracted as the case may demand. When the correct arrangement of the figures has been found, the letters must
plication
be inserted.
Hence, the expression has for

32.
its factors
(3m
5)(2m+7).
Example
In the
Factorise the expression
72a
i8a6
776*.
first
place disregard the letters;
dealing only with the
numbers.
The
factors of 72 are to be
combined with those of 77 to give a
difference of 18.
72 has
many
factors,
but 77
= 7x11
or
77x1.
The
trial
arrangements would be of
this nature
ox^T
For the middle term, the difference
43.
135-
faXX
.,
'8.
The last is the arrangement desired. To allocate the signs: the net result of the products is to be +18 7x12 gives the greater the before must be the hence + 7. placed product,
:
.'.
The expression
(6a
7b)(i2a
lib).
The Remainder and Factor Theorems.

have to deal with an expression such as
If this
Suppose we
expression be divided
by (xa), the remainder
will
be
56
which could have been more simply obtained by substituting a for x in the original expression. If (x a) is to be a factor of the original expression then the remainder after division by (x a] must be zero. Hence we obtain
a rule enabling us to find factors of rather complicated expressions Find the value of the main quantity (usually the x) which makes the
suggested factor zero
expression,
;
substitute this value in place of the
in the
its
and if the result is zero one factor has been found. E. g~, if it be conjectured that (#-(-3) is a factor of an expression, value would be found when x had the value 3.
Example
33.
Find the factors of X s + x z
14*
24.
Let us try if (#4) is a factor; we for x in the expression, which becomes

(
.*.
will substitute, therefore,
4 )3
+ (4)2-14(4) -24 = 64+16-56-24 =

4) is
(x
a factor.
there
Another likely factor would be (#+3), for 3x4 is part of 24, and must be a plus sign to combine with the minus in (#4) to
3 for x,
is
give 24. Substitute
and the expression becomes

o
.*.
(-3) x + 3) (
/.
+ (-3) 2 -i4(-3)-24 = -27+9+42-24 =

a factor.
factor
The other
x3
may be found to be (#+2) + x z - 14*- 24 = (x + 2}(x +
3)(x
4).
The
Multiplication and Division of Algebraic Fractions. simplification of algebraic fractions furnishes useful examples
on the appli cation of the rules of indices and of factorisation. When a number of fractions are to be multiplied together, cancelling
can be performed as in the case of arithmetic fractions, always provided
that the complete factors are cancelled
and not portions

;
thereof.
E.
'
.,
4*+3
-r^
is
in its lowest
terms
we cannot
cancel 2X into
4* or strike out the 3's, because (2^+3) must be treated as one quantity, as also must (4*4-3).
..
Example
34.
c ,., ~ -.-r^-. Simplify * z 5 ja*b c

.
p 3 , 4 i8a c
.
The
fraction
- Tr*-. x = 48a
fcc
3 -
alb
EQUATIONS
Example
3 5 .-Simplify y
57
*+*+ 15
2* 2 +
3*-
35
*- I 4 7_ A x 20*2 + 28*- 96
numerators and denominators
No
cancelling must be made
until
are expressed in terms of their factors.
Thus the
fraction
=
(
(*+3)(*+5) x
2
3 (2*
*-7)(*+
5)
-7) (2 x + 7) 4(*+ 3 5 * -8)

j (
and
in this fraction
cancels with cancels with
cancels with
giving the answer
in
j!|J^rf j
4*
2
which no further cancelling can occur.
Example
3 6.-Simplify
- 4y 6xy-i
+*~i4 x A'
-4
first
4*-
'
3 #2-*-i 4
fraction in the
(
The numerators and denominators are form

4 *-7)(*+g)
factorised giving the
4*2
(x-2)
(3*
which by cancelling reduces to 2 v3
Example
37.
Simplify the fraction
^x
~ + nx
*
__
/t^2
[_
*jf\
~^-L-
20
;
The factors for the denominator are the more easily found they (#+5) and (3* 4). The first of these is a possible factor of the numerator also applying the remainder theorem, the value of the numerator when x 5 is 2( 125) 4i( 5) (5)2 + 70, i.e., o; In like manner it would be found that hence (#+5) is a factor. (x 2) was also a factor; and by division of the numerator by the product of these, viz. by x*+ 3* 10, the remaining factor is found
are
;
to be (2X
7).
Hence the fraction^
(*-M+5K**-7) = <*-*)(**-7)
~4/
\3 X
~4)
Addition and Subtraction of Algebraic Fractions. same rules are adopted as for arithmetical fractions.
The L.C.M.
ising the separate
The
of the denominators (L.C.D.) must first be found by factordenominators according to the plan detailed on page 51.
Example
38.
Simplify the fraction
_5_ ,_ioo_ 407 120 21
51
20fl
35
58

This becomes (after factorisation of the denominators)
(4-7)
and the L.C.D.
whence the expression
~~
3(4-7)
7)
5(4
-7)
15(40
7)
($a
x 5
Example
39.
Simplify
ey
ft
15
12
This becomes (after factorisation of the denominators) # 12 15
C*+3)(#+
and the L.C.D.
is
2)
(x
(#+7) (#+2)
(#+7) (# +
7) .
3)
3) (x
2) (*
Dealing with the
first
term only and multiplying both numerator
and denominator by
this L.C.D.
which after cancelling reduces to

In like
-/
\(x+
7)'
manner
the second and third terms reduce to
i5(*+3) "
Hence the
fraction
and d
+ --g+
7)
I 5( ;r
&+ 2)(+
3)
I2(#+
7)
2)
45- "* -
24
IPX + 21
(*+3)(*+7)
Example
40.
Show
that
.,
if
r=
c
c
j.
then
.,
a-{-b
c 4.
d -
and
_ ~
b
From ^ = ^, by adding a o
to each side
a
b
+I= c +1 d
,
Taking the L.C.D. of each side
a+
_ c+
EQUATIONS
In like manner by subtracting
e<l uation
59
side of the original
(i)
^
q
from each
-^r
d
........... W
...........
and Addition
3
Hence, dividing
by
(2)
a-b
Exercises 7.
_ c+ ~
T^~d
These results are of importance.
On
Factors, and on Multiplication of Algebraic Fractions.
Factorise the expressions in

1. 3. 6.
Examples
2.
to 20.
x 2 + iSx- 88 x z -26x+ 105

(2fl+6)
igx + 88
5.
4.
8.
I2# 2
(30-46)2 73#y + 105^2
8a 3 -i25& 6
7.
24**
-#-44
9.
a 2 + 4 a&-4 5 & 2 88 3*2 13*
lOi
12.
2om+ 2 on- 5 8m
|n-R
3
3
11.
$irr
16 24 384 giving the volume of a hollow sphere of outside

4
r.
<^!_^ + 5J^_
3
radius R,
13.
and internal radius

2
94^ +39^-963. wlx 3 ~~ wx* ~ wl3x an exP resslon occurring in connection with iÊI 2~EI 2~El' the deflection of beams.
15. 540*6 17. 64C5 18.
2 2 30oo 6c
_
3 42a 6c
16.
4#
i6c 2
1206
+ 9& 2
and
r
T = wR V
,
being
v (giving the volume of the frustum of a the radii of the ends of the frustum and h its
2
/r
27
cone;
(h
3
19. 20.
3
.\ + A),
,
Trr z k
thickness) where
and k
{Hint.
[(p
= ^rh K- y
Try
i) is
2# 3 + 7# 2
44*+
35.
(x
+ 7)
as a factor.]
6p
+ 2$p z -\-6p- 35.

by the methods
one
factor.]
21. Find,
+ (398x69) -(199x92).
of this chapter, the value of (199
46)
z 22. Find the value of n-R 2 / irr l, which gives the volume of a hollow cylinder, when IT = 3-142, 12-72, ^=9-58, =64-3. 23. Find the L.C.M. of # 2 -#-6, 3^-21^ + 36, and 4*2 - 8* -32.
R=
24. Simplify
_
25. Simplify
,.,
26. Simplify y 27. Simplify
i^xno 4X 2xgo ^ + -^ ^ x ^ 2X8 X42X+4

2
8^ 2 2AX 2ox z +
80
^ + ^+ ^+
Y&^W^
6o
28. Simplify
_ __
5*
18**

8*+7*
24**
100
+ 30*
4*
280
8* 14 __ 2 fo# + 175- 155*
29. Solve the equation

-I- _-3__ =
__9__
m with
if
31.
A
is
[Hint. Multiply through by the L.C.D.] unit pole is attracted by a magnetic pole of strength
t
a force
^.
+
and
repelled by a force of
?
What
/ is
the resultant attractive force very small compared with d.
Find the value of this force

189*
;
32.
Find the factors of

7X)'
(3*
33.
(2*
(a)
3**+ 6x*
(b)
24
+ 37*
72**
37)*-
Find the factors of (** -j- 7*+ 6)(** + 34. M, a bending moment, is given by
(
"
7*+
12)
- 280.
+ 9) M = Pfl 2S +3) _ Pa(i 85*4-355 2

8(5+2)
24(65*+
+135)
Find a more simple expression

35.
for
-
M.
X
The expression
pjt>i
7* *~~
(ptVPivJ
p tv t
relates
to the
work done in the expansion of a gas. State this in a more simple form. 36. The depth of the centre of pressure of a rectangular plate, of width h, immersed vertically in a liquid, the top being a and the bottom
b units below the level of the surface of the liquid,
is
given by
f (&'-*')
-4-
^(6* -a*)
Express thU in a
simpler form.
Quadratic Equations. Any equation in which the square, but no higher power, of the unknown, occurs, is termed a quadratic 25 to equation. The simplest type, or pure quadratic, is <f* solve which, take the square root of both sides. Then d either +5 or 5, because (-f5) 2 25 and also ( 5) 2 25. This result would be written hi the shorter form d +5. It is essential that the two solutions should be stated, although in most practical cases the nature of the problem shows that the positive solution is the one required. The solution of the pure quadratic is elementary; but in the 2 o (spoken of as case of an equation of the type Jt +7*+i2 an adfccted quadratic, i. e., one in which both the first and the second power of the unknown occur) new rules must be developed or stated. Three rules or methods of procedure are suggested for
= =
the solution of adfected quadratics, viz.
EQUATIONS
Method
Group
so obtained.
61
1.
Solution of a Quadratic by Factorisation.
terms to the left-hand side and factorise the expression : thus two solutions are determined.
all the
Next, let each of these factors in turn
For all quadratics there must be two solutions or " roots " some cases they may be equal, and in rare cases " imaginary." Applying this method to the example under notice
:
in
Example
41.
Solve the equation
x*+ jx+
12
= 0.
By
factorisation of the left-hand side
Then
because, be zero
either
or
if
e. g., if
* -f 3 = x -f 4 =
is
o, o,
in
in
which case x = which case x =
3,
4,
one factor
zero, the
3,
*=
product of the two factors must also
(x+ 3)(x+ 4)
= ox i =
o.
Hence
Example
x=
42.
or
4.
Solve the equation 24a a -f 170

240* +
(8a
i
= 20.
Collecting terms,
Factorising,
.'.
ja
-f-
20
4)
5) (30
= o. = o.
|1
|J
a
either
or
= 0, 30 -f 4 = o,
83
5
i.e.,a=
i. e.,
If
no factors can be readily seen we

2.
may
proceed to
Solution of a Quadratic by completion of the Square. All the terms containing the unknown must be grouped to one side of the equation and the knowns or constants to the other
side.
Method
side, viz. that on which the unknown is placed, into a perfect square by a suitable addition, the same amount being added also to the right-hand side, and then the square root of both sides is taken. The solution of the two simple " " of the original equation. roots equations thus obtained gives the Before proceeding further with this method a little preliminary
is
The left-hand
next
made
is necessary, the principle of which must be grasped reason of the method of solution is to be understood.
work
if
the
Suppose that the
first
two terms
of the right-hand side are
62

add the necessary quantity
2
given, and it is desired to into a complete square.
to
make
/A8\ 2
it
a 2 +48a+576 might be written as

so that
if
2
(a)
+ [2
(24)
X
is
(flVH
\
,
*'
2 /
,
+48a
is
given, the term to be added

a.
) /
is
the square of half the coefficient of
2 Similarly, # -f 7* could be expressed as a perfect square
/7\ 2
if
(-]
Returning
to
the
method; a
2/ numerical
#+' (7\
example
will
best
illustrate the processes.
Example
43.
Solve the equation x 2
i$x 4-9
= 0.
'to each side,
Grouping terms
x 1 + i$x =
9.
(
Adding the square of half the
coefficient of x, viz.
or
Extracting the square root of both
si
#4-^=
.*.
6-88
x= 7-5 6-88 = - 7'5 + 6-88 = -62 or

J
or
7-5
- 6-83
often presents
diffi-
I4'38.
The change from X s + 15*4- ^culty

It
:
to fjr+
must be remembered that
the reason for the omission of the i$x does not seem clear. it is represented in the second form, for
2
st
-~ =
2
)
(i
(2
nd 2
)
+2
(product)
If the coefficient of
x2
is
not unity
it
must be made
so by division
throughout by
its coefficient.
Example
44.
Find a value of
4
B
900
(the
the equation
3-64B
5I-8B
breadth of a flange) to satisfy

o.
This equation, though not a quadratic,
and solved
first
for
B2
i. e.,
if
2
for
B 2 we
may be
write
treated as a quadratic the equation becomes
3-64A
5I-8A
900
o.
EQUATIONS
Dividing through by 3-64 (the coefficient of the constant term to the right-hand side
63
A2
and transferring
A
The
i.e.,
I4-24A
coefficient of
is
14-24;
247. half of this

2
is
7-12,
hence add
297-8
7-12*,
50-8 to each side

i.e.,
I4-24A+
7-i2)
2
or
(A
(7-I2)
247+50-8
297-8.
Extracting the square root throughout
A 7-12 = db 17-26 A = 7-12 17-26 whence A = 24-38 or 10-14. Now A =-B so that B = 24-38 or 10-14.
i.e.,
a 2
,
former only
is
taken, since
we cannot
4-94,
Of these values the extract the square root of a
negative quantity. Thus B 2 = 24-38 or B = has no meaning in this case.
but evidently the negative solution
Example 45. this equation.
If
4a
2 1506+ 2& = o,
find the values of a to satisfy
Dividing through by 4 and transferring the constant term to the

right-hand side,
a2
---ab = -T
The
coefficient of a is
b; half of this is
-b
hence we must add
(-a-) to each side.
Thus
a*
*+
- .
\
=
04
04
Extracting the square root
= 3-616
Method
It
or -146.
3.
Solution of a Quadratic by the use of a
Formula.
be evident from the foregoing quadratics reduce to the general form Ax 2 + BX + C = 0.
will
If
examples that
all
Method 2
is
applied to the solution of this, the result
is
64
formula giving the roots of any quadratic, provided that the particular values of A, B and C are substituted in it. Thus
A* 2
Dividing through by
+ Ex + C = o
+
B
*
and transposing the constant term

x*
= /
To each
side
add the square

.
of half the coefficient of x, viz.
B\ 2
IY& _L
+ A v + \2\)
_L
,
/B\ 2
I '
__
A + Uv
*1
'
/B\ 2
2
QJ-
_J
B \2
\
_B -4AC _C = -C+B A A 4/ - 4AC B _

i
\ 2
Extracting the square root of both sides
2A
whence
,
2A
x
"
VB 2 - 4AC
, 2A
Thus the
are
"
roots
of the general quadratic

2
-
- B + VB - 4AC
2A
Example
46.
and
,
+ BA; + C = - B - B - 4AC
A* 2
2
2A
$x
z
Solve the equation
Sx
12.
z 8x 12 = 0. Collecting all the terms to one side, $x Then for this to be identical with the standard form
A =
5,
B =
8
-8,
C = -12
240
17-4 10
+
=
V6 4 +
V3Q4
10
^
-
=
Great care the value of
2-54
or
-94.
must be exercised to avoid 4AC, first find AC= 5 x (

and
errors of sign.
12)
To obtain
or
60;
4AC then = 240 = + 240. 4AC
EQUATIONS
Example
47.
65
i'$y
-32 = o.
Solve for
y, in
-^y
It is always advisable to have the the signs before applying the formula.
first
term
positive, so
change
all
Then
Here
4>/
+1-5?+
-32
o.
A =-4,
6=1-5, C=32. -i'5 V2-25- -512

8
1-5
^1738
=
Example
48.
-23
or
3-52.
on the section of a beam due to the / and a shearing stress q. These produce an entirely normal stress / on a plane known as the plane of principal Find an expression for / from the equation /(//) = q*. stress.
stresses
The
loading are a normal stress
Removing the bracket and grouping the terms 2 2 / -//n-<? =0.

Here
to one side
A=i,
f
B=
-/,
V/n
2
C=-q*
+4g 2
_ +fn
The next example

resolving large or small
of ten.
is
numbers
instructive as showing the advantage of into integers multiplied by powers
Example
49.
Solve the equation
L# 2 +
~Rx
T?
an equation
6
.
occurring in electrical work)
when
L=
'
-00:1:5,
Substituting the numerical values for L,
R = 4OO, K='45XiO" R, and K

-
o.
The
since
last
term
may be written in
^-
the more convenient form 2-22 x io 8
= 2-22
and
-^4=
x
io 8
6
)
Thus
-oo 1 5# 2 4-
400^+
(2-22
io
Comparing with the standard form A = (1-5 x io-3 ), B= (4 x io 2),
C=
(2-22
X io)
66
Hence

x
~
-
(4
I{)2)
4 V(r6 x *o 3 x io
)
(6
3
IP' 3
2-22
io 6 )
(4
io 2 )
4 V(i6 x io ) 3 io~ x 3
(1-33
io*)
the second term under the radical sign being written in this form so and the square root of io 4 that io* is a factor common to both terms is readily found.
;
[6
X IO- 3 X
2-22
X IO 8
4
=
io
13-32
2
;
X IO 3
1-332
X IO 4 .]
radical sign,
The square root of io and then
is
this
may
be placed outside the
(4
X io 2 )
3
io 2
Vi6- 1-33
io- 3
io 2 (-4
VI4-6;)
3 x io-
= =
(io
2-61)
or
io 5 x
-053
261000
or
5600.
Example 50. A formula given by Prony (in connection with the flow of water through channels) connecting the hydraulic gradient i with the velocity v and the hydraulic mean depth was of the form mi = av + bv*. Under certain conditions a = -000044, & = -000094.
Show that
Chezy,
viz. v
this is in close
agreement with the formula given by
103 Vmi.
mi
or
bv*
=
a
av
+ bv z
mi
2b
+ av
Va z
Inserting the numerical values for a and b
4 mib
x -oooo94u
2 Also, a is very small, even in comparison with -000376, and can therefore be neglected.
Hence
= =
-- 000044
2
-234
x -000094
x -000094 104-3 Vmt.

2
Taking the + sign and neglecting the first term, v which agrees well with the v = 103 Vmi given by Chezy.
104-3
Vmt,
EQUATIONS
:
67
Quadratics with "imaginary" Roots. The question may What is done when (B 2 4AC) in the have presented itself formula for the solution of the quadratic becomes negative ? How can the square root of a negative quantity be extracted ? The square root of a negative quantity is known as an imaginary quantity, and all imaginaries are reduced to terms of the square root of At present no meaning can be i, which is denoted byj. stated for this, but it is referred to again in a later chapter.
'
Thus
E.g.,
;=V
51.
I,
=i,
i
V
3*
i, etc.
V^so = Vsox
Solve
the
Vsox
2x z
V^ =
+ 15 = o,
5-47.7.
Example Method 3.
equation
employing
x
4
+3
ViTi X
V^
bj, where a and b may have any values, Expressions of the type a occur in Electrical theory and in the theory of Vibrations such being referred to in Chapter VI.
;
Cubic Equations. Cubic Equations, i. e., equations containing the cube of the unknown as its highest power, may be solved graphically, in a manner to be demonstrated in a later chapter, or use may be made of what is known as Cardan's solution. The three roots of a cubic equation may be either, one real and
two imaginary, or, three real. Cardan's solution applies only to the former of these cases and gives the real root only. 3 be taken as the standard type of cubic If x -f- ax -f- b is given by Cardan as real solution then the equation,
X== /
The proof
it is
b, /^TÛo-f /*V \-2 + V 27+TJ + \-2~V 27+

b
of this result is too difficult to be inserted here, but
outlined in
3
I\2
Treatise on Algebra,
by
C.
Smith (Macmillan
but Cardan's
and
Co., Ltd., 75. 6d.).
If
27
+4
be negative, the three roots are
all real,
solution cannot be applied.
68
MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS 3 I2X + 65 = o. Example 52. Solve the equation x

a=
12, b
(Imaginary
roots are not required.)
Here
65, in
comparison with the standard form.
= {-32-5 + 31-5}* + {-32-5 -31-5}* = (-!) + (-4)= -5If
made
the equation is not of the form, x3 so in the following manner.
-f-
ax
+ 6 = o,
it
can be
Example
53.
Find a solution of the equation

t;
+ 1441;
1944
'
v being a velocity.
v*
For this to be reduced to the standard form, the term containing must be eliminated. By writing (V+a) for v and suitably choosing a, this can be done,
for
'..,
+ 2 4 (V + a) + I44(V+ a) - 1944 = o V'+3V a+3a 2V+a 3 +24V +24a 2 +48aV + I44V+ 1440 - 1944 =o ............
(V +
8
a)
(i)
is
2 Equating the coefficients of V to zero (since the term containing 8 to be made to vanish), 30 + 24 = o, *. e., a =
;
V2
so that
= V-8.
(
Equation
(i)
can now be written

2
8 being substituted for a)
24V +I92V- 512 + 24V +1536

2
384V +I44V
2072
1152
1944
or
V8
a=
48V
Comparing with our standard formula

48,
6=
2072.
Therefore,
by Cardan
V=
(2070)*+
(2)*
I2-75+I-26
v
14.
Hence
= V
8 = 6.
any
Equations of degree higher than the third (if not reducible to of the forms already given) are best solved graphically. (Compare with Chapter IX.)
EQUATIONS
Exercises 8.
69
On
Quadratic and Cubic Equations.

i
Solve the equations in Exercises

1.
to 10.
2. 4.
x z + $x + 4
2
3. 5.
=o -3* +9*+i4 = o
-234a
-764
2X Z
7* + 15
6.
= 4*
9^ + 5^+2 =
17
-ooia 2
= -417(1
z
8p*-7p = 4p* + 5 p+i6

2*
*
-3250?
*+4 ^29-5* ~
r,
g'
10.
fi
,
,
11. If
V = 2X230X/ z
a
2g
12. If
- J
*+2 #+3 1700 + -oi26F = -000003F

2
I
_5*_
2
,
2x36
,
find the values of
JI when V=33"O #=32-2)

This equation gives
r=
02
^2
-T
find h
when
= 15,
a=
5-5.
the radius of a circle are known.

13. Solve for
when
the height of arc A and length of chord 2a
F the
equation
3F --S
14.
We
30 x io 7200 are told that W( + A) = FA

6
-= --3F
100.
(a
formula relating to the
strength of bodies
under impact), and also A
- W=45,
jr
,
and
= 2-4.
15.
Find values of
to satisfy these conditions.
The equation
6a
ab
a?
=
a
ph z
-
relates
to
masonry
dams,
a feet wide at the top, and h feet deep; w being the weight of i cu. ft. of masonry, and p being Find b for the case when a = 5, the weight of i cu. ft. of water. h = 30, w = 144, and p = 62-4.
feet of base of
where 6 = width in
dam
16.
Find expressions for /, from
17. If
|L
2U*
3U
solve
(a)
for
u and
(6)
for v.
18. To find n (the depth from the compression edge to the neutral axis of a reinforced concrete beam of breadth 6) it was necessary to 2AT ww 2wAT d= o. Determine the value solve the equation bn z of n to satisfy the conditions when ^=15, AT i-56, 6 5, and
d=
io.
19. Solve for 20.
the equation
values
of
t
75
x ioC 2 s
io 10 C
12
/)
'
io 10
= o.
and
Find the
when L =
/P _ /wx _
p Ap
-oogC,
P=i20, C=3375,T=67, 1^=1765.

21.
Find the
a
ratio,
length of arc of approach a pitch p
wheels) from '^-
=
np
+ -,
4
where n = number of teeth in the follower
wheel
==
24.
70
22.
v
The
MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS equation mi = av + bv relates to the flow

z
channels.
If
= cVmi,
a =-000024
an(i
&=
-000014,
P ut
this
of water in in the form
making any
justifiable
approximation.
53
(Compare Example
50, p. 66.)

24.
2# a
to
+ $x
the
*54
equation
Find values of
satisfy
W=$al(i-\
(Merriman's formula for the weight of roof principals), given that = 5400 and a = 10. 25. x is the distance of the point of contraflexure of a fixed beam If x and / are connected by the equation of length / from one end.
W
I
T H
72"
if
fi 11
^ the positions of the points of contraflexure.
26.
of
two
27.
To find the position of a mechanism so that the angular velocities links should be the same it was necessary to solve the equation 2 o. Find values of / to satisfy this. 42 5/ I9'5/ 546
find d, the depth of flow through a channel under certain conditions of slope, etc., it was necessary to solve the equation 3 i '305*2 o. Find the value of d to satisfy this. d 1-305
To
28. The values of the maximum and minimum stresses in the metal of a rivet due to a shearing stress q and a tensile stress / due to contraction in cooling are given by the roots of the equation
If q
= 4^
tons per sq.

/.
in.
/(/-/n)=<? and / = 3 tons per

-
sq. in., find the
two
values of
29.
is
The length
L of a wire
or cable hanging in the form of a parabola
given by
L-
S
3
where S = span and D = droop or sag. Find the span if the sag is 3'-9* and the length of cable
is
100-4023
ft.
Simultaneous Quadratics.
Consider the two equations
and
5'6(5*6
y)
= 1-8 =x
2
:
(i)
(2)
Values of x and y are to be found to satisfy both equations at " also the second simultaneous ") the same time (hence the term equation is of the second degree as regards x, and is therefore a
quadratic.
In most practical examples (the above being part of the investigation dealing with compound stresses) one equation is somewhat more complicated than the other, and therefore, for purposes of elimination, we substitute from the simpler form into the more
difficult.
EQUATIONS
In this example equation transposition
(i)
7I
it,
is
the simpler, and from
by
X=
Substitute for x, wherever
i-8y 2 2
-ay.
it
terms of
y.
Then
5-6(5-6
occurs in equation
(.gy)
(2),
its
value in
-y)
31-36- 5 -6y
or
'8iy
2
+5-6y
31-36
= = =
-8iy2
-8iya
o.
Hence, y
~5
'
V^'3^ + 4 x
1-62
i
-81
31-36
-5-6
*62
To
find
* * = -gy and, substituting in turn the x= -9 x 10-56 or -9 x 3-67 = 9-51 or 3-30 x= -9-51 or 3-30 \ y= 10-56 or 3-67 /
two values found for y,
and
Example 54. In a workshop calculation for the thickness * of a packing strip or distance piece in a lathe the following equations occurred
(9-9)2
(i-7 5
+ y) + *
...........
(2)
for
Solve these equations for x and y. The packing strip a check for a gauge, and great accuracy was necessary in the
was required
calculation.
By removal
of the brackets the equations
become
2 2
98-01
98-01
= =
2-25
+ y +3y+-64 + * 3-o625 + y +3-5y + *

2 2
........
(3)
+i-6*
....
(3)
(4)
By subtracting equation obtained giving y in terms of
(4)
from equation
-64+ i-6x
an equation
is
x,
thus
o=
or
*5y
whence
= =
-5y+ -8125 i'6x '1725

3-2^
-345.
(4)
2
Substituting for y in equation

98-01
3-0625
(3-2*
--345)
+ 3-5(3-2* --345)+**
11
3-0625+ 10-24**+ -1200-2-208*+
-2X
-2075
+ x*.
72

Collecting terms,
n -24^+ 8-992.*
96-035
(4
o
11-24)
whence
#=
8-992 8-992
(8-992)
.a
X 96-035 x
66-3219
22-48
_ '
57-3299 22-48
nr
or
-75-3I39
22-48
= 2-5503
-3-3503-
i.e., the thickness of the strip was 2-5503 (inches); the negative solution being disregarded. The two values of y would be obtained by substituting the two values found for x in the equation y = 3-2* -345.
Thus
y y
=--
(3-2
-345 2-5503) 11-066. 7-816 or
or y
(3-2
- 3'353) -
'345
The
positive solutions alone
have meaning in x = 2-5503 and y = 7-816.
this
example, so that
Example
55.
Solve the equations
5#
+ y 2 +2#
7*+ 3?
77
c*
(i)
=9
(2)
From
equation
(2)
yy
97*
9 ~ 7-
or
y
(i)
.-.
5*' +
by 9
95
Multiplying through
45#
+ 81 + 49#2
94*
2
126*+ iSx
189+ 147* =
855.
Collecting terms
+ 39* -963 =
=o
or 3.
Factorising
(9 4 #+32i)(*-3)
i.e.,
x=
321 94
Now,
EQUATIONS
Substituting the
73
two values
for
64
74

y
..2^*15*23
'
20
and
.e.,
#
y
= =
-y = 36
when # when x
=
=
-f-
and
Taking x
= + 36
z z
-y
-y
+ ^y = 1 15
and and
Grouping
results
.'.
x ^
y
= = = =
23
5 3
3
or
^ 36
or
Surds and Surd Equations.
One
often meets with
such
a such are known as surds or irrational quantities as -y/3, 3/7 or quantities, since their exact values cannot be found.
:
The value of V$ can be found to as many places of decimals as one pleases, but for ordinary calculations two, or at the most thus three, figures after the decimal point are quite sufficient \/3 173 approximately, or 1-732 more nearly.
:
both easier and more accurate to multiply by a surd than by it, and therefore, if at all possible, one must rid the denominator of the surds by suitable multiplication. The process is known as rationalising the denominator.
It is
to divide
Example
57.
Rationalise the denominator of
~~
VJl
in
To do
since
this,
multiply both numerator and denominator by
V^x ^3 =3.
-5* v3
it is
Then
decimals
- -, -^ -^ = V 3 x V3 _3_
or
if
the result
is
required
2-89.
Example
58.
Find the value of

4
'
._
V5
4+ V^.
Multiply numerator and denominator by
EQUATIONS
Then the
fraction
75
~
--
7(4
+ V5)__ = = =
7(4+
7(4
l6- 5
3-968.
+ 2-236) =
7 x 6-236
possible
Surds occurring in equations must be eliminated as early as by squaring or cubing as the case may demand.
59.
Example
Solve the equation 3/p

sides
Cubing both
= = 2 P =
2
7.
343
345.-
Example
60.
Find x from the equation

4
- 2#+3 = 5.
is
Transposing so that the surd
on one
side
1.
by
itself
Vzx +3 =
Squaring both sides
2X + 3
whence
Note.
=i =
i.
The
solutions of all surd equations should be tested.

i
Reverting to the original equation and substituting
for
4-V2#+3 = 4-V-2 + 3 = 4-1 =

and not
5,
3
it
not a solution of this equation, but be of the somewhat similar equation

so that
i is
would
4+ \2#+3 =
When
either
2
5.
or ( + V2# +3)* = 2^+3, \/2#+3) squaring, ( so that the solution obtained may be that of either the one equation or the other. In this case, then, there is no solution to the equation as given.
Example
61.
Wohler's law for repeated stresses can be expressed
where fl = original breaking stress, S = stress variation in terms and ft = new breaking stress. when S = -537/1, /i = 52, x = 2. Find
f.j,
of
/ if
y2==
*. e.,
;53_7/2
\/52
-(2 x -537/2X52)
f =
t
-2685/t
A/2704
76

Arranging so that the surd
/,
is
isolated
-2685/3
or
-7315/2
2 2
Squaring
or
= V270 4 - 55 -8/, = V270 4 - 55- 8/, - 55-8/5, '535/2 = 2704 '535/ +55-8/ 2704 = o.
Solving for /, by means of the formula
/a
f
55' 8
-
V3"Q +
ô7~~
94'5
579Q
Qr
=
The
formula
is
55'8
38-7
1-07
1-07 36-2 or
50^3 1-07
140-5.
negative solution has
no meaning in the cases to which

is
this
applied, hence the positive solution alone
taken.
Example
62.
Find the value or values of x to satisfy the equation
V^x
+ 3 Vzx +
18
17
18.
It is best to separate the surds thus
Vzx +17 =
(18)*
V^x
7)*
7.
Square both sides and then
i. e. t
+ 17) = i8x + 153 =

9(2*
the surd
7 7
+( V^x
x 18 x V4#
7
324
164 82
4*
14*
7*.
36 V<ix
or, isolating
36 V4*
or
i8V4#
Squaring again
324(4*
= =
=
7)
6724
49#
2
4Q*
whence
Factorising
2444*
1148*
8992
4)
(49*
2248) (#
= =
'
o. o.
2248
r4
To
test
whether these values satisfy the original equation

4,
When x =
left-hand side
right-hand side
*
= Vi6 7 + 3 V8 +17 = 3+15 = 1 8, which is the x = 4 satisfies.

;
value of the
Always remember that when squaring a "two-term" expression

;
three terms result
of the character
(ist
2
squared)
2
(and squared)
(twice product of ist

.
and 2nd).
(A (A
e.,
B)
2
2
'=
B)
A + B + 2AB = A 2 + B - 2AB.
2
EQUATIONS
When * =
,
7?
left-hand side
= _
>
, '
49 93
7
2ig
7
=
Hence #
satisfies
312
-r-
44$ which does not

it
18.
is
not a solution of the given equation
however
the equation 3
Vzx +
17
V^x
=a 18.
Exercises 9.
On
the Solution of Simultaneous Quadratic Equations
and Surd Equations.

1.
Find values of x and y to satisfy the equations * 2 + 3V Z
2*+
*-3V= 16 4y = 50
2.
Solve the equations

Solve for
a 2 = 8 + 4y 2 2a + 2y = 7
3.
p and
<y
the equations
3p*-pq-7i 2 =
4.
Solve the equations
5#
9^+ i2Ary 7^+8y
zy
= =
132
54
5.
Determine the values of a and b to satisfy the equations

a2
Solve for
2ab +3 2a + 6
= =4
equation \/3w qm = 5. is used to calculate the length of hob required to cut a worm wheel, for throat radius r and depth of tooth d
6.
a
m the
7.
The following formula
f= 2 Vd(zr d) Find the depth of tooth when the hob

radius
8. 9.
is
is
3* long and the throat
2".
Find a from the equation

Solve for
the equation 25*6H

/,
10.
The formula
=g
V/i
_
2
V8a+ g
346
xSfi
= 4.
that given by Unwin, and
VH= 10000.
is
refers to
variation of stress.
case gave
11. find /2
S= '4 1/*' /i =
,
Bauschinger's experiments in a certain Find the value of/,. 22-8, and #=1-5.
(No. 10)
Using the same formula as in the previous example when S = /2 /x = 30, and x = 2.
a the equation
12. Solve for 13.
Va +2+ Va = 77= V
Ge ~\~
Find a value or values of x to satisfy the equation
Vi + gx =
Vx+
V^x +
78
14.

The length x of a
strut in a roof truss
equation
36 + Vx* 4 = 16. Find this length. 15. Find the value of k to satisfy the equation referring to the discharge of water from a tank
was required from the
Vx z
Given that /,= -45x60,

A 1==36,
16.
^=2-6x60, A=i5-6,
"
12 ^7
^,
and
A, = 25.
144
=32-2,
The following equations occurred when calculating a slope
of
a form gauge^-
w = (*o6 + n}n
2
vn_
_ -0175 ~
-035
03
Find the values of

17. If
/
m
an-
and n to
arch
satisfy these conditions.
A
c
= = =
span of
=
z
rise
height of roadway above the lowest point of the arch highest
then
c+d =
h and also
J^+o
18.
Find the values of d when h = 23 ft., and / = 24 ft. The dimensions for cast iron pipes for waterworks are related by
the equation
where
If
H = head of water in feet = thickness of metal in inches d = internal dia. of pipe in inches H = 300 and = .5 find d.
t
t
CHAPTER
III
MENSURATION
Introduction. Mensuration is that part of practical mathematics which deals with the measurement of lengths, areas, and
sound knowledge of it is necessary in all branches of practical work, for the draughtsman in his design, the works' manager in his preparation of estimates, and the surveyor in his
volumes.
plans, all
make
use of
its rules.
Our first ideas of mensuration, apart from the tables of weights and measures, are usually connected with the areas of rectangles.
How much
12
ft.
viz.
space will be required for a planer 4 ft. wide and Here we have the simplest of the rules of mensuration, long the multiplication together of the two dimensions. Thus, in
floor
?
this case, the actual space
covered
is
4 X 12
=48
sq.
ft.
Rectangle and Triangle. If the rectangle is bisected diagonally, two equal triangles result, the area of each being one-half that of the original rectangle, or we might state it, \ (length X breadth), or as it is more generally expressed, \ base X
Area
of
(Note that the \ is used but once; height or \ height X base. thus we do not multiply \ base by \ height.) This rule for the area of the triangle will always hold, viz. that the area of the triangle
is
the
one-half that of the corresponding rectangle, same base and of the same height.
i, e.,
Thus
the rectangle on in Fig. 7, the
ABC, AB'C, and AB"C are all equal in area, this area being one-half of the rectangle ACB'D, i. e., %bh. It is the most widely used of the rules for the area of the triangle, because if sufficient data are supplied to enable one to construct the triangle,
triangles
one side can be considered as the base, and the height (i. e., the perpendicular from the opposite angular point on to this side or this side produced) can be readily measured, whence one-half the
product of these two is obtained. A special case occurs when one of the angles is a right angle; Area (to be denoted by A) then the rule for the area becomes
:
equals one-half the product of the sides including the right angle.
8o

further point in connection with the right-angled triangle viz. the relation between the sides.
One
must be noted,
*'.
e.,
The square on the hypotenuse (the side opposite the right angle, the longest side) is equal to the sum of the squares on the other
(Euclid,
I.
sides.
47.)
Fig. 7-
Fig. 8.
In Fig.
C,
8,
AB
or
is
the hypotenuse, because the right angle

.(AB)
c
2
is
at
and
2
= =
(AC) -f(BC)
b +a*.
z
A
here.
word about the
lettering of triangles will not be out of place It is the convention to place the large letters A, and C
at the angular points of the triangle, to keep these letters to represent the angles, e. g., the angle ABC is denoted by B, and to letter the sides opposite to the angles by the corresponding small letters.
Thus the
angle A.
side
BC is
denoted by
a,
because
it is
the side opposite the
Rule for Area of Triangle when the three sides are given. As previously indicated the rule %bh can here be applied
if
the triangle is drawn to scale and a height measured. (The triangle can be constructed so long as any two sides are together
If, however, instruments are not greater than the third.) proceed along the following lines
:
handy
Add together the
three sides a,
b,
and
c,
and
call half their
sum
s=
Then the area
is
given
by
A = Vs(s
- a)(s -
b)(s
c)
it
" s" This rule will be referred to as the rule, and the proof of will be found in Chapter VI.
Logarithms or the slide rule can be employed directly when using this formula, since products and a root alone are concerned.
MENSURATION
Example
i.
81
ft.
One end
of
a lock gate, 7
along the stream than the other width of the stream.
when the
broad, is 2 ft. further gates are shut: find the
= width of stream. (See Fig. 9.) f = x +2* x = 72 - 2 *= (7-2)(7 + 2) x = 6-7 or so that the width of the stream = 2x = 13-4
Let 2x
Then
JC
ft.
Fig. 9.
10.
Example
Area
2.
Find the area of the triangle ABC, Fig.
= base x height = $x 14-6 x n -4

=
83-2 sq. ins.
C.
(Note that 11-4 is the perpendicular on to AB produced.)
Fig- 13-
The pressure on a triangular plate immersed in a ft. The sides of the plate measure 18-1", 25-3", and 17*4" respectively find the total pressure on the plate.
Example
3.
liquid is 4-5 Ibs. per sq.
Let a =
i8'i, b
= 25-3, c =
17-4.
Using these figures, the area will be in sq. ins. 18-1 25-3+17-4 = 60-8 - - = 30-4 s = 2 2
"
Then
= =
A
V3O- 4 (3O- 4 - i8-i)(3O- 4 - 25-3X30-4A/30-4 x 12-3 x 5-1 x 13
17-4)

log
= i{log
30-4
1
+ log
12-3
+ log
5-1
+ log
13}
'I-4829 1-0899
7076
1-1139
= 2-1972
= log 157-5 = 157-5 sq. ins.
U'3943'
Then
total pressure
= ^^
144
4-5 Ibs.
[feet" L.
Ibs.
feet 1
Ibs
82
A A
further rule for the area of a triangle will be found in

rule likely to prove of service is
Chapter VI.
Area
of
an
equilateral triangle
'433
(side)
Thus
'433
if
,
the sides of a triangle are each 8 units long

i. e.,
its
area
is
82
277
sq. units.
Exercises 10.
1.
its
On
Triangles and Rectangles.
boat
sails
?
for 7 hours at 10-4 knots.
due E. for 4 hours at 13-7 knots and then due N. How far is it at the end of the hours from
starling-point
2. Find the diagonal pitch of 4 boiler stays placed at the corners of a square, the horizontal and vertical pitch being 16*. 3. If a right-angled triangle be drawn with sides about the right angle to represent the electrical resistance (R), and reactance (2nfL), Find the respectively, then the hypotenuse represents the impedance.
impedance when /
= 50,
L,=
'i^g,
R = 5O,
and
?r
= 3-142.
4. It is required to set out a right angle on the field, a chain or tape measure only being available. Indicate how this might be done, giving figures to illustrate your answer. 5. A floor is 29'-$" long and n'-io" broad. from one corner to that opposite ?
What
is
the distance
6. At a certain point on a mountain railway track the level is 215 ft.; 500 yds. further along the track the level is 227 ft. Express the gradient as (a) i in x (x being measured along the track). (b) i in x (x being measured along the horizontal).
Fig. Tl.
7.
For the Warren Girder shown at

at
Fig.
(a),
Fig.
n,
find the length of
the
member AB.
(fc),
8. A roof truss is shown members AB, BC and AC.
n.
Find the lengths of the
MENSURATION
9.
83
in acres
24 J chains long and 650 yds. wide. What is its area (Surveyors' Measure is given on p. 87.) " " of paper are required for the walls 10. Find how many pieces of a room 15 ft. long, i2'-6" wide and 8 ft. high, allowing 8 of " " of paper being 21" the space for window and fireplace (a piece wide and 9 ft. long).
field is
?
11. A courtyard 15 yds. by 12 yds. is to be paved with grey stones measuring 2 ft. x 2 ft. each, and a border is to be formed, 2 ft. wide, How many stones of each kind of red stones measuring i ft. x i ft.
are required
12. A room 15 ft. by 12 ft. is to How many foot run will be required
be floored with boards 4^* wide.

?
13. Before fracture the
and
its
thickness '387".
were i'524" and -250".
steel specimen was 2-014" fracture the corresponding dimensions Find the percentage reduction in area.
width of a mild
At
14. A rectangular plot of land J mile long and 400 ft. wide is to be cut up into building plots each having 40 ft. frontage and 200 ft. depth. How many such plots can be obtained ?
the diameter 15. The top of a tallboy is in the form of a cone Find the slant of the base is 4", and the vertical height is ij". height.
;
bar of iron is at the same time subjected to a direct pull of and a pull of 3500 Ibs. at right angles to the first. Find the resultant force due to these.
16.
5000
Ibs.,
17.
At a
from the governor shaft " "

height
.
balls of a governor are 5" distant the length of the arms is 10". Find the of the governor h and hence the number of revs, per sec.
certain speed the

;
n from
h=
-816
n*
-.
is
If the stress 18. A load on a bearing causes a stress of 520 Ibs. /a*. " of the " reckoned on the bearing, the diameter of projected area which is 4" and the length 5%', find the load applied.
19.
The
sides of a triangle are 17-4", 8-4"
and 15-7"
respectively.
Find
its area,
(a)
by Drawing to
of
scale
and use
of i base
(6)
Use
rule. height " " s rule.
(See p. 80.)
20. Find the rent of a field in the form of a triangle having sides 720, 484 and 654 links 2 los. per acre. respectively, at the rate of (See note to Ex. 9.)
21. in Fig.
Find the area of the
ua.
(Thickness of flange
shown joist section is 0-2*.)
calculate the areas of the 22. Neglecting the radii at the corners,
84

:
sections in Fig. 12 tee section.
viz. (6)
channel section,
(c)
unequal angle, and
(d)
h 4"-H
Ay/'y/jT
Fig. 12.
Mild Steel Rolled Sections.
Area
of
Parallelogram and Rhombus.
From
the three-
sided figure one progresses to that having four sides, such being spoken of generally as a quadrilateral.
Of the regular quadrilaterals reference has already been made to the simplest, viz. the rectangle (the square being a particular length X breadth. example), for which the area
Since the area of a triangle height, it follows that
is
given by the product, \ base
(a) Triangles on the same base and having the same height are equal in area, and (b) Triangles on equal bases and having the same height are
equal in area.
MENSURATION
Thus,
if
in Fig. 13 the length
FC
ED, the
triangles
AED
and
BFC
and the height is and BC are parallel, a parallelogram. Then The area of the parallelogram
bases are equal
that the sides
AD
made equal to the length be equal in area, since the the same. Also it will be seen
is
will
so that the figure
ABCD
is
ABCD =
area of figure ABFD + area of = area of figure ABFD + area of = area of rectangle ABFE = AB x BF.
triangle
BFC
triangle
AED
This result could be expressed in the general rule, " Area of a parallelogram = length of one side x the perpendicular distance from
that side to the side parallel to it."
In the case of the rhombus (a quadrilateral

its sides equal but its angles not right angles) one other rule can be added. Its diagonals intersect at right angles, and hence its area can be expressed as equal to
having
one-half
the
Area
the
product of
in Fig. 14.
X BD X AC,
its diagonals; i. e., the reference being to
rhombus
This rule should be proved as an example on the J base X height rule for the triangle.
Area
of
Trapezoid.
parallel.
trapezoid
is
a quadrilateral having
one pair of sides

Its area
= mean width X perpendicular height. = (sum of parallel sides) X perpendicular

between them.
distance
*
Fig. 15Fig.
1
30'
Cross Section of a Cutting.
In Fig. 15,
AB
and
CD
are the parallel sides,
and the area
86

Example
4.
Calculate the area of the cross section of a cutting,

sq. ft.
having dimensions as shown in Fig. 16. Area = {70 + 30} x 16 = 800 sq. ft.
Example 5. The kathode, or deposit plate, of a copper voltameter has the form shown in Fig. 17. Calculate, approximately, the area and hence the current density (i. e., amperes per sq. in. of surface) if
1-42
amperes are passing.
Fig. 17.
Fig.
1 8.
We may divide
the surface of the plate into three parts, A, B, and C.
Area of
Area of
A= B=
=
2-6
('7+ 2 \
-6
2-65 2 6 5\
'
.3.
Area of C
-7
Total area of one side

This
is
= = = =
6-9
x
sq. ins.
-42
8-74
the area of one side

total area
but the deposit would be on both sides

8-74
and current
or
i
=2X density =
amp.
Jj g
= 17-48 sq. ins. = '0812 amp, per
sq. in.
for 12-3 sq. ins. of surface.
Example 6. Find the area of the rhombus, one side of which measures 5" and one diagonal 8".
Let 2X= length of other diagonal in inches Then, by the right-angled triangle rule,
**
(Fig. 18).
x Area
= =
5 3
-4 2 =
2X
and
6.
i (product of diagonals)
J x 8 X 6
24 sq.
ins.
MENSURATION
"
87
This example could also have been worked as an exercise on the s" rule, the sides of the triangle being 5, 5 and 8 respectively. Areas of Irregular Quadrilateral and Irregular Poly" " semi gons. Having dealt with the regular and the regular
quadrilaterals, attention must now be directed to the irregular No simple rule can be given that will apply to all cases of ones. irregular quadrilaterals
the figure must be divided up into two the areas of these and triangles found in the ordinary way. triangles This method applies also to irregular polygons (many-sided four sides; but these figures split into figures) having more than more than two triangles.
:
Example 7. Find the area which AD = 17 ft., DC= 15 AC= 26 ft., and the angle ABC
in
It will
of the quadrilateral
ft.,
BC=
ABCD,
Fig.
19,
19
ft.,
is
a right angle.
be necessary to find the length of AB.

rule for the right-angled triangle,
2 2 2
By the
(AB)
The
Triangle
"
= 26 -ig = 7 x 45 = 3'5 AB = 17-76 ft. = Triangle ADC + quadrilateral ABCD

first
ABC.
with the triangle ADC,
s
Dealing
its
area must be found by the
s"
rule.
=
2
= A/29 X 12X14X3 = 120-9 sq. ft. Area of triangle ABC = x 17-76 x 19 = 169 sq. ft. Area of quadrilateral ABCD =121+169 /. = 290 sq. ft.
A
Find the area of the plot of land represented in Fig. 20 a chain survey). (being the result of it is worth while to Some of the dimensions are given in chains chain. a of the of magnitude remind ourselves
Example
8.
SURVEYORS' MEASURE
i chain
= 22 yards = 66 feet. = 100 links (i link = 7-92 i chain = i furlong. 10 chains = i mile. 80 chains - 22 = 44 sq. yards = TV of an acre. i sq. chain or 10 sq. chains = i acre. = 100,000 sq. links. 10 sq. chains
.)
i acre
100,000 sq. links,
88

The given
;
trapezoids
It will
offsets figure is divided by the the offsets being at right angles to the
"
"
into triangles
and
main chain
lines.
be convenient to work in feet. Dealing with the separate portions.
Area AC J
= \ xig8 X2&4 = 26136 sq. ft. = 2376 ACB =ixig8x24 CDB = 192 CDEF = H5 2 M FEGH = (20+8)x8o = II2O = 4 80 HGJ =x8xi2o = 650 JKL =ix 100x13 LKMN= ^(13 + 15) x 200 = 28OO NMA = 225
35131 sq.ft.
.'.
Total area
35131 sq.
ft.
= 8-07 sq. chns. = -807 acre.

divided
Fig. 20.
into equal isosceles triangles and there will be as many of these as the figure has sides. The areas of the triangles are best found (at this stage) by drawing to scale, and as an aid to this the
;
Areas up
of
Regular Polygons.
Regular polygons should be
following rule should be borne in mind.
The angle
of
a regular polygon of
sides
90 degrees.
Thus, for a regular pentagon -(a five-sided figure) n

angle
=5
and the
= (2X5) ~ 41x9o =
[
108.
Alternatively, the following construction may be used. Suppose that the area of a regular heptagon, i. e., a seven-sided figure, is required, the length of side being i|"; and we wish to find its
area
semicircle with
Set out on any base line (Fig. 21) a and radius ij" (the length of side). Divide the semi-circumference into seven (the number of sides)
by drawing
to scale.
as centre
equal parts, giving the points a, B, c, d, e, f, G (this division to be done by trial). Through the second of these divisions, viz. B, draw the line AB; drawing also lines Ac, Ad, etc., radiating from A. With centre B and radius i" strike an arc cutting Ac in C ; then BC is a side of the heptagon. This process can be repeated
until the figure
ABCDEFG is
completed,
MENSURATION
To
find the area of
89
ABCDEFG.
Bisect
AG
and
GF
at right
angles and note the point of intersection O of these bisectors ;

this being the geometrical centre of the figure. Measure (it
OH
is
found to be 1-56").
Then area
of
AOG
= \ AG
/.
X OH
= =
x 1-5 X 1-56 1*17 sq. ins.
Area of
ABCDEFG
7x1-17
8-19 sq. ins.
Fig. 21.
= 7XAAOG = =
The
Area of Polygon.
Exercises 11.
1.
On Areas
of Quadrilaterals
and Polygons.
hook is in the form of a trapezoid 2$" deep, the inner width being 2" and the outer width $*.
central horizontal section of a
Find the area of the section. 2. The diagonals of a rhombus are I9'74" and 5-28" respectively. Find the length of side and the area. 3. Find the area of the quadrilateral ABCD shown at (a), Fig. 22. What is the height of a triangle of area equal to that of ABCD, the
base being 5* long ? 4. A field in the form of a quadrilateral ABCD has the following = 29, AC = 54, BE (perpendicular dimensions in yards CD = 38, from B on to AC) = 23. Find its area in acres. 5. Reproduce (6), Fig. 22, to scale, and hence calculate the area of
:
DA
ABCDEF.
6.
Find the area, in acres, of the
field
shown
at
(c),
Fig. 22.
Fig. 22.
90
7.

A
retaining wall has a width of 4 ft. at base and 2'-6* at top. face of the wall has a batter of i in 12, and the back of wall is vertical. Find the area of section and also the length along the face.
The
8.
The
to
is
i vertical.
ft.
side slopes of a canal (for ordinary soil) are ij horizontal If the width of the base is 20 ft. and the depth of water " " find the area of flow when the canal is full.
( i. e.,
\
9.
Find the hydraulic mean depth
canal section for which the dimensions are given in Question 8. 10. The end of a bunker is in the form of a trapezoid. Find its area if the parallel sides are 9'-$", and 15'-! i" respectively, the slant side being 24-8", while the other side is perpendicular to the parallel
sides.
Area of flow } Wetted perimeter/

-
for the
11.
its
regular octagon circumscribes a circle of 2* radius.
Find
area.
12. 13.
Find the area of a regular hexagon whose side is 4-28". The " end fixing moment " for the end A of the built-in girder, Fig. 220, is found by making the area ABEF equal to the area ABCD. Find this moment, i. e., find the length AF. 14. A plate having the shape of a regular hexagon of side 2.\" is to be plated with a layer of copper on each of its faces. Find the current required for this, allowing 1-6 amperes per 100 sq. ins. 15. An irregular pentagon
of area 59-08 sq. ins. is made up of an equilateral triangle with a square on one of its Find the length of sides.
side.
16. Neglecting the radii at the corners, find the approximate area of the rail section shown at (a), Fig. 12.
22a
Circumference and Area
of Circle.
When
n, the
number
merge
of sides of a polygon, is increased without limit, the sides into one outline and the polygon becomes a circle.
ference
a plane figure bounded by one line, called the circumsuch that all lines, called radii, drawn to meet the circumference from a fixed point within it, termed the centre, are equal to one another. The meanings of the terms applied to parts of the circle will best be understood by reference to Fig. 23 and Fig. 24. If a piece of thread be wrapped tightly round a cylinder for, say, five turns and the length then measured and divided by 5, the length of the circumference may be found. Comparing this with the diameter, as measured by callipers, it would be found to
A circle is
and
is
be about 3, times as long.
Repeating for cylinders of various sizes, the same ratio of these lengths would be found. The Greek symbol TT (pi) always denotes
MENSURATION
which is invariable but exact value cannot be found. It has been calculated to a large number of decimal places, of which only the first four are of use For considerable exactness TT can be taken to the practical man. 2 - or as 3'i4i6 however, 3-1428 is quite good enough for general Even use, the error only being about 12 in 30,000 or about '04%. 2 . need not be remembered if a slide rule be handy, for a marking
this ratio of circumference to diameter,
;
its
12
will
be found to represent
TT
(see Fig. i, p. 17).
Fig. 24.
Then
circumference
TT
x diameter
and
or
ird
or 2irr
where d
Also
= diam.
=
-n-r
r
2
= radius.
Area
^d 4
7854
a marking on the slide rule indicating
this.
(The
It is
mark
M on
the slide rule
is
sometimes necessary to convert from the circumference
to
the area; thus

ATT
[
ATT
ATT
stands for circle and
0ce
for circumference.]
wheel of a locomotive Example 9. Find the diameter of the driving which in a distance of 3 miles makes 1010 revolutions (assuming no
slipping).
= 0ce. In one revolution, the distance covered distance total 3 x 5280 ~~ ""^ i* )CC 1010 number of revolutions
"
'
"
f A*
and
Aiim
92

Example
10.
Find the area of the cross section of shafting, 3^"
diam.
Area
=-x
4
is
3-5*
9-62 sq. ins.
Notice that - or '7854
in the neighbourhood of '75 or f
therefore,
for approximation purposes, square the diameter (to the nearest

figure)
round
and take f
of the
2
number
so obtained.
In this case,
(3'5)
and f
of 12
= 12 approximately, = 9.
Areas of circles can most readily be obtained by the use of the slide rule, the method being as follows Set one of the C's (marked on the C scale) (refer Fig. I, p. 17) level with the diameter on the D scale, place the cursor over i on the B scale, then the area is read off on the A scale the approximaThis method is of the greatest utility, and tion being as before. several examples should be worked by means of it for the sake
;
of practice.
Examples
Dia.
MENSURATION
;
93
this figure being obtained 3-569 on the C scale also by extracting the square root of 12-86 instead of that of 1-286. Some slide rules are supplied with a three-line cursor. If the
centre line
line is
is placed over the dia. on the over the area on the A scale.
scale then the left
hand
Example n. Find the connection between circumferential pitch and diametral pitch (as applied to toothed wheels).
The circumferential pitch

.
_ Qce of pitch circle _

number of teeth number of - teeth
--
ird
The diametral pitch pd = diam.

i
-4-
v,
.A
N = N
d
of pitch circle
Hence,
ir
N
~d
7T
"P*
circumferential pitch
"
diametral pitch
or
E.
g., if
pc
is
~ then
,
-375
pd =
~=
8-37".
To
find the area of
an Annulus,
i.e.,
the area between two
concentric circles. It is evident that the area will be area of inner circle Area of outer
=
.
TrR 2
r///y This can be put into a form rather \///\ more convenient for computation, thus
-
- T'
(Fig- 25.)
-^^..
Area of annulus
or, in
7r(R
-f 2
2
)
or^(D
-rf2)
VAmTuTus^
X^VVX///'
Fig. 25.
'
a form more easily applied

of annulus
Area
7r(R-rXR+r)
or
-(D-d)(D+d).
with This rule can be written in a form useful when dealing tubes, thus
Area
-n-(R
- r}(R +
r)
= = =
2^(R
iR 4- zr - r)(.
r\
2v
TT
X t X average radius X average diameter X
where
is
the thickness of the metal of the tube.
94

Example
12.
What
is
the area of a piece of packing in the form of
circular ring, of outside diameter
gj" and width 3 J"

4'75
Here,
Hence the area
r = R = 4-75", = (R- r)(R + r) = = =
3'25
i'5"
^(4*75
i'5)(4'75
1 '5)
6-25 x 3-25
63-7 sq. ins.
is to have the Example 13. A hollow shaft, 5* internal diam., same sectional area as a solid shaft of n* diam. Find its external
diam.
Area of
Let D = outside
solid shaft
=-xn 4
= -(D 4
2
;
= -x
4
121.
diam. required.
25)
Area of hollow shaft
The two areas are to be the same

for these
equating the expressions found
(D 2
4
25)
whence and
D2
.'.
= 25 = D = D =
2
x 121
4 121
146
12-07".
Products,
etc., of
TT.
Certain relations occurring frequently
are here stated for reference purposes.

TT
= 3-142
= 9-87
-=
4^2
TT
-318
=
sa Y 39'5
ff
= 39'48 =
4*
o
=4
-I 9
TT
i
6
47T
.^236 J
-7854
10
log
TT
, = 1-256 = -4972
(often taken
v
as
f).
Exercises 12.
1. 2.
On
Circumference and Area of Circles.

circle
Find the circumference of a

?
whose diam.
is
is 7-13*.
The semi-circumference of a
Find the area of a
circle of
circle
91-4
ft.
What
is
its
radius
3. 4.
The following
its
along
length.
diam. i^'-^". a tree at various points Find the corresponding areas of cross sections
figures give the girth of
:
4-28, 5-19, 6-47, 2-10, -87.
{Suggestion
(approx.
area
=
4T
first
find value of constant multiplier
4*
-08).
Keep the index
of the slide-rule
B scale
fixed at this
MENSURATION
95
;
place cursor over Qce on the C scale and read off result on A scale the squaring and the multiplying are thus performed automatically.}
5.
If
the circumferential pitch of a wheel

(See
is i J*.
find the diametral
pitch.
Example n,
p. 93.)
6. packing ring, for a cylinder 12* diam., before being cut is much must be taken out of its circumference so that 12- 5" diam. it will just fit the cylinder ?
How
7.
hour burns 66
circular grate burning 10 Ibs. of coal per sq. ft. of grate per Ibs. of coal in an hour. Find the diameter of the grate.
8. Assuming that cast-iron pulleys should never run at a greater circumferential speed than i mile per min., what will be the largest diam. of pulley to run at 1120 revs, per min. ? 9.
The wheel of a turbine

is
What
v
is 30* diam. and runs at 10600 R.P.M. the velocity of a point on its circumference ?
The rule used in questions such as this is v = 271-fN, where = radius of wheel in feet, and velocity in feet per min., r number of revolutions per minute.
Note.
10. A piece, 4" long, is cut out of an elastic packing ring, fitted to a cylinder of 30" diam., so that the ends are now J* apart. Find the diam. of the ring before being cut. 11. Find the diameter of an armature punching, round the circumference of which are 40 slots and the same number of teeth. The width
and also of the slots (at circumference) is '35*. While the load on a screw jack was raised a distance equal to the pitch of the screw ("), the effort was exerted through an amount corresponding to i turn of a wheel 10-51" in diam. Find the VelocRyof the teeth
12.
, Ratio of the machine
.
f ....
\
V.R.
distance
distance
,-r-r-
moved by effort"! moved by load )

Ibs.
13.
The
stress
,
/ in a
rim in
flywheel rim due to centrifugal action
is
given
by / =
min.
at
if
where
w=
weight of rim in
ft.
per cu.
in.,
= circumrevs, per
ferential speed of
/=
12
x 2240 when w
per
sec.,
-28
and g = 32-2. Find the and diam. = 10 ft.
14. Find the bending stress in a locomotive connecting rod revolving revs, per sec. from the equation
,
stress
r
=|
12,
ATr 2 n zyrl z where y x *

/
The driving wheels are 6

at 40 miles per hour.
15.
120, k 32-2. 3, and g ft. in diam., and the locomotive travels
J,
^g
480
Find the area of the section of a column, the circumference

is
of which
18-47".
diameter of a circular plate whose weight would be the same as that of a rectangular plate measuring 2'-6* by 3'-2*, both plates being of the same thickness and material. 17. Find the area of the section of a rod of -498" diam. 18. If there is a stress of 48000 Ibs. per sq. in. on a rod of -566* diam., what is the load causing it ? on a piston 9* diam., when the other 19. Find the total
16. Calculate the
pressure
96 a vacuum.

is
side of the piston
under a back pressure of 3
Ibs.
per sq.
in.
above
above atmosphere) = 64 Ibs. per sq. in. i atmosphere = 14-7 Ibs. per sq. in. a locomotive, 5 ft. in diameter, made 20. The driving wheel of 10000 revolutions in a journey of 26 miles. What distance was lost owing to slipping on the rails ? If the gauge 21. The total pressure on a piston was 8462 Ibs. above atmosphere) and registered 51 Ibs. per sq. in. (i. e., pressure there was no back pressure, what was the diameter of the piston ?
Gauge pressure
(pressure
22. Find the area of section of a hollow shaft of external diam. 5^* and internal diam. 3". 23. A circular plot of land is to be surrounded by a fencing, the distance between the edge of the plot and the fencing being the same The length of the fencing required is 187 ft. Find all round, viz. 6 ft. the area of the space between the plot and the fencing. 24. Find the resistance of 60-5 cms. length of copper wire of diam. 068 cm. from
R-* a
where a = area in sq. cms., / = length in cms., and k 0000018 ohm per centimetre cube.
25.
resistivity
The buckling load
P on
P=
Find the
Afc
(_L\
VK/ diameter when
a circular rod is given by where A = area of section = diameter
and
P=
188500,
fc =
67000, c
and
L=
5600
50.
26. A pair of spur wheels with pitch of teeth ij" is to be used to transmit power from a shaft running at 120 R.P.M. to a counter shaft runThe distance ning at 220 R.P.M. between the centres of the shafts is to be 24" as nearly as possible. If the diameters of the pitch circles are inversely as the R.P.M., find the true distance between the centres and the number of teeth on each wheel. 27. Calculate the area of the zero (the circle of no registration of the wheel), -the radius of which is BD, for the planimeter shown in outline in Fig. 26.
circle
Tracioq
Po'iot
Fig. 26.
28.
The
resistance
is
of
mile of
Amsler Planimeter.
copper wire
found from
R
Find the resistance of
I
04232
area in sq. ins.
03*).
mile of wire of No. 22 B.W.G. (diam.
MENSURATION
^
of Arc In length of the
= = and r radius. chord,

Fig.
Length
27
let
of
Chord and Maximum Height maximum height of the arc, 2a =
AGO
Then, by the right-angled triangle
rule, applied to the triangle
Transposing terms
a*
= 2rhh
whence
a
= V2rhh?
B
or length of chord
= 2\/2r/i-/i 2
of chord
a rule giving the length when the radius

of
and maximum height

arc are given.
If
is
expressed as a fraction of the radius, say h
= fr,
the rule
for the length of
chord becomes
length of chord
From equation
(i)
= 2r\/2/f 2rh = a
2 2
-}-/;
2
.
r
a rule giving the radius
=
2/1
when
z
the chord
and the maximum height

this,
of arc are
known.
(i)
From
also,
h2
,
2rh-\-a
= o,
v
and from
2
by
solution of
the quadratic
2r
2
or
Vr*-i
giving two values for h (i. e., for the arc less than, and the arc greater than, the semi-circumference) when the radius and length of the chord are known. If two chords intersect, either within or without the circle,
the rectangles formed with their segments
in
area,
(&)
Euc.
Ill,
35 and 36.
as sides are equal Thus, in Fig. 28, at both (a)
and
AP.PB = CP.PD

If
C and
coincide as at
(c),
2
Fig. 28, then
(PI)
= AP ._PB
Fig. 28.
of a specimen, according to load Brinell's test, is given by curved area ofdepression' Express this as a formula.
Example
14.
The hardness number
The curved area
(of
segment of sphere)
2nrh
(see p. 120).
r is radius of the ball
making the indentation.
D = diameter
Then
of depression.
corresponds to a in the foregoing formulae,

so that h
I * = r./r* V
D2
4
and hardness
number =
on the angle
Exact Rule. The length of the arc depends the total angle subtends at the centre of the circle at the centre is 360, this being subtended by the circumference. An angle of 36 would be opposite an arc equal to one-tenth of of Oce, the angle the circumference, whilst if the arc was at the centre would be 120.
Length
of
Arc.
it
In general
2-trr
arc Oce
= angle in^ degrees

360
or, cure
angle in degrees __ angle in degrees

7=
radius
360
If
57-3
exactly equal in length to the radius, the angle then subtended ought to serve as a useful unit of measurement,
is
the arc
MENSURATION
for
9g
one always expresses the circumference in terms of the radius. This angle is known as a radian. If the chord were equal to the radius, the central angle would then be 60, so that when the arc is involved in the same way the
angle
must be
slightly less than

is
60.
2ir
Actually, the radius

2?r
contained
times in the Oce, hence
radians
= 360,
i. e.,
radian
2ir
= 57-3.
radians.
Therefore, to convert from degrees to radians divide by 57'3.
Thus
Radian or measurement
273
circular
1
-21
= 4.76
measure is the most natural system of angular ah angles being expressed in radians in the higher
branches of the subject.
A simple
,,
rule for the length of

,
an arc can now be established.
Length of arc
= =
2-n-rx
-
angle (degrees) &
2irrx angle (radian)

27r
/since 360
\
radians/
27r
rx angle subtended by
radians.
the arc, expressed in
usual to represent the measurement of an angle in and when in degrees by a. Thus the angle AOB in by at the centre of the circle by the arc ADB would subtended Fig. 27, be expressed as 0, if in radians ; or a, if in degrees.
it is
Now
radians
6,
Hence, length
of arc
=
g
or re
Example
of lap of 115
15.
:
belt passing over a pulley 10" diam. has r = 5 = length
an angle
find the length of belt in contact with the pulley.
In this case
/.
and
length in contact
of arc
= =
115
Example
14-8
ft.
What angle is subtended at the centre of a 16. diam. by an arc of 37-4 ft. ?
Arc
.
circle of
a 6
= _
-
rd
arc
-r-^8
is
37'4 v<2 _ x
..
Thus the angle required
5-05 radians or 290 degrees.
TOO
It may be found of advantage to scratch a mark on the C scale the slide rule at 57-3, so that the conversions from degrees to radians can be performed without any further tax on the memory.
of
Example
Here
17.
It is required to find the
diameter of the broken
eccentric strap
shown
in the sketch (Fig. 29).
a
r
= =
"
2*
and h
i-z".
Then
az
+
2h
hz
4+
i-44
2-4
=
diam.
2-4
2-265.
Fig. 29.
4-53* (probably
An approximate
Huyghens'
;
rule for the length of arc is that
known
as
viz.
Length of arc
*~
o
where
c 2 and c x represent the chord of half the arc the arc respectively (*'. e., c^ 2a}. (See Fig. 27.)
and the chord
of
To
ADB,
find the Height of an
Arc from any Point
in the Chord.
27) of the arc of the arc
It is required to find the height
EF
(see Fig.
ADB
If
the length of chord AB, the maximum height and the distance CF being given.
CD
is
the centre of the
circle,
OE
is
a radius and
its
length
can be found from r
=
OE
2h
2
Then
and
of these lengths,
(OE)
= =
(EG) 2 (EG)
+
+
(GO)
(CF)
;
A
will
and CF are known therefore EG is found. But FG is known, since FG = OC = r h. :. the height EF, which EG FG, is known also. numerical example
demonstrate
clearly.
this
more
circular Example 18. arc of radius 15* stands on a base of 24". Find its maximum height, and also its height at a point along
5* from its ex(Deal only with tremity. the arc less than a semi-
the base
circle.)
(See Fig. 30.)
Fig. 30.
MENSURATION
To
find h.
I0 i
We know that r 15*, and a = 12* hence h = r Vr z a* = 15 V225-I 44 = 15 9 = 6* or 24*.

of the arc
is 6*.
According to the condition stated in brackets h must be taken as

6*,
i. e.,
the
maximum height
Then
or
EG 2 = EG =
.*.
I5
= EG 2 +7
is -; 13-26*
2
8
22 x 8
176
CO = r-h = 15-6 =
EF = 13-269 =
9*
4-26*
is
or the height of the arc at the 5*
mark
4-26*.
Area
two
radii
of Sector.
A sector is
a portion of a
circle
it is
bounded by
thus a form
and the arc joining
their extremities;
of triangle, with a curved base (see Fig. 24). Its area is given by a rule similar to that for the area of a triangle, viz., | base* X height, but in this case the base is the arc and the height is the radius (the
radius being always perpendicular to the circumference).
Hence
or, in
Area
of sector
= J arc
radius,
(in
terms of the radius, and angle at the centre

Area
radians).
= ^r2 ^, since for
the arc
we may
write rd.
The area
of the sector bears the
same
relation to the area of
the circle as the length of arc does to the
o ce,
i. e.
Area of sector
area of
.*.
angle
(in
degrees)
360
Area
of sector
^7; x Ti-r BQU
Area
of
Segment.
The area
of the segment, being the area
between the chord and the arc

in Fig.
(see Fig. 24),
subtracting the area of the triangle from that of the sector.
can be obtained by Thus,

area of triangle
24 Area of segment
ADB = area of sector OADB

we may
OAB.
In place of this exact rule,
viz.
use an approximate one,
Area
of
segment
2h f 1 chord
y {-
3 arc\
where h
= maximum height of segment.
102

the arc
is
When
very
flat
the chord and arc become sensibly
the same, so that
Area
of
segment
2hfio chordl
!
= =
The area
rule
2 X h x chord
X maximum
also be
height
width.
of a
segment
may
found from the approximate
Area
of
segment
4 Id = -^h *J v -r
z
'608
where d
= diam.
of circle,
and h
= maximum
height of segment.
Example 19. The Hydraulic Mean Depth (H.M.D.) a factor of great importance in connection with the flow of liquids through pipes or channels is equal to the section of flow divided by the wetted
perimeter.
Find
this for the case illustrated in Fig. 31.
Here, section of flow
= area = area
of segment of sector
ACB OACB
area
of
tri-
OAB = -~ X7rx6 2 360 = 977 18 = 10-3 sq. ins.

angle
4x6x6
Wetted perimeter
_ arc ACB =
.*.
x 2 X
n-
X 6
= =
^JT
9-42"
tri)
H.M.D.
1-094
(usually denoted
by
IQ'3
Note that
for a pipe running full bore the
H.M.D.
MENSURATION
Exercises 13.
103
On
i
Arcs, Chords, Sectors and Segments of Circles.

5,
In Exercises
mum
Fig. 27, v
to
radius, c^
height of arc, by the arc.

1. r
t
following meanings as in = chord of arc, c = chord of half arc, h = maxiand a = angle subtended at the centre of the circle
2
l
the letters have the
2. c t
3.
4.
5. 6.
Find height the height at a point on the base i'-6* distant from the end, and also of the the distance point on the base from the centre at which the height is i ft. 7. A circular arc has a base of 3* and maximum height 4*. Find (a) radius, (&) length of arc, (c) area of segment, (d) height of arc at a point on the base i* distant from its end.
8.
(t. e.,
= 8*, c = 2-4"; find c and h. = 80", r = 50"; find c and h. = 49*, c = 25*; find r and h. Ci = 6", r = 9*; find arc and area of segment. Ct c = io*, h = 1-34*; find area of segment and a. A circular arc is of 10 ft. base and 2 ft. maximum
a s t
crank
number
is revolving at 125 R.P.M. of radians per sec.).
Find
its
angular velocity
9. If the angular velocity of a flywheel of i2'-6* diam. is 4-5, find the speed of a point on the rim in feet per minute. 10. Find the area of a sector of a circle of 9-7* diam., the arc of the sector being 12-3" long. 11. One nautical mile subtends an angle of i minute at the centre of the earth; assuming a mean radius of 20,890,000 feet, find the number of feet in i nautical mile.
12.
CE),
if
Find the difference between the apparent and true levels AC = 1500 yards and R = 3958 miles. [See (a), Fig. 32.]
(i
Fig. 32.
13. (6), Fig. 32 (which is not drawn to scale), shows a portion of a curve on a tramway track. If R = radius of quickest curve allowable (in feet), T = width of groove in rail (in inches), and B = greatest permissible wheel base (in feet) for this curve, find an expression for B in terms of R and T. 14. A circle of 2-4" diam. rolls without slipping on the circumference of another circle of 6-14" diam. What angle at the centre is swept out in i complete revolution of the rolling circle ?
104
15. steps.

A
" curve of J mile radius is to be set out by i chain railway " " Find the deflection angle for this, i. e., the angle to which
"
the theodolite must be set to fix the position of the end of the chain. The deflection angle is the angle between the tangent and the chord.
16. Fig. 33 shows a hob used for cutting serrations on a gauge. It was found that the depth of tooth cut when the cutting edge was along
Find back the cutter must be ground so that the depth of serration from -025* to '027*, is increased find x when AB = -025" and i. e.,
AB was not sufficiently great.

how
far
C25
Fig. 33.
CD =
-027".
Gauge Hob.
in such a
Ellipse. The ellipse is the locus of a point which moves way that the sum of its distances from two fixed points, called the foci is constant. This constant length is the length of
the longer or major axis. In Fig. 34, if P is any point on the ellipse, 1 constant F and F 1 being the foci. ,
The
PF
-f-
PF 1 =
= AA
Fig. 34.
The
Ellipse.
Let major axis 2, and minor axis FXB Then from the definition, FB
In the triangle
FOB, (FB) 2
or
= (FO) = (FO) FO = Vo
a2
2
= 2&. = a. + (OB) +
z
(b)
2
so that
if
the lengths of the axes are given the foci are located.
Area
= nab.
(Compare with the
circle,
where area
-n-rr.)
perimeter of the ellipse can only be found very approximately as the expression for its absolute value involves the sum of an
The
MENSURATION
infinite series.
105
Various approximate rules have been given, and of most common are, perimeter = 7r(a+6), or the second of which might be written in the more convenient form 2 These rules, however, do not give good results b2 when the ellipse is flat. A rule which appears to give uniformly
these the
good results
is
that of Boussinesq, viz.

perimeter
7r{l-5(a -f b)
Vab}
The
height of the arc
above the major axis at any point can
most easily be found by multiplying the corresponding height of the semi-circle described on the major axis as diameter by -,
a
e. g.,
referring to Fig. 34,

20.
QN = -XMN.
of
Example
The axes
an
ellipse are 4-8"
and
ia
26
7-4".
Find
its
perimeter and
its area.
According to our notation,
viz. as in Fig. 34,
= =
7-4,
a
6
Then the perimeter

or or
77
+ b) = 77(6-1) = 19-15" = V2(i9- 45 = 19-58" A/2(a +& = 7r{i-5(6-i)- V^y 7r{i-5(a + 6)- Vab} =
ir(a
2
~)
4-8,
= 3-7 = 2-4.
TT
2-4}
Area
Fig. 35.
The Parabola.
106

The parabola
that
its
The Parabola.
moves
in
such a
way
called the directrix, is
is the locus of a point which distance from a fixed straight line, always equal to its distance from a fixed
point called the focus. Referring to Fig. 35, PZ is any point on the curve.
= PF,
where
is
the focus, and
The distance BA, which is equal to AF, is always denoted by a. The chord LL 1 through the focus, perpendicular to the axis, is called the latus rectum, and from the definition it will be seen to be equal to 40. The latus rectum, in fact, determines the proportions of the parabola just as the diameter does the size of the circle.
If
PF
PQ = y and AQ = x, = PZ = BQ = x+a.
in the triangle
then
FQ
= AQ AF =
(x
a)
and
Then
(FP) or
or
(PQ)
2
FPQ, 2 2 +(FQ)
2
2
xz +a z -\-2ax y
2
whence
(|
width)
= latus rectum
= y +# +0 = 4ax
x AR
2ax
e. g.,
(MR)
=4
X distance along axis from vertex,

in Fig. 36.
Fig. 36.
a semi-circle be drawn with F as centre and with FP as radius, to cut the axis of the parabola in T and N, PT is the tangent at P and PN is the normal. (Fig. 35.)
If
The distance along the

is
axis,
spoken of as the sub-normal.

is
under the normal, *. e., QN in Fig. 35, For the parabola, the length of
the sub-normal
constant, being equal to 2a, i. e., % latus rectum. of this property in the design of governors. If the balls are guided into a parabolic path, the speed will be the
Use
is
made
for all heights, for it is found that the speed depends on the sub-normal of the parabola, and as this is constant so also must the speed be constant.
same
The area
area
arc
of
a parabolic segment
(Fig.
=2 =
B
of surrounding rectangle,
e.,
of
P XAP
8
36)
x |xPP xAQ.
Length
of
parabolic
S-f-s-
-g-
approximately, where S
= span
and
D = droop
or sag, as indicated in Fig. 36. Circular and other arcs are often treated as parabolic when the question of the areas of segments arises; and if the arcs are
very
flat
no serious error
is
made by
so doing.
The
rule for the
MENSURATION
107
area of a parabolic segment is so simple and so easily remembered that one is tempted to use it in place of the more accurate but more complicated ones which may be more applicable.
Take, for example, the case of the ordinary stress-strain diagram,

as in Fig. 37. To find the work done on the specimen up to fracture it is necessary to measure the area ABCDE. Replacing the
irregular curve (that obtained during the plastic stage) by a portion of a parabola BF, and neglecting the small area ABG, we can say
that area
ABCDE =
rectangle
AGHE
-f-
parabolic segment
BFH
A
Fig- 37-
Extension
Stress-strain
E
Fig. 38.
Diagram.
r,
The Hyperbola.
If
the ratio
^ is denoted by then the result may be written eMY L\ = Me, area ABCDE = 2 +')>
. .
(2+^)
which
is
Kennedy's
rule.
So, also, in questions on calculations of weights, circular segments are often treated as parabolic.
Example
21.
The bending moment diagram
for a
beam 28
feet
long, simply supported at its ends, is in the form of a parabola, the maximum
bending moment, that at the centre being Find the area of the 49 tons feet. bending moment diagram, and find also the bending moment at 6 feet from one end (this being given by the height of
the arc at D, Fig. 39).
Area of parabolic segment ACB x 49 X 28 = 915 units. These units are tons feet X feet or tons
Fig. 39.
feet*.
io8

it
Now
moment
at
area
can be shown that the moment of one-half the bending (viz. AMC), taken round AG determines the deflection
the
and
also at B.
Actually,
maximum
deflection
(at
A or
B)
x area
of
AMC
and
I
L = second moment
where
E=
Young's modulus
I in (feet) 1
for the material of the
beam
in tons per sq. foot
and
Since E would be expressed of its section. the deflection would be expressed in

.
.
feet 2
feet 2 tons x feet ? -ri tons x feet*
t. e.,
in teet.
To
find the height
ED
2
(MB)
jl
=
=
40 x
_*
MC
2
'
from definition
14'
~
A
(MB)
f
MC
49
EF*
4a 4
x CF
4
DE = MC - CF =
.*.
49
16
33.
Bending moment
22.
6 feet from end
33 foot tons.
Example
Find the length of the sub-normal of the parabola i6x 6y y* 23 = o.
The equation might be written

i6x 32 = o = i6(# + 2). Y = 4X is of the form = X = # + 2, a = 4 where Y y 3, = 2 a = 8 units and is a constant. Length of subnormal
(y*
6y
(y
9)
or
s)
2
This
.*.
The hyperbola is the locus of a point which that the difference of its distances from two way There are two branches fixed points, called the foci, is constant. If P 1 is any point on the to this curve, which is drawn in Fig. 38. 1 I^F 1 za. curve, then
moves
in such
The Hyperbola.
a
= AA = PT AA1 = transverse axis, and BB 1 = conjugate axis = 26. DOD 1 and EOE 1 are called asymptotes, e., the curve approaches
i.
these,
its
but does not meet them produced
they are, as
it
were,
boundaries.
:
PM and PQ are parallel to EOE1 and DOD 1 respectively then a most important property of this curve is that the product
PM X PQ is constant for all positions of P. 1 the asymptotes are at right If BB = AA
1
,
angles
and the
MENSURATION
:
109
e.g., the curve representing Boyle's hyperbola is rectangular law (the case of isothermal expansion) is a rectangular hyperbola, the constant product being denoted by C in the formula, PV C.
Exercises 14.
1.
On
the Ellipse
and the Parabola.
parabolic arc (as in Fig. 36) stands on a base of 12*.

8", find
The
latus
rectum of the parabola being

(a)
height of arc; (6) area of segment; (c) width the base and the vertex. 2. A parabola of latus rectum 5* stands on a base of 6", find (6) height at a point on the base (a) Maximum height of arc 2* from the centre of the base (c) area of segment (d) position
at point
Maximum
midway between
of focus.
3. A parabolic segment of area 24 sq. ins. stands on a base of 12*. Find the height of the arc at a point 2j* from the centre of the base and also the latus rectum. Find 4. The axes of an ellipse are 10* and 6* respectively. (6) distance between foci (a) The area (c) height of arc at a point on the major axis 4" from the centre; (d) perimeter by the 3 rules. 5. The lengths of the axes of an ellipse can be found from a* = 30, b 2 = 15, where a and 6 have their usual meanings (see Fig. 34). Find (6) distance of foci from centre; (a) Area of ellipse; (c) perimeter by the three given rules. in is the form of an 6. A manhole Find, approxiellipse, 21* by 13*. mately, the area of plate required to cover it, allowing a margin of 2* all the way round and assuming that the outer curve is an ellipse. 7. A cantilever is loaded with a uniform load of 15 cwts. per foot run. The bending-moment diagram is a parabola having its vertex at
;
;
the free end, and
its
maximum
ordinate (at the fixed end) '
wl*
is
where
w=
load per foot run, and / is the span which is 18 ft. Find the bending moment at the centre, and at a point 3 ft. from the free end. 8. It is required to lay out a plot of land in the form of an ellipse. The area is to be 6 acres and the ratio of the axes 3 2. Find the amount of fencing required for this plot. 9. There are 60 teeth in an elliptical gear wheel, for which the If the major axis of the pitch periphery is twice its pitch is -235*. minor axis, find the lengths of these axes. 10. Find the number of feet per ton of oval electrical conduit tubing, the internal dimensions being f|* x f* and the thickness Weight of material = -296 Ib. per being -042* (No. 19 B.W.G.).
;
The Prism and Cylinder. straight line moving parallel to itself, its extremities travelling round the outlines of plane If the line is always figures generates the solid known as the prism. at right angles to the plane figures at its extremities the prism is
known
as a right prism.
cylinder.
If
the plane figures are circles the prism
becomes a
no A
is the cuboid, in which all the particular case of the prism the faces are rectangular, i. e., plane figures at the extremities of
the revolving line are rectangles.

For
all
prisms, right or oblique
Volume
The
=
=
area of base
perpendicular height.
lateral or side surface of
a right prism
perimeter of base
height.
Total surface
lateral surface
areas of ends.
Applying
to the
Cuboid.
Volume
= area of base X height = acxb = axbxc. (Fig. Lateral surface = 2ab-{-2bc = zab+zbc+zac Total surface = 2(ab-\-bc+ca).
40.)
Fig. 40. If
=b=
c,
the cuboid becomes a cube,

vol.
and then and

If
total surface
=a = 2( + +
3 2
2
2
)
= 6a
the diagonal of a cuboid is required it can be found from, 2 +6 2 +c 2 whilst for the cube, diagonal aVs. diagonal
=V
thick, is 2'-6* Example 23. An open tank, made of material Find long, 10" wide and 15* deep (these being the outside dimensions). the amount of sheet metal required in its construction if the plates
are prepared for acetylene welding, tank.

If
and
find also the capacity of the
must be made
at A, Fig. 41.
the plates are to be joined by acetylene welding no allowance for lap the plates would be left as shown in the sketch
;
MENSURATION
Total Surface
H- 2
in
+ [30 - (2 x i)][io - (2 x i)] = 280 + 870 + 280 sq. ins. = 1430 sq. ins. = 9-94 sq. ft. Volume = (30 J) x (10 \) x (15 J) = 2 9-5 x 9-5 x 14-75 f
x Us
i)[3o
(2
(15
J)[io
(2
J)]
J)]
1728
Capacity
9-5
x 14-75 x
1728
6-25
ions
14-9 gallons.
If
the weight of water contained
is
Weight
Note.
required
14-9
x 10
149
Ibs.
I cu. ft. of fresh
water weighs 62-4
Ibs.
of salt water weighs 64 Ibs. i gallon of fresh water weighs 10 Ibs. 6 gallons occupy i cu. ft.
I cu.
ft.
i cu.
cm. of water weighs
grm.
Applying
the foregoing rules to the cylinder.
i. e.,
of
= area of base X height Volume of cylinder = irr xh = or where r = radius -jd h, = = d of h diam. base, base, height or length. Lateral surface = 2-rh. Total surface = 2-jrrh-\-2Trr = 2irr(h+r).
Vol.
z
ir
Volumes of cylinders can most readily be obtained by the use of the slide rule, adopting an extension of the rule mentioned on
p. 92.
repeated here with the necessary extension Place one of the C's, on the C scale of the rule, opposite the then place the cursor over the length diameter on the D scale on the B scale, and the volume is read off on the A scale.
It is
:
:
Rough approximation,
E.
Vol.
g.,
= f d2/!.* Diam. 4-63" Length = 1875".
Vol. (by approximation) Vol. (by slide rule)

Exercises
Dia.
= fx 20x20 = 300 cu. ins. = 316 cu. ins.
ii2
Example 24. Find the weight, in Ibs. and grms., per metre of copper wire of diam. -045 cm. (Copper weighs -32 Ib. per cu. in.)
Note
2-54 cms.
453'6 grms.
= 1 in. = 1 Ib.
I >, 2 '54J
Then
.'.
I cu.
cm.
cu.
cu. in.
Weight of
i
cm. of copper
2
32
.
Ib.
Vol. of
metre of wire
.*.
= -x (-O45) xioo cu. 4 = -159 cu. cm. 59X -32 = OQ Weight = 2 (2-54)3 or weight = -00311 x 453-6 = 1-409 grms.
>:[
cms.
Example
2|
ins.
25.
boiler contains 480 tubes, each 6
external diameter.
ft. long and Find the heating surface due to these.
The heating surface

i. e. t
will be the surface in contact with the water, the outside surface of the tubes.
Lateral surface
= = =
ird
jr
x length x no.
4
of tubes
x -Q x 6 x 480 s
ft.
2070 sq.
Exercises 15.
On
Prisms and Cylinders.
Prisms
long by IS'-IQ" wide is g'-^" high. Find the of oxygen and 79 of volume of oxygen in it, if air contains 21 nitrogen by volume. Find the 2. A block of wrought iron is'xg'xf weighs 14-2 Ibs. density of W.I. (Ibs. per cu. in.) and also its specific gravity if i cu. ft. of water weighs 62-4 Ibs. 3. The weight of a brass plate of uniform thickness, of length If brass weighs -3 Ib. 6'-5" and breadth n" was found to be 79-4 Ibs. per cu. in., find the thickness of this plate. 4. The sectional area of a ship at its water-line is 5040 sq. ft. how many tons of coal would be needed to sink her i f t ? (35 cu. ft. of sea
1.
ft.
room 22
water weigh
5.
The
i ton.) coefficient of displacement of
a ship
volume of immersed hull of ship volume of rectangular block of same dimensions If the displacement is 4000 tons and the hull can be considered to have the dimensions 32o'x35'xi5' find the coefficient of displacement.
MENSURATION
6.
II3
in Ibs. per min. telephone cable, 76 ft. long, connects up two buildings on opposite sides of the road. The points of attachment of the ends are 38 and 64 ft. above the ground respectively, one being 37 ft. further along the road than the other, and the buildings each 10 ft. back from the Find the width of the road. standing roadway.
;
slopes are i horizontal to 3 vertical. (a) In cu. ft. per sec.

8.
The ends of a right prism 8'-4" long are triangles having sides Find the volume of this prism. 19", 27-2" and 11-4" respectively. 7. Water is flowing along a channel at the rate of 6-5 ft. per sec The depth of the channel is 9", the width at base 14", and the side
Find the discharge
(b)
A tightly-stretched
9.
The
section of
an underground airway
ft.
is
as
;
shown
find the
passing along the airway at 10-5 cu. ft. of air passing per minute.
is
Air
per sec.
in Fig. 42. number of
Fig. 42.
Fig. 420.
Find the volume of stone in a pillar 20 ft. high, the cross-section being based on an equilateral triangle of i foot side, having three circular segments described from the angular points as centres, and meeting at the mid points of the sides. Find also its weight at 140 Ibs. per cu. foot. (Fig. 42.)
10.
Cylinders
11.
The diameter of a cylinder
is
38-7",
and
its
length
is
28'3".
curved surface, its total surface and its volume. 12. Find the ratio of total heating surface to grate area in the case of a Caledonian Railway locomotive. The heating surface in the firebox is 119 sq. ft., the grate area is 20-63 scl- ft and there are 275 tubes, of if external diameter, the length between the tube plates
Find
its
being io'-j". 13. A current of -6 ampere at 100 volts was passed through the two field coils of a motor. If the diam. of the coils was 4* and the length 4^', find the number of watts per sq. in. of surface. (Curved surface only is required.) 14. Find the weight of 5 miles of copper wire of -02* diam., when copper weighs -32 Ib. per cu. in. 15. Find the weight of a hollow steel pillar, 10 ft. long, whose external diam. is 5* and internal diam. is 4 (i cu. ft. of steel weighs 499 Ibs.). (See Area of Annulus, p. 93.) 16. Water flows at the rate of 288 lb.s. per min. through a pipe of Find the velocity of flow in feet per sec. ij" diam.
1
17. Find the heating surface of a locomotive due to 177 tubes of 1" diam., the length between the tube plates being io'-6*,
I
114

A
18. piston is moving under the action of a mean effective pressure If the horse-power of 38-2 Ibs. per sq. in. at a speed of 400 ft. per min. developed is 70, find the diam. of the piston. Feet per min. x total pressure in r_j
p _
lbs.~|
33000
19. In a ten-coupled locomotive there were 404 tubes of 2* diam. and the heating surface due to these was 3280 sq. ft. Find the length
of each tube.
is
20. The diameter of a hydraulic accumulator is 12" and the stroke 6 ft. Find the work stored per stroke if a constant pressure of 750 Ibs. per sq. in. be assumed. 21. In calculating the indicated horse-power of an engine at various " loads it was found that a saving of time was effected if an engine " constant was found.
If the
engine constant
if diam. = 5-5* and stroke The weight of a casting is to be made up from 4-14 Ibs. to To 4-16 Ibs. by drilling a ^" diam. hole and plugging with lead. what depth must the hole be drilled if the weights of lead and cast iron are -41 and -26 Ib. per cu. in. respectively ? 23. The conductivity of copper wire can be expressed by its resist-
find this,
= Vol. of cylinder 12 x 33000 = 10*.
22.
ance per gramme metre. Find the of a wire 5 metres conductivity long and of -762 cm. diam. (No. i S.W.G.) if the Resistance is given
"
"
by -00000017 x
cu.
the units being cms. and the weight of
cm. of copper being 8-91 grms. 24. Find the weight, in Ibs. per 100 feet, of electrical conduit tubing of external diam. 2" and internal diam. I-872", the weight of the
material being -296 Ib. per cu. in. 25. A 10* length of i" diam. steel rod
thick. ij" wide and length of this bar.
"
is
Assuming no
loss in the
to be forged to give a bar forging, find the
always on the boundary of a plane figure, called the base, whilst the other is at a fixed point, called the vertex, the solid generated is termed a pyramid.
If
is
moves
Pyramid and Cone. If a straight in such a way that one extremity is
line of
variable length
the line joining the vertex to the geometrical centre of the base at right angles to the base, then the pyramid is spoken of as a
pyramid. the base is circular the figure is termed a cone right circular cones being those most frequently met with. These are cones for which all sections at right angles to the axis are circles.
right
When
The
sum
is
lateral surface of a right pyramid will evidently be the of the areas of the triangular faces. " " Consider the case of a square pyramid, i. e., where the base
square [see (), Fig. 43].
The triangular
faces are equal in area.
MENSURATION
Area of each
where
II5
= base X height = i X AB x VL
[see (a), Fig. 43]
spoken of as the being found from
VL is
slant height of the
pyramid
its
value
VL
LO
WO
+ OL
= =
=
[see (b), Fig. 43]
being \ side of base.
Total lateral surface

or
4
2
.
x AB x VL AB x VL
of base
lateral surface of
pyramid
J perimeter
slant height.
This rule will hold for all cases in which the base is regular. [Note that if the base is rectangular, there will be two distinct
slant heights.]
Fig. 43.
Square Pyramid.
Length of edge of pyramid = VB = Fig. 43], where OB diagonal of base.
VVO
2
-f-
OB 2
[see
(b),
The three lengths or heights should be
clearly distinguished.
VO = perpendicular height, or more shortly, the height VL = slant height, and VB = length of edge.
Volume
(i. e.,
.'.
of
pyramid
is
one-third of that of the corresponding prism

of
the prism on the

Vol. of
same base and
same
vertical height).
pyramid
J x area
of base
perpendicular height.
Example 26. A flagstaff, 15 ft. high, is kept in position by four equal ropes, one end of each being attached to the top of the staff, whilst the other ends are fastened to the corners of a square of 6 ft. side. Find the length of each rope.
n6
\/2~

base
Diagonal of
6\/2
(the
is
side).
The length required

15,
diagonal of a square always = the length of the edges, viz. VB
[see (6) Fig. 43].
Now VO =
OB = 3 Vz, hence VB =
VB =
\/ (3 V
(i 5)*
length of each rope
= ^18+225 = ^243
15-6
ft.
Applying to the Cone. If the lateral surface of the cone is developed, i. e., laid out into one plane, a sector of a circle results, the radius being the slant height /, and the arc being the circumference of the base of the cone or 2irr (see Fig. 44).
Now
i. e.,
area of sector of circle
arc X radius
area of curved surface of a cone
= vrl.
= =
Notice that this agrees with the result obtained from the rule for the pyramid, viz. perimeter of base
Janldeufit
I
slant height.
If the development of the cone were actually required it would be necessary to find
the angle a (Fig. 44).
Now
a
arc
360
Oce
360?
I
2irl
Fig. 44.
Lateral surface, then,
Total surface
= =
= irr(l+r).
As the cone
height.
is
one-third that of the cylinder on the

1
a special form of pyramid its volume will be same base and of the same
Vol. of cone
or
T ~d h
2
or -2618</ 2 /i
\Lt
d being the diameter of the base and h the perpendicular height. The approximation for the volume is |x(diam.) 2 x height.
Example 27. Find
A
its
projectile is cylindrical with
a conical point
(see
Fig. 45).
volume.
MENSURATION
117
As the cone is on the same base as the cylinder its volume can be accounted for by adding J of its length to that of the cylinder, and
treating the whole as one cylinder.
Fig- 45-
Hence, net length

.*.
total vol.
= = =
4 "+(Jxi-8")
2
4-6"
-x(i-6) X4-6
4 9-26 cu. ins.
its
Frusta. If the pyramid or cone be cut by a plane parallel to base the portion of the solid between that plane and the base is known as a frustum of the pyramid or cone. The lateral surface and the volume can be found by subtracting that of the top cone from that of the whole cone or by the following rules, which give the results of this procedure in a more advanced
form.
Lateral surface of frustum of pyramid or cone
=
where
{sum of perimeters of ends}

pyramid or cone =
slant thickness.
Vol. of frustum of
and
are the areas of the ends,
height or thickness of the frustum.
and h is the perpendicular (The proofs of these rules are
given on p. 123.) For the frustum of a cone these rules simpler fashion
may be
expressed in rather
Lateral surface of frustum of cone

/
=
2
7r/(R+r)
being the slant height of the frustum.
Volume
of frustum of cone
^~-{R
-}-
r2
Rr}
where
R and r are radii of ends, and h is the thickness of the frustum.

28.
and 4!*, cone, the diameters of the end being 6$" Find its bearing surface and its volume (see Fig. 46).
Example
friction clutch is in the
form of the frustum of a and length 3$".
n8
The

slant height
must
first
be found
.-.
3-68*.
Now R =
.*.
3*25,
and
2-13.
Lateral surface
= =
77 7T
X x
3-68(3-25 + 2-13) 62-2 sq. ins. 3-68 x 5-38
Also
Volume
= =
TT
{R 2
y2
Rr}
5 3l
{10-54
4-53
o
3-5
X 21-99 -2?
On
cu. ms. 80-5 -
6-92}
Fig. 46.
Friction Clutch.
Exercises 16.
Pyramids, Cones and Frusta.
1. The sides of the base of a square pyramid are each 13-7" and the height of the pyramid is 9-5*. Find (a) the volume, (b) the lateral surface, (c) the length of the slant edge. 2. The volume of a pyramid, whose base is an equilateral triangle Find its height. of 5-2" side, is 79-6 cu. ins. 3. Find the total area of slating on the roof shown at (a) Fig. 47.
Plan
27-^
Fig- 474. Find the volume of a hexagonal pyramid, of height 5-12*, the base being a regular hexagon of 1-74* side. 5. A square pyramid of height 5 ft., the sides of the base being each 2 ft., is immersed in a tank in such a way that the base of the
MENSURATION
is
119
along the surface of the water. Find the total pressure on pyramid the faces of the pyramid if the average intensity of pressure is the the weight of i cu. ft. intensity at a depth of i'-3* below the surface of water being 62-4 Ibs. 6. A turret is in the form of a hexagonal pyramid, the height being 25 ft. and the distance across the corners of the hexagon being 15 ft. Find the true length of the hip (i. e., the length of a slant edge), and also the lateral surface.
;
Cones.
of a right circular cone when developed was the sector of a circle of 11-42" radius, the angle of the sector being 127. Find the radius of the base of the cone, and also its height. (Refer p. 116.) 8. A piece in the form of a sector (angle at centre 66) is cut away from a circular sheet of metal of 9" diam., and the remainder is made Find the capacity of this funnel. into a funnel.
7.
The curved surface
9. A right circular cone is generated by the revolution of a rightangled triangle about one of its sides. If the length of this side is 32-4 ft. and that of the hypotenuse is 55-9 ft., find the total surface and the volume of the cone. 10. A vessel is in the form of a right circular cone, the circumference of the top being 19-74 ft- anc^ the ûu depth of the vessel being Find the capacity in gallons. Find also the weight of water 12 ft. contained when the vessel is filled to one-half its height. The cap 11. A conical cap is to be fitted to the top of a chimney. Find the amount is to be of 7" height and the diam. of the base is 12". of sheet metal required for this. If this surface be developed, forming a sector of a circle, what will be the angle of the sector ?
Frusta of Pyramids and Cones.

Its in the form of a frustum of a square pyramid. 12. pier ends are squares, of side 3 ft. and 8'-6" respectively, and its height is 6 ft. Find its volume and its weight at 140 Ibs. per cu. ft. circular brick chimney is too ft. high and has an internal 13. ft. and diam. of 5 ft. throughout. The external diam. at base is
is
A A
at the top 7
the thickness being uniformly reduced from bottom to top. Find its weight at 120 Ibs. per cu. ft. 14. Find the lift h of the valve * shown in Fig. 48, given that BC = i f = if*. It is necessary that and the area of the lateral surface of ABCD should be 1-3750". 15. One of a set of weights had the form of a frustum of a cone, the thickness being 4^", the diam. at the too being 10", and the diam. at the
ft.,
AD
Fig. 48.
its
weight at -26 Ib. per cu tStom bling 2*'. Find its volume and side of base 15 is cut into and of g" height 16. A square pyramid Find distant 4* from it. and base the to two parts by a plane parallel surface. lateral its also and so formed, of the frustum
'
the volume
I2O
17. A cone 12" high is cut at 8" from the vertex to form a frustum of a cone of volume 190 cu. ins. Find the radius of the base of the cone. 18. The parallel faces of a frustum of a pyramid are squares on sides of Find its altitude 3* and 5" respectively, and its volume is 32! cu. ins. and the height and lateral edge of the pyramid from which it is cut. 19. A conical lamp-shade is 2 \" diam. at the top and 8J" diam. at the bottom. The shortest distance between these ends is 5*. Find extra for lapping. the area of material required for this, allowing 4 By drawing to scale, find the area of the rectangular piece from which the shade would be cut. 20. A pyramid, having a square base of side 18*, and a height of Find 34*, is cut by a plane distant n" from the base and parallel to it. the total surface of the frustum so formed, and also its volume.
The Sphere.
axis
it
If
a semi-circle revolves about
its
diameter as
sweeps out the solid
known
as the sphere.
The portion
between two
.
of the sphere
cutting planes is known as a zone thus CDFE in Fig. 49 is a

:
parallel
zone.
The portion included betwo planes meeting along a diameter is known as

tween
a lune.
A plane section through the centre is called a great circle

:
any other planes
will cut the
Fig. 49 .
CD
or
EF
sphere in small circles. Thus, the section on AB (Fig. 49) would be a great and the sections on circle,
circles.
would be small
Let the radius of the sphere
Then the
surface of the sphere
= =4 =4
.
The portion CMD and diam. = r,
is d.
a segment.
X X
area of a great
Try
2
= 4rrr
OF Trd2
Vol. of sphere
Surface of a zone
= =
^n-r
=-
d3
or '5236d 3
curved surface of circumscribing cylinder
(h being the distance between the parallel planes).

Vol. of zone
= ^{3 (/y +
5
r2 2 )
-f
h 2}
[The proof of these two rules will be found in Vol. II of Mathematics for Engineers.]
MENSURATION
the radii of the ends
121
rz
The zone may be regarded as a form of frustum, r v and and h being the thickness. If r 1 = o, the zone becomes a segment, and then
Vol. of
being
segment
=
^{Sr-j
A2 }
k being the height of the segment. A relation that exists between the volumes of the cone, sphere and cylinder should be noted. Consider a sphere, of radius r; its zr and circumscribing cylinder (i. e., a cylinder with diam. of base 2r], and the cone on the same base and of the same height. height
Then. Vol. of the sphere

Vol. of the cylinder
= -Trr
3
= -7ry
=
3 2 o 2 3
X2
x3 x i.
and cylinder 1:2:3.
Try
x zr X 2r
3 Try
Vol. of the cone
TtY^
=-
-n-r
Hence the respective volumes of the cone, sphere of equal heights and diameters are in the proportion
lead 14* diam. and -8" thick is melted down Example 29. A disc of " and cast into shot of (a) diam., (6) J* diam. How many shot can be made in each case, supposing no loss ?
Case
(a).
VoL
Qf digc
= ^
=
Vol. of
i
x I4 2 x
3
8 cu
39'27r cu. ins.
shot
= = =
.*
No. of shot
r (|) 6 x x 512 39-27T

7T
^
therefore the vol.
120,300.
(a);
Case (6). The diam. is twice that of Case 3 i. e., 8 times as great. of i shot is 2
,
No. of shot
-gggg- 15.038.
of
for the weight in Ibs. of a sphere Example 30. Find an expression the that weight of a cu. in. of copper is any material, having given
Ib.
318
(approx.).
diam. D Weight of a copper sphere of = volume x density
= ^D 3
-318
122
Hence the weight of a sphere of any material,

being
its
diameter
_ "~
D x specific gravity of solid 6 x specific gravity of copper

3
Example
inside
Find the total surface of a hemispherical dome, of 31. diam. 5^" and outside diam. 7-4*.
Outside surface
Inside surface
Area of base
/.
= = =
J X \ x
4?r
477
2
x x
(3'7)
2
(2'75)
n-(3'7
275
2
)
Total surface area
= = = =
85-6 sq. ins.

47-5 19-2
,,
1523
sq. ins.
Similar Figures. Similar figures are those^ having the same shape thus a field and its representation on a drawing-board are similar figures. Triangles, whose angles are equal, each to each,
:
are similar figures.

similar figures
every hand one comes across instances of the application of and in connection with these, three rules should be remembered.
;
On
(1)
Corresponding lines or sides of similar figures are proportional. (Euclid, VI. 4.) Corresponding areas or surfaces are proportional to the squares
(Euclid, VI. 20.)
(2)
of their linear dimensions.

(3)
Volumes
or weights of similar solids are proportional to the cubes
of their linear dimensions.
E.
g.,
consider two exactly similar cones, the height of one being

(i)
three times that of the other.
Then
the
first
are three times the radius
the radius and hence the circumference of the base of and circumference of the second
respectively.
(2) (3)
The curved surface of the first = 3 2 X that of the second. The volume or weight of the first = 3 3 X volume or weight
symbols L,
S,
of the second.
To
If
generalise, using the
and
for side, surfaces
and volumes respectively

the ratio of the linear dimensions of two similar figures
.
is
L! represented by j-, then

, ,
^= ~
Sj
(
/LA 2
]
(i)
and
^Hri)
MENSURATION
If it is desired to
123
By
By
connect up volumes with surfaces / C 3 / T \H cubing equation (i) tl) [*) W2/ VLg
^
squaring equation
(2)
(*]
= /~i
Hence
or
(3)
Example
Fig. 50.
A conical lamp-shade has the dimensions shown 32. Find the height of the cone of which it is a part.
and
in
Let x inches be the height of the top triangle, viz. ABC.
Then
triangles,
ABC
ADE
ratio
are similar
-v
hence the
is
OclSG
the
i. e.,
same for both. x ^ for the small
triangle
must
4 for the large triangle.
Then, by multiplying across iox = 6x + 24
4*
= 24 = 6"
Total height of cone

It is
10*.
Fig. 50.
convenient at this stage to insert the proofs of the rules and the volume of a frustum, given on p. 117. In Fig. 50 let the height or thickness FG of the frustum BCED be denoted by h; let A be the area of the end DE and let B be the area of the end BC. The figure is taken in these proofs [Note. to be the elevation of a Pyramid, so that the proofs may be perfectly
for the lateral surface
general.]
Then, from the similarity of the triangles

perimeter of end
ABC
and
perimeter of
whence
or
p.
AD A "D AB BD p. - ofDE i = -7^5 p/^ AB p. of BC of DE- p. of BC _ BD AB p. ofBC

DE
BC
~Df~*
:_^_i
_ J end
AB + BD = A "D AB
(p.
ADE BD AB
' '
being written to denote

perimeter)
124
Lateral surface of frustum
BCED = lateral
surface of pyramid
ADE
lateral surface of
= J(p.
.
pyramid ABC
of DExAD)-(p. of BCxAB) = i[(p. of DExAB) + (p. of DE

^
=
Substituting from equation
(i)
BCxAB)] DE-p. of BC) + DExBD)] |[(p. of BCxBD) + (p. of DExBD)] | X BD X sum of perimeters
xBD)-(p.
of
|[AB(p. of (p. of
of
=|
Again, since
heights
ends
sum
X slant
of perimeters thickness.
of
ends
ABC
and
ADE
are similar solids, the areas of their
respective bases are proportional to the squares of their respective
B
By
transposition
~~ ~~
(AF)
= AX
AG
(2
.........
(2)
Also
by
extraction of the square root
VA_AG VB~AF
Volume
of frustum
(3)
BCED
vol. of
= vol. of pyramid ADE = JxAxAG-JxBxAF

By
substitution from equation
(2)
,/-
pyramid
ABC
(AF^ 2
jfzzJL / A \ A _ -
A TT /\ Xi.1/
aii-l
r(AG)3-(AF)31 ^\o
/
Factorising the numerator (see p. 53)

2 _ JA[(AG- AF)] [(AG) + (AG X AF) + (AF) 2]
(AC)
2
2
FAG AF-M [AG-AF-A]
AxAGxAF Ax(AF) ] + -@ST. ^LlAGF- + (AG)

i^rAxjAG)
2
,
MENSURATION
Substituting from equation
(3)
125
= p[A+ VAB+B].
A surveyor's chain line is to be continued across a 33. Describe a method by which the line may be prolonged and show how the required distance may be deduced.
Example
river.
select some station A on the Suppose C is a point on the line opposite bank (Fig. 51) and put A, B and C in line. Set off BD and CE as offsets at right angles, so that E, and A are in a straight line.
:
Then
*'.
e.,
D AB _ DF ~ BC BD FE CE - BD x BD AB = BC CE - BD or AB is
found.
Fig. 51-
is
Example 34. The actual area of a field is 5 acres on the plan it represented by an area of 50 sq. ins. To what scale is the plan
:
drawn
We
are told that 50 sq. ins. represent 5 acres or 50 sq. chains.

i sq. in.
Hence
or
represents
i sq.
chain
i* represents i chain.
So that the
scale is i* to a chain, or the representative fraction
22 X 36
_ __
~
7Q2
126

35.
Example
The heating
ft.
are 850 and 996 sq.
750 gallons, what

It is
is
surfaces of two exactly similar boilers The' capacity of the second being respectively. the capacity of the first ?
not necessary to determine the ratio of the linear dimensions, on p. 123 can be used, since the capacities are provolumes. to the portional
for statement (3)
Now
Sx
850,
Sa
996,
V =
2
750,
and
is
required.
V,
or
\S,
7S
V,-
- log 996) log Vj = log 750 + i -5 (log 850 = 2-8751 + 1-5(2-9294 - 2-9983) = 2-8751 1-5 x -0689 = 2-7717 V\ = 591 gallons.
.*.
.x(||)
An
machine and
head
application of similar figures is found in the engraving in the reducing gear used in connection with indicators.
In Fig. 52 such a gear is represented. The movement of the crossis reduced, the ratio of reduction being
__
is
movement of crosshead movement of pencil
..i.-
OC DC _ _ OP AP
OT*
The performance of large ships can be investigated by comparing with that of small models. Here, again, the laws of similarity are
of great importance.
Suppose the model

the ship
is fifty
built to a scale of
i. e.,
any length on
times the corresponding length on the model.
Then
its
wetted surface
is
is
2500
gj
of that of the ship; while its
displacement
U.
e.,
of the ship's displacement.
Also
the resistance to motion of the ship would be 5o 3 times that of the model.
An
instance of the use of the rules for similar figures

:
is
seen in
the following If the circumference of a circle of 3" diam. is 9-426" and its area is 7-069 sq. ins., then the circumference of a circle of 30" diam.
will
be 9-426
10,
i. e.,
94-26",
and
its
area
= 7-069 X
I0 2
= 706-9
sq. ins.
MENSURATION
Hence one can form a most
of circles.
Diana.
127
all sizes
useful table, to be used for
128
8. The weight of a hollow sphere of gun-metal of external diam. 6* was found to be 22-3 Ibs. Find the internal diam., if the gun-metal
weighs -3 Ib. per cu. in. 9. In a Brinell hardness test a steel ball of diam. 10 mm. was pressed on to a plate, and the diam. of the impression was measured Find the hardness number for the material of the to be 3-15 mm. plate if the load applied was 5000 kgrms. and hardness number
T-J curved area of depression

-5
=
(Compare Example
Similar Figures.
14, p. 98.)
On
10.
Find the area of section of the masonry
dam shown
at
(b),
shown at (c), Fig. 47, was cut too the length dimensioned as 2-06" should short along the bottom edge be 2-22". Find the amount x to be cut off in order to bring the edge to the required length. 12. A plan is drawn to a scale of $$. The area on the paper is 4280*. What is the actual area of the plot represented ? 13. Find the diam. of the small end of the conical roller for a
;
Fig. 4711. The symmetrical template
bearing shown in Fig. 53. 14. The wetted surface of a ship of 6500 tons displacement What will be the is 260003'. wetted surface of a similar vessel whose displacement is 3000 tons ? Where must a point be taken in 15. One side of a triangle is 12*. it so that a parallel to the base through it will be cut off a triangle whose area is that of the original triangle ? 16. The parallel sides of a trapezoid are 10* and 16*, and the other Find the area of the total triangle obtained by sides are 5" and 7*. producing the non-parallel sides. What is 17. The surface of one sphere is 6 times that of another. the ratio of their volumes ? Find also the ratio of their diameters. 18. The area of a field was calculated, from actual measurements taken, to be 52-7 acres. The .chain with which the lines were measured was tested immediately after the survey and found to be 100-8 links Find the true area of the field (i chain = 100 links and 10 long. = i acre). sq. chains 19. A plank of uniform thickness is in the form of a trapezoid where one end is perpendicular to the parallel sides and is 12 ft. long. The parallel sides are 12" and g" respectively. At what distance from the narrower end must the plank be cut (the cut being parallel to the 12" and 9* sides) so that the weights of the two portions shall be the
same
20. trapezoid has its parallel sides 24* and 14* and the other sides each 8". Find the areas of the 4 triangles formed by the diagonals. 21. The length of a model of a ship was 10-75 ft., whilst that of the ship itself was 430 ft. If the displacement of the ship was 11600 tons, what was the displacement of the model ? 22. To ascertain the height of a tower a post is fixed upright 27 ft. from the base of the tower, with its top 12 ft. above the ground. The
MENSURATION
129
observer's eye is $'-4* above the ground and at 3 ft. from the post when the tops of the tower and post are in line with the eye. Find the height of the tower.
23. What should be the diameter of a pipe to receive the discharge of three pipes each J* diam. ?
The Rules of Guldinus. These deal with surfaces and volumes of solids of revolution. A solid of revolution is a solid generated by the revolution of a plane figure about some axis e. g., a right-angled triangle revolving about one of its perpendicular sides traces out a right circular cone and a hyperbola rotating about either of its axes generates a hyperboloid of revolution. For the cases with which we deal here the axis must not cut
;
the revolving section, and

of revolution
all
sections perpendicular to the axis
must be
circular.
The
rules are
Surface of solid of revolution
= =
perimeter of revolving figure
X
Volume
of solid of revolution
path of
path of
its
centroid.
Area
of revolving figure
x The
its
centroid.
centroid of a plane figure is the centre of gravity of an extremely The motion of the thin plate of the same shape as the figure.
centroid
may
be taken to be the
mean
little
of the motions of all the
elements of the curve or
area.
in dealing
e. g.,
These rules are of great value with awkward solids

;
suppose the volume of the nose of a projectile is required, it being generated by the revolution of a curved area round
the axis of the projectile (see Fig. 54). The area of ABCD and the position of its centroid found by rules to be detailed later, and then
Vol. of nose
can be
= area of revolving figure = (ABCD)x(2irXOG)

is
path of
its
centroid
A simpler example
Example
ft.
that of a flywheel rim.
of 5
Find the weight of the rim of a cast-iron flywheel 36. the face the rim being rectangular, 8' across outside diam. cu. Ib. -26 in.) per and 4' thick radially. (C.I. weighs
;
130
Here,

area of revolving figure also the mean diam. whence path of centroid
and
vol. of
.*.
rim
Weight
= 56* = x 56 = x 56 x of rim = x 56 x = 1460 Ibs.

TT
=8x4
32 32
cu. ins.
-26 Ib.
The
is
positions of the centroids (G) for a few of the simple figures
here given (Fig. 55).
Triangular area
(i)
Semicircular arc
(2)
Semicircular area
(2)
..... OG = \h /BD the median,"^ GD = BD I AD = DC j 2f ..... OG = = -637 r = -424 r OG, =

is
i. e.,
TT
3*
Semicircular perimeter (2) (i. e., arc diameter). Parabolic segment (3)
OG =
2
2r
.... OG = fA (4) OQ = f h, QG = f b Area over parabolic curve (5) OG = '^h; GP =4 Area of quadrant of circle (6) OG = GP = -424 r Area over circular arc (quadrant) or Fillet (7). OG = GP =
Semi-parabolic segment
. .
.
-389 r
off
BM = DC
by
Trapezoid
(8).
Bisect
and
DN =
OG =
AB
AB.
(
at
E and DC
at F.
Join EF.
-223 r Set
Intersection of
MN
and
EF
is
at G,
or,
calculation,
Quadrilateral
(9).
Bisect
AC
at
F and BD
at E.
Make OP
draw a
= OE and OQ = |OF
Through Q parallel to BD and through P, a parallel to AC. The intersection of these gives G, the centroid of ABCD.
Exercises 18.
1.
On
Guldinus* Rules.
An
isosceles triangle,
whose altitude is 3 ft., to its base. Find the surface and volume of the solid generated. 2. Find the surface and volume of the anchor-ring described by a circle of 3* diam. revolving round a line 4* from the nearest point on
the
circle.
each of whose equal sides is 4 ft. and revolves about an axis through its vertex parallel
Find the surface and semicircle of 4" diam. about

3.
volume described by the revolution of a an axis parallel to its base and 5* distant
from
4.
it.
An equilateral triangle of 5* side revolves about its base as axis. Find the surface and volume of the double cone thus generated.
MENSURATION
for Fig. 55 ._Positions of Centroids (G)
Simple Figures.
132
5. A parabola revolves about its axis. Compare the volume of the paraboloid thus generated with that of the circumscribing cylinder.
is
Fig. 56, in section the winding of the secondary wire of an

(a).
6. At shown
jy|~J"
induction coil. Find the volume of the
winding. the 7. Calculate weight, in mild steel Ib. weighing -287 per cu. in., of the
spindle weight for a compressor spring shown at (b), Fig. 56.
[Hints.
T
-10
L
Fig. 56.
(7),
Area of
as
= '215r 2
fillet,
A, the radius of the circular arc. For the position of the centroid of a fillet refer to
at
where r
is
in Fig. 55,
and
also to p. 130.]
Application to Calculation of Weights. When calculating weights two rules should be borne in mind in addition to the
foregoing.
(a) The solid should be broken up into simple parts, i. e., those whose volumes can be found by the rules already given; and should be made wherever possible. (b) suitable approximations Circular segments may be replaced by parabolic segments if the rules for the latter are easier, the rounding of corners may be neglected, unless very large, mean widths may be estimated, etc. For purposes of reference the table of weights of materials and other useful data are inserted here but the values given must be
;
considered as average values.
WEIGHTS AND DENSITIES OF METALS.

METAL.
MENSURATION
WEIGHTS AND DENSITIES OF EARTH,
MATERIAL.
133
SOIL, ETC.
134

a solid
Vol. above Vol.
.*.
First, considering as
AB = below AB =
(as
x 8-5 x 16-25 x J 3 x
15-5
3 cu. ins.
I>2 5
Total vol.
a solid)
= = =
395 cu. ins. 26 4 "
659
343 3i6
To be subtracted
Vol. of cavity
/.
14 X 7 x 3-5
Net
vol.
= =
=
and weight
316 X -26
82-1 Ibs.
Example
38.
Find the weight of a plate for a cast-iron tank.

is
The
plate (see Fig. 58)
24* square and
f thick;
there are 20 ribs, each
the flanges, each f* square; also \" x ij" x ij", and 24 bolt-holes in the flanges are 23!" x J* x ij".
r
-j-j-
I35 Find the weight of the Example 39 wrought-iron stampings for a dynamo armature as shown in Fig. 59) 14* diam. and IO * long io/ of the length being taken off by ventilation and insulation. There are 3 ventilating ducts, each 6* internal diam. and i* thick, the gaps between
these being i%" long;
also 60 slots, each |"
MENSURATION
and by f*.
The shaft
Note.
is
3* diam.
The stampings and are separated one from the other by some insulator; also there would be a small gap for ventilation purposes, and
are only thin
Fi S- 59-
Stamping
is less
for
Dynamo
Armature,
hence the actual length of the stampings is to be taken as 90 of 10", i. e., g".
than 10
in this case it
Area of face of stamping = - x i4 2 To be subtracted Area of 60 slots = 60 x J x f
*54
sq. ins.
Mean length of
/.
ventilating ducts
= =
= 197
x
7) (3
(IT
Area
17-5*
17-5
Area of hole for shaft
x i - x
4
..
Thus the
total area to be subtracted
or the net area of the stamping Then the volume 109-7 x 9 cu i ns and the weight = 109-7 x 9 x -28 Ibs.
= = =
7-1
44'3
..
109-7
277
Ibs.
of which
Fig. 60.
Example 40. Find the weight of 150 yards have the form shown in
of steel chain, the links
The effective length A of a link the inside length, provided that a number of yards of chain are being considered. (For small lengths this
is
not quite correct.) In this case the effective length of a link = i^*, so that in i yard 36 i. of the chain there are e., 24
is
&
Fig. 60.
Chain Link.
links, or in 150 yards of the chain there are 3600 links. The mean length of i link = 0ce of circle of i J* diam. "^ ~~" *) TV 3 V3 v
(2
f")
136

i*
Now
diam. steel rod weighs 8-2
Ibs.
per yard
(see p. 133)
therefore
\" diam. steel rod weighs
-^,
i. e.,
2-05 Ibs. per yard.
Hence, weight of
link
links
5_^>
5 '43
x *
2-05 Ibs. 2-05
and weight of 3600

Example
135
41.
x 3600
lbs
III5lbs
Two
straight cast-iron pipes,
making an angle
of
with one another, have the centres of their ends 2 ft. apart (in a They are to be joined by a curved pipe (as in Fig. 6r), straight line). 4* external and 3* internal diam., with flanges 8" diam. and \" thick. Find the weight of the curved pipe if the flanges each have five boltholes, of \" diam.
Fig. 61.
Curved Cast-iron Pipe.
This
is a useful example on the application of Guldinus' rule. Path of centroid = arc of circle, which is -^- or 5 of the circum8
360
ference.
By
be 2-6
drawing to scale
ft.
.*.
(or
by Trigonometry), the
radius
ft.
is
found to
Path of centroid
Jx 77X5-2
2-04
and length
of the path of the centroid
between the flanges-^

23-5*,
=2-0 4 ft.-(2X")
5=
;-9oft,
MENSURATION
Area of revolving section
X4 2 J
X3
5-5 sq. ins.
hence the volume of the solid between the flanges

Vol. of 2 flanges, each J* thick, 8* external
= 23-5x5-5 cu. ins. = 129 cu. ins. =

43-2 cu. ins.
and 3* internal diam.
.*.
Gross vol. of bend
172-2 cu. ins.

Diam.
:
To be subtracted
Vol. of ten |" diam. holes
138
For the
MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS lower horn B, a = 6", r = 7-5*

2 t
3"
Hence add on i* to the length of the web. Thus the effective length of the web
its
mean width
its vol.
so that
= 18-4* = n* = i8-4X 11X4-5 =

Total vol. of crank
9 IQ
2411 cu.
Ibs.
ins.
Weight
241 1 x -28
675
Example
Fig. 63
/+ t
(i. e.,
Determine the number of i* diam. rivets, as at (a) with snap or spherical heads) to weigh i cwt. (Given that and length = 2t.)
43.
17Fig. 63.
If d = i* then t = &" and length = i *. For the heads, a rough approximation is that the two together are one-half the volume of a sphere of diameter i-8d, this being the but the diameter of the sphere of which the heads are segments result will be somewhat more accurate if -52 is taken in place of -5. (This figure is arrived at by the use of the rule given on p. 121 for the
;
segment of a sphere.)
Then
vol. of
vol. of
heads
i",
body {Diam.
or
= ^x^n-x-g8 = length = 1-125"}= vol. of i rivet = =

2 -46
1-58 cu. ins.

-88
2-46
Number
of i* rivets per cwt.
x -29
Find the weight Example 4^. shown in Fig. 64.
of the cast-iron hanger bearing
This example illustrates well the method of breaking a solid up into component parts the different parts being dealt with according to the letters on the diagram.
its
;
MENSURATION
Treating
first
139
cub. ins.
as a solid throughout
A. Cuboid, length
12",
Volume
B. 4 cylinders, of diam.
C.
= 6-75", thickness = = 12x6-75x75 1-625* an d total length = 5*

breadth
-75".
= =
60-75
Volume (obtained from the

Area of section
slide rule)
10-35
semicircle
rectangle
(5-5x2-5)
=
D. Cylinder, diam.
E. Cylinder, diam.
F. 4 cylinders, diam.
10-86
Volume
1375 = 25-61 25-61x275
= =
=
= =
4*,
length
70-48
4*
50-30
Volume
4-5*,
length
-75
Volume
2", total
=
length
,
11-92
i"
Volume
= =
3-14
Gross Volume
206-94
Fig. 64.
Cast-iron
Hanger Bearing.
cub. ins.
To
be subtracted
G. Cylinder,
diam. diam.
=
=
3*,
length
4*
Volume
H. Cylinder,
J.
28-20
2%", length
3^*
Volume
4 cylinders, diam. =
-75", total
=
=
9"
I7 >:1 5
3 '97 49'3 2
I57' 62
length
Volume
Total volume to be subtracted
Net volume
Hence, weight
= = =
=
=
157-6 x -26 41 Ibs.
140

Exercises 19.
1.
On
Calculation of Weights.
63.
2.
Find the weight of the cast-iron Vee-block shown at (6), Fig. Find the weight in steel of the crank axle shown in Fig. 65.
Centre Lir\e of Engine.

'
P36-9"--
Fig. 65.
Steel
Crank Axle.
;
in a rectangular measuring tank 3. Find the weight of sheet iron the metal being i" thick. Inside dimensions of the tank are 4'-6* / to accommodate by 3 '-6* by 7 -o"deep. Cut from the sides are openings / One rectangular hole 4 -o* by 2", two elliptical fittings as follows holes 4" X 2", two circular holes 4" diam. and eight f-diam. bolt holes. boiler end plate, 8 ft. 4. Determine the weight of a wrought-iron There are two flue holes, each 2 ft. diam. and thick. diameter and
:
an
The links are 22 yards of iron chain. elliptical metal i"x%", the greatest width The mean of section being at right-angles to the plane of the link. the link are 4* and 2^". lengths of the axes of rivets weigh i cwt. ? (Compare 6. How many f-diam. snap-headed
the weight of
elliptical
elliptical 5. Find
manhole i8*xi2*.
^"
and are made of
with Example 43, p. 138.) the flywheel of a steam engine 7. Find the weight in cast iron of radial thickness six straight having a rectangular rim, 7" wide by 4* arms of elliptical section, the axes of the ellipse being 4^* and 2" a boss 7** wide, 9* diam. and 4^" bore. The outer diameter of the wheel is 7-9*. 8. Required the weight of the cast-iron anchor plate shown in Fig. 66.
;
;
--L,
ajfefii_
MENSURATION
9.
141
shown
Calculate the weight in cast iron of the tool holder for a planer
in Fig. 67.
roll for
Find the weight of the cast-iron (Use the slide rule throughout.)
10.
a rubber mill as in Fig. 68.
Fig. 68.
Roll for
Rubber
Mill.
coupling for 3* shaft is shown at (a), Fig. 69. weight. 12. The steelwork for Hobson's flooring has the sectional form shown at (b), Fig. 69. There are 20 such plates for each span of the Find the total weight of the bridge, each ^" thick and 22 ft. long. steelwork, neglecting the angle and T-bar.
11.
A mild steel sleeve
Find
its
Mild Steel Sleeve Coupling.

13.
Section of Hobson's Flooring.

Fig. 69.
Find the weight in cast iron of the simple plummer block

in Fig. 70.
shown
Fig. 70.
Plummer
Block.
142

It 14. Fig. 71 shows the worm shaft for a motor-car rear axle. Find its weight. of nickel steel, weighing -291 Ib. per cu. in.
is
made
L-3TFig. 71.
Worm
Shaft.
15. Calculate the weight in cast iron of the half coupling

Fig. 72.
shown
in
Fig. 72.
Wrought-iron Coupling.
16.
Find the weight in cast iron of the cylinder cover shown in
Fig. 73-
73-
C.I.
Cylinder Cover.
MENSURATION
17. Fig.
143
74 shows the brasses for the crankshaft of a 61"x6 T launch engine. Find the weight of one of these in gun metal.
!
144

TABLE OF AREAS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF PLANE FIGURES.
145
TABLE OF AREAS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF PLANE FIGURES

TUle.
Figure.
(continued).
Area.
ircumference or Perimeter.
Hollow
circle
.
(annulus)
or
ir
mean
dia. x thick-
ness
Hollow
circle
or
7r(R*
-r
2 )
(eccentric)
irnr*
Sector
circle
of
. .
or
57'3
Ir
~?6o~
Sector of hol low circle
360
Fillet
2 2I5K or approx.
.
.
Segment
circle
.
of
.
Area = sector triangle Various approx. formulae on p. 102.
approx
Ellipse
Vab]
more nearly
Step curved
Irregular
figures
steps,
round
por-
Divide
strips
;
into
narrow
thei
tions in small
measure
in
dividers ; any straight
with add
mid-ordinates.
Then--
aver, mid-ordi Area nate x length /
pieces.
146

TABLE OF VOLUMES AND SURFACE AREAS OF SOLIDS.
Title.
Figure.
Volume.
Surface Area.
Any prism
Area of base
.
X
llh
height
Circumference of base X height
Rectangular or prism cuboid

. .
Whole
area/
= 2(lb+Ui+bh)
= 6S*
Cube
S3
.
Whole area
Lateral surface
S 2/
Ends
= 4S/ = 2S
^c/^7 2S
(
a
i
Square prism
Whole
surfacej=
2-6S 2/
2/+S )
o\
Lateral
12
Hexagonal
prism
.
or
-866/
6S/ or y^bfl (For ends see Table on

p. 1 44.)
Octagona! prism
Lateral
or
-Sag/
2 /
= 8S/
or
3-32/1
Lateral
or
Cylinder
7854^
Two
ends
Whole
= 2irrh = 2irr* area = 2jrr(& + r)

/
Outer lateral)
Hollow cylinder
.
r(R
- rz )h
surface surface
Inner lateral)
= 2-irrh
Lateral
Elliptical
rabh
or
,
prism
(less
Tr(a+b)h accurate)
Sphere
or -523&D 3
Hollow
sphere
.
.
MENSURATION
TABLES OF VOLUMES AND SURFACE AREAS OF SOLIDS
Title.
147
(continued).
Surface Area.
Figure.
Volume.
Segment
sphere
.
of
urved surface
or
5236/i(3'
2
2irRA
+A
2
)
here
R=rad.
of sphere
Zone
sphere
of
.
Any pyramid
area of base X height
ateral
=\
X
circum.
of
base
slant height
Square pyra-
Lateral
= 2S/
mid
Cone
Lateral
= *y/
Frustum o: ^=height of frustum any pyraA=area of large end mid

.
.
-(A + B + VAB)
Lateral=| mean circum
slant height
B=area of small end

Lateral
Frustum
o
(I
square
pyramid
= 2/(S +'s) = slant height)
Frustum
cone
.
Lateral
o:
(1
= ir/(R + f = slant height)
Round
Anchor ring
section
Square section
DS
rDS
These four tables are reproduced from Arithmetic for Mr. Charles B. Clapham. permission of the author,
Engineers by kind
CHAPTER
IV
of a series of values all
Object and Use of Graphs. A graph is a pictorial statement drawn to scale. Such a diagram will often
;
is
for the meaning greatly facilitate the understanding of a problem more readily transmitted to the brain by the eye than by descrip-
tion or formulae.
When reading a description, one has often to form a mental picture of the scenes before one can grasp and fully If, however, the scenes appreciate the ideas or facts involved. are presented vividly to us, much strain is removed from the brain. A few pages of statistics would have to be studied carefully before " " their meaning could be seen in all its bearings, whereas if a graph or picture were drawn to represent these figures, the variations of their values could be read off at a glance.
a set of experiments are carried To take another example out with pulley blocks; the results will not be perfect, some and to average them readings may be too high, others too low from the tabulated list of values would be extremely laborious; whereas the drawing of a graph is itself in the nature of an
:
averaging.
Or, again, a graph shows not only a change in a quantity, but the rate at which that change is taking place, this latter being often the more important. On a boiler trial a graph is often drawn to
from which is shown during what denote the consumption of coal period the consumption is uniform, or when the demand has been greater or less than the average, and so on. A graph, then, is a picture representing some happenings, and is so designed as to bring out all points of significance in connection with those happenings. The full importance and usefulness of graphs can only be appreciated after many applications have been
:
considered.
To commence the study of this branch of our work an example based on some laboratory experiments.
let
us consider
Example
i.
T49
In some experiments on the flow of water over notches the following figures were actually obtained.
RIGHT-ANGLED V-NoxcH
Head
(ft.)
150

:
smooth curve must be drawn through them the points above the should about balance those below it, and any obviously inaccurate values must be disregarded. For good results the curve should be drawn with the aid of either a spline or a French
line
curve.
i. e.,
The curve is now what is called a calibration curve for the notch, for any head within the range for which experiments were
off.
carried out, the quantity flowing can be read
600
100
18
20
24-
-26
-28
30
(Full size.)
32
34
Values of
-
H(feel-)
77-
Calibration Curve for V-notch.

off
This process of reading

"interpolation." in the table one
intermediate values
is
spoken of as
experiment if point should be noticed

quite the best, the curve.
Without the graph, for any values not given would have either to estimate or to repeat the intermediate values were required. Also one further
:
even the figures in the table
may
not be
and better approximations can be obtained from
Ex. To find the quantity when the head is -24 ft. erect the perpendicular SQ through -24 on the scale of head, meeting the curve at Q. Draw horizontally to cut the axis of quantity at Q = 260. Then for a head of -24 feet, 260 Ibs. per min. are flowing.
:
QR
Ex.
Find the head when
Q=
480.
From the diagram,
H=
-30.5 ft.
Example on a gas engine.
the efficiency
is
151
2.
The following
figures
the efficiency curve, plotted against the output.
Draw
were obtained in some trials i. e., the curve in which
I.H.P.
(Input)
152

The efficiency-output and the input-output curves now
agree,
all
whereas they would not do so in

separately.
probability
if
plotted
quite
To
This derivation of one curve from another illustrate by another example

:
is of
wide application.
Example
3.
A
:
test
on a Morris-Bastert pulley block gave the
following results
Load
(Ibs.)
W.
lited\
j
The values
of
153
are -572, -99, 1-41, 1-82, 2-24, 2-66, 3-07, 3-49, 3-9. Plotting these to the same scale as chosen for P l the lower line in Fig. 79 is obtained.
By division of corresponding ordinates of these lines the efficiency = 80, P = 1-63, P! = 3-65 can be calculated for any load, e. g., when
and
r)
-447.
scale
must now be chosen

;
for efficiencies,
and the curve can then be put in this it is obtained from two straight lines..
will
be a smooth curve, because
Example 4. In some experimental work, only gramme weights were available, whilst for calculation purposes the weights were required in pounds. To save the constant division by 453-6 (the number of grms. equivalent to i Ib.) a straight line could be drawn from which the required interpolations could be made. To construct such a chart
:
6
5-77
JT
154
line.

values can
The required following table

:
now be
quickly read
off as in
the
grms.
3.
155
Draw
the calibration curve for a rectangular notch, given

(foot)
Head
....
156
(9.

Iron.)
(magnetising!
force)
t
157
curves to give the values of the reactions for any position of the weight. Note their point of intersection.
Distance
(ins.) of
from R.H. end
weight \ /
158
22.

The following
nickel steel.
.
figures
were obtained in a
tensile test
on a sample
of
25%
Stress (Ibs. per sq. in.)
159
26. From the given figures plot to a base of I.H.P., curves with ordinates to represent (a) steam per hour and thence (b) steam per I.H.P. hour.
Steam per hour
(Ibs.)
i Go

Point
A!
is
thus
is
is
A2 A3 A4
Note that
(
+ 4 and + 3 4 and + 3
4 and
is
+4 and
-
more shortly more shortly 3 or more shortly 3 or more shortly

or or
(4, 3)
(
4, 3)
(4, 3) - 3). (4,
but a movement of 3) does not imply -7, down from the units then and axis vertical the 3 4 units to the left of axis. horizontal
-4,
E.
g.,
Point Point Point
B is
C is Dis
(1-5,
(
(
i)
3-2, o)
1-4, 2-3).
D.|...
{-1-4, 2-3)
-4
-3
-2
-^
-1
(I-5.-I)
-2
oAa
(-4,-:
-3
(4,-3:
Fig. 81.
Co-ordinates of Points.
To fix the position of a point in space it would be necessary to state the three co-ordinates, viz. the distances from three axes mutually at right angles. For example, a gas light in a room would be referred to two walls and the floor to give its position in the air.
Representation of an Equation by a Graph. If two quantities x and y depend in a perfectly definite way, the one upon the other, the relation between them may be illustrated by a graph which will take the form of a straight line or a smooth curve. From
this curve
much
information can be gleaned to assist in the study

as
it
of the
function
is
called.
[Explanation.
If
= 2X + 5,
y
is
161
given to x;
said to be a function of x, for y depends for its value on that 2 3 if y 8 log z, y is a function of z or, as it 4z +jz
shortly, y /(), meaning that y has a every value ascribed to z e.g., in the case first considered, y 2*-f 5, then /(a) would indicate the value of /(*) y when 3 was written in place of x, i. e.,/(3) (2x3) +5 u.]
definite value for
:
would be expressed more
Dealing
line,
with the simplest type of graph, viz. the straight whenever the equation giving the connection between the
first
is
variables
contains the
result
of the first degree as regards the variables, e., it first power only of the variables, a line will straight
.
when the equation

5.
is
plotted.
= 5* 9. In all cases of calculation for plotting purposes it is best to tabulate in the first instance; for any error can thus be readily detected, and in any case some system must be adopted to reduce the mental labour and the time involved.
Example
Plot a graph to represent the equation y
The general plan in these plotting questions is to select various " invalues for one of the variables, which we can speak of as the " and then to calculate the variable corresponding (I.V.), dependent values of the other, which may " be spoken of as the dependent variable" In questions where x
and y are involved it is customary to make x the I.V., and to plot its
values along the horizontal axis.
We may
for
take whatever values

is
x we
please, since nothing
said
in the
question about the range. Let us suppose that x varies from 4 to +4. The table, showing values of y corresponding to values of x would be as follows
:
162

to the plotting
When we come
different scales for
we
see that
it is
advisable to select
40.
all
x and y, since the range of x is 8 and that of y is On plotting the above values a straight line passes through them
(Fig. 82).
straight line
or inclination and
would be definitely fixed some point through which
if
one knew
passes.
its
slope
it
As regards
the slope, a line sloping upwards towards the right has a positive slope, because the increase in the value of x is accompanied by an
increase in the value of y,
and the
slope
is
measured by
-r
change of x
In measuring the slope of a line, the denominator is first decided upon, a round number of units, say 2 or 10, being chosen, and the numerator corresponding to this change is read off in terms of the vertical units from the diagram. In the case of the line representing y
seen to be
2 1)
*J
= 5^9
the slope
is
= 5,
i. e.,
the slope
is
the coefficient of x in the original
equation.
knowledge of which is necessary before the taken on the y axis through x o, e., the line intersection of the with the vertical axis of o through x point must be known. In the case shown in Fig. 82 the line intersects also at the point for which x o, y 9 9 is noted to be the value of the constant term in the equation from which the graph
fixed point, a
is
The
line
can be located,
*'.
is
plotted.
In general,
if
the equation to a straight line
is
written,
y = ax+b
is
the slope of the line
and b
is
the intercept
on the
vertical axis
through
the zero of the horizontal scale.
All equations of the first degree can be put into this standard form, and hence will all be represented by straight lines.
Example
6.
Consider the three equations
= =
8 o
........... ...........
;
(i)
(2)
a short similarity is at once noticed between the equations investigation will show the full interpretation of that similarity when regarded from the graphical standpoint.
Whenever an equation
find
is
to be plotted
it is
always the best plan to

it is
an expression for one variable in terms of the other; and usual to find y in terms of x in these simpler forms.
From
(i) 5)/ (2)
163
-8*
-
= 84* = -12-4*,
,*.
y y
--
1-6
5
-
(4) (5) (6)
From From
(3)
2-4
-8x
Fig. 83.
Straight Lines and their Equations.
Evidently all three equations, viz. (4), (5) and (6), are of the form -8, whilst ax + b, the value of a being constant throughout, viz. the value of 6 varies. From our previous work, then, we conclude that
y =
the three lines representing these equations have the same slope and are therefore parallel, being separated a distance vertically represented by the different values of b.
To
(i)
plot, first calculate
from the equations

(2)
= 1-68*.
=
:
8*.
(3)
= -2-48*.
and tabulate the numerical values

(i)
164
Solution of Simultaneous Equations by a Graphic Method. Knowing that a first-degree equation can be represented by a straight line, our attention must now be directed to some useful One of the greatest advantages of application of this property.
graphs is that they can be utilised to solve equations of practically every description. As a first illustration we shall solve a pair of simultaneous equations by the graphic method.
Example
7.
To
solve,
by the graphic method, the equations 5*+3y =19

gx
-zy
(i)
=12
(2)
of these equations can be represented by a straight line ; and these lines will either be parallel or meet at a point, and at that point Such a point represents by its co-ordinates a value of x and a only.
Each
value of y and since this point is common to the must be the solutions of the given equations.
;
two
lines,
these values
Fig. 84.
Solution of Simultaneous Equations.
= 19 and 5#+3y = 9 it would [If the given equations were 5#+3J> be found on plotting that the lines were parallel there could thus be
;
no values of x and y satisfying the two equations at the same time,

in other words, the equations are not consistent.] For the example given, the lines are not parallel.
or,
Two points are sufficient to determine a line, and therefore two values only of y need be calculated, but for certainty three are here taken, because if two only were taken, and an error made in
one, the line would be entirely wrong.
Equation
(i)
INTRODUCTION TO GRAPHS 5* + yy = 19 from which $y = 19

or
165
Table of values reads
$x
1-67*.
6-33
166
6.

The illumination I (foot candles) of a single arc lamp placed above the ground, at d feet from the foot of the lamp is given by
I
22
ft.
i -4
-oid.
ft.
Plot a graph to show the illumination for distances o to 12 the foot of the lamp.
7.
ft.
from
town supply pipes

13
ft.
Unwin's law states that the velocity of water in ft. per sec. in is v = 1-45^+ 2, where d is the diam. of pipe in Plot a graph to give the diam. of pipe for any velocity from o to
per sec.
8.
The law connecting the

is
-3
ratio
(-A
i- e-,
^-^
- of a journal with
the speed (N, R.P.M.)
-oo^N
i.
from 20 Plot a graph to show values of this ratio for values of If the diam. is 4-5* what should the length be at 95 R.P.M. ? to 180.
9. Plot a conversion chart to give the number of radians correspond= 57-3.) (i radian ing to angles between o and 360. 10. The law connecting the latent heat L with the absolute tem-
perature
T,
for
steam
is
L=
1437
"Jr.
Plot a graph to give the latent heat at any temperature between 460 and 1000 F. absolute.
11. Plot a
at
any voltage
graph giving the resistance R of an incandescent lamp V between 40 and no. You are given that
R=
2-5
V+
75.
What
12.
the slope of the resulting graph ? Solve graphically the equations in Exs. 12 to 16
is
nn
14. 16.
yn
6n
25
= =
= =
6-6
13. 15.
48*
am.
27^ y$ix =
48
51.
y+i-37=4*
gx-ijy =-49-87.
2-6#
7#+3y=io
35*-6y
i.
y y
1-4*
13.
17.
The co-ordinates of two points
and
;
are
A. Latitude (vertically) N 400 links 700 links B. Latitude S 160 links; Departure
Departure
W (horizontally)
which the
line
W 1500
links.
AB
Plot the points makes with the
and B and N and S line.

of
find the acute angle
Determination
Laws.
The
tion of an equation finds its in the determination of laws
most
straight line as the representadirect and important application

results of experiments.
embodying the
experiment has been made with some machine and a number of readings of the variable quantities taken; and it is desirable to express the connection between these quantities in a simple yet If this is done the law of the machine is conclusive manner.
An
known
for the range dealt with.
Example
8.
the engine running at various loads. The amount of steam used per hour (W) and the Indicated Horse Power (I.H.P.) are calculated from the readings taken at each load, and the corresponding values are as follows
:
made with
INTRODUCTION TO GRAPHS A test is carried out on a steam engine,
167
and
trials are
I (I.H.P.)
i68
through the zero of the horizontal being drawn without diminishing the scale. This method is very quick, measurements on the paper being scaled off and a quotient easily found. The second method is the more general, but involves rather more calculation; both methods should, however, be studied.
of the vertical axis
First Method-
W=a
the slope of the line and b = intercept on the vertical axis. To find the slope, select some convenient starting-point, say, where the line passes through the corner of a square, and measure a round number of units along the horizontal, in this case (Fig. 85) 5 being taken. Distances are measured in terms of units, and not in inches.) (Note. The vertical from the end of the 5 to meet the sloping line measures
where a
79 units
,
hence
slope
= increase
in
;
W = 79 =
^-
increase in
I
15-8,
.'.
a
b
=
=
15-8.
Intercept on axis of Thus the equation
W through = o 40 W = 15-81+40is
units,
.'.
40.
is
Second Method, or Simultaneous Equation Method Select two convenient points on the line, not too close together
e. g.,
W = 167-5 \
I
and
when
w=8
I
when
7'5
\
J
two equations are formed, the solutions values of a and b. Thus 167-5 = 8a +
87-5
=aI+b Substituting these corresponding values in the equation of which are the required
b b
Subtracting
whence
Substituting in equation (2) 48 as by first method (very closely) .*.
=3 + 80 = $a a = 16. b = 87-5
(i) (2)
39-5
_= 1 6 1
39 5
'
This particular line connecting the weight of steam per hour with the indicated horse-power is known as a Willans' line (named after Mr. Willans, who first put the results of steam-engine tests into this
form).
To take a
Example
crane.
further example
g.
for the effort
In a test on a crane the following values were found P! required to raise a weight W. Find the law of the
(Ibs.)
To
find the
INTRODUCTION TO GRAPHS equation in the form P = aW + 6 plot

t
169
W along the
a
b
horizontal (Fig. 86).

First
Method
Slope
=
u
-0564,
.*.
= =
-0564
-41
Also the intercept on the axis through o of
-41,
/.
PI= -Q564W+
Second Method
-41.
and
Pj
b
when
3-8 = 7=
when
6oa
W
(i)
5+&
-0564
-7
Subtracting
a
Substituting in
(2)
!
= =
-282
-0564
W+
-418
-418.
or
2-82
5O
Values of W,
20
50
40
Fig. 86.
50
GO
70
SO
30
100
Test on a Crane.
i. e.,
This result suggests that -41 Ib. is required to just start the machine, to overcome the initial friction, and that after that point for every
lifted
pound
If
only -0564
Ib. of effort is required.

is
39,
we are told, in addition, that the velocity ratio of the machine we can calculate the efficiency of the machine for any load. distance moved by effort
Velocity ratio
effort
b>Twei ght
;
and work done by

i Ib.
i. e.,
work done by weight

39
Ibs. of
hence, theoretically,
of effort should just
lift
weight
the connection between
P and
W (theoretically)
is
P=
W.
170

efficiency at
Then the
any load
Theoretical effort
P
PI
Actual effort
-LW
39
_ ____
.
0256W
-418
-0564
W + -418
2-2
16-35
W
5
e. g., if
W = 50,
efficiency
rj
2-2
16-35
396.
Example
10.
The following are the
results of a test
on a 6-ton
Hydraulic Jack (V.R.
106).
Load
(Ibs.)
1
600
p-,
171
A new scale must be chosen for efficiency, and the curve, a smooth one, because obtained
will
which
be the efficiency at that load.
from two straight

If
lines, is plotted.
[e.g.,
W = 2000,
maximum
P=
V
18-9,
Pj
i. e.,
28,
To
find the
efficiency,
-675} the efficiency at 6 tons load.
^
.
P =
Also
PI
= 5'6+,^4-W - 5-6+-OH2W 2oo

i
(See Fig. 87)
P
P,
or efficiency at any load
5'6
"
-
-OII2W
-oo9 44
=
593
1-19
Then
for the efficiency at 6 tons load
we must
write 6
x 2240
for
W, hence
maximum
efficiency
=
-^3_
13440
=
i-i 9
-814.
I>23
Exercises 22.
1.
On
the Determination of Laws.
Find the average value of

(i. e.,
(coefficient of traction)
from the
following figures
find the slope of the resulting straight line).
(Ibs.)
i;2
4.

For i" round, hard-rolled phosphor-bronze.
Stress (Ibs. per sq. in.)
11. Test
on two metallic filament lamps
in parallel.
i 74

E
for the material of a
:
17. Find the value of Young's Modulus beam, from the following
Load (W
Ibs.)
175
low down on the paper and not in the centre (see Fig. 88). After from the table of values, a smooth curve should be plotting the points
sketched
through
passing the points; and if any one point is not well on the curve, the portion of the table
in, all
.90
80
in
which the calculation

that
point
for
occurs
.60
must be referred to. The curve is a form of axis is parabola, whose verwhose and vertical,
tex
is at the bottom of indeed, in the curve all equations of the type 2 the y = ax + bx + c curve will be of the
:
5o
20
10
form shown
tive
;
if
is
posi-
while negative the
if
is
axis will
still be vertical, but the vertex will be at the
top of the curve.
As an
illustration
Fig. 88.
Curve of y
= 5* 2 + 7*
9-
of the latter type
Example to x = +3Division
12.
Plot the curve 4 y
= - 3* 2 ~ **+ 2 '442
from x
=-6
by 4
gives,
:
_ = =
-75AT
2X+'6l.
Table of values
176

The plotting
1
x must be higher than the centre of the paper.

in Fig. 89.
i 1
is
shown
,^^
Solution
of
2
Quadratic
o
Equations.
5*
The equations
+7*-9 =
and
or, in fact,
2*+-6i any quadratic equabe solved by the tion, can For the equaaid of graphs. 2 = and tions 5* +7# 9 y
75*
= o,
2 o 5* +7# 9 y must equal o.
to
be
alike,
is
:
Now
=o
if, anywhere along the x axis then, we wish to arrange that the y value or ordinate of the curve
is
to
be
o,
we must
select
the
value or values of x that make it so; or, in other words, we must find those values of x at the points where the curve crosses the x axis.
These values of x are the solutions or roots of
the
5^2+7^9 = o.
gram
(Fig. 88)
From we see
equation the diathat the

Fig. 89.
curve crosses the x axis when 2-22 x -82 and also when x
Curve of
'
4?
= - 3* 2 - 8* + 2
therefore x
= -82 or
In like manner
(See Fig. 89.)
2-22 gives the two solutions of 5* 2 +7# the roots of 2-95 75** 2#+-6i are
= o.
-28.
and
Solution of Quadratic Equations on the Drawing Board.

Whilst on the question of the graphical solution of quadratic equations, mention may be made of a method that is simple and requires the use of set squares and compasses, but not squared paper o. The general quadratic equation is ax2 -f- bx -f- c
To
off
solve this equation
by the method
of this paragraph
line,
Set
a length
OA
(see a, Fig. 90)
along a horizontal
working
left to right, to represent a units to some scale. Through A draw AB perpendicular to OA if & is positive a length to represent & must be measured, giving AB, so that the arrows continue in a right-hand direction. If c is positive draw BC perpendicular to AB, making BC to represent c units to the same scale as before, the
from
still continuing to indicate right-hand movement about O. were negative BC would be measured to the other side of AB.) Join OC. On OC as diameter describe a circle to meet AB in the
arrows
(If c
points
and E.
Then the
roots of the equation are
7^-7-
OA
and W?. and
Proof of the construction.

(a,
Let
be the centre of the
circle
OA ODC
join
Draw Fig. 90). to H, the point at
FG
parallel to
OA
to cut
AB
in
which the
circle cuts
OA.
Then, from the property of intersecting chords
OA X AH = EA X AD
Fig. 90.
Solution of Quadratic Equations.
2 Dividing both sides by (OA)
OA AH OA X OA
or
AH
OA
EA AD OA X OA EA AD OA X OA
Now
the angle
OHC
and
is
semicircle
and
since angle
are parallel and Also, since
AH = BC =
OA
OAB
c.
a right angle since it is the angle in a is a right angle also, CH and AB

are parallel
FG
and
bisects the line
OC,
then
GA =
GB.
Then
EA+DA = ED+DA-f-DA = 2GD+2DA = 2GA = BA = -b EA DA_ _& _6_ ~ or +

/
Let
OA DA
OA
OA
OA
178

Then from equation
and from equation
AH
(i) (2)
or
BC
OA
a/3 ap
or
b
Vtr
aft
=a
The
original equation
axz
+ bx + c = o
might be written
Or
X*
(a -f ft)x
+ a/3 = O
a)(x
(3.
which
after factorisation
becomes
%
whence
In other
=a
or
(x
ft)
=o
or
w ords,
r
and
D\
/3
and
EA ^K
yx
are the ro ts of the
original equation.
Example
13.
Solve the equation ^x*
==
o by this method.
Starting from the point
(&,
Fig. 90) set out
some
scale.
positive, left of the positive direction of
Draw AB downwards from A, since 7, the coefficient of x, is and make it 7 units long. From B draw BC 9 units long, to the
OA to represent 5 units to
is negative). also in E.
AB (since the
constant term
Join
OC and
on
it
Then
DA = +
and
describe the circle cutting in n-i units and 4-04 units, EA =
AB
and
OA =
or the roots are
DA
t. e.,
5 units
or -81 5
ii-i
EA
OA'
i. e.
or
2-22.
Example 14. Solve by the same means the equation

1'5X*
First,
4*
-f
1-22
O.
change
to
throughout
efficient of
xz
4*
the signs the copositive, i. e., the
make
equation becomes
I'5#
2
1-22
O.
Set out, in Fig. 91, OA = 1-5 units, (upwards, for b is negative) = 4 units, and BC (to the right, to reverse the direction of movement about O, for c is
AB
negative)
i -22
units.
The circle
on OC as diameter cuts and E.
AB
in
DA =
EA = +
-42
(for this
would
;
give left-hand rotation about O)

4- 45 ,
OA
Fig. 91.
=1-5.
Solution ot Quadratic Equation.
Then the
roots are
7=r-r-
179
and
OA EA
=
1-5
= -28
Graphs representing Equations

the
of
Higher Degree than
Second.
This work will
best
be understood by some
examples.
o and
Example 15. Plot a curve to show the cubes of all numbers between Use this curve to find the cube roots of 30 and 200. 6.
Fig. 92.
If x represents the numbers #s. the curve will be y
Curve of y = xa
_
.
and y the cubes then the equation
of
i8o

few values of x
may
be taken, and the corresponding values of y

All
calculated, the curve being plotted to pass through these points.
intermediate values can be interpolated from the curve. The table of values reads
:
181
The greater part of this curve is negative, hence the axis of x is taken well up to the top of the paper (Fig. 93). A warning is again given concerning the evaluation of 8x 2 = 4. First find x 2 i. e., ( 4)* or + 16, then find 8# 2 e. g., when x Sx 2 = 128. and j. e>> + 128, finally
,
Example
17.
Solve, graphically, the equation
2# 3
gx
2X
24
= o.
Fig. 94.
Curve of y
We shall first plot the curve y mine the values for x at the intersections of the curve with the x axis. Let x range from 3 to +5 and arrange the table as indicated
:
= 2x 3 gx* 2x + 24. = 2* 3 - gx 2 -2^+24 and then deter-
182

"
observe that the curve is of a different character from " parabola, in that it bends twice whereas the latter square bends but once there is thus one bend for a second-degree equation, two bends for a third-degree equation and so on. One can form some idea of the form of the curve from the equation by bearing
the
;
We
mind this fact. The curve crosses the x only; and the three values
in
and three points x satisfying the given equation are found from these points of intersection. Thus in Fig. 94 x 1-5, 2, and 4.
axis at three points
of
A cubic equation has three roots, although in some cases only if the curve one may be evident, the others being imaginary were drawn to represent an equation, two of the roots of which were imaginary, it would cross the x axis at one point only, the bends being either both above or both below it.
:
cantilever, 30 ft. long, carries a uniformly-disExample 18. tributed load of w tons per foot run. The deflection y at distance x from the fixed end is given by the formula
where
If
I = moment of inertia of section of cantilever E = Young's Modulus of material. = span. w = 5, I = 200, and E = 12500, show by a graph the
/
deflected
form of the cantilever.

10
12
Span. 14
16
18
2O
22
24 26 28
30
20
Fig. 95.
Deflection of Cantilever.
Substituting values
(5400** 24 X 12500 X 200 2 7 I2O#S '833 X IQ- (54OO*
v
+
+
X4)
x*)
= =
(Y
is
-833
x 10
2 i2O# 3 + x*.) substituted in place of the expression 54OO* Since the powers of x combined with their respective coefficients give large numbers, it is found to be better to express all these large
183
subtraction of small numbers, performing the multiplication or division by ioat the end once instead of three times. To find values of y from those of we must divide by io' and multiply by -833, and according to our scheme we find it convenient to note the values of x io- 5
numbers as simple numbers multiplied by a power of ten Thus the product 5400*2 when x = 5, which has the value 135000, is written 5 1-35 x io and similarly the other products are written in this abbreviated form. One has thus to deal with the addition and
,
the sixth column) and then multiply these by -833, dividing by io 2 By arranging the work in columns one setting of the slide rule suffices for the multiplication by each particular constant, i. e., in evaluating the values of 5400*2, 54 on the scale would be set level with i on the C scale and the figures in the second column would be taken on the C scale, while the figures on the D scale level with these would be the
.
(shown in
2 products of 5400 and #
Tabulation
184
found, by sliding a straight edge parallel to the x axis until it just touches the curve, the abscissa of this point being noted. Thus the function 5#2 -f 7* 7. 9 has its minimum value when x 2 The curve y 2x -\- -61 would have no minimum *75# " less than any value (" minimum ", being understood to imply other value in the immediate vicinity "), but would have its ordinate a maximum when x It is possible for 1-33 (see Fig. 89). a minimum value of an ordinate to be greater than a maximum.
Many instances occur in practice in which greatest or least values have to be found, or, more generally, values of some variables which cause some function to have maximum or minimum values.
Questions of economy of material or time, best dimensions for certain conditions, etc., all arise, and may be classed under the " maximum and minimum " problems. Before dealing heading of
with any of these, an ordinary theoretical example will be treated as a clear demonstration of the principles involved.
x9
Example 19. Find the value or values of x that make the function 2X Z 4* + 7 a maximum or minimum. State clearly the nature
of the turning-points.
First plot the curve as follows
:
= x3 +
2X*
4^+7.
For
this,
the tabulation
is
values for x, reads
:
185
table
2-5,
1-5,
-5
and
1-5.
Thus the subsidiary
i86

is
does not affect the resistance for which the power only the magnitude of the power.
maximum, but
Let
a
W = 7^ (R +
r2
-57)
then we require a value of

be treated as the I.V.,
i. e. t
maximum, and
R must
R that makes W R is plotted along
the horizontal.
No negative values need be taken for R, but otherwise idea as to its magnitude ; a preliminary tabulation, and
a preliminary graph, must consequently be
first
we have no
if
necessary
made
The table reads
Plotting the has find that
W
is
INTRODUCTION TO GRAPHS portion between R = -4 and -8 (as

its
187
in Fig. 98)
e .,
maximum
value
when
R=
we
-57,
i.
the external
resistance
equal to the internal resistance.
44
43
-42
i88

;
of v
3 Hence we plot the curve, Hj_ = 3501; -oi24t; from o to 160 we obtain the following table
:
and taking values
Exercises 23.
189
On
:
Expressions
1.
the plotting of Graphs of Quadratic and Cubic and on Maximum and Minimum Values.
2. 3.
x +3 the curve y = $xz 5* + 13. x = +6 the curve y = 4-15* -23*2 + 1.94. The centrifugal force on a pulley rim running at v ft. per sec. is
Plot from x Plot from x
5 to 3 to
= =
found from
values of
4.
If
w=
3-36 and g
32-2, plot
a curve to give
from 70 to 200. Plot a curve giving the H.P. transmitted by a belt running at
for values of v ranging
velocity v from H.P.
4<
when
in
400 and v
is
to range
from o to 165.
5.
of
Indicate by a graph the changes from 10 to 50 when
B consequent on the
variation
6. If
fuel
w = Ibs. of water evaporated per stoked per hour per sq. ft. of grate
w=
Ib. of fuel,
and / =
Ibs. of
Plot a curve to give values of w as / ranges from 12 to 40. of certain railroad bridges for electrical 7. The weight per foot = 50 5/, where I = span in feet. traffic can be calculated from Plot a graph to give the total weight of bridges, the span varying from 12 to 90 ft.
^+
8-5.
8.
of struts
Johnson's parabolic formula for the buckling stress is (for W.I. columns having pin ends)
(Ibs.
per sq.
in.)
34000
-67
Jj
-rj
Plot a curve to give values of

9.
is
/
for values of
from o to 150.
Plot as for Ex.
8,
but for
C.I.
columns, for which the relation

I
expressed by the formula p
25 - / -r \ = 60000 -\/
(
)
z
;
the range of the ratio
from o to 55. v K being 10. For Yorke's notched weir or orifice for the measurement of the flow of water, the quantity flowing being proportional to the head,
Shape op Opeaiaq
iaa Plcfte
_^__,.
^_^^x
Lirae of
i
No Head
Fig. 100.
The Yorke Weir.
igo
the half width

w
(see Fig. 100) at
head h
is
given by
w=
^jj*-
Show
the complete weir for a depth of 6*, taking the range of h from -095* to 6-095*.
11.
pitch,
N being the number of teeth,

/"
The length
of
hob /to cut a worm wheel with teeth

is
of i* circular
found from
-1373.
.8 74
2N /for
Plot a curve to
12.
show values
per hour
is
of
N ranging from
R= v+
-
10 to 120.
The
at a speed
If
V miles
resistance R, in Ibs. per ton for the case of electric traction, 2 o(V 12) -
given by
-\
ranges from o to 40, show the variation of R by a graph. The following equation occurs in connection with the reinforceVzrm + r z m z rm. ment of rectangular beams k
13.
02,
Plot a curve to give values of k for values of r ranging from -005 to as 15. taking the value of Solve, graphically, the equations in Exs. 14 to 17. 6 = o. 15. 6x* 14. x* 56 = $x. 5*
16. -14** -87* 17. (3 x io 6* 2 )

18.
- 1-54 = o. + (2-8 x io*x) +

-ix 2
.
(31
Find a value of x which makes
being given that
M = 3-42*
io 4)
o.
maximum
or
minimum,
it
19. The following values were given for the B.H.P. and I.H.P. for Find the cut-off when the engine different values of the valve cut-off. uses least steam, (a) per I.H.P. hour; (b) per B.H.P. hour.
Cut-off
....
What
lgi
are the best proportions of the mixture for least consumption of gas per I.H.P. hour?
22. In a non-condensing engine running at 400 revs, per min. the following results were obtained ;
Ratio of expansion r
30. Sixteen electric cells are
connected up, in -- rows of x

is
cells
per row.
for
The current from them

current.
16
Find the arrangement
maximum
31.
Find a value of
when
32. Plot
V between o and 10 that _ 3 (V-i2)

54
makes
R a maximum,
V+I2
from x
from x
= =
4 to
#= +
=+
1-07*
4 the curve
33. Plot
2to x
6 the curve
-88. 1-48*3 Solve, graphically, the equations in Exs. 34 to 37. 2 o. x2 6 35. 2o# 3 34. 2* 3 7* 27 3 2 8-82 o. -o8x 37. 36. x 3 $op 4 2$p 5#
zy
-56*2
38.
Find the turning-points of the
+ n# + = 138*. + = $p*. function 2x + 3# 36* +

3 2
15,
stating their nature.

39. If x is the distance of the point of contraflexure from the end of a built-in girder whose length is /, find x in terms of / by the solution
fax
of the equation
i
j-
fax^
-, a-
o.
40. To find d, the depth of flow through a channel under certain conditions of slope, etc., it was necessary to solve the equation d3 i -305*2- 1-305 = o. Find the value of d to satisfy this equation. 41. From tests with model planes Thurston calculated the following
figures
Inclination of plane to horizontal (degrees).
CHAPTER V FURTHER ALGEBRA

Variation. If speed is constant during a journey, the time taken is proportional to the distance, i. e., the bigger the distance the longer is the time taken, or, to extend this statement, twice the time would be required for twice the distance. This is expressed by saying that the time varies as the distance, or more shortly t <x d where the sign oc stands for varies as. We cannot say that t d, but the statement of the variation is well
expressed by the equation
=-J
2
or
12
<*1
2 where ând d : r-=^ **2

,
are
the values of the time and distance in one instance, and t 2 and d 2 are corresponding values in some other. to which each If, in the second arrangement, k is the number
fraction
is
equal,
it will
be seen that
-2
=k
'
= kd
or, in general,
= kd.
sign of variation
Hence the
may
be replaced by the sign of

is
equality together with a miles e. g., suppose the time for a journey of 300
constant factor.
15 hours,
then
or
15
=k k =
30
^
miles and
i.
e.,
the constant factor
is
^ so long as the units are
hours, and the speed is uniform. Variation such as this is known as direct variation, since / varies of journey is fixed, Suppose now that the length directly as d. time taken ; halve the be will less the then the bigger the speed
i 94
Here the time the speed and the journey takes double the time. varies inversely as the speed when the distance is constant;
or
i. e.,
cc
v
t
lxv
v
will
some constant. If both speed and distance vary, the time the distance and inversely as the speed
where
/
is
vary directly as
or
cc
and
.
also
cc
i. e.,
cc
d v
or
md v
(i)
This variation is known as joint variation. A proof of statement (i) is here given, as the reason for
it is
not self-evident. Suppose the original values of time, distance, and speed are /!, d v and v r respectively. Change the distance to d z keeping the speed constant the time will now be t, the value of which is determined from the equation
,
dz
flj
fj
Now make
but
let
another change; keep the distance constant at d 2 the speed become v z then the time will change to t 2 and
,
'
(3)
'2
Multiplying equations
(2)
and
(3)
together
or
=
-M-
T^
or
= -~
constant
= m, say.
= md
.
or
= md,
or, in general,
md t=v
worked
in the
Questions on variation should be lined in the following examples.
manner out-
FURTHER ALGEBRA
Example
i
I95
head of water flowing through a pipe is proportional to the length and inversely proportional to the diameter. H If in a length of 10 ft. of \ diam. pipe the head lost is 4-6 ft., what will it be for 52 ft. of 3^" diam. pipe ?
loss of
The
Taking the
h
oc
/
first letters
to represent the words

;
when d is constant
I
and h
oc
-i
when
/ is
constant.
Then, when both

h
oc
and d vary
or
=
-^,
where k
is
a constant.
first
We
must
first
find the value of k.

,.
In the
case
k x 10
4-6
Substituting this value in the second case
A='23X^
Example and also as
2.
'^f
=3-68
ft.
The weight what
its cross section.
of shafting varies directly as its length If i yard of wrought-iron shafting of

is
i" diam. weighs 8 Ibs., of J* diam. ?

If for
the weight of 50
ft.
of W.I. shafting
oc a; and when both I and a vary oc / and also oc la. then Also we know that the area of a circle depends on the diameter squared; hence a oc d 2
weight, length and area,
W,
and a respectively are
written,
and
In the
first
oc
Id*
or
&
W = kid*
i2
case
k=3
and
W=3
-ld*
Substituting this value in the second case
Example
horse-power
If
3.
The diam. d
is
proportional a shaft of 1-5* diam. transmits 5 H.P., what H.P. will a 4" diam. shaft transmit ?
of a shaft necessary to transmit a certain to the cube root of the horse-power.
Here
oc
vH
d
or
= AH*
196

first set
Substituting the
of values
i- 5
5*
,-s
When
d
4
Transposing
_
,
.
"^
=
4
3
H*
T
'
Cubing-
An application of this branch of the subject occurs in conIt is known that the deflection nection with the whirling of shafts. d of a shaft, as for a beam, is proportional to the cube of its length /,
and
also that the critical speed of rotation c is inversely propor-
tional to the square root of the deflection.
In mathematical language
oc
and
c oc
\d
............ ............
(i)
(2)
We
desire to connect c with
/.
From
equation
(i)
= kP
(2), viz. c
Substituting in the modified form of equation
vd
c==
where
some constant, *. e., the critical speed is inversely proto the f power of the length. portional Thus if the equivalent lengths of the shaft under different
/>
is
modes
etc.,
of vibration
(i. e.,
for the higher critical speeds) are

i,
I,
-, -,
2 3
for
the critical speeds are in the ratio comparing the first and third
/!
Cj
2-82, 5-2, etc.;
=
=
I
I
/2
C2
=\ =
but
*. e.,
tl
also
= P = c p = c
/^
2 1
FURTHER ALGEBRA
Thusc2
Ig7
if = Cl if
= 5-2
Hence
c
-*
Ci
= $2
i
Example 4. The energy E stored in a flywheel varies as the fifth power of the diameter d and also as the square of the speed n. Find the energy stored in a flywheel of 6 ft. diam., whilst it changes its speed from 160 to 164 revs, per min., if the energy stored at 100 R.P.M. is 25000 ft. Ibs.
When n =
100,
so that
Thus
and
E <x d*n* E = kd s n*. d = 6, E = 25000, 25000 = k x 6 s x ioo 8 k = s 6 f 5000^ x io 4 E at n = 164 = k x 6 5 x 164* E at n = 160 = k x 6 5 x 160* = k x 6 5 (i64 2 i6o 2 Difference = =
25000 x 6 ( 4 )( 3 24) 6 6 x 10*
3240
ft. Ibs.
S
Example
5.
direct-acting
pump having
a ram of io* diam.
is
supplied from an accumulator working under a pressure p of 750 Ibs. per sq. in. When no load is on, the ram moves through a distance of 80 ft. in i min. at a uniform speed v. Estimate the value of the coefficient of hydraulic resistance or the coefficient of friction, viz. the the friction force when the ram moves at a velocity of i ft. per sec. total friction force varying as the square of the speed. Find also the time the ram would take to move through 80 ft.
;
when under a load
of 15 tons.
If the whole system is running light, the full pressure is used to overcome the friction, i. e., p oc v 2 since total friction force varies as
,
(velocity)
Thus
also
z p = kv where
is
the coefficient of hydraulic resistance

sec.,
then
or
.
750
= = i -33 ft. g= k x (i-33) a
per
and p
750
*-ri^~ 4M
Ibs.
e.,
the coefficient of hydraulic resistance
and velocity are
per
sq. in.
and
ft.
is 422 if the units of pressure per sec. respectively.
I 98

of pressure due to a load of 15 tons
The intensity
i"5
If
x 2240 =
428
IDS.
per sq. m.
2 - X I0 a 4
Then, to find the velocity in the second case

Total pressure = pressure to overcome the friction to move the load,
i. e.,
+ pressure
where v l
is
the
new
velocity,
p = kv^ + pi and p^ = 428.

428
Then
or
750
v Vi
*
= kvf + 428 = 422 1^ 2 + ~ 42S 75 ~ -76^2 =

422
-8736.
ft.
and
P!
Hence the time required

80
for 80
i
of the motion
-8736
x j~
1-526
mms.
Example
a model.
If
6.
The
linear dimensions of
the velocity of the ship

is
a ship are X times those of V, find the speed of the model

given that the fluid
at which the resistance
p times that of the ship,

and
resistance varies as the area of surface S

velocity.
also as the square of the
Let
R = resistance
2
.
of ship
then from hypothesis

2
R oc
S,
and
also
oc
Then
and
r
R = KSV
=
i
2
resistance of
model
Ksv*.
Now S
X \ *{
/for surfaces of similar solids are proportional to the\ J squares of corresponding linear dimensions
and we are told that
Hence
i.e.,
or
*'.
e.,
and
(which
is
" V\) are spoken of as corresponding speeds."
FURTHER ALGEBRA
Exercises 24.
1.
IQ9
On
Variation.
of a sphere is proportional to the cube of the radius A sphere of radius 3-4" weighs 47-8 Ibs. what will be the weight of a sphere of the same material, of which the radius is 4-17* ? 2. The candle-power (C.P.) of a lamp is proportional to the square of its distance from a photometer. lamp of 16 C.P. placed at 58 cms. from a screen produced the same effect as a second lamp placed cms. from this screen. If this second 94 lamp was absorbing 100 watts, find its efficiency, where 17 watts per C.P. 3. The velocity of sound in air is proportional to the square root of the temperature r (centigrade absolute, i.e., t C. If the 273). is ft. sec. at 1132 velocity per temperature 18 C., find the law conv and T find also the necting velocity at 52 C. 4. The force of the earth's attraction varies inversely as the square of the distance of the body from the earth's centre. Assuming that the diameter of the earth is 8000 miles, find the weight a mass of 12 tons would have if it could be placed 200 miles above the earth's surface. 5. The total pressure on the horizontal end of a cylindrical drum immersed in a liquid is proportional to the depth of the end below the surface and to the square of the radius of the end. If the pressure is 1200 Ibs. when the depth is 14 ft. and the radius is i yard, find the pressure at a depth of 6 yards when the radius is 8ft.
;
The weight
6. The loss of head due to pipe friction is directly proportional to the length, to the square of the velocity and inversely proportional to the diameter. If 2-235 ft- of head are lost in 50 ft. of 2* pipe, the velocity of flow being 4 ft. per sec., find the diameter of pipe along which 447 ft. of head are lost, the length of the pipe being i mile and the velocity of flow 8-7 ft./sec. 7. The electrical resistance of a piece of wire depends directly on
length and inversely on its diam. squared. The resistance of 85 cms. of wire of diam. -045 cm. was found to be 2-14 ohms. Find the diam. of the wire of which 128 cms. had a resistance of 8-33 ohms.
its
8. The power in an electric circuit depends on the square of the current and also on the resistance. The power is 15-34 kilowatts when 23 amps, are flowing through a resistance of 29 ohms. If a current of 9 amps, flows through a resistance of 17 ohms for 50 mins., what would be the charge at 2d. per unit ? = i kilowatt-hour.) (i unit
9. The electrical resistance of a conductor varies directly as the of length and inversely as the area of cross section. The resistance to be 1-845 ohms. 70 cms. of platinoid wire of diam. -046 cm. was found Find the resistance of 1-94 metres of platinoid wire of diam. -028 cm. 10. The number of teeth T necessary for strength in a cast-iron wheel varies directly as the H.P. transmitted, inversely as the speed and inversely as the cube of the pitch p of the teeth. = -101, If T = 10 when p = 2" and ratio of H.P. to speed (in R.P.M.) find the H.P. transmitted when there are 30 teeth, the pitch of the teeth being 6", and the speed being 30 revs, per min. varies 11. The coefficient of friction between the bearing and shaft of the shaft and inversely as directly as the square root of the speed the pressure. The coefficient was -0205 when the speed was 10 and
200
the pressure was 30 find the pressure when the coefficient is -0163 and the speed is 45. 12. The I.H.P. of a ship varies as the displacement D, as the cube If I.H.P. = 2880 when of the speed v, and inversely as the length L. = 8000 tons, v = 12 knots, and L = 400 ft., find the speed for which I.H.P. = 30600, the displacement being 20000 tons and the length being 580 ft. 13. The pressure of a gas varies inversely as the volume and directly as the absolute temperature r (see proof in Question 18). The pressure is i kgrm. per sq. in. when the volume is 6-90 and the absolute temperature is 468; find the absolute temperature when the pressure is 8-92 kgrms. per sq. in. and the volume is 1-39. 14. In some experiments on anti-rolling tank models, the number I* the of oscillations per min. of a model of length 10-75 ft- was 2 7number of oscillations per min. is inversely proportional to the square root of the ratio of the linear dimensions, find the number of oscillations
;
of a similar ship 430

15.
ft.
long.
relations between volume, pressure and absolute temperature as in Question 13; if the pressure is 108 Ibs. per sq. in. when the volume is 130-4 cu. ins. and the absolute temperature is 641, find the absolute temperature when the pressure is 41-3 Ibs. per sq. in. and the volume is 283 cu. ins. 16. The time of vibration of a loaded beam is inversely proportional to the square root of the deflection caused by the loading. When the deflection was '0424* the time was -228 sec. find the deflection when the time was -45 sec.
;
Assuming the same
17. If the cost per foot of a beam of rectangular section of breadth and depth h varies as the area of section, and the moment of resistance of the beam is proportional to the breadth and also to the square of the depth, find the connection between the cost per foot and the
moment
of resistance.
law states that the pressure of a gas varies inversely Charles's law states as its volume, the temperature being constant that the pressure is proportional to the absolute temperature, the
18. Boyle's
;
volume being kept constant.
Prove rigidly that
PV =
constant.
Series.
succession of
are formed according to
numbers or letters the terms of which some definite law is called a series.
each term
is
is a series for which the law is that 12 greater by 3 than that immediately preceding it. z is a series in which any term Again, 40,, i6ab, 6âb obtained by multiplying the next before it by 46. In these
Thus
6, 9,
is
particular series, taken as illustrations, the terms are said to be in progression, the former in Arithmetical Progression, written A. P., and the latter in Geometrical Progression, written G.P.
series with which the engineer has to deal are those as the Exponential and the Logarithmic ; and in the expansion or working out of certain binomial or multinomial functions
Other
known
or expressions a "series" results.
FURTHER ALGEBRA
Arithmetical Progression.
2, 9, 16,
201
Consider the series of numbers
23
...
3rd
etc.
is
The 2nd term

4 ln each term
obtained from the ist by adding
7.
2nd
3rd
differs
it.
7.
7.
i. e.,
diately preceding
in
by The numbers in such a series are said to be and since the terms increase, this is Arithmetical Progression
;
the same
amount from that imme-
an increasing
Again,
I,
series.
4,
9,
14
......
5.
is
difference in this case being
This
is
an A.P., the common a decreasing series.
In general, an A.P. can be denoted

a, (a
by
difference.
+ d),
is
(a + zd)
where a
is
the ist term and d the 2nd term
the
common
Now
and
So that
i. e.,
= a+d = a+(2 i)d the 3rd term = a+2d = a+(3i)d the 20th term = a+igd
=
th a + (n the general term, or the /1 term l)d. Thus the I5th term is obtained by adding 14 differences to the ist term, or a+md. I5th term If three numbers are in A.P., the second is said to be the arithmetic mean between the other two e.g., 95, 85, 75 are three
numbers
^ 3
in A.P.,
.
where 85
t ke
is
the A.M. between 95 and 75 and
75 = 95 + 2
or
arithmetic
mean
of
two numbers
is
one-half
their
sum.
find the
(a
To
Sn
Sn
sum
of
n terms
of
an A. P., which
is
denoted by Sn
=a+
Also,
+ d) +
(a
+ 2d) +
......
[a
(n-i}d}
a
= {a + (n - i)d} + {+(- 2}d} + {a + (n- 3)^} + .....

Adding the two
lines
by
order writing the terms in the reverse
2 Sn
= {2a +(n- i)d} + (2a + (n = n {za +(n- i)d}

/
i)rf}
{za
-f-
(n
-L)d}
......
to
n terms
or
2S n
the last term /, then formula for the sum can be written
If
we
call
+(-
i)d,
and the
s,
?(,+/}
or
202
i. e.,

the
sum can most

,
easily be
found by multiplying the average

of terms n.
term,
i. e.,
by the number
Many
If
problems on A. P. can be worked by means of a graph.
ordinates represent terms, and abscissae the numbers

of the terms, an A. P. will
be represented by a sloping straight line for which the

"
" is the common slope difference d and the ordinate on the axis through i of the
horizontal scale
is
the
first
term.
The sum
under the
the
will
line,
be the area with one-half
sum
of the first
and
last
Fig. 101.
Term
VW
terms added.
Arithmetical Progression.
(Fig. 101)
For the area under the

IS
line, viz.
ABCD
J(AD
-f
BC)
AB =
(n-i)
but
âreaunderline
Example
7.
Find the sum of 12 terms of the
series, 4, 2, o
find also its loth term.
-2
-18
-12
I
-14
-16
Fig. 102
Sum
of
Series.
-18
FURTHER ALGEBRA
case,
203
12,
4 subtracted from 2
2}
=-
Si,
Also the lothterm
^{(2X + (12 - I) X = 6 {8 - 22} = -84. =a + gd = 4 ~g X2

4)
or graphically, area under the
line""
= =
and
J(a
l)
and ordinate
AB represents the
- 77 = l^LlI = _ 7 = - 77 S
i (4 2} 4 - 81 =
-$ {9
18}.
(Fig. 102
7 = - 84 loth term and = 14.
8. Insert 4 arithmetic means between z-6 and 0-4 4 terms between 1-6 and 9-4 equally spaced so that together with the terms given they form an A.P.
Example
i.e., insert
9-4
2345
Te.rmJV
Fig. 103.
Arithmetic Means.
The
total
number
of terms
must be 6 (two end terms together with
the 4 intermediate), so that

ist
and
but the
6th term 6th term

1-6
and Hence the means are
= 1-6 = 9-4 =a+ + sd = 9-4 $d = 7-8

term
5^
and
or
7-84.
a d
= =
1-6
i -56.
3-16, 4-72, 6-28,
and
The graphical construction would be quicker in this instance. Referring to Fig. 103, draw a vertical through i on the horizontal scale to represent 1-6, and a vertical through 6 to represent 9-4; join
204
the tops of the ordinates by a straight line and read off the ordinates through 2, 3, 4 and 5.
Example 9. In calculating the deflection of a Warren girder due to the strain in the members of the lower flange, if = the force in a member caused by a unit load at the centre of the girder, F the force in the bar due to the external loads, a area of section of member, d = length of one bay, h = height of the girder, and n == number of
bays, then deflection
= P
product
If
x length
ft.,
of
x sum ^ member. n=
p
8,
of all the separate values of the
d = 20
i2'-6",
4 tons per sq.
in.,
and
E=
12500
tons per sq.
in.,
find the deflection.
Fig. 104.
Deflection of a
Warren
Girder.
Dealing with the

the point
first
bay
(see Fig. 104)
and taking moments round
UiXAD
d u =A
1
or
Jx-ÛjX*
For the second bay, by taking moments round E,

for the third
U =
a
i.d
,
',
while
bay
U = ^r,
8
cd
4"
and so on.
j
4*
the
Hence the sum of the separate values of
U=
4*
+~ +
4*
term
_ j
.to
terms,
i. e.,
it is
sum
is
of
=-
an A. P. of which the
d
is
*
first
the
common
Hence-
difference
d 2*
*h
and
S.
=i
{(a
.*)
(.
,)
The sum
since all the
of the products of U x length of member members have the same length, viz. d.
deflection
is this
total
d,
Then the
~ F X
and
for this particular case,
deflection
by substituting the numerical = 4- x 64 x 400 - ft. 12500 x 4 x 12-5

,,
values,
FURTHER ALGEBRA
are part a series in which each term is one by the use of a common as a Geometrical Progression, or a G.P.
20 5 7 "'
Q 8
.
Geometrical Progression.-The numbers of
S^
('
z
conLn
muldpêr or
a ar>ar *
'
ratio is
- l^'
1
^
z
ISt
term
and the
Generally a G.P.
may
be expressed by
being the
......
The 2nd term
the
the
= ar = ar ~^ 3rd term = ar = aâ-i

n lh
term
common
ratio).
e. g.,
the 5ist term
=
is
If three
geometric
:
mean
terms are in G.P., the middle one

of
the
other
said to be the
two it is equal to the square root of their product, for

if a,
m and
be in G.P.
or
= m=
[If
and
m = ab
2
the true weight of a
body
(
is
required, but the weighing _
has unequal arms, weigh in each pan, and call -2

balance
the balancing weights

2
and
the
Fig. 105
respectively
W= VW W
x
true weight
then
Geometrical Progression.
is
the geometrical
to
mean between
and
2,
or
a .]
To
and
then
find the
sum
n terms, written S n
S
r
S,,(i
S,,
r]
=a = =
-f-
+ ar + ar + ar +
ar
2
ar ar
n~ 2
-f-
arn
~l
l
~z
+ ar"~
-f ar"
a
1
ar
(Subtracting)
or
and
the
first
-(l-r-J
r
(r--l) r 1
form being used when the ratio is less than i. the 2, i Referring once again to the series 4, numerical value of the terms, plus or minus, soon becomes so small that the sum, say, of 60 terms is practically the same as that of This fact is 50, and the series is said to be rapidly converging. well illustrated by the graph of term values plotted to a base of
206

;
term numbers as in Fig. 105
the area between the curve and the
horizontal axis being extremely small after even the fifth term of the series has been reached.
(of
Hence the sum of the entire series, called the sum terms) and written S^, can be expressed definitely.
-j-.
to infinity
r rom the rule
c S
is
= a(i
i
r")
r
r" will
if
r is
very small and n

I,
very great,
a
be very small indeed
compared with
and may be neglected.

O 3 on
1-r
2,
Example
000002
10.
Find the sum of 5 terms of the series and compare with the sum to infinity.
-002,
In this case a
and
-ooi.
Then-
a r
i
=
{i '
'
-ooi
whereas
Soo
=
i
d
r
=
i
22
999
-(ix
,
io~ 15 )}
-ooi
and therefore the
-999
two are
essentially the same.
Example n.
find the
The 5th term
of a G.P.
law of the
series, viz. find
is 243 and the 2nd term the values of r and a.
is
5th term
2nd term
Dividing equation
(i)
= ar* = 243 = ar = 9
l
(i) (2)
by equation
ar*
(2)
ar
-3* = = 243
27
and
Substituting in equation Hence the series is
It is of interest to
(2),
= 27 = 3. X 3 = 9
r
3
and
3.
3, 9, 27, etc.
will
note that the logarithms of numbers in G.P. themselves be in A.P. Thus, if the numbers are 28-4, 284, 2840 (i. e., in a G.P. having the common ratio io),
then their logs are

(i. e.,
i'4533, 2-4533, 3-4533
are in A.P. with
common
difference
i).
FURTHER ALGEBRA
207
Use may be made of this property when a number of geometric means are required to be inserted between two numbers.
Suppose that five geometric means are required between 2 and Mark off on a strip of paper a length to represent the distance between 2 and 89 on the A or B scale of the slide rule. Divide
89.
this distance into 5 i, *. e., six equal divisions alongside the scale with its ends level with 2 and
place the paper 89 respectively then the readings opposite the intermediate markings will be the required means to as great a degree of accuracy as is required in
: :
practice.
The means
To check
are 376. 7-1, 13-3, 25-1,
and
47-3.
this
by
calculation
2,
and
r
6
ar*
89.
= = 44-5. 6 log r = i -6484 Taking logs log r = -2747Now log av = log 2 + log r = -3010 + -2747 = -5757 ar = 3-763. Also log ar z = log ar + log r = -5757 + -2747 = -8504 ar 2 = 7-084. /.
Hence, by division
.*.
.'.
Similarly, the other
means are found to be
I3'34, 2 5' Il
>
an d 47-26.
It has already been demonstrated that the plotting of the " values of the terms in an A.P. to a base of " term numbers gives a
straight line. Consequently it will be seen that if the logs of the " values of the terms in a G.P. are plotted to a base of term
numbers," a straight
since the logs of
line plotting.
numbers
line will pass through the points so obtained, in G.P. are themselves in A.P. Conse-
quently many problems on G.P. can be solved by means of a straight-
The values of the resistances of an electric motor G.P. Thus if r t = resistance of armature and rheostat on the first step, and r 2 r 3 rt etc., are the corresponding
Example
12.
starter should be in
values on the subsequent steps, then

of this ratio
is
=
*2
=
*3
-8
etc.,
and the value
where ^, ^
C,
= starting current
and C = full load working
current.
Find the separate resistances of the 9 steps in a motor starting switch for a 220 volt motor, if the maximum (i.e. starting) current
208
must not exceed the full load working current of 80 amps, by more than 40%, and the armature resistance is '133 ohm.
Here we are told that -^ \^
is
'
Q =
1-4 or the
common
ratio of the G.P.

viz.
while the value of r
can be calculated by Ohm's law,
voltage
starting current
2;
1-4
x 80
1-964 ohms.
ft.
The problem now is to insert 7 geometric means between 1-964 and -133 and this can be done in the following simple manner. Along a horizontal line indicate term numbers as in Fig. 106, and erect verticals
;
through the points i, 2 Set the index of the
9.
and mark the point
scale of the slide rule level with the point i, at 1-964 (at the right-hand end of the rule)
should be indicated, the distance similarly the point 133 (at the left-hand end of the rule). Join PQ.
gQ
representing
234-56789
Term N?
Fig. 106.
Resistances of an Electric Motor Starter.
Then the ordinates to this line through the points 2, 3 .... 8, read off according to the log scale (i. e., by the use of the A scale of the slide rule, the index being placed at the horizontal in each case), give the required means, which are 1-403, 1-002, -716, -511, -365, '261, and -186.
Compound
progression.
If
Interest furnishes an example of geometrical
Then the
the original principle be P and the rate of interest be r interest at the end of ist year
= Pr and the amount = A = P-f Pr

x
interest at the
end of 2nd year
= rA, = r(P+Pr) and
amount
==
AÎa
FURTHER ALGEBRA
i.e., I 2
3
209
/.
= Pf(i+r) and A = I = Pr(i+r) and A = I n = Pr(i+r)-i and A =

2
The consecutive
Pr,
interests are thus
e.,
Pr(i+r) ...... they are in a G.P. of ist term Pr and common

Pr(i-fr),
z
ratio (i
r).
Hence
total interest for
n years
or the
amount
at the end of
n years
= P+Interest
of G.P. If an electric condenser be a ballistic discharged through galvanometer, and the lengths of the consecutive swings of the needle are measured, it will be found that they form a G.P. the ratio, of course, being less than I, because
;
Further Applications
the amplitude of the swing decreases.

If
!
then
= ist swing and a = 2nd swing, a = ka^

%
and
On
= kn ~
ar
The logarithm
i. e.,
of the ratio
(-
log
(^ J
according to our notation,
is called
the logarithmic decrement of the
galvanometer. Thus if the respective swings were, in divisions on a scale, 36, 31*4, 2175,
etc.,
the ratio k
=3
and the
logar-
ithmic decrement of the galvanometer ^6
= log
-^
find
= -1594the
(-^-j
To
practical
for the
mechanical
pulley-block
advantage
on one Fig I07 ._puii e y Block, side of the pulley becomes cP after and bending of the rope) passing round the pulley (due to friction, 2 so on. after passing round the second pulley, the pull is now c P, and
shown
in Fig. 107.
The
pull
aw
2io

Hence
W = cP(i+c+c +c +c +c
2 3 4
5
)
if
there are 6 strings

i
for the case of 6 strings from the lower block. This result may be put into a more general
in place of 6
;
form by writing n
n being the
Thus-
W=
-J-
velocity-ratio of the blocks.

c
^(i-'
:
n
)
In an actual experiment with a i I block, the value of c was found to be -837. Taking this value, the result given above may then be written
By the use
p-
of this formula the
maximum efficiency of any pulleyfor
4 4 W = 5'i3[i-('837) = 5'i3(i = and 2-613. 497) W = and hence the maximum Theoretically,
:
block can be determined.
Thus
4
]
block
p-
4,
efficiency
=
Series
653
occur which, whilst not actually in arithmetical or geometrical progression, may be so arranged that the rules of the respective series may be applied.
may
Example
of which
is
13.
Find the sum of n terms of the

(i)
series,
the rth term
3'
(2)
x 3r
and
rth term = 37+1 (i) the ist term = (3 x i) + I Hence the 2nd term = (3x2) + ! = Sn (3X i) + (3X 2) + (3 x 3)+ .... +(1 + 1+1 = 3 (sum of natural numbers to n terms) + n = 3 x "{2 +(n-i)i}+
to n terms)
FURTHER ALGEBRA
(2)
211
Hence
also
=5x3 = 5 x 31 2nd term = 5 x 3* and the nth term = 5x3" = (5 x 3) + (5 x 3 + (5 x 3 3 +

rth term the ist term
r
or
7.5(3'
-i).
Methods
of allocating
Allowance for Depreciation.
The
principles of the previous paragraph may be applied to deal with the various systems of allowance for the depreciation of machinery,
etc.,
which
may
be calculated by one of three methods.
First Method, involving arithmetical progression, and sometimes " straight-line method." spoken of as the to this scheme, the annual contribution to the According
depreciation fund is constant, and no interest is reckoned. its residual the original price of the machine, Let P
value at the end life, years, tribution to the depreciation fund. E.g., if a machine costs 500, has a scrap value of
of its
let
life is
and
R= D = the annual
80,
con-
and
its
21 years, the annual contribution
= *^
20.
21
Then
Value at end of
(i. e.,
ist
year
=P R D
neglecting its value as scrap).
and
Value at end of 2nd year Value at end of wth year
=P R =P R
2D
whilst the contributions to the depreciation fund would total nD. Its value as a working machine would be o at the end of the nD o, or nD P R; hence its value as period, i. e., P
for scrap would be taken into account in fixing D,
D=
p>
,
which
is
not so great as
Taking the figures suggested above 500-80-20 Value of the machine at end of ist year and the depreciation e., its value as a working machine, 400,
fund would then stand at 20. 500-80-40 At end of 2nd year, value fund 40. depreciation 420 Thus the value depreciation fund always " value of machine, which is as it should be. ing
380
and
= +
= " work-
212

Second Method.
According to this method of reckoning, the

interest
same amount
is
is
added to the depreciation fund yearly, but
reckoned thereon. Let the rate of interest
r per
annum
per
i.
At end of
ist year, depreciation
fund
2nd
t,
= D = D-f-fD+D
first
(since
rD
is
the interest on
the
contribution).
3rd
(2D+rD)+f( 2 D+fD)+D
We wish to find a general expression giving the magnitude of the depreciation fund at the end of any year; to do this, the expression last obtained
must be
slightly transposed.
a
D 3D+yD+rD = r ^
(
and\ ^ ^multiplying \ dividing by r )

'
This is the value of the fund at the end of the 3rd year. In like fashion, the value of the fund at the end of the 4th year
so that at the end of the wth year, the depreciation fund stands at
This must be equal to the working value or

.
R,
e.,
?{( I+r)._i}
= P-R
p
E.
g., if
the original value
the scrap value

no. of years and rate of interest
= 500 = 80 = 21
=3%,
*'
-,
-03
FURTHER ALGEBRA
Then
2I3
Explanation.
D = /"3(Soo-8o) 21
(i-03)
x 420 73^
Let x log X
(i-o 3 )
2i
= 21 x -0128 = -2688 = 1-857
=21
log 1-03
There is one disadvantage in connection with the second method the depreciation fund does not grow rapidly enough in the early years. Keeping to the same figures as before,
:
depreciation fund at end of ist year
2nd
= =
14-7
(2 X 147)
+ (-03 X
-f-
147)
3rd
= (3 x 147) + (-0009 = 45-44.
29-84
(-09
14-7)
14-7)
If the value of the machine decreases each year by 20, the depreciation fund would not be sufficiently large to ensure no loss in the event of the loss of machine in the first few years of its life on the other hand, provided nothing untoward happens, only about
:
three-quarters of the depreciation has to be allowed for yearly, i. e., 14-7 as against 20.
Third Method.
eliminated
The disadvantage
of the second
method may be
by
setting aside each year a constant percentage of the
value of the preceding year. then at the end of the Let this constant percentage be K first year KP will be assigned to the depreciation fund. At the end of the 2nd year the fund will stand at KP percentage of value at end of ist year
:
= KP+(P-KP) X K = P(2K-K = P{i-(i-2K+K

2
)
)}
At the end of the 3rd year

depreciation fund
= KP+K(P-KP)+K(P-KP)(i-K) = P{K+K-K -f-K-2K +K = P{ 3 K- 3 K +K = P{i-(i-3K+3K -K)}

2 2 8
}
214

at the
Hence
end of nth year

This must
depreciation fund
so that
or
= P{i (i K) n =P R P-R = P-P(i-K) P(i-K)* = R (!-*) = ?

of each side
Taking the nth root
or
R
the results
To compare with
figures as before, viz.
= 500, R = 80,
by the other method, take and n = 21.

Explanation.
the
Let
= i -9164 = -0836
Then
depreciation fund at end of ist year
Vo
21/8~
=-{9031-1-699}
80 116
Ditto
Ditto
/.
end of 2nd year end of 3rd year

is
.
= =
e.,
the yearly allowance
greater at
commencement
x
Exercises 25.
1.
= 7959 21 = " '0379 = 1-9621 = -9164

series 16, 18,
On
Arithmetic and Geometric Progressions.
20
.... 2. Which term

3.
Find the 7th term and also the 2gth term of the
of the series
81,
is
the
sum
5.
The 3rd term
of
an A. P.
69 ... is equal to 33? 75, 8; find 34 and the i7th term is
4. Insert
of the first 30 terms. 8 arithmetic means between 2-8

;
and
10-9.
Three numbers are in A. P. the product of the first and last is Find 216, and 4 times the second together with twice the first is 84. the numbers. must be taken 6. How many terms of the series 1-8, 1-4, i
. . .
so that the sum of them is 67-2 ? 7. In boring a well 400 ft. deep the cost is 2S. 3^. for the first foot and an additional penny for each subsequent foot what is the cost of boring the last foot and also of boring the entire well ?
;
FURTHER ALGEBRA
8.
215
in a certain year
manufacturer finds that his expenses, which
are
sells
4000, are increasing at the rate of 28 per annum. He, however, 4 more machines each year than during the preceding, and after 1 6 years his total profit amounts to 14240. Find the selling price of each machine and the total number sold over this period if his profit the first year was 800.
tank is being filled at the rate of 2 tons the first hour, 3 tons 9. the second hour, 4 tons the third hour, and so on. It is completely If the base measures 10 ft. filled with water in 10 hours. by 15 ft. find the depth of the tank.
falls 16 ft. in the ist second of its motion, 48 ft. in the in the 3rd, and so on. far does it fall during the igth second and how long will it take to fall 4096 ft. ?
10.
body
2nd, 80
ft.
How
slow train starts at 12 o'clock and travels for the first hour 11. at an average speed of 15 m.p.h., increasing its speed during the second hour to one of 17 m.p.h. for the hour, and during the third hour to fast train, starting at 1-30 from the same place 19 m.p.h., and so on. travels in the same direction at a constant speed of 32 m.p.h. At what time does this train overtake the first ?
12. 13. 14.
Find the 5th term of the series i, 1-2, 1-44 ... Find the sum to infinity of the series, 40, 10, Insert 3 geometric means between ij and 6|.
2-5
...
.
15. Calculate the
sum
of 15 terms of the series
5, 6-5,
8-45
16. In levelling with the barometer it is found that as the heights At a height of 100 ft. increase in A. P., the readings decrease in G.P.
the reading was 100; at a height of 300 ft. the reading was 80; at the reading at a height of 500 ft. the reading was 64. What was
2700
ft. ?
Find the sum of the series 15, 12, 9-6 ... to 7 terms and the . to infinity of the series -8, -02, -005 18. When a belt passes round a pulley it i? known that the tensions If the tension for a lap of 15 at equal angular intervals form a G.P. is 21-08 Ibs. and that for 90 is 27-38 Ibs., find the least tension in the belt, i. e., at o (the angular intervals are each 15). 19. The sum of the first 6 terms of a G.P. is 1020 and the common ratio is 2-4; find the series. [the 20. Find the 2oth term of the series 3, 12, 33, 72, 135 2 nth term is of the form n(a + bn + en )]. time 21. A contractor agrees to do a piece of work in a certain and puts 150 men on to the work. After the first day four men drop 8 days longer than was off daily and the work in consequence takes total number of days which the work actually the Find anticipated. takes. shown in Fig. 104 22. Find the deflection of the Warren girder int. By due to the strain in the members of the upper flange. [H
17.
sum
the value of taking moments about the point B,
UAB = ~ v
etc.]
on the 23 A lathe has a constant countershaft speed, four steps 12 possible speeds cone and one double back-gear. There are thus vs. per sec. and the least for the spindle; the greatest being 150 the respective If the spindle speeds are in 6.P, find sec. revs, being 3 per
speeds.
216

lent out at
Napierian Logarithms. Suppose that i is compound interest per annum. Then the amount at the end of ist year = this is the principal for 2nd year.
and
If,
2%
and
(i
-02)
A2 =
at the
e.,
I2
= (i + -02) (i + '02)
is
X
2
-02
however, the interest
to be reckoned
first
month the amount

the interest
end of the
and added on each year will be greater, for
= *O2 12
(*'.
per month),
and,
amount
at end of ist
month
-\
--12
) / 2
+ (O2\
I
ist year
j
12
=
end
i
(*
'O2\ + -^) .......

i. e.,
(i)
Assume now that the
interest is
added day by day,

of ist year
365
practi-
cally continuously, then at the
\ + -ffi) (02
If
........
(2)
the interest
is
calculated
and added on each second, that
being as near continuity as Amount at end of year

1
we need approach
->-?
\31536000
3i536ooo/
........
By means of laborious calculation the actual values of these amounts could be found, and it would be observed that the amount in (2) was greater than that in (i), and the amount in (3) was greater
the difference in the values being very slight, than that in (2) and not perceptible unless a great number of decimal places were
;
taken.
It would appear at first sight that by increasing the of additions of interest to the earlier amounts, the final
:
number
amount
could be made indefinitely large this, however, is not the case, for the amount approaches a figure beyond which it does not rise, but to which it approximates more nearly the larger the value This final amount is 2718 of the exponent (*. e., 12, 365, etc.). for a principal of i; in other words, when the interest, added
continuously,
is
amount
will reach
proportional to the previous amount, the final a limiting value, being 2718. The symbol
FURTHER ALGEBRA
"
e
2I7
"
is
given to the figure
2718
e
from Euler, the discoverer
of the series.
Later work will show that

series, viz.
can be expressed as a sum of a

_
1x2
1x2x31x2x3x4
^
1
___
and from the foregoing reasoning it will be seen that it is a natural number: it occurs as a vital factor in the statement of many
natural phenomena. E.g., a chain hanging freely due to curve whose equation may be written
its
own weight
lies
in a
or more simply
i. e.,
Y=
{e*-
+ e~*}
"
hangs in its natural curve (known as the catenary "), and this curve, depending for its form entirely on e, can only have this one form if e is a constant, and, further, a particular constant. Again, if an electric condenser discharges through a large resistance, the rate at which the voltage (i. e. the difference in potential between the coatings of the condenser) is diminishing is proportional to the voltage. The equation which gives the voltage at any time
it
t
t,
is
= ae
where K,
R
e is
and a are constants
given conditions.
Then
settled from the a constant, but one determined quite
apart from any particular set of conditions. Actually the most natural way to calculate logarithms is to work from e as base, such logs being called natural, Napierian, or the common logs, *. e., those to base 10, which hyperbolic logs are far more convenient for ordinary use, being obtained from
;
In higher branches of mathematics all the logs if natural laws are being followed, then any be natural logs. logs that may be necessary must, of course, It is, therefore, desirable to understand how to change from The rule can be expressed in logs of one base to logs of another.
the Napierian logs.
are those to base
e,
for
this
form
loge
N = log10Nxlog io ........
e
(i)
To remember
fractional
this,
omit the logs and write the law
in the
form
~i~
which
is
N_
N
io
10
e
equally correct, as proved by cancelling.
218

Again
or
log10
10
N = log N X Iog 10 5 N e -=N -xe
10
Proof of statement
Let then
e
(i)
10
and
or
i. e.,
= x, log N = y log N = N N= 10" =e e* = io = x = yxz = log Nxlog io log N

e*, y
y
and and
loge io
=z 10 = e*
y*
(f?)
10
Taking
e as 2-718 (its actual value, like
that of
-4343 and logeio Iog 10 2718 mensurate) Iog 10 of this, viz. 2-3026 or 2-303 approximately.
TT,
is
not com-
is
the reciprocal
Hence, from the rules given above

loge
logio
N = 2-303 N = '4343
log 10
logN.
To avoid
in
mind that
confusion with these multipliers it should be borne e is a smaller base than 10, and therefore it must be
raised to a higher
its
power to equal the same number. Hence the log to base e of any number must be greater than
log to base 10. If tables of Napierian logs are to hand, the foregoing rules but a few hints as to the use of such tables become unnecessary
;
will
is
not be out of place, for reading from tables of Napierian logs somewhat more involved than that from tables of common logs. Examples are here added to demonstrate the determination of
natural logs
by the two
14.
processes.
Example
Using the tables of natural logs (Table IV at the end

log,.
of the book), find log* 48-72,
and loge -00234.
log, 48-72
= log, (4-872
10)
= loge 4-872 + log* = 1 '5 8 35 + 2-3026 = 3-8861
10
log'
=
4Ti
log'
Je?
= loge 5 = 1-6233 = -0951
'
7
~~
' loge 4 61
1-5282
FURTHER ALGEBRA
log, -00234
2I9
log,
= ^24 log, 2-34 log, 1000 = log, 2-34 - 3 log, 10 = -8502 3 x 2-3026
-=
= ^8502 9424
6-9078
It will be observed that for each power of ten in the number 2-3026 has to be added or subtracted as the case be.
may
Example
15.
Without tables of natural

log, 9-63, log, log, 9-63
logs, find values of
-?,
and
log, -2357.
= Iogj 9-63 x 2-303 = -9836 x 2-303 = 2-266

x
10
'
2-303
}
.
:
= 2-303 {Iog i7i 7 - Ioglo453 = 2-303{3-2347 - 2-6561} = 2-303 x -5786

log,-23 5 7
= logi -2357 x 2-303 = 1-3724 x 2-303 = (f x 2-303) + (-3724 = - 2-303 + -8576 = 2:5546
x
2-303)
Separating the two distinct parts
{the subtraction being
performed so that
the
mantissa
is
kept positive}.
Application of Logarithms to harder Computations. first chapter the method of applying logs for purposes of evaluation of simple expressions was shown. Such values were found as (2I-25) 5 ^-03, etc., *. e. numbers raised to positive powers only. The rules there used are applicable to all cases, whatever the powers may be. A negative power may be made
In the
, t
into a positive
to
power by changing the whole expression from top

fraction or vice versa (for
so that the a~ n ) a n/ \ it may be or evaluation is obtained on the lines already detailed ; obtained directly as here indicated. N.B. Great care must be observed in connection with the signs : when-
bottom of the
ever distinct parts (e.g., a positive and a negative) occur in a logarithm, these should be treated separately.
220

16.
Example
Let
Evaluate
= the expression = then x log x = = = =

x
x
184 and by taking x -134 log -005134 -134 x 37 I0 4 ('134 X 3) + (-134 x -7104)
(-005 134)'
logs,
-402
-0952
1-6932
log -4934
-4934
Notice that -402 is subtracted from -0952 although the former is the greater; this being done so that the mantissa of the log shall be
positive.
Example
17.
Find the value of
(-1473)
l-1
LetThen
*=
log x
= 2*1 x log -1473 = 2-1 x 1-1682 = 2-1 x -1682) 2-1 x I) + = + 2-1 - -3532 = 1-7468 = log 55-82 = 55-82
(
Example
Let
18.
Evaluate
{^3-187}
-*-*
= {log* 3 -i87}- 2 _ y-'ost where

first
= log
3-187.
The value of y must
be found.
From
the tables log* 3-187
Hence
Now
log
= 1-1591 = y 1-1591 and x = (1-1591) x= -024 x log 1-159 = -024 x -0641 = -001538 = 1-998462 or = log -9965 x = -9965
-||-
OM
1-9985
Example
19.
Evaluate
Let x
= this
fraction.
Thenlog
x ={J log 42-17 =ii log 42-17
2 log -0145}
-116 log 58-27}
{2 log 8-91
{2 log 8-91
-116 log 58-27} 2 log -0145}
FURTHER ALGEBRA
=
B
22 j
Explanation.
(-5417
+ -2046) 2'2226
(1-8998
+ 4-3228)
X
log 42-17 = 1-6250 log 42-17= -5417
-7463
log 58-27 log log
=1-7654
-2046
=
=
2-5237
333-9
116 x log 58-27=

log 333-9
2
2
= 1-8998 log -0145 =2 -1614

8-91
8-91=
-9499
log -0145
=4-3228
When substituting figures for the letters in formulae and thence evaluating the formulae, the importance of the preceding rules will be recognised. Empirical formulae and also the direct results of rigid proofs are of no value at all if one cannot use them efficiently.
It is necessary for this
to, or in
viz.
extension
step at
of,
purpose that one or two rules, in addition those already given should be rigidly observed,
:
Work one
and
a time
:
keep
all
terms quite distinct until their separate
values have been found
cannot be directly
and remember that statements including changed into log forms.
e. g.,
= 45 +
1' 2
(29)
would not read, when logs were taken throughout, which is wrong. 1-2 log 29 log x log 45 To evaluate this equation, (29) 1>a would be found separately and its value afterwards added to 45. In cases in which a number of separate terms have to be evaluated
it is
of the paper
advisable to keep the separate workings for these to one side and quite distinct from the body of the sum.
C.
= Example 20. A gas is expanding according to the law ptf* Find the value of the constant C when p = 85, v = 2-93 and n = 1-3.
Substituting values In the log form
log
C= C=
1 -* 85 x (2-93)
= =
C=
log
85+1-3
log 2-93
1-9294+
1-9294 343-9
(1-3
-607
-4669)
2-5364
/ inches of Example 21. The insulation resistance of a length fibre-covered wire, of outside radius r,, and inside radius r l the specific resistance of the insulator being S, is given by the formula
;
Find the resistance of the insulation of 50 ft. of wire, of outside diam. -25 cm. and inside diam. I2 cm., when S = 3000 megohms.
222

Explanation.
J
**
R=
-366
3000 50 X 12
125
^06"
o is a ratio,
le.
and
.*.
rt
and
?! may be in any units so long as both are in the
same
366 x 5 x 734
log*
06
1-25
1-343
megohms.
= Example
quantity
22.
= logi-25
-2231
-log, -6
1-4892
7339
For the flow of water over a rectangular notch, the

12'
Find
Q = aLH 6 + 6H 5 Q when a = -27, L = 11-5, 6 = 28, and H =

for the separate parts
-517.
Making substitutions
Let
Q=x+
of
y.
x and y must be first found quite separately and then added. It is preferable in this example to treat the determination of the values of x and y as the main portion, ., to work these in the
.
Then the values
centre of the page.
Then
Also
Then
= aLH = -27 x 11-5 X (-5I7) log x = log -27 + log 11-5 + 1-5 log -517 = 1-4314 + 1-0607 + (1-5 X I7I35) = 1-4314 + 1-0607 1-5 + 1-0703 = -0624 x = 1-154 y = bW'* = 28 x (-5I7) log y = log 28 + 2-5 log '5 1 ? = 1-4472 + (2-5 x 17135) = 1-4472 - 2-5 + 17838
x
1-6
1' 5
Alternative
Method
of Setting Out.
No
2' 5
Q=
5-383
+y +
5'383
6-537
FURTHER ALGEBRA
Example
23.
223
fraction q of a sample of steam, expanding adiabatically, viz. without loss or gain of heat, can be found
The dryness
from
where r lt q^ and LJ are the original conditions of absolute temperature, dryness and latent heat respectively; and T, q and L are the final conditions of absolute temperature, dryness and latent heat. One Ib. of dry steam at 115-1 Ibs. per sq. in. absolute pressure, expands adiabatically to a pressure of 20-8 Ibs. per sq. in. absolute find its final dryness.
the steam tables, r t (corresponding to pressure 115-1 Ibs. per 799 F. absolute temperature, and r (for pressure = 20-8 F. absolute temperature. Ibs. per sq. in.) = 691 Also the respective latent heats are L t = 879 and L = 954. Then if q-i = i, since the steam is originally dry
sq. in.)
From
Explanation.
-725{i-i
-145}
-725
-903-
x 1-245
2-303(2-9025 2-303 x -0630
2-8395)
145
mixture of water Example 24. For an air-lift pump for slimes (a = 1-1013) and very fine portions of crushed ore, of specific gravity
the formula for the horse-power per cu.
ft.
of free air can be reduced to
H.P.
= =
-015042
12-5,
"- p
{P*(p-|)
15-
i}
Find H.P. when P!

Substituting values
P, =
Explanation.
H.P.
=
=
=
?1
.oi50 4 2{i 5
(^ )
12-5}
Let AT
log x
12-5}
-015042 {15 x -8786 -015042 (13-18

-01023
12-5)
...
(^P) = -71 (log 12-5 - log 15) = -71(1-0969 - 1-1761) = -71 x -0792 = - -0562 = I-9438 = x -8786.
/I2-5Y 71
224
equations containing
Logarithmic Equations. Whenever it is required to solve awkward powers it is nearly always the best Little plan, and in many cases the only one, to use logarithms.
will suffice.
explanation should be necessary after the previous work, and a few
examples
Example 25. 1-37, and p
Find v from the equation, pvn

22.
C,
when C
146,
Substituting values
22 x v 1
37
=146
Then
log 22
1-37 log v x '37 log v
= log =
_
146
log 22 22 log *
-822 _ 1-3424 _ ~ i'37~~
log v
log J 46 log * - 146
2-1644
3-981
1-37
Example
26.
If
-^
giving the head h lost in length

v,
of pipe of diam. d, the velocity of flow of the water being 12. when h 4-7 and I -87, v
find d
Transposing for d
OOO4U -jn
1 ' 87
Taking logs of both

1-4
sides
\ogd = log = log

J
-0004 -0004
+ 1-87 log v + log + 1-87 log 4-7 + log

1-9395
12
log h log -87
f4-6o2i 1-2568 1-0792 12-9381
Explanation.
log 4-7
1-87
-6721
Then-
_ logrf = 1-4 = - 7 1 53 = d=
27.
^6
2-9986
log 4-7
-2+
1-2568
-9986
1-0014
1-4
1-4
Example
It is required to express the clearance in the cylinder
of a gas engine as a fraction of the stroke. perature at the end of compression is 1061
expansion
pv
1'*
is
661
F. abs.
are told that the temF. abs. and at the end of and that expansion is according to the law
We
C.
Also
K.
(This
example
is
important and should be
carefully studied.)
FURTHER ALGEBRA
,
225
Let pc re and ve be the pressure, absolute temperature and volume respectively at the end of compression; and let pe rt and vt be the corresponding quantities at the end of expansion.
,
Then we can say
pcvc
1' 3
''
and also-
(Pc\
_V w'v
= C = p ve
e 73
1' 3
8 "
=K=
tS.
Hence from equations
(i)
and
(2)
or,
dividing through by
-'
What
is
required
is
ve
-2 T
t -
(3)
ve
and
this
can be found
if
is
vc
known.
For.simplicity let x
=-
Then from
(3)
In the log form
'3
log *
log x
= log = log
or
ve
1061 1061
log 661
log 661
3-0257
2-8202
-^=685
..
Hence and
ve vc
= 4-842 which is = ve 4-8421;,. ive ve = 4-842^ = 3 '842^

x
3
'
thus the value of
260^
Exercises 26.
On
Evaluation of Difficult Formulae and on Logarithmic

Equations.
1.
Find the natural logs of 21-42 Find the values of
3-18;
-164.
i
1871
2.
log, -007254;
log* 72-54;
log,.
-^
3.
Tabulate the values of

respectively.
[log,
log
-^p
when
461, 500, 560, 613,
800,
and 1000
4.
Evaluate
226
5.
Find Evaluate Exs. 6 to

'
MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS the value of pv log r when p = 120, v = 4-71

e
and
= 5-13.
14.
6.
(24-91)-
7l
7.
(-1183)"
8.
1'
(-0054)'
9.
(3-418)"
x
'
(-4006)-
3-4
10 . S*2Lj3*5J>:*
12. (-3724)2 ' 43
11. (-04I05)- 2 3
(lo ge i-62)3
(log 10 325-6)7 ' 76
247
14. 1-163
15.
(-0005)
-i-
V(log 10 2i-67)-
in a bearing dlv 1 33 of inches, / length bearing in Find the number in feet per sec. inches, of B.Th.U. generated per hour by a shaft of 5" diam., rotating in a bearing 2 ft. long with surface velocity of 50 ft. per sec.
The heat (B.Th.U) generated per hour
'
where d
= diameter of bearing in v = surface velocity of shaft
16.
Find the value of a velocity
from
when
17.
-97,
K=
-63,
32-2
and h
49-5.
The collapsing pressure
longitudinal lap-joints
may
in. for furnace tubes with be calculated from Fairbairn's formula
P Ibs.
x
/
per sq.
p=
where
t
7-363
/
= thickness
Find
Calculate
in inches.
P when t = P
if /
in inches,
-043",
= length in inches = 38", and d =
and d
4".
diameter
18. Similarly for tubes
with longitudinal and cross joints. -12", I = 60", and d = 5^* from
P=
19. The theoretical calculated from
fU
15547000^-^^,
is
mean
ft.
effective pressure (m.e.p.) in a cylinder
Eiii'og.")
Ps
r
where
P=
boiler
expansion. Find the actual m.e.p. in the case

is
back pressure, and pressure, Pj The actual m.e.p. = pm x diagram factor.
ratio
of
when P
95, P&
15,
cut off
at
-3
of stroke (.
e.,
=
J
and diagram factor
-8.
a pressure of R atmospheres, is given by when the compression is accomplished H.P. = -oi5P(R' 29 i) in one stage and H.P. = -O3P(R' 145 i) when the compression is accomplished in two stages. Find H.P. in each case if P = 14-7 and R = 4-6. 21. Find H, a hardness number, from
free air, to
20.
The H.P. required
to compress adiabatically a given
volume of
i6PD-*
'
n(2d)
Given that
D=
24,
5,
P=
58,
2-35.
FURTHER ALGEBRA
227
22. Mallard and Le Chatelier give the following rule for the deter ruination of the specific heat at constant volume (K,,) of CO, (carbon
dioxide)
44K,,
V367
j
4-33 ^
where
= C.
n
Find
23.
Kv
when
326.
Find H.P. from
H.P.
when Pj = 12-5, and P 2 = as in worked Example 24.

24.
| 22; the letters having the same meanings

i;
oi 5 o 4
|p
(?- )'
-P
Find the efficiency

T;
of a gas engine from
/j\n~l
I
~V~J
when n when a
io- 13
= i4
and
at
N revs, per min. in an atmosphere of

given by
25.
The H.P.
lost in friction
disc of diameter
ft.
revolves
steam of pressure p
Ibs.
per sq.
in. abs., is
H.P.
DN
5
Find the H.P.

26. If
lost
when
}* nj
the diameter
is
ft.,
N=
500,
and p
i.
= P( | \i +
=l
and
n=
1-41
,
find
27. Calculate the entropy of water absolute temperature T from
<j>
w and that of steam
<t>,
at
and
^log
hook
The value of
r is 682.
28. In the case of curved beams, as for a crane
= diam. of 1-5, radius of inside of crane hook in ins. where safe load of hook in Ibs., and 5 = maxi2-1, P cross section in ins. Find the value allowable tensile stress 17000 Ibs. per sq. in.
R=
mum
of P.
= =
29.
sample of steam of dryness

F.
;
ally to 58
adiabatic-83 at 380 F. expands from calculate its dryness at the latter temperature
is
the initial temperature and
L=
1115
'\
F.
i.e.,
abrol.
t+
46iJ
in. 30. Steam 20% wet at 90 Ibs. per sq. Find its in. absolute. adiabatically to 25 Ibs. per sq. second pressure. Note that = 2 5 ,t = p = go ,t= 3 20F.; p as between examples 29 and 30 difference the also [Note
^S^f
wF.;
given data.]
228
31.

The
efficiency
rj
of a perfectly-jacketed engine
is
given by
+
e
6(r
-r
&T!
1)
-l
TJ
where a
(F.
1437, b
-7;
rt
and
r, being the
extreme temperatures
F.
abs.).
Find the efficiency of a jacketed engine working between 66
and 363 F.
32. Calculate the efficiency of an engine working cycle between 60 F. and 363 F., using the formula
on the Rankine
LI
TX
+ T!
T,
and
T Z are absolute
33. Calculate the flow
temperatures and 1437 "jr. over a triangular notch from the formula
L=
Q=1
where g
34.
tan
A
H* | V2i-
32-2,
H=
-28,
tan -
-577.
Find the number of heat units Hf supplied for the jacket to an engine working between 60 F. and 363 F. from the formula
H,-
1437 !og
7^
ri
- TI)
and
final respectively.
where
notch
If
rt
is
and
T X are absolute temperatures, initial
35. Francis'
formula for the discharge of water over a rectangular
Q
the breadth
*
(cu. ft.
L=
5-4,
,
per sec.) = 3-33 (L = -4, and n the head

*
36. If 37.
^|
find
= 2, find H when m = 2-16, v = 1-65.

may be
Q.
The volume
of i Ib. of
steam
calculated from Callendar's
equation
where
o>
ft.,
V=
pressure in Ibs. per sq. foot, T = temperature in centigrade degrees absolute (i. e., t C. + 273). when p = 10 Ibs. per sq. in. and t = 89-6 C. Find
vol. in cu.
-017, c
1*2,
R=
154
38. Recalculate,
39. Similarly, 437 C. absolute.
when P = 7200 Ibs. per sq. foot and t = 138-2 when p = 100 Ibs. per sq. in. and temperature
C.
is
40. In calculating the tensions of ropes on grooved pulleys ~. the formula
we have
-**
where 6 is the angle of lap in radians, /x is the coefficient of friction, r is a coefficient depending on the angle of the groove, and T and t are the greatest and least tensions respectively. Calculate the value of T if the angle of lap is 66, /x = -22, t = 45 and r => 1-84.
FURTHER ALGEBRA
41. The efficiency of Diesel principle) is given
22g an ideal or perfect engine (working on the
by
where d
volume at cut -ff volume of clearance'
Find the efficiency when d
volume volume of clearance 1-56, r = 14-3 and n =
= maximum
1-4.
42. Find the tensions T and * in a belt P the transmitting 20 belt lapping 120 round the pulley, which is of 3 ft. diam. and runs at 1 80 R.P.M. The coefficient of friction between the belt and pulley is -3. /x
Given that -
= (P 9
'
and 6
XT
= angle
of lap in radians
'
and
-
7rND(T-fl ""33060"
= revs- P61 min
and
D ft = diam
-
of pulley.
43. The pressure of a gas is 165 Ibs. per sq. in. when its volume is 2-257 cu. ft. and the pressure is -98 Ib. per sq. in. when the volume is 286 cu. ft. If the law connecting pressure and volume has the form n pv = constant, find the values of n and this constant. 44. Find y from 4 2y = 58-7. 45. Solve for x in the equation x l n = i^x' n
'
46.
When
(#
e
2
Sc
47. If 48.
8
)*'
= 41 -aS find the value of c. = gx solve this equation for

2' 9
,
: .
x.
and /,
Given that /^pt'J =/,*p,-t, and also that

19-5
:
Pl
-283, /i
28,
find p a
49. In the law connecting pressures gas, find p, from the equation
and temperatures of a perfect
= 1-37, p^ = 2160, T, = 1460 and T^ =2190. having given that P 1 83 = p(v + s) 1 83 50. For a gas engine, where P = compression pressure, p suction pressure, v = clearance volume and s = total volume swept out by the piston.
' '
i;
If 8-91 p and s -138, find v. aHn and 51. If v 3 when v 2000 find the values of a and n.
P=
H=
387
and
H=
80 when v
52. If the pressure be removed from an inductive electric circuit, the current dies away according to the law
where C is the current at any time / sees, after removal of the voltage, R and L are the resistance and self-inductance of the circuit respecIf R = 350, L = 5-5 and V = 40000, find tively, and V is the voltage. the time that elapses before the current has the value 80 amperes.
120 was lent out at 53. interest being added yearly;
and
r%
per
annum compound
(i
interest, the
in 5 years the
amount became
^150.
Find the rate per cent.

54. If
[Amount
;
Principal
-206;
+ = P<,
P,VV = P<jV 33
and
44000; find
P,.
230
of a piece of submarine cable is 55. The insulation resistance being measured it has been charged, and the voltage is diminishing according to the law
;
be KR
sees,
where b
If v
is
30,
some constant, and t = time in and at 15 sees, after it is noted to be
and
K=
-8
x io~ 6
26-43, find the value of R.
56. Calculate the efficiency of a Diesel
Engine from the formula
where
ratio
1-41,
rc
compression ratio
^CH =
3
13-8
and
re
= expansion
7-4.
57. Determine the ratio of the maximum tension to the minimum tension in a belt lapping an angle 6 radians round a pulley, the coefficient of friction
being
\L,
from
*.
T ~ ma
The
58. The work done volume v x is given by
in
A min.
coefficient of friction is -18
and the angle of lap is 154. the expansion of a gas from volume
n
i/
to
Find this work when v^
10, v t
i,
and n
1-13.
te* (the letters having the same meanings as in 59. If 2-88 radians, p. 6 40, find the value of T. -15 and t 40)
:
T=
60. Similarly
if
=
:
165, and
= T=
j
Example
1-78, find
/i.
p p
61. In the expansion of a gas it is given that pvn c, and that 6 find the law connecting 3 and p 40-5 when v 107-3 when v and v in this case.
" test on a rotating beam of fa" rolled 62. In a repeated load Bessemer steel, the connection between the stress F in Ibs. per sq. in. and the number of revolutions N to fracture was found to be F _ 214300
-
"
'147
Find the value of
when F
40700.
\" bright
63. In a similar test
on a specimen of
drawn mild
steel
p_ Determine the value of

64.
733QO
N '04
F which makes
~
N=
48300.
field
The
total magnetic force at a point in

(r*
a magnetic
10, r = 4 and x = 5-9. the results on a test on the measurement of the flow of water over a rectangular notch, complete the following table; it
Find this force when
C=
-4,
+ =
* 2 )i
65.
From
FURTHER ALGEBRA
being given that
retical discharge
ft
23I
. .
coeff. of discharge
theoretical discharge' 40-15 bh? (Ibs. per min.).
= j^^L$!^Lge_
CHAPTER VI PLANE TRIGONOMETRY

be examined
If the ordinary 30 60 set-square be found that for all sizes the ratios of corresponding sides are equal. If one of the angles is selected and the sides named according to their position with regard to that angle, the ratios of pairs of sides may be termed the trigonometrical ratios of the angle considered. The word trigonometry implies measurement of angles the measurement of the angles being made in terms
:
Trigonometric Ratios.
it will
of lengths of lines.
let the sides of the set-square be as shown in then the angle 30 can be denned as that angle in a rightangled triangle for which the side opposite to it is 2", whilst the hypotenuse is 4", i. e., the ratio of
For example,
:
Fig. 108
opposite side
hypotenuse
Again, the side 3-46" long is that " " or adjacent to the lying next angle 30, so that the angle 30 could thus be alternatively denned by the ratio of its adjacent side to the hypotenuse, or by the ratio of the adjacent side to the opposite
side.
To
The
these ratios special

pposite ratio g
side
names
is
are given.
called the
"
sine
"
of the angle considered,
hypotenuse
Tne ra tio
ad]acent Slde
is
called the
"cosine"
of the angle considered,
The
ratio
hypotenuse oate s "*e ffl

adjacent side
is
called the
"tangent "of the angle considered,
These three are the most important
if
they are inverted
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
three other ratios are obtained, viz. the cosecant or ( J-'
or
'
233
secant
and
As a general
rule these ratios,
which, as denned, only apply to

right-angled triangles, are written in the abbreviated form
:
sin, cos,
tan, cosec, sec
and
cot.
In the triangle
sin
ABC,
Fig. 109
A=
B=
PP
site to
A_
B
a
c
hypotenuse
whilst
sin
PP
site to
_b
c
hypotenuse
cos
tan
A
A
cosec
sec
A
A
cot
234

Now
*
*** = = BA, and in like manner sin nT OA -^ni EOC = EC and sin L FOD = FD. Also cos L BOA = OB, cos L EOC = OE and cos L FOD = OF. Thus the sine of the angle depends on the horizontal distance from the line ON of the
sin
J-J.il.
-j-j
L.
end of the revolving distance from OP.
line,
while the cosine depends on the vertical
the angle is very small, A is and consevery near to the sine is small and as O*A approaches quently more closely, the value of the sine decreases until, when the angle is o the sine is o, because the revolving line lies along ON. When the angle is 90, the revolving line lies along OP and the Curve of Cosines horizontal distance of its
;
When
ON ON
'^^
end
from
ON
has
its
%.
greatest
Thus
i. value, viz. the value of the sine
\f
increases from o to i as
the angle increases from o to 90.
Along OA,
set
off
produced,
ABj
= AB =
L BOA; and in like manner obtain the points Draw a Ej, Fj and O v smooth curve through the points M, B 1( Ej, 1 and
sin
O1
then this
is
a curve
of sine values, since the
intercepts between the quadrant perimeter values of the sine, thus sin L r
and
MOR = RR
this curve give the
Similarly the curve of cosine values can be drawn, and it is seen that it is of the same form as the curve of sine values, but it is
reversed in direction.
To read Table
page
suffices for
I at the end of the book.
In this table one
the various ratios, these being stated for each degree only from o to 90. This table is compact and has educational advantages, for it demonstrates clearly that as the angle increases the sine increases whilst the cosine decreases; and that
a ratio of an angle
so on.
is
equal to the co-ratio of
its
complement, and
expressed
Down
the
first
column and up the
last are the angles
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
235
in degrees, whilst in the adjacent columns the corresponding values in circular measure (radians) are given. Thus 31 -5411 radian,
and 73 = 1-2741 radians. The values of the sines appear in the 4th column from the beginning and the 4th from the end, as do also the cosine values; but for cosines the tables must be read in the reverse direction.
No
difficulty
should be experienced in this connection
if it
be
remembered that one must always work away from the title ol the column. Thus for cosines read down the 7th column and up the
4th column. Values of tangents and cotangents appear in the 5th and 6th columns; again working away from the title
E.g.,
sine
17=
23 tan 42 cot 5
cos
= = =
-2924,
sine 61
-9205, -9004,
cos 49
tan 88
cot 59
11-4301,
= = = =
-8746
-6561
28-6363
-6009.
To read Table V at the end of the book, which should be used when greater subdivision of angles is required. Suppose that sin must be found, if Table I is followed, sin 43 22' is required
43
:
viz. -6820,
and
sin
44,
viz. -6947,
and
22
g-
of their difference
must
be added to -6820.
Thus
sin
43 22'
'
22 = -6820+ ^ (-6947 = -6867

-
6820)
This process is rather tedious accordingly, referring to Table V, look down the ist column until 43 is reached, then along the line accounted 4' have now to be until under 18', the figure is -6858 under which in difference 4', 8 is the columns, use for this, for;
: ;
found
.'.
sine 43 22'
-68584-0008
-6866.
The tangent tables, Table VII, would be applied in the same when in the manner, but here the value of the ratio gets very large cannot be columns difference the neighbourhood of 90 so that =I the the tangent When 45, angle given with accuracy.
and the tangent continues to increase as the angle fore it happens occasionally that the integral part
to be altered in the middle of a line.
increases, thereof the value has

( )
To
= 1-9626, whilst e.g., tan 63 is written over the _first figure: the bar indicating tan 63 30' is written 0057, and this means 2-0057, be increased must line the of that the integer at the commencement
by
i.
bar signify this a
236
When using the cosine table, viz. Table VI, it must be remembered that an increase of the angle coincides with a decrease of the cosine, so that differences must be subtracted: e.g., if the value
of cos 52 55' is required.
/.
cos 52 54' cos 52 55'
= -6032 = -6032
diff . for i'
=2
0002
-6030.
Values of cosecants and secants can be found by inverting the

values of sines
and cosines
The angle
respectively.
Example
i.
of advance 6 of
sin 6
an eccentric
=.
engine mechanism can be found from

the lap
is -72",
j^-
I "O
in a
steam
6
Find
when
the lead
is
-12"
and the travel
is 3-6*.
Substituting the numerical values, sin 6
=
I*O
-4667. find the angle whose sine is -4667. Turning to the table of natural sines we find -4664 (the sine of 27 48') to be the nearest figure under -4667; this leaves -0003 to be accounted for. In the difference columns in the same line we see that
We
have now to
a difference of 3 in the sine corresponds to a difference of I min. in the angle; hence i' must be added to 27 48' to give the angle whose sine
is
-4667.
Hence
2 7 49'.
Example
2.
If cos
A=
---
'
= 4-2, 6 = 7-8
and
=6
find A.
7 -8'+6 -4-2
60-84+36-17-64
93-6
'2x7-8x6'
=
93-
.3
6I
From the table of natural cosines we find that the angle having the ratio the nearest above -8461 is 32 12'; for this the cosine is -8462, and therefore the difference of -oooi has to be allowed for. In the difference columns we see that a difference of -0002 corresponds to i'; = 32 12' 30*. and thus -oooi corresponds to 30*. Hence
Exercises 27.
On
the Use of the Tables of Trigonometric Ratios.
1. Read from the tables the values of: sin 61; tan 19; cos 87; tan -2269 radian. 2. Find the values of sin 77$; cos 15 24'; tan 58 13'; cos 1-283
radians.
3.
Evaluate
'
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY 237 4. In a magnetic field, if H = horizontal = and T the component total force due to the earth, then H = T cos d. Find T when H = -18 and d = 63.
5.
The tangent
of the angle of lag of an electric current
reactance
resistance
is
= 2n- x frequency x inductance. If frequency inductance -0021 and resistance 1-7, find the angle of lag.
and reactance
6.
40,
The
mean
cos (angle of lag). lag = I9i. What behind the voltage

7.
of working in watts = amperes x volts x Find the mean rate when A = 2-43, V = no and is the mean rate of working if the current lags 90
rate
?
The pitch
12
ft.
of a roof
span
-- = 4 tan A, where A
rise
is
the angle of the
roof.
rise is
Find the angle of the roof for which the span

6 is the angle
is
36
ft.
and the
8. If
R, and then
an axle of radius r runs on a pair of antifriction wheels of radius between the lines joining the respective centres,
where F = force required to overcome the and F! = force required to overcome the Find F if 6 = 47^, r = antifriction wheels.
9. If
friction friction
3",
on a plane axle
'R
when using
10*
teeth in gear,
D = pitch diameter of spiral toothed gear, N P = normal diametral pitch, and a = tooth angle of
PCOS
a
and F x = 47. = number of
the
gear,
then
If
D=
5-108,
N = 24 and P = 5,
find a.
stresses, if
10. In calculating principal or

s
maximum
tan 26
=
-j
t
3819, find d. of teeth in the cutter for spiral gears no. of teeth in the gear cos 8 (angle of spiral) Find the number of teeth in the cutter when the 3angle of the spiral the cube (#.B. cos A means is 50 and there are 48 teeth in the gear. 8 .) but cos 8 is the cos of of the cosine of ; turbines the equation 12. In connection with the design of water " the water at = w tan 6 occurs, where tangential velocity of = velocity of the blade radial velocity of water at inlet, inlet, inlet, at inlet, and & is the inclination of the blade at 6 = 6oJ, find w. 47-7 ft. per sec. and per sec., the horizontal p ress ure 13. In the formula giving the value of on a retaining wall of height h, the earth surface being c .he e artn, , _ _ *. ~. earth and 4, is the angle of repose
11.
2852 and
/=
The number
= =
V=
^***"
24
ft.
Find the value of p when
w=
130,
23J
and h
238

moment
2
14. Calculate the value of M, the bearing, from
of friction of a collar
__
when R! = 15. The
4-5,
R =
z
3-75,
W = 2000,
2
asinaCRi
p.
- R, = -17
2
and
12.
total pressure
P on
the rudder of a ship
P= 4 -6KAV
a
-+
"39
is
given by
* in
.
'61 sin a
= V=
where
area of rudder, -7, and speed of ship in knots, angle of rudder with fore and aft plane. Calculate P, given that 8 and a 16, 15%.
V=
The
A=
K=
A=
force Pj applied horizontally to move a weight rough plane inclined at an angle a to the horizontal, is given by
16.
up a
Find
17.
if
W = 3000,
of
+ tan a) p = WQi i tan a a = 8, and the coefficient of

p.
/*,
friction,
= -12.
The
total extension
2 = Wa /.
d of a helical spring
--FQ-(I
2 sin 2 a)
is
given by
= length =
18.
If
radius
29*,
W=
coil 4", 12 Ibs. and a
G= =
is
12
14,
io Ibs. per D*, J -15, find the total extension.
The range
of a projectile
given by
V -
sin
o
<f>
2A
,
where
V=
velocity of projection, range, if the projectile of 1520 ft. per sec.
A=
is
elevation of gun and g = 32-2. Find the fired at an elevation of 29 15' with a velocity
19. pn intensity of the normal pressure of wind on a surface inclined at 6 to the direction of wind, and p = intensity of pressure on the surface perpendicular to its direction 2 sin 6
If
35 and 6
**~*'i + *a*e
22 J, find pn
.
20.
If
The maximum power-factor

is
of a
motor
= cos
TT "p
'
'
~]
H.P.
4-78 find
effort
<f>,
the angle of lag of the current.
21. If
effort, 6
on crosshead of a steam engine, T = crank-pin connecting-rod and if P = 450 Ibs., = u crank angle, n =
P=
-from
and 6
1-5 radians
find T,
T=
P/sin 6
I
K=
sin 8-1} Sin 171-9 {Hint. 22. Calculate the value of y

-4, t
+ Vw 2
.
Sm
2*
sin 2 6}
the angle being expressed in radians. 23. The electrical induction B in an air gap is given by
-02,
5, 6
w=
Re~ K
'
sin (wt
d)
when
R=
3-5,
-16
B=
Find
9 Csin-(i+-)Rxio 2 An x io 7
and tan 20
B when A = = -1052.
3-515,
20, X
-0867,
C=
42-05,
R=
10382
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
24.
239
Find a value of 6 to
4.
satisfy the equation

A
an
$d(l
2x)
where d = 5, / = 30 and x = 4-5. This equation refers to stiffened suspension badges, where 6 is the angle of inclination of the cable to the horizontal at a horizontal distance x from one end of the bridge, / is the span of the bridge and d is the sag.
~!*~
Application of Trigonometric Ratios.

with a very simple case.
We
will first deal
Example 3. The angle of elevation of the top of a chimney at a point on the ground 120 ft. from the foot of the chimney is 25. Find the height of the chimney.
Before proceeding to the actual working of the example, the of elevation must be explained. The zero of the theodolite (an angle measuring instrument) would be observed when the telescope was directed along the horizontal the telescope would then be moved in a vertical plane until the top of the chimney was seen and the angle then noted. This angle is called the angle of elevation and is the angle between the horizontal and the line joining
:
term angle
the eye to the objeet.

If
would be read, but
the instrument be placed on the chimney top, the same angle it would now be called the angle of depression
is
because the object (the earth)
below the level of the eye.

ft.
In the example before us, let h " _ PP!./<rt r or\ TT
= height
of
chimney
(Fig.
in)
"T
= tan 25. and therefore Now, from the tables

tan 25
120 h and
.'.
-4 66 3
= -4663 = 120 x -4663 = 55 '96, say 56 ft.

4.
and the drop across each coil is 126 volts. alternating-current main, relation between the voltage drops If the diagram illustrating the j the voltages in tl find the difference in phase between
as in Fig. 112,
Example
Two
coils are
connected in series over a 220 volt
two
coils,
i. e.,
find the angle a.
Since the sides
to
AC
bisects
AC.
AB and BC are equal, the perpendicular or DC = no; and also /.DBC =|
from
on
240

sin
Then-
- =
2
126
==
-8730 /3
= sin
and
whence
a
(
60 49'
=-*> 49 = I2I
Example 5. In a test on the Halpin thermal storage system, as fitted to a Babcock and Wilcox boiler, the volume of water taken from the storage tank to the boiler is to be determined by the difference in water level between
finish. The tank being a cylinder of 57*81* diam. and 2^1* its axis with horizontal, see Fig. 113, the water level is 52-96" length, from the tank bottom at the start and 14-86* at the finish. Find the volume of water abstracted in cu. ft.
start
and
area
We have to find the area of ABCD, viz. the difference between the AEBCD (at the start) and the area AEB (at the finish), and then
multiply by the length of the tank. To find the area of the segment
and
AEB = OF OE EF 28-91 14-86 = 14-05 OF = = -4859 = cos 60 56' :OS a = -Q OA 28-91 60-93 a = 60 56' or 1-063 radians.
pr-f-
57'3
Fig. 113.
Halpin Thermal Storage System.
We
viz.
can
now
9*
use the rule previously given for the area of a segment,

sin S)
area
(8
where
6 is the central angle in radians, for
28-91,
= u AOB = = sin(i8o
and sin 6 = sin 121 52' 2a 2-126, 121 52^ = sin 58 8' = -8493.
in the book.]
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY proof of the rule sin A = sin (180A)

area of
241
is
given later
ThusTo
AEB =
=
Mi
2 I26
.
533*8 sq. ins.
find the area of the
segment
DHC
28-91
OG = EG-OE =
ft
52-96
24-05
-'83.8 -cos
and
sin 2,3
33' 43"
= 33 = sin
43' or -588 radian 67 26' -9234.
Hence
area of
DHC =
-923)
Area of
= 105-9 sq. ins. the whole circle = - x 57-8i 2 = 2625 sq. ins. area of ABCD = 2625533-8105-9 = 1985 sq. and volume = cu ft> = 2 88- 4 cu.
-Jlj
ins.
ft.
Example 6. A seam dips at an angle of 62 to the horizontal for a distance of 900 ft. measured along the seam and then continues dipping at an angle of 40 to the A shaft is started to horizontal. cut the seam at a distance of 1200 ft. horizontally from the outcrop; at what depth will it cut the
Outcrop
seam
example introduces the of two right-angled trithe lengths AD and AC angles (Fig. 114) are given and we require to find DF.
This
solution
:
Fig. 114.
Problem on a Coal Seam.
In the triangle
Also
Hence
In the
28 = -4695 = AB 900x^4695 = 422-6' = sin 62 = -8829 900 BC = 900 x -8829 = 79^4' CE = BD = I200-AB = 777-4' = tan 40 = -8391 triangle CEF, ^g = EF 777-4 x -8391 = 652-4 = DF DE+EF = BC+EF = 794'4+ 6 5 2 '4 = I 44P'8ft.
ABC,
AB = sin
242

Trigonometric Ratios from the Slide Rule.
The
sine
and tangent
scales of the slide rule
may
be usefully employed in
trigonometry questions; the multiplication of the side of the triangle by the trigonometric ratio being performed without the actual value of the ratio being read off. Reverse the slide so To read values of trigonometric ratios that the S scale is adjacent to the A scale and the T scale to the D scale. The sines of angles on the S scale will then be read off If the number is on the left-hand end of directly on the A scale. the rule, then -o must be prefixed to the reading, but if on the righthand end of the rule, then a decimal point only.
:
e. g.,
to find sin 4
scale
read off 698;

-0698.
this
sin 4
place the cursor over 4 on S scale, and on being on the left-hand end of the rule
Again, sin 67 = -921 for 921 is read off on the A scale above 67 on the S scale and is on the right-hand end of the rule.
As the angle approaches 90 the sine does not increase very rapidly and therefore the markings for the angles on the S scale in this neighbourhood are very close together. From 70 the
usual markings are for 72, 74, 76, 78, 80, 85
longer
and 90, the
mark being
*. e.,
at
80.
To use the S
from 90,
e. g.,
find its
cos 37
scale for a scale of cosines, first subtract the angle complement, and then find the sine of this.
sin
53
-799.
multiplication with the reading of ratios, use the S scale just as the ordinary slide or B scale, multiplying, as it were, by the angles instead of by mere numbers.
To combine
suppose the value of the product 18-5 x sin 72 is required. hand of the S scale is set level with 185 on the A scale, the cursor is placed over 72 on the S scale, and the product 17-6 is read off on the A scale.
e.g.,
The
right
fashion, the
The tangents of angles from o T and D scales being

:
to 45
will
be read in a similar
used.
Tan 45
i,
and
after
being infinitely large at 90. subtract the angle from 90 and For an angle greater than 45 divide unity by the tangent of the resulting angle.
e. g.,
this the tangent increases rapidly,
suppose tan 58
is
required.
Actually
tan 58
set 32
Hence
on the
tan 32 scale level with
i
,
on the
scale
then
the reading on the scale opposite 45, is the required value and is 1-6.
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY D the

,'.
243
.,
end of the
scale
further example.
Find the value of
-7
tan 64
talV
:
87Xtan 26
42 '4'
[The setting being 45 on the T scale against 87 on the the cursor over 26 on the T scale; then 42-4 on the D
scale
scale.]
Example 7. A boat towed along a canal is bank and the length of rope is 64 ft. The horse
12
ft.
from the near
pulls with a force of
500 Ibs. : find the effective pull on the boat, and that tending to pull the boat to the side of the canal.
Fig. 115.
Forces on Boat towed along a Canal.

is first (a,
The
viz.
"
"
space
2
diagram
62-8
set out
and from
this
is
calculated,
-v/64
-i2 2 =
Fig. 115).
If a triangle be of the triangle
EG
(see b, Fig. 115) with sides parallel to those that EF represents 500 Ibs. to some scale, then and GF represent the pulls required to the same scales. Or by calculation
drawn
ABC so
=
500
cos
E = cos A =
2--,
*'
GE =
500 cos
64
i. e.,
the pull towards the bank
93-8 Ibs.
Also
=
500
sin
E = sin A =
-^-, 64
*. e.,
GF =
500 sin
, 49I
i. e.,
the effective pull in the direction of the boat's motion
49* Ibs.
In general the components of a force R in two directions at are R cos a, and R s'.n a right angles to one another (see Fig. 116)
244
where a
As a
is is
is
= T cos d,
is the angle between and the first of the components. further example of resolution into components, if T (Fig. 117) the total magnetic force on a unit pole at some place and d the angle of dip, the horizontal component of the force
and
the vertical component
= T sin
d.
Fig.
1 1 6.
Fig. 117. of Forces.
Components
Calculation of Co-ordinates in
Land Surveying.
When
plotting the notes of a traverse survey, in which the sides of a " " included or internal angles are measured in polygon and the
the
field, it is
necessary to
first
transform the dimensions of the
and angles so as to give the co-ordinates of the comers as measured from the north and south line (or meridian) on the one hand, and from some chosen east and west line on the other hand. The survey is then plotted from the co-ordinates, with the object of introducing an accuracy of drawing which is impossible if the
lines
In the latter case the field-book dimensions are directly set out. the error is and, further, cumulative, plotting of angles angular at all times is more productive of error than the plotting of lines
(e. g.,
co-ordinates).
Quadrant bearings. The co-ordinate axes being chosen as just stated, viz. North-South and East-West, every line of the traverse is referred to the meridian in terms of the smallest angle between " " it and the meridian, with the further statement of the quadrant Such angles are (N.E., S.E., S.W., or N.W.) in which it is placed. termed quadrant or reduced bearings.
Thus in Fig. 118 The reduced bearing
of the line
is
B
is
is
36 S.E., that of the line C
A is 27 N.E., that of the line 66 S.W., and that of the line D
11
N.W.
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
245
direction. This is better than the quadranf method requiring but one simple numerical statement
handed
N.W. QUADRANT* N N.E. QUADRANT
S.W. QUADRANT
Fig. 118.
c.
S.E.
QUADRANT
Fig. 119.
Reduced Bearings.
Whole-circle Bearings.
For example, in Fig. 119, the whole-circle bearings of the lines A, B, C and D are respectively 27, 144, 246 and 349, all measured from the north line ON.
Example
8.
Measurements on a triangular plot of land ABC,

:
75, B = 43 and C = 62. The reduced bearing (R.B.) of AB is 9 N.E. and the point A is taken as the origin for the co-ordinates. Find the reduced bearings of BC and CA, the co-ordinates of the points B and C, and also the area of ABC.
5462
links,
CA =
Fig. 120, resulted in the following
AB =
A=
7073 links,
BC =
7736
links,
Right-hand order should be adhered to throughout, as indicated
by the
letters
ABC.
R.B. of BC. [It should be grasped that the bearing Mark on the diagram to B is not the same as the bearing B to C.] all the known angles, and then by combination with 90 or 180 all the = 43 9 = 34 S.E. required bearings can be found. Thus R.B. of BC
find the
To
of
since 34
the N. and S. line the fix the direction of movement. to be also must stated, definitely quadrant = i8o-62 -3 4 = 84 S.W. Similarly, the R.B. of CA
is
the acute angle
made by BC with
To
calculate the co-ordinates of
B
9
also
= sin 9 and therefore BD = AB sin AD = AB cos 9.

t5
246

Thus the departure
of B = AB
(i. e.,
(i. e.,
its
distance E. or
W. from
A)
sin (R.B. of
AB)
and the latitude
of
its
= AB
log
distance N. or S. from A) x cos (R.B. of AB)
Then
In the log form
BD = 7073 x sin 9 BD = log 7073 + log sin 9 = 3-8496 + I-I943 = 3-0439 BD = 1106 links, which is the departure B east of A
of
JSL
Fig. 1 20.
Plot of Land.
Again
In the log form log
AD = AB cos 9 = 7073 x cos AD = log 7073 + log cos 9

=
3-8496
T-994 6
.".
AD =
6985
links,
which
3-844 2 is the latitude
Hence the co-ordinates of the point

For the point C In the log form
B north of A B are 1106,
6985.
log
BE = 7736 sin 34 BE = log 7736 + log sin 34 = 3-888 5 + 1-7476 = 3-6361 BE = 4326 links, which is the
C east
of B.
departure of
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
Again
In the log form
2 4?
CE = 7736 cos 34 log CE = log 7736 + log cos
34
= 6413
Thus the co-ordinates
of
= 3-8885 + = 3-8071 -
1-9186
links,
latitude
which is the difference of between B and C.

4326) and (6985
6413)
Care (1106
or (5432,
,572).
The
figure
may now
be accurately plotted by means of the co-
ordinates.
To
calculate the area
A ABC
= ADEF-ABD-BEC-ACF = (5432 x 6985)- (x 6985x1106)
2 Dividing by ioo Dividing by 10,
= (37-95 x io)-(3-87X io)-(i3-88x io = 18647000 sq. links = 1864-7 S( chns. = 186-47 acres.
l-
)-(i-5 53 x io
For greater precision tables of log sines and log cosines (viz. IX at the end of the book) have been utilised in the working of this example. For general work the accuracy of the slide rule is sufficient, but in all cases these tables, which are used in the same way as the tables of natural sines and natural
Tables VIII and
cosines, are convenient.
As shown
of
earlier in the chapter the value of the sine or cosine
an angle varies between o and I, and accordingly the values of oo the logs of these ratios vary between e., the smallest quantity oo o and since o, (refer Chapter I) and log i = o. log possible)
(;'.
Except
of 7-
be
7-
..... .....
sin sin
for small angles, therefore, the log sine will be of the nature whilst the value of the log cosine will or ~2'
or
2-
..... .....
-454
unless the angle

Io g sin 2 7
is large.
e. g.,
o33' =
27
= =
and
cos 87
-0096 and log sin o33' -0523 and log cos 87
= lo g '454 = = log -0096 = 3-9823 = log -0523 = 2-7185
From the following co-ordinates compute the true g. and the angle with the horizontal of the line AB. the bearing, length,
Example
Station.
248

plotting the points A and B from the co-ordinates given, their positions are represented. Complete the triangle ABC by
By
actual
drawing
AC
vertically
and
BC
horizontally (see Fig. 121).
Then
and
AC = BC =
4501-2 4788-1
+ +
20-1
56-1
= =
4521-3 4844-2
To express
same accuracy
the results with the as that with which
the figures have been measured must use five figure log tables. To find the angle CAB
we
'
Bearing angle reauired

I
tan
i.e.,
CAB =484412
4521-3
log tan
CAB = log 4844-2 - log 452 1 -3 = 3-68523 - 3-655 2 7 = -01996 = log tan 46 19'. CAB = 46 19'
circle
56-1
inclined length
The whole
is
thus 180
46
19'
bearing of AB = 133 41^.
To
find the length (on the plan) of
AB
CB
=
-pjs
sin 46 19'
AB
=
In the log form
log
sin
46 19'
19'
4844-2
sin 46
AB =
= =
log 4844-2
log sin 46 19' - 1-85924 = 3-82599 3-68523 log 6698-7
AB=
6698-7
;
This length found is that of AB on the plan the true length will be slightly greater than this, since it is the hypotenuse of the triangle of which the base is 6698-7; and the height is 80.
In the triangle
ABB
1
:
tan
B'AB =
log 6698-7
6698-7
and
log tan
B AB =
1
log 80
= = =
1-90309 3-82599 2-07710 log tan 41' 4*
.*.
the inclination of
of
and the true length
AB to the horizontal is 41 '4* AB (or AB = V (66987) ~^8o*

1
)
6699-3-
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
Exercises 28.
249
On
the Solution of Right-Angled Triangbs, and the Calculation of Co-ordinates.
In the following Examples i to 7, ABC is a triangle right-angled at C. (In each case the figure should be drawn to scale.)
1. c
2.
3. c
4. b
5. c 6. 6 7. c
= = = = = = =
45",
12",
65", 34",
27-37",
72 -5",
23-4",
dropped from an aeroplane strikes a building which is to be one mile away from an observing station, at which the elevation of the aeroplane is seen to be 29. Find the " range," i. e., the distance of the aeroplane from the observer, and also its height. 9. A mountain railway at its steepest rise has a gradient of i in 7. What is the inclination to the horizontal of this gradient ? [Note that
8.
A bomb
A = 15, B = 36, A = 48, B = 27, A = 54, A - 3 8i, B = 27i,
find a find 6 find a
find a
a find a find a
find
and and and and and and and
b.
c.
b.
c.
6.
c.
b.
known
the gradient
10.
is
always the
*-;
hypotenuse J
ft. high, a bench mark (Government height above sea-level) is sighted, and the angle of depression is 48. Find the horizontal distance from the house of the B.M., which is placed at a point 3 ft. above the ground. 11. The crank and connecting rod of a reciprocating engine are at If the value of the ratio right angles to one another. connecting rod length
From
the top of a house, 37
length of crank
is 4-7,
find the angle which the crank makes with the line of stroke. find the angle ft. and the span is 84 ft. 12. The rise of a roof is
of the roof.
13. The tangent of the angle of a screw is given by the pitch divided by the circumference of the screw. If the diameter is 5* and the
pitch angle is 7 15', find the pitch. 14. If the screw in Ex. 13 becomes (a) double- or threaded, what are now the angles of the thread ? 665
|
(b)
treble-
FT'
Fig. 122.
" Set-over " of Lathe

Tailstock.
Fig. 123.
Brown and Sharpe
Worm- thread.
See Fig. a taper (the angle being 9 and the length of job 15-2). wormand Brown the for 6 Sharpe thread of the Find 16. angle in thread shown Fig. 123.
15. Calculate the
"
set-over
"
of the tailstock of a lathe for turning 122.
250
17.

When
using the Weldon Range Finder, one determines a length
AB
by comparison with a base AD.
Find
ratio of
AB
^~.
for the case
illustrated (Fig. 124).
90
Base
Fig. 124.
D
Fig. 125.
Determine the co-ordinates of the points A, B, C and D (Fig. 125) with references to the axes marked. Find the area of ABCD; and " " of BC, CD and DA. reduced bearings The bearing state also the N.E. ABis of 50-5 19. In Fig. 126 calculate the co-ordinates of the points B and C, the reduced bearings of BC and CA, and the area of ABC, if the bearing
18.
of
AB is
60
S.E.
Fig. 126.
20. In finding the length of a line CB, a line CA was set out by means of the optical square at right angles to CB and the distance CA was chained and found to be 1-14 chains. The angle CAB was then observed by a box sextant and found to be 71 54'. Calculate the length
ofCB.
21.
The co-ordinates of two
stations
;
and
A. Latitude 400 links Departure B. Latitude S 160 links; Departure Find the whole circle-bearing of AB.
W 700 links W 1500 links
are
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
22.
251
horizontally away from the headgear of s mine. the same level as its base you finfthat the headgear subtends a vertical angle of !8 3 o'. Find the height 23 ball fitting down to the taper sides was used to test the correctness of the cup-shaped check shown in I2 6a. The test made by measurement of the distance AB.Fig. Calculate' this to 10000
You are 220 ft. From a point on
ra
of Sides 5 IP 8 A measured on diarn.
Toper
Hole to be drilled
"
95"dia
Fig. I26a.
Test for Gauge.
Fig. 1266.
Block for
Jig.
24. Determine the diameter of the largest drill that could be used for the hole in the jig block shown in Fig. 1266, when you are told that the drilled hole, which is made first to clear away part of the metal, must cut the taper hole at the level AA.
Angles of any magnitude. Up to this point our work has been confined to angles of 90 and under, whose trigonometrical ratios can easily be found from tables or by the use of the slide rule. Angles greater than 90 must be reduced to those less than 90 by combination with 180 or 360, i. e., they must be reduced to the equivalent acute angle made with some standard line, which in all this work will be taken as the N and S line.
N
Fig. 127.
Fig. 128.
Fig. 129.
the N. and S. line and the E. and W. line be drawn, they " of an angle divide the space into four quadrants," and the position can always be stated by reference to the quadrant in which it lies. direction from the N. and S. Angles are measured in a right-hand numbered as shown in Fig. 127. A line, and the quadrants are a movement from the north indicates an minus sign before angle
If
in a left-hand direction.
252
e. g.,

referring to Figs. 128
is in
and 129
;
154
and its equivalent acute angle the 2nd quadrant 26 180 154
=
=
258
76
is in
the 3rd quadrant
and and
its
258-i8o
;
= 78
its
equivalent acute angle equivalent acute angle
is in
the 4th quadrant
= 76
472
is in
the 3rd quadrant
and
its
= 68
equivalent acute angle
To sum
*'.
(written e.a. angle) is

e., it is
be seen that the equivalent acute angle always the angle made with the N. and S. line obtained by compounding with 180 or 360.
up,
it
will
It is now necessary to find the algebraic signs to be prefixed to the trigonometric ratios of any angle. Thus although the sine of 472 is numerically equal to the sine of +68, since 68 is the
e.a.
angle for
472
for
(see
Fig. 129),
it
correct
to state that
sin
472
= sin 68,
sign.
would not
yet
sin
examined
the
sin 68. 472 a line of unit length rotates in a right-hand directhat Suppose tion, starting from the north, thus sweeping out the various angles. " " will always be considered positive, whilst the usual Its sense
algebraic
necessarily be because we have not As a matter of fact,
convention will fix the signs for horizontal and vertical distances. In all that follows, be sure to measure every angle from [Note. thus in Fig. 130, the the north point A) is the angle aod, and the angle (180 A) is the angle aoh measured angle (360
:
in a right-hand direction.]
Let Laoc (Fig. 130) represent the magnitude of the e.a. angle in all the four L eod L eof = *. e., L aoc quadrants
:
t_
aoh
= A, say.
In the ist quadrant
+ oc + oa cos A = + oc ac tan A = ~4- oa

-f-
sin
A= +
ac
+ ac =
i
ac
oa
ac oa
= + oa
In the 2nd quadrant
sin (180
- A) =
^=
ed
but ed
= ac
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
so that
253
for
sm (i8o-A)
= sin
A)
A.
Hence the reason

is
with 180
to find the e.a. angle
compounding
oa
Again
cos (180
= ~ oe =
seen.
oe
downwards
oe indicating that oe is a negative length, because measured
tan (i8o-A)
In the 3rd quadrant
sin
= + =
= =
-
ed
oe
ac
oe
oa
(i8o+A)
(i8o+A)
=
oe
cf
oe
ac
cos
=
=
oa
tan (i8o+A)
In the 4th quadrant
sin (360
/
Joe
oe
oa
A)
A)
A
\
=
=
-
Q-h
cos (360
oa
tan (360
A)
=
oa
ah
oa
oa
all
i. e., summarising for the equivalent acute angles in quadrants, the algebraic signs vary as follows
four
Quadrant.
254
the
word to indicate which ratio or ratios is or are positive in that quadrant. Thus in the 3rd quadrant, the tangent alone is positive, and in the 4th quadrant the cosine alone. Fig. (b), (c) and (d) 131 are merely a representation of the table just given. Hence, to find the trigonometric ratio of an angle of any magnitude find first its e.a. angle and the quadrant in which the angle
:
occurs, quired.
angle.)
and then apply the sign

In
all cases it will be
(Numerically, the ratio of
of the quadrant for the ratio reany angle is that of its e.a.
that a
found
diagram simplifies matters.
Example
10.
Find the value of sin 172.
sin 172
= sin (180172) = sin 8,
for 8
is
the e.a. angle
+-I392
sine there
is
since 172
is
in the
2nd quadrant, and the
+.
Example n.
Find cos 994.
994 =[(2 X 360) + 2 74] x 360 brings us back to the starting line, and so we deal only with the 274. Now 274 is in the 4th quadrant, and thus its cos is + 86. also the e.a. angle = 360 274
2
;
cos 994
= +
327.
cos 86
+-0698.
Example
12.
Find tan
327
is
The angle
also the e.a. angle
in the ist quadrant,
and hence
+-6494.
its
tan
is
33.
tan -327
= +
tan 33
Example
is
13.
Find the
sin,
cos and tan of 115.
What
connection
there between
them
The angle
is
in the
2nd quadrant, hence

115 = 65 = +sin 65 = + "9063 cos 65 = -4226 = tan 65 = 2-1445
180
sine sine
is is
cos ;os
+1
J-
tan :an
also the e.a. angle sin 115
is
}
.
cos 115
tan 115
Now
sin 115
= tan
115.
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
This most important relation always holds,
viz. that
255
A tanA = cos A
sin
bearing/' surveying, may be regarded as " identical with the " equivalent acute angle here used. In the general solution of triangles only angles up to 180 occur e we are concerned with the 1st and
The "reduced
in
mainly
2nd quadrants.
Exercises 29.
On
the Trigonometric Ratios of Angles of any Magnitude.
Find from the tables, the values of the sin, cos and tan of the following angles (Exs. i to 5).
1. 116; 322; 218. 2. -82; -398; 1562. 3.199-2; 34i5'; 9842 3 '. 4. 4 u-62; -85; 1-16 radians. 5. 1194; 2-45 radians; 787 n'. 6. Find values of cot 126; sec (-52). COSCCTT; The [Note. angle TT radians is that subtended at the centre by the half-circumference and is thus 180.] 7. Find a value of A between o and 180 if * ~ * cos X*. A - b + cZ_ a and b = 9-8' _ _ \*\Jj
;
zbc
a
8.
= =
6-4* 14-45*
The equation cot

If
=u
2 V2
_|_
7/2
-zoT-T
water turbines.
o and
9.
i
V=
53-4,
^y
10,
- relates to the design of
H=
100, e
32-2, find 6
(between
So
).
As
for the preceding question, but taking
V=
V8o,
32-2 10. If a centre, / -833
and
H=
=
80.
m = ratio
:
angle of the crank of a steam engine from the dead of connecting rod length to length of crank and find values of a to satisfy the equation
cos a
= m Vm +i 2m/
2
when
"
m=
4.
Solution of Triangles.
in the determination of -the
The
"
solution
of a triangle consists
parts, viz. the In many cases sufficiently accurate angles. results can be obtained by careful drawing to scale, but for great precision the values of the parts of the triangle must be calculated.
magnitudes of the six
three sides
and the three
In such calculation extremely exact tables, giving the relations between the sides and angles, are employed, and the results obtained are superior to those given by even skilled draughtsmanship. Again, it sometimes happens that the triangle is difficult to construct: thus if in Fig. 136 the base AC was very small compared with the sides AB and BC, the intersection of AB and CB would not easily
256
be detei mined, and, therefore, the lengths of the sides as measured would only be approximate. The angle at B would under these " circumstances be termed badly conditioned." There are a number of rules developed for the general solution of triangles, but of these the following will be found to be of the
greatest service, while even this
list
may
be reduced to the
first
two
rules.
for the angles,
Adopting the usual notation for the triangle, viz. A, B and C and a, b and c for the sides opposite these angles
ft
respectively, the rules for the solution of all triangles are

(1) '
-7
r-
sin
A
\
=
2
h
=r
sin
- C ^r,
sin
usually referred to as the sine rule.
(2)
/
=b +
2 be cos A, /
(s
usually referred to as the cosine rule.

c)
(3)
()
/IA (b)
-A sin-
b)(s
=</*
-
ga)
c) -
(c)
tan
- b)(s A /(s - = A/ j-^ $(s

v
^
2v =
fb
(
a)
(4)
tan
B 2
C -
\b
c\ j. -
+ c)
}
cot
A 2
to
These may be employed under the following conditions I. Given two sides and included angle: use either rule
find
;
(2)
the third side and then either rule (i) or rule (3) to find another angle or use rule (4) to find the remaining angles together
with rule
e. g.,
(2)
for the third side.
suppose
sin
-
Then from
,
are given. b, c and rule (2) the value of a can be found,
B
r
also
= sin A
a
is
r, L
[from rule
.,
(i)l
B
and
found
i8o
(A-f-B),
since
A+B+C =
.
180;
or alternatively
tan
T>
.*.
B-C 2
the angle i. e.,
fb j \b
c\
)
+ cj
cot
A 2
C).
/->
is
found, and hence also (B
But (B+C),
and therefore
equations.
180
A is
known,
and C are found by solving the simultaneous Also a can be found from rule (2).
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
II.
257
Given two angles and a
side,
say
a,
and
Then
C
rule
(i)
i8o-(A+B)
a
b
sin
From
sin
sin
A'
and
sin
and therefore
III.
b, c
all
the sides are found.
Given two sides and an angle not included by them, say
and
From
sinC
C
rule (i)
/.
= sinB j
{For
.
C is
found, and also A.
A=
,
180
(B+C)}
and
since
sin
T-
sm B
:
is
found,
IV. Given the three sides use rule

applied.
(3)
it is
more convenient
;
in this case to
to find one of the angles

(3) c
because logarithms can be
From Rule
tan
s(s
a)
Then use Rule

Otherwise
.*.
(i)
to find B.
a?
&2
+c
2bc cos
A
e ->
cos
A=
-L
i"
is
found
and thence by the sine rule B may be found. Thus if rules (i) and (2) are remembered, any
solved.
triangle
may
be
Proof
of the
"Sine"
Rule.
Consider Figs. 132 and 133.

In both figures
also in Fig. 132 and in Fig. 133
Hence
"
= sin B p = c sin B = & sin C p = bsm (i8o-C) = & sin C B c sin c ~ &B
j
t
sinC
sin
258
Similarly

it
could be proved that

b
c
c B
Fig. 132.
Fig. 133to the sines of the opposite
Or, the sides of a triangle are proportional

angles.
Proof of the Cosine Rule. In Figs. 135 and 136 let BD be perpendicular
in the triangle
to
AC.
ADB
In Fig. 135
=
and
in the triangle
p +b*+n*-2bn
2
.......
(i)
BDC
2
/>+n
B
= a ..............
(2)
6
Fig. 134-
Fig- 135.
(2)
Fig. 136.
(i)
Hence, by substitution from
into
(3)
Again
in Fig. 136, in the triangle

C2
ADB
(4)
=^)
2 2
and
in the triangle
BDC
(5)
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
Hence, by substitution from
c2
(5)
259
into
(4)
(6)
a 2 +b 2 +2bn
Now
in Fig. 135
cos
or
=a
n
ccs
so that, writing
a cos
in place of
in (3)
Also in Fig. 136
Tii
cos L
BCD
cos (180
C)
=
in (6)
z
cos
or
a cos C.
Substituting this value for

c
2
z
= a +b
2ab cosC.
rule holds for the case in which
We
have thus proved that the
C is an acute angle, and also for the case in which C is obtuse. When C is a right angle, as in Fig. 134, its cosine is zero and accordingly
it is
correct to write
_ =
a 2 -\-b 2
2ab cosC.
Hence the rule is perfectly general. The two other forms of the cosine rule can be written down by writing the letters one on in the sequence a, b, c, a.
i,
e, t
a2
62
and
= b +c = c+
z 2
z
2
2bc cos
2ca cos B.
By
transposition
c
sC=
--:
S
2ca
2bc
:f
cosB
cos
=
J,2_
A=
are the forms in which the rule must be used if the three sides are the and required. angles given In every case of a solution of a triangle the figure should be drawn on the results obtained by to scale, for this serves as the best check
calculation.
The
be carefully studiedfollowing examples should

of the
Examples on the use

6
Sine Rule.
completely
is
Example
1748
ft.,
14.
Solve
the
A ABC
when
1916
ft..
and
C=
59.
[This triangle
drawn
to scale in Fig. 137.]
260

find
To
sin
u
sin
c
C
sinC -
and hence
sm B =
-J
1748 x sin 59 1016

59
log 1916

log sin
Then
= 3-2425 + 1-9331 - 3-2823 = ^'8933 = log sin 51 28' B = 5 i28' A = 180 - (59 + 51 280
log 1748
+ log sin
Fig. 137-
Fig. 138.
To
find
sin
A
a
sin
B
=-
= +
b sin
-.
A
log sin 51 28'
sinB
In the log form

log a
= = = a =
log 1748
log sin 69 32'
3-2425 3'3 2 9
1-9717
1-8933
2093*
the
is
Example
17-8",
A = 40.
15.
Solve
(This
A ABC
completely
similar to the last
when a = 12-6*. Example up to a certain
point.)
To draw this to scale (see Fig. 138). Make the angle 40 with a horizontal line and along AC mark off a length to represent 17-8*; With centre C and radius = 12-6* (to scale) strike this is the side b. an arc to cut the horizontal and two points of section being found, and B'. Both the ABC and the AB'C satisfy the call them given conditions, because AC = b = 17-8, CB = CB' = a = 12-6 and A = 40, so that in this case there are too solutions. This case is known " case in the solution of " as the ambiguous triangles.
;
Since
L CB'A
or
CB = CB', L CBB' = = 1 80- L CBA B'=i8o-B
L CB'B
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
and the two values
261
of the angle B, which are indicated on the figure, are supplementary, i. e., together they add to 180. and AB' are the two different lengths for c for the different cases, while ACB and ACB' give the two values for the angle at C. To solve by calculation. Two sides and one opposite angle are
AB
given,
and therefore the

find
sine rule
is
to be used.
Taking the same
diagram
To
B
sin
B = &sinA =
a
1 7'8
sin 40
12-6
In the log form

log sin
114 47'.
The value of B', The mode
B = log 17-8 + log sin 40 log sin 12-6 = 1-2504 + i -8081 1-1004 = 1-9581 = log sin 65 13' B = 6 5 i3' which is alternative to B must be 180
of calculation
sin 114 47'
would be unchanged,
13'.
for
= sin 65
To
find
C
first
In the
case
C = i8o-(4O+
In the second case
= 74 47' C = i8o-(4O+ = 25 13'
65 130
114 47')
To find c. This is the base, which is AB' or AB. or the cosine rule can be here used, but the sine rule
for logarithmic computation.
Either the sine

is
more adapted
_
In the
first
a sin
sin
A
sin 40
case
log c
= log 12-6 +_log sin 74 47' - log = 1-1004 + 1-9845 - i -8081
=
c
1-2768 18-91*
In the second case

log
c
- log 12-6 + log sin 25 13' - log sin 40 = 1-1004 + 1-6295 i -8081 = -9218 = 8-352
or
Grouping the
results
B = 6.si3'
all
or 114 47'.
C=7447'
2SiV.
c=i8-gi" or 8-352"
respectively.
The
this
sine scale
on the
example.
To
be used with advantage in sines of angles, multiply multiply or divide by

slide rule could
262
or divide way. E.

by the
g.
angles, as
marked on the
x
sin 74 4 7*
scale, in the
ordinary
12-6
sin 40
40
Set the cursor over 12-6 on the A scale, move the sine scale until is level with the cursor; then place the cursor over 74 47' on the S scale. The value of c is read off on the A scale, and = 18-9.
A
S and
little
confusion
may
arise regarding the graduations
on the
The markings usually shown are not for decimals As regards the S scale up to 10, of a degree, but for minutes. a line is shown at every 5', *. e., there are 12 divisions for each
scales.
:
degree.
30',
From 10 to 20 every 10' is shown, from 20 to 40 every from 40 to 70 each degree, and thence 70, 72, 74, 76, 78,
Fig. 139.
Solutions of Triangles.
80, 85 and 90. On the T scale, up to 20, markings are at each 5' and then at every 10'. Whenever two sides and an opposite angle are given, we must consider the possibility of the two solutions. Ths drawing to scale is an excellent test, for the arc B'B in Fig. 138 must either cut or touch the base if the triangle is to be
possible.
The various
which the sides a and
cases that arise are illustrated in Fig. 139 in are given. b, and the angle Drawing a
:
horizontal line of unlimited length to serve as a base, the angle can be set out and the point C fixed, since the length of AC is given. Then an arc of radius equal to b is described from the centre C.
If b is very small, the arc does not cut the base and case (i) arises If the radius of there being no triangle to satisfy the conditions. the circle, i. e., the length of the side b, is increased, we arrive at
;
case
(2),
in
which the arc
just touches the base
and so gives one
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
viz.
.
263
the right-angled triangle ACB 2 triangle only, By further increasing the length of b cases (3), (4) and (5) are found, in which there are two, one, and one, solutions respectively. It will thus be seen that there may be two solutions if two
sides of
given. before
In
a triangle and an angle opposite the shorter of these is all cases, however, the triangle should be drawn to scale
rules are applied.
any trigonometrical
Example 16. A mill chimney stands on the even slope of a hill, which has a gradient of 4 (Fig. 140). Two points are chosen on the same side of the hill and in
the same vertical plane as that including the chimney. These points are 75 ft. apart measured up the slope, and, viewed from the points, the chimney subtends angles of 48 and 59 from the horizontal. Find the height of the chimney above the ground
//3/i
on which
It
it
stands.
should be noted that the
angles of elevation are measured from the horizontal, since the scale of the theodolite vertical circle reads zero when the tele-
scope
is
horizontal.
Hence
and
Thus
Here we have
the
and known length and one containing the unknown length to b >th. viz. AU must be connected up through a side common
;
/.ACB=i8o-55 = i25 ABAC=n /.ADC =94, A CAD = 31 two triangles, viz. ACB and ACD, one containing
,
L ABC = 4 8-4 L ACD -55
44
these
Let the required height

Then, in the
AD =
A ACB
sn 44
sum
_
75
sm 44_
sin 11
In the
A ACD
55
C
sin 94
AC
sin 86 sin 5j
since sin 86
sin 94
AC
264

Substituting for
AC its
value
= =
75 x sin 44
sin 11
sin
55^
sin 86
225
ft.
(from the slide rule).
Example 17. The elevation of the top P of a mountain (see Fig. 141) The surveying instrument is directed at a point A on the ground is 32. to another station B, also on the ground, and 4600 ft. distant from A, the angle also L PBA is 77. Find the being found to be 48
PAB
height of the mountain.
The sloping triangle
PAB is shown laid flat on the ground in Fig.

PA ~
sin 77
142.
From
this
ground plan
4600
sin 55
pA =
4600 x sin 77
sin 55
P<z/?spec//W "^
vieuf
t i or survey lints.
A
In the right-angled
A PAQ
PQ = AP x
_
sin 32
and
Substituting for
AP
=
4600 x sin 77 x sin 32 sin 55 2900 ft.
Height of mountain
Example 18. It is required to lay out a circular arc to connect the two straight roads AB and CD (Fig. 143) the radius r of the arc is known, but the meeting point E of AB and CD is inaccessible.
:
Select
first
two convenient stations F and G, and by directing a theodolite along Fe and then along FG the angle EFG is measured. Similarly
measure
265
Let the sum of L
EFG and
L.
Then
and
L EFG /_AED = i8oL AEO =
za
EOS =
-Qg
= go-a
L ESO
r
is
a
tan
a, since
Now
and also FS and GT,
ES =
a right angle
(
.
ES = OS tana =
To
find
ET = r tan a, since ET = ES EF and EG must first be found.
tana
(i)
In the
A EFG
_EF
sin
sin
FG = ~ sin EGF FEG or EF FG sin FEG EF is known

.
(2)
Also, in the
same way
EG = FG iin_EFG sirTFEG EG is known

FS = ES
(3)
GT = EG - ET. been taken at random, S and T can now be having points plotted therefrom, which show the starting-points of the curved road.
GT
Finally, FS is found from (i) and (2) since is also found from (i) and (3) since
EF, and Thus the
F and G
Examples on the use

b =
of
Cosine Rule.
(Fig. 144) find
Example 19. In the triangle = 11-94'. 7-85', and c
ABC
L C when a
= 4-45',
C=
The longest
side
is
11-94-
Fig. 144.
always opposite the largest angle
and therefore
is
the largest angle.
266

C V^
I-
Now
fe
c2
2ab
(4-45)
2
19-8
+(7-85) -(n-94) X 4-45 X 7-85 61-5 142-5 69-8
61-2
^
/.
= = C=
OQ'o cos 28 43' cos (180 28 43') / 151 i7

.
"o'y^
cos 151
17'
It will
be seen that a negative value for the cosine implies that

is
the angle
obtuse.
To avoid remembering too many rules the reader is advised this example, howto work entirely with the sine or cosine rules ever, is worked out, in addition to the above, by another rule, to
:
demonstrate
its
usefulness
and ease
of application.
a
S
4-45, 6
7-85, c
1 1 -94
12-12 7-67 _ V/4 V/(s-b)(s~a) 12-12 X

~ -2 7
C~ ^ _
2
.-.
S (S
C)
-18
log tan
4-27
+ log
7-67)
(log 12-12
log -18)}
= -5882 = log tan

=75
i. e.,
^{(-6304
+-8848)
75 32'
(1-0835
1-2553)}
32'
and
151 4'
slide rule.
an error of 13' was made when using the
[Note that if this rule is used and the angle is required correct to the nearest minute, we must work throughout correct to a half-minute since the rule gives as the direct result the value of a half-angle.]
Example
20.
If in the triangle
ABC
= 5-93".
2-94",
B=
65,
find the side b (Fig. 145).
Using the cosine rule

b2
= =
=
a 2 +c 2
2
2ac cos
2
(5'93) +(2-94)
(2
x 5 -93 x 2 -94 x cos65)
35-1+8-62
-(2X5-93X2-94X-4226)
a. = 5- 93"
5-39'
Fig.
MS-
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
267
Example 21. Two forces, of 47-2 Ibs. and 98-4 Ibs. respectively, making an angle of 63 with one another, act on a small body at A'. Find the magnitude of their resultant, or single equivalent force.
If
AB and AD in
their resultant, as
shown
Fig. 146 represent the given forces, in Mechanics.
AC
represents
Fig. 146.
Then
CD = 47-2, AD = 98-4, t-ADC = i8o-6 3 2 2 2 (AC) = (AD) +(DC) -(2xADxDCxcos 117) = (98-4)*+ (47'2) a - (2 x 98-4 x 47'2 x 4540) = 9670+2230+4220 = 16120 AC = 127 Ibs. and this is the resultant.
<
XI 7
Area
two
sides
of a Triangle. The following and the included angle are given
rule gives the area

;
when
it is
simply an extension
of the \ base
height rule, for

(Fig. 147)
.*.
AD = AB sin B or AC sin C = c sin B or b sin C Area = \ X base X height = |XXcsinB or xaX&sinC = \ac sin B or \ ab sin C
area
of
triangle
or,
generally, included angle.
=
-J-
product
of
two sides
sine
of
AA
Fig. 147-
Fig. 148.
This gives a rule for the area of a parallelogram
Area of
= 2 {area AOB + area AOD} = 2{ AO.OB sin L AOB + \ AO.OD sin
ABCD
(Fig. 148)
AOD}
268
= sin L AOB {AO.OB +
AO.OD}
since sin L
= sin L AOB x AO {OB + OD} = AO.BD sin L AOB = \ AC.BD sin L AOB = \ product of diagonals X sine of angle included between
them.
= sin = sin
AOB
AOB)
(180 L
AOD
Example 22. and B = 65.

Area
Find the area of
AABC in
which a
5-93*, c
2-94"
ac sin
B = \ x 5-93 x 2-94 = i x 5-93 x 2-94 = 7*91 sq. ins.
x sin 65 x -9063
"
This result should agree with that found by the s" rule given it being possible to apply this rule since the three in Chapter III
;
sides are
known and
20).
are 5-93, 5-39

5-93
and 2-94 respectively (compare
Example
Thusand
5= area =
5-39
2-94
^
=
7-91 sq. ins.
^7-13 x 1-20 x 1-74 x 4-19

of
Proof of the
It
"s"
Rule for the Area
a Triangle.
has been demonstrated in the previous paragraph that
Area of triangle
ab sin C.
2
Now
for
sin
2
any angle
2
it is
true that
(sine)
+ (cosine) =
2
hence
Also
or sin C = C + cos C = a +6 -c cos C = i,

2 2 2
cos
2ab
then
2r cos 2 C:
i
2 cos zr C
(a
and
'-
[Factorising difference of
two squares]
a2
62
_ (2ab
+c 2 )(2a6+a 2 +ft 2
2
)
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
[Factorising difference of two squares]
269
= =
i. e.,
(c-<*+b)(c+a-b)(a+b-c)(a+b+c)
2(s
a)
x 2(s
b)
x 2(s-c) x 2s
sin
~y' S (s
$ab
a)(s-b)(s
c)
:.
area of triangle
ABC =
-,
X Vs(s
a)(s
b)(s
c)
=
In
all of
Vs(sa)(sb)(sc)
these worked examples the results have been given to as great a degree of accuracy as four-figure log tables or the slide rule allow.
When extremely careful observations have been made it is advisable to employ five- or even seven-figure log tables in any necessary calculations but it should be remembered that the results
;
must not be given to a greater degree of accuracy than the observaThus it would be useless to tions or measurements warrant. " " correct to a eight figures when the least possible length express error in measurement was %. The rules used in such cases are those stated in this chapter, except that the cosine rule is put into a form more adapted for logarithmic computation by means of the following artifice
az
6 2 +c 2
2bc cos
In place of this rule
we may
a
write
(b+c} cose
.........
(i)
provided that
is
found from
sm
Both
(i)
= zVbc COS A ......... 2

T+^
;
and
(2)
can be solved by the aid of logs
and the angle
6 thus introduced
is
known
as a subsidiary angle.
figures of
Let us
illustrate this
Given a
5-93, c
by taking the = 65. 2-94, B
Example
20.
To
find b
From
the above
b
(c+a) cos 6
and
j. e.,
sin 6
- cos B = zVca =
2^2-94 X -.
sin
1 5 '93 cos ,2 2i 5s 3
270

log sin 6
/.
In the log form
Then
= log 2 + {log 2-94 + log 5-93} + log cos 32 \- log = 1-8998 = log sin 52 33'' = 52 33' b = 8-87 x cos 52 33' = log 8-87 + log
On
cos 52 33'
8-87
In the log form

log b
-7318
Exercises 30.
the Solution of Triangles.
In Exs. that
1. 3.
to 14 solve the triangle
ABC
completely, being given
5. c
7.
= 9-2, a = 10-31, = 46. a =124-4, 6 = 93-7, c = 99-3. 9. a = 4-27", A = 29, b = 5-86*.

\D
2. a=79-5",C = 5 i 32',B = 4 7 3 6'. a=3*,6 = 5-2", B= 7 8i. C = 26 50', 6 = 8-86", c = 5-68". 4. 6 = 5-97", C = 6 4 18', A = 75. 6. 6 8.
= 6-ift,,c = 9-3ft.,A = 73i6'. 6= 10-5*, 0=130. 10. c = 688o, B = 30, b = 5141.

a = 13-7*.
cross-section o/'u/'V'e
Fig. 149.
Solution of Triangles.
11. 12, 14.
A = 50 50', 6 = 922-4, c = 1003-8. B = 353o', 6 = 38-6, c= 4 3-57. 13. = 21-8,6= 15-7,0 = 47 Find also the area. c = 32-7, 6 = 39-4, B = 55 30'.
32'.
15. The area of a triangle is 120 sq. ft. and the angles are 75, 60 and 45. Find the longest side. 16. The connecting rod of an engine is 8 ft. in length and the crank i '-6*. Find the inclination of the connecting rod to the line of stroke when the crank has moved 52 from its inner dead centre position. " " 17. The sides of a triangle of forces represent the forces 3-7 tons, Find 02 tons the angles of this triangle. an d tons respectively. 3' 5 2-275 18. Forces of 21-6 and 19-7 Ibs., making an angle of 126 with one another act at a point. Find the magnitude of their resultant and its
inclination to the larger force.

((a)
19. In setting out Fig. 149), a line
CB
a railway curve to connect the lines AO and OD was measured and found to be 1*4 74 chains.
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
points are
20.
2?I
lag by the 3-voltmeter method. for the case illustrated. {V 8 =

21.
E and F find the lengths of BE and CF The diagram (6) Fig. 149, is necessary for the
If
<p
107,
angle lag, V = 90, V, = 48

x
}
is
the
of
calculation of find Ss value
The
jib of
a crane
is
inclined at 57
to the horizontal
'
the
kes
On the bisector of this distant from the point of of the tangents meeting and through which the curve must Find the radius of the' pass. required curve and also the tangent distances.
angle
is
23.
The tangents to a curve meet at 120.

a point 100
ft.
bank
certain point as 17; approaching 86 ft. nearer to the bank, towards the house, the elevation is found to be 31. Find the height of the house.
25.
24. It is required to find the height of a house on the opposite of a river. The elevation of the top of the house is read at a
theodolite
is
set
edge of a lake which is 1240 is sighted from each station.
up
at
two
stations
and
ft.
above
sea-level.
From A the elevation of C is 15 14' and the horizontal angles CAB and CBA are 59 10' and 71 48' respectively. = 820 yds., find the height of C above sea-level. If
staff
at the water's on a hill at C
AB
26. From a station C on a sides of the hill are observed.
two stations A and B, on opposite The horizontal projection of L ACB is 43 23', the horizontal projection of CA is 3633 links and of CB is 4275 links. The angle of elevation of C at A is 44 37' and at B is 33 24'. Determine the horizontal distance between A and B and the difference of level between them.
hill,
mile radius between two 27. It is required to set out a curve of and DC, which intersect in an instraight portions of a railway, accessible point E. Rods are set up at points B and C on the two straight portions and the angles ABC and BCD are measured and found to be 110 20' and 120 30' respectively. If BC = 830 links, determine the distances of the tangent points
AB
AD =
AC
and C respectively. from 28. In a theodolite survey to find the positions of two visible but and C, the following measurements were made inaccessible points = 108 9', L = 70 44' 10", L 517-75 links, L 36 i8'3o", and /_ADC= ioiiS'3o". Find the lengths of AB, DC, and BC in order.
and
BAC =
BAD
ADB
setting out the centre line for a tunnel between the two and B, an observatory station C is chosen on the top of a hill from which both A and B are visible, but it is not on the centre line of the tunnel. Let D be a point on a vertical through C. The horizontal = 45 58', the vertical angle ACD = 4945' and projection of L ACB the vertical angle BCD = 5 7 42'. The horizontal projection of CA Find the horizontal distance is 750 yards, and of CB is 800 yards. between A and B and the difference of level. 30. A light railway is to be carried round the shoulder of a hill, and
29.
When
ends
272
its

is
CD
centre line as follows
to be tangential to each of the three lines
AB, BC and
Line.
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
The Addition Formulae.
It is
273
sometimes necessary, more particularly in electrical work, to express the ratio of a compound angle in terms of the ratios of the simpler angles, or vice versa; e. g., it might be easier to state tan (A+B) in terms of tan A and
tan B, and then evaluate, than to evaluate The following directly. rules must be committed to memory for this purpose
sin
(A (A cos (A cos (A
sin
+ + +
B) B) B) B) B)
B)
= sin A cos B + cos A = sin A cos B cos A = cos A cos B sin A = cos A cos B + sin A
1
sin
sin
B B sin B sin B
tan (A
tan (A
tan
.
B B tan A tan B
tan tan
tan
Considering sin (A+B) one might be tempted at a first glance to apply the ordinary rules of brackets, and write the expansion as sin A+sin B. That this is not correct may be readily seen
by
referring to
e. g.,
any
suppose
A=
angles.
*. e.,
whereas
= 15, then (A+B) = 61 sin (A+B) = sin 61 = -8746 sin A+sin B = sin 46+sin 15 = 7193 +-2588 = -9781
46, and
and
-9781 does not equal -8746.
It will
be observed, however, that the above rule holds, at any
rate for these particular values of
and B.
Thus
sin
46 cos 15
+ cos 46
sin 15
= = = =
(7193 X
-8745
sin 61
sin
-9659)
>6 947
-2588)
(46+i5).
more general proof is necessary to establish the truth of these for the simplest rules for all angles ; and the proofs are here given
cases only.
To prove
In
Fig.
that sin
(A+B)
case,
L.
sin
A cosB
+ cos A
B
sinB.
=
Taking the simplest

L PQM =
150
let
;
Then
.'.
iPQ
T
+ B) APQM = APQR + AQRM QM sin (A + B) = iPQ QR sin A + *QR QM

(A
also
.
.
when A and PQR = A, and L RQM let QR be perpendicular to
are both acute
PM.
sin B.
274

PQ QM
.
Dividing through by
sin
(A+B)
= =
A + |^ sin B cos B sin A + cos A sin B or sin A cos B cos A sin B.

sin
-f-
Fig. 150.
Fig. 151.
that cos (A In Fig. 151 let L

_
To prove
+ B) cos A cos B sin A MOQ = A, and L QOP = B PQO = right angle.

TN
sin B.
Drop QN perpendicular to RP, RP being perpendicular to OM. Then L OQN = A, L NQP = 90 A, and therefore L QPN = A.
Now
TVT
cos
/A
(A+B)
cos L
\JXi
TD^T,
ROP
IX
OR OP
OM MR
OP
1
\J = OM_NQ T&-r OP OP
=
r
[
smce
N Q = uTT-n MR
XT .~
=
To
prove that
OM OQ_NQ QP OQ'OP QP'OP

cos
cos ton
tan
B sin A sin B. ^ + ton B tan A tanB

cos
Assume the
rules for sin
(A+B) and
sin
1
(A+B).
Then-
tan(A+B)=
A
i
cos
sin
(A+B)
+g
sin
cos
[Dividing both numerator and denominator by cos cos B.]
A cos B + cos A A cos B sin A sin A sinB cos A cos B _ sin A sin B
,
sin
B B
cos A
'
cos
_ ~
tan
i
A + tan B tan A tanB
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
tan (A
275
23 .-Verify the rules for sin (A - B), cos (A B) for the case when A = 164 and B = 29.
sin (A
B) and
= sin 135 = sin 45 = -7<>7Also sin A cos B - cos A sin B = sin 164 cos 29 - cos 164 sin 29 = sin 16 cos 29 + cos 16 sin 29 [cos 164 = - cos 16] = (-2756 x -8746) + (-9613 x -4848) = -241 + -465 = -706.
B)
(164
29)
= sin
For brevity we
(left-hand side)
;
shall denote the side containing (A the other by R.H.S. (right-hand

/.
B) by L.H.S.
side).
L.H.S.
R.H.S.
+ B) = cos (A + B) = cos (164 + 29) = cos 193 = - cos 13 = -9744 R.H.S. = cos A cos B sin A sin B = cos 164 cos 29 sin 164 sin 29 = cos 16 cos 29 sin 16 sin 29 = (- -9613 x -8746) - (-2756 x -4848) = 841133 = 974 L.H.S. = R.H.S.
For cos (A
L.H.S.
.*.
For tan (A-B)

L.H.S.
tan
(164- 29)
TT
tan 164 tan 29 _ ~ i + tan 164 tan 29
tan 135 = -tan 45 = - tan 16 tan 29 i - tan 16 tan 29

"
-i
2867 --5543
i- (-2867 x
-5543)
=
/.
1159
R.H.S.
^4L =
+
B)
841
-841
L.H.S.
Example
cos
B=
24.
Find the value of cos (A
when
sin
A=
-5,
-23.
(Tables are not to be used.)
Before
proceeding with
is
this
example,
little
preliminary
investigation
necessary.
In the right-angled triangle

b*
2
ABC
(Fig. 152)
fl
Cos 2 A
+ sin
= 1,
since cos
A =-
and
sin
A=-
276

;
This is a most important relation between these ratios holds for every value given to the angle A.
and
it
Two
other rules obtained by similar methods are

sec2
A
A
cosec2
= 1 + tan = 1 + cot
A
A.
JCL
Fig- 153. Fig. 152.
:
Returning to Example 24
cos (A
B)
=
cos
cos
cos
sin
sin B.
Values must
first
be found for
and
2
sin B.
Now
or
cos*
from which
Then
and
.*.
A + sin A = i cos 2 A = i sin A, or sin A = i cos A sin A, cos A = Vi sin A = Vi cos 2 A cos A = Vi - (-s) 2 = V^j$ = -866 2 = sin B = Vi (-23) ^-947 = -973 = sin A sin B cos (A + B) cos A cos B = (-866 x -23)- (-5 x -973) = -1991 4865
2
2 2 2
2874.
It is often necessary to change the binomial or two-term expresa sin qt-\-b cos qt into an expression of the form sin (qt c)
sion
where c is an angle. We must therefore find the values in terms of a and b, so that
of
+ M and c
,
M sin
sin
(qt-\-c)
a sin
viz.
qt
+ b cos qt
cos
(i)
Take the addition formula,
(A+B)
qt
sin
cos
c,
B+
sin B.
Replacing
A by
and
B by
this
statement becomes
c.
sin (qt-\-c)
sin qt cos c
+ cos qt sin
Multiplying through by
M M sin (qt+c) = M sin qt cos c + M cos qt sin
(2)
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
Since the right-hand sides of
2?7
(i) and (2) are equal in total value, they can be made equal term for term by choosing suitable values
for the coefficients.
Thus
and
M sin qt cos c = a sin qt M cos qt sin c = b cos qt M cos c = a and M sin c = b b cosc = i.e., ^ andsinc = v?
.'.
a,
If, now, a triangle be drawn (Fig. 153) with sides a, b and hypotenuse M, it will be seen that the angle opposite the side b
is
the angle
c,
for its adjacent side is a,
and therefore
its
cosine
=^ M
from
Hence
c is found, for
tan
=a
a,
Knowing the
Also
values of b and
is
the value of c
is
read
off
the table of tangents and
usually expressed in radians.

2 2
M =
-f-6
M=V +
a
b*,
so that
M is found.
This investigation
is
valuable in cases of harmonic motion.
Example 25. The voltage necessary to produce an alternating current C, after any particular period of time /, and in a circuit of resistance 2 ohms in which the current varies, being given by
100 sin 6oot, can be expressed as
V = 200
Let 200 sin 6oo/
previous work
sin 6oot
300 cos foot
Find a simpler expression for V.
300 cos 6oo/
=M =
sin (6oo/
c).
Then by the
M=
tan
c
V2OO 2
+
1-5
300*
360-6
56-3
and
|^
56-3
= tan
/
= V=
^ J
radians
-983 radian
360-6 sin (6ool
+
(/
'983)
or, as it
might be written,
If
V=
360-6 sin 600
-00164).
Note.
the current were continuous, then

voltage
= current x resistance = 200 sin 6oo/.
the current is interrupted, "inertia" or "induction" effects that due to the impressed voltage, set up another current to oppose and therefore the amperes are not a maximum when the voltage is,
When
278

=
current lags behind the E.M.F. ; in this case to the extent i. e., the The coefficient 600 in the formulae of -00164 second. zirf where
/=
frequency: thus in this case the frequency
=95*6
cycles
per second.
As a
case
:
further example of transformation consider the following
Example 26
Let Sw
displacement of the main steam valve of an engine from"\

its
= displacement
position
central position of the expansion plate from its central
for the case of
Then To find a simple

plate relative to the
an engine with Meyer valve gear. Sm = rm cos (6 + a x), and Se = re cos
(6
+ a,).
expression for the displacement of the expansion
main valve.
This relative displacement
Sm
Se
= rm cos
s)
(d
+a
t)
re cos (6
+ a,).
Then
Sm-Se = rm
TO
- re cos (6 + a cos (6 + a = r cos tfcosaj rm sin Osma^ re cos 6 cos a + re sin tfsina, = cos 6(rm cos G! re cos a,) + sin 6(re sin a, rm sin aj) = A cos 6 + B sin 6 = VA* + B sin (6 + c) as before proved = VA + B* cos + c)\ (|-(0
x) t
2
VA +
where
B* cos
(6
p)
J5
A=
and
#>
rm cos Oi
re cos a,,
= re sin a,
1
rm sin aj
is
^j have thus reduced the expression for the relative displacement to a form of a simple character which shows that this displacement is equivalent to that caused by an imaginary eccentric of radius VA 2 + B 8 and of angular advance p.
|
-{tan-
c~
tan- 1
^ is
the awg/e whose tan
We
Exercises 31.
1. If sin
On
the Addition Formulae in Trigonometry.
A= B=
-45, find cos
and tan
(without reference to the
tables).
2. If sin
*i6,
cos
3.
Find the values
A = -29, find the value of A cos B cos A sin B. of cos (A + B), and sin (A sin A = -65, sin B = -394.
sin
B),
when
4.
Tan
==
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY 1-62, tan B = -58; find the values
279
of tan (A
tan (A
B) and
B).
5. The horizontal force P necessary to just move a down weight a rough plane inclined at a to the horizontal, the coefficient of friction between the plane and the weight being /*, can be obtained from the formula
If
find
^ = tan P an expression tan = ^ terms of and tan = the value of P when W = and a = 8.
(*
a)
<(>
ft,
find
for
in
p.
a.
Hence
48,
/i
-21,
The effort P required to raise a load of pitch p and radius r, is given by

6.
W by means
of a screw,
P=
W tan
<f>
(<t>
where a =. angle of screw and tan an expression for P in terms of W,

7. If ^Tr 8.
p
p, r
= coefficient
/*.
+ a)
of friction.
Find
and
W=
cos
,
<t>
and tan A
B)
= u,
find a simple expression for P.
Given that tan (A
-537
and tan
B=
-388, find
tan A.
9. Express 4*2 cos 5^
10. Express c). 11. If a bullet be projected from a point on ground sloping at an to the horizontal, the elevation being 6 to the incline, the angle z Find a simpler ut is given by the formula \gt sin A.
sin (5* c). 2-7 sin 5^ in the form in sin (50* cos the form 200 sin 50* 130 50^
range
R=
t
expression for R,
12.
if
= V cos 6
and
= 2V
sin Q
g
A
*
The
efficiency of
<f>
a screw
jack =
j^-^ +
where 6
is
the
In a certain experiis the angle of friction. angle of the screw and ment the efficiency was found to be -3, and by measurement of the of the screw tan 6 was calculated pitch and the mean circumference Find tan<f>, which is the coefficient of friction between the as -083. screw and nut, and thence find $>.
13. If the E.M.F. in
find
an inductive
2irft
i. e.,
E = RI Sin
a simpler expression for E,
circuit is given by 2r/LI COS 2irft one having the form M

I
sin (a*/*
+ c),
when
R = 4-6, / = 60, L =
-02
and
13-8.
Formula
Angles.
doing, expressions
for the Ratios of the Multiple and Sub-multiple so In the addition formulae let B be replaced by A; by be found for the ratios of 2A.
may
Thus
or
sin
Also
or
= sin A cos B + cos A sin B cos A sin A sin (A+ A) = sin A cos A + A. = cos A sin 2 sin 2A - sin A sin B cos (A+B) = cos A cos B - sin A sm A A cos (A+ A) = cos A cos A. sin = A cos cos 2A
(A+B)
2 2
280
If

for
-f-
cos 2
sin 2
cos 2
A we A = i,
write i
sin 2
A, which
2
is
permissible since
then
Also
Again-
= i sin A sin A = i 2 sin A. cos 2A = cos A (i cos A) = 2 cos A i. tan A + tanB tan (A+B) == I_ tan A + tan A == tan
cos 2 A
2 2 2 2 2
,.
. .
(A+A)
^
i
2 tan
tan 2
A A
A
Al
Grouping the
results
sin 2 A
cos
2A
= =
2 sin
cos2
A A
2
cos
sin 2
= 2cos A- 1 = l-2sin A 2 tan A tan 2A = 2
tan 2
If the ratios of the half-angles are required they can be obtained

"
from the foregoing by dividing

E.
g.,
all
the angles
sin 2
by
2.
cos
A=
cos 2
2 COS 2
i
-
A
1
=
sin
2 sin 2
A 2
A=
A
2 sin
A
2
cos
A
2
2 tan
A
2
tan
A=
i-tan 2 2,
Similarly, by multiplying all the angles by be found for the ratios of the angle 4A
e. g.,
expressions can
sin
4A
= 2 sin 2A
cos
2A 2A
in
and
this expansion can be further developed if necessary. Formulae for ratios of 3A can be obtained by writing
place of
ratios of
B
2A
in the
(A+B)
formulae,
and using the
rules for the
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
E.
g.,
sin
3A
= sin (aA+A) = sin 2A cos A + cos 2A sin A = 2 sin A cos A + (i_ 2 sin A) sin A = 2 sin A cos A sin A - 2 sin A + = 2 sin A (i- S n A) + sin A - 2
2 2 2 3
i
28l
sm A
sin*
sin 8
A.
In like
manner
cos
3A
3 4 cos
A - 3 cos A
tan 3 A
= 3tanA-tanA
i
-3 tan 2 A
for
For cos 2A
L.H.S. R.H.S.
= cos 2A = cos 48 = -669 = cos a A - sin 2 A = cos* 24 sin* 24 = (-9I35) ~ = '835 ~ -165(-4067)' = -670
2
.'.
L.H.S.
R.H.S.
For tan 2A
L.H.S.
RHS
= tan 2A = tan 48 = 1-1106 2 tan 24 2 x -4452 = 2tan A i tan A i- tan 24 i- (-4452) 2 = 89 - ri08 .855 L.H.S. = R.H.S. /.
-
(the small differences being
due to
slide-rule working).
For
sin
3A
L.H.S. R.H.S.
= sin 3 A = sin 72 = '9511. = 3 sin A 4 sin A = 3 sin 24

3
= =
X -4067
4 sin* 24
i -220
-269
Example
28.
If sin
A=
-85, find sin
22
,
cos
and tan
A
2
,
without
the use of the tables. (Examples are set in this manner so that the reader may become familiar with the formulae and the method of using them ; but in practice the tables would be used.)
282

find sin
To
A
.
The formula that contains

is
sin
A
2
,
only, of the ratios
of the half-angles
cos
A= A
2 sin 2
A
2
and, therefore, to use this, cos

cos
must
first
be found.
2
A = Vi =
sin 2
2
A = Vi
(-85)
-526.
Then
-526
12 sin
2sin 2
or
.%
- = 1526 = sin 8 - = -237

sin
-474
'487
{the positive root only being taken}.
To
find cos
2
.
cos
A= = =
=
2
or alternatively
~\
2 cos 2
2
/.
-526
2 cos 2
2 COS 2 cos 2
1-526
-763
-875.
cos
-=
To
find tan
tan
.sin A
.
A
2 2
-48'
TA cos
Example
29.
Find the value of tan 2A

sin
if
cos
A=
*g6.
Then
and
A = Vi cos 2 A = Vi - (-96) a = -2795 sin A 2 = -2795 tan A = ^f = -292 cos A '96 2 tan A = ~ 2 x -292 tan 2A = r 5-*^rs = tan 2 A i i (-292)
.
-r-
-584 -^ -915
'638. ->
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
It
283
was required to find, to an Example 30. accuracy of -oooi', the dimension marked c in Fig. 154; the figure representing part of
a gauge for the shape of a boring tool. There is a radius of -5* at the top of the sloping side, which is tangential to an arc of 3-4* radius at the bottom and other dimensions are as shown.
;
B
329-KB
Fig. 154.
Gauge
for Boring Tool.
Introduce the three unknowns x, y and z as indicated on the figure y being the distance along the slant side from the point of contact
;
with the arc to the base.
Let the angle
ACB = o, then L APT = | CB = 1-704 + x - 1-375 =

ACB
tan a
'329
+
(i)
In the triangle In the triangle
=
O
-*
^j
*
APT
tan
*z
A
(2)
also
tana
and
Connecting
= 3.4 ....... 2 y = (6-8 + *)*

. .
From
the
(*-
the properties of
circle.
)
(3)!
(4)
'
EDC * a ri ght an 6 le
(i)
with
(3)
329
i. e.,
x y
1-36 (-329
+ *)
+
y*
1-8496 (-329
Hence from
whence
(4)
(6-8
x]x
1-8496 (-329
8496*'
5-583* +
'20021
+ *) -O
284
so that

x
=+
5*583 J J
V3I-I699 T?
1-6992
-6804
or the required value of x
=
y y
tan a
1-6992
-329
-0361*.
Nowso that
also
= =
-4965
4965
^>-
6-8482.
It would be unwise to use the tables to find a from the previous equation, for in the neighbourhood of the required value the change hence it is a good plan in the value of the tangent is extremely rapid to make use of the rule for tan aA or its modification.
Thus
tan a
=
=
i-tan z 2
i. e.,
2 tan 2
i
6-8482
42*
z,
for tan 2
2* from
(2).
This
is
a quadratic in terms of
this case is z
and the solution applicable to
'4323.
.*.
2-75
X '4323
1-8854*.
Further Transpositions
sin sin
of the
Addition Formulas
(A+B)
(A
B)
= sin A cosB+cosA sinB = sin A cos B cos A sin B = 2 sin A

cos
Hence, by addition
sin
(A+B)+sin (A
B)
and by subtraction
sin
(A+B)
sin
(A
B) B)
Also
cos cos
cos
(A+B)
cos (A
.'.
and
(A+B)+cos (A B) (A B) cos (A+B)
= 2 cos A sinB = cos A cos B sin A sin B = cos A cos B+sin A sin B = 2 cos A cosB = 2 sin A sin B.
[Note the change in the order on the left-hand side in this last
formula.]
Now
'*\ A= A B = +B)-(A-B)
'
'
i.e.,= %
{ e
.
sum
of the
two
angles,
and
>
= $ difference of
the two angles.
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
Hence, the
of these formulae could be written Sine (one angle) sine (another angle) 2 sine (i their sum) x cos ( J their
first
28s
difference)
substitution
let
is
very often of great service
(A+B)
thus, '
and
Then
sin
(A-B)
2
=D
etc
+ sin D =
2 sin 2
S cos =?
and we have the summary

If
use the
the change is to be (C+D) formulae

sin
made from a sum or difference
to a product,
C+sin D
C-sin D
= = = =
B
2 sin
cos
sin
2 cos
a
sin
2
cos
2)
cos
C+cos D
2 cos
2 sin
-~-
^^
C
...... ......
to a
(3)
cos
cos C
C+D ~
D
^
sin
(4)
If,
however, the change to be made
is
or difference, use the
from a product
sum
and
formulae, which follow
sinA cosB eosA sinB cosA cosB

sinA sinB
In later
= = = =
{sin(A+B)+sin(A-B)} J{sin(A+B)-sin(A-B)j {cos(A+B)+eos(A-B)} {cos (A-B) -cos (A+B)}
..... ..... ..... .....
(5) (6)
(7)
(8)
work
it will
be found that certain operations can be

;
performed on a sum or difference of two trigonometric ratios that cannot be done with products hence the great importance of this
last set of formulae. It may appear to the reader that his memory will be severely taxed by the above long list of formulae, but a second thought will convince him that all are derived from the original (A B) and (A B) formulae, which must be committed to memory to serve as the first principles from which all the later formulae are
developed.
Example
sin
31.
Express 17 sin 56 sin 148 as a sum or

i {cos (148
7 sin 56
.
difference.
56 sin 148
/.
=
1
- 56) - cos (148 + 56)} {A = 148, B = 56} sin 148 = 8-j, {cos 92 - cos 204).
from
(8)
286

the use of tables
To check by
L.H.S.
= = = =
7 sin 56 sin 1 48
= = =
17 sin 56 sin 32 17 x -8290 x '5299

7-47-
R.H.S.
8-5 {cos 92 8-5 8-5

{
cos
cos 88
{/.
-0349
+ + -9135} =
204} cos 24}

8-5
x -8786
7-47.
L.H.S.
R.H.S.
Example 32. The voltage V in an A.C. circuit, after a time /, is given by V = 200 sin 360*. and the current by C = 3-5 sin(36o/ + c). Find an expression for the watts at any time, expressing it as a sum or difference.
Watts
= amps x volts = 3'5 sin (360* + c) x 200 sin 360* = 700 sin (360^ + c) sin 360* = 222 {cos c cos (720* + c)} = 350 {cos c cos (7201 + c)}.
(4 sin 5*) (5
from
(8)
Example
33.
Express
cos
3*)
as a
sum
or difference.
(4 sin 5/) (5 cos 3<)
= =
20 sin 5* cos 3*
10 {sin 8t
sin 2t}
from
(5)
Exercises 32.
1. If sin
On
Transpositions of the Addition Formulae.
aA =
2. If sin 3.
4.
A=
-824, find cos $, find sin 2A
2 Express cos 14 in Find an expression for sin
2A and tan 2A. and cos 2A. terms of cos 28.

cos
,
find the value of sin

5. If sin
2B when
A=
find sin '317, *
"
B = -918. A cos A and
2B
in
terms of cos
sin 3 A.
alone.
Hence
22
A
6.
If sin 2
A=
-438, find cos 4

2
and tan
7. Change 5 sin 2t into a form containing the first power only of the trigonometric function. 8. Express 15-7 cos 160 sin 29 as a sum or difference. sin 15* + sin 3* + cos lit cos yt. 9. Simplify
10. Sin 2
A=
/k
"504. j i
Find sin A, tan
and cos
11. A rise of level is given by 100 sin a cos a x s where 5 = difference between the readings of the top and bottom hairs of a tacheometric telescope. Express this statement in a more convenient form. If the angle of elevation a is 11 37' 30*, and the staff readings are 5-72 and 8-41, find the rise.
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
12. (a) sin 13.
; ;
287
Express as products, and in forms convenient for computation - sin 17 (b) cos 99 + cos - 12 cos 48 176 (c) 12 cos 365 When using a tacheometer and a staff it is found that 985'. if C and are the constants of the instrument, 6 is the angle of depression, s the difference of the staff readings, then depth of point below level of station sin 20 sin 6 E + Q, and distance of point from station = CS cos 2 6 + cos 6. Find the depth and the distance
+K
when C =
14. If
98-87, sin 6
= -2753, K = -75,
S=
-69,
E = 4-88 and Q = 9-55.
tan a
=1
the equations.
o75 [Refer to Fig. 154 and the worked Example 30.] 15. If V = 94 sin27r/* and A = -2 sin (zirft '117), express the product AV as a sum or difference.
and tan ^ = ~* 2
22, find
values of z to satisfy
Trigonometric Equations. Occasionally one meets with an equation involving some trigonometric ratios; if only these ratios occur, *. e., if no algebraic terms are present in addition, the equations may be solved by the methods here to be detailed. The relations between the ratios themselves, already given, must be borne in mind, so that the whole expression can be put into terms of one unknown quantity, and the equation solved in
terms of that quantity. For emphasis, the relations
repeated
between
the
ratios
are
here
tan
=^-, cos A
sin
2
= -r, sec A = cos A tan A whence sin A = i cos A A + cos A = cos A = i sin A or = sec A i+tan A, cosec A = i+cot A.
cotA
2
,
T sin
r A
2 2
i,
The idea
eliminate
relations,
all
in the solution of these trigonometric equations is to the unknowns one, by the use of the above
except
and then to apply the ordinary determine the value of that unknown.
Example
34.
rules of equations to
Solve the equation 4 sin Q
3*5.
and
= 4 sin 6 5 = sin 6 =
4
3-5
-875.
3',
Hence one value

but
of
6,
viz. the simplest, is 61
since
sin (180
sin 61
= 3'
*'
-875
sin
61
is
30,
n857',
also
-875.
so that a possible solution
n857'.
288
Again, 360

+
number
;
61 3' or 360 -f 118 57' would also satisfy, and so but whilst these could of solutions could be found all be included in one formula, it is not at all necessary from the engineer's standpoint that they should be, for, at the most, the angles of a circle, viz. o to 360, are all that occur in his problems. Hence, throughout this part of the work the range of angles will be understood to be o to 360.
an
infinite
.'.
The solutions
35.
If
in this
example are 61
6,
3"
and 118
57'.
Example
tan 6
5 sin
determine values of 6 to satisfy
the equation.
Apparently, in this one equation two unknowns occur, or the data

are insufficient, but in reality
two equations are

*
given, for tan 6
Thus
'-
= =
cos 6
5 J sin 6.
Dividing through by sin 6 [and in doing this

-* as a possible solution, since COS v
we must put
sin Q
and
5x0 = 0]
28'
Then
cos 6
^=
COS
5 J
'2
COS 78
/.
= o;
or
180; or 78
28'; or 360
sin 6
78
28',
i.e.,
281
32'.
Example
36.
Solve the equation

sin 6
tan 6
3 cos 6 sin 6.
+ tan 6 =
its
3 cos & sin 6
By
substituting for tan 6
value
sin 6
sin 6 H
COS
2i C7
= =
3 cos ^ sin
or
{cos 6 '^^ t/ COS
1}
3 cos 6 sin 0.
Dividing through by sin 6 {sin 6 multiplying through by cos 6
o thus being one solution} and
It
may
2 i cos 6 3 cos 2 = o. i cos cos 6 6 3 this easier to solve equation if appear
or
X is written for cos 6
e.,
- X - 1=0 3X
2
whence
X=+
Vl +
3 '606
12
" =
cos 6
4-606
2 '606
f
6
-7677
or
-6
-4343
-7677
or
cos 6
'4343-
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
Now
;
28 9
for the cosine to be positive, the angle lies in the first and fourth quadrants and, since the smallest angle having its cosine =-7677 is 39 51'. the values of 6 are 39 51' or 36o - 3 9 5I ', i. e ., 320 9'. For the cosine to be negative, the angle lies in the second and third quadrants. Now cos 64 15' -4343, and therefore the values of 6 are i8o-64i5', i.e., H545', or i8o+6 i ', 4 5 i.e., 24 4 i 5 '. Hence the solutions are
'
= o; 180;
Example
is
395i'; 320
g'\
11.5
4.S'
or 2 4 4is'.
37.
The
velocity of the piston of a reciprocating engine

v
given by the formula
2nnr
/ \
n sin 6
.
-\
--
Y sin 20\
=
21
where
position,
= crank radius, n = R.P.M., 6 crank angle and / = length of connecting-rod.

is
from dead centre
The velocity
maximum when
velocity
cos0+j-cos20
o;
find
the
crank angles for the
maximum
when
8r.
We
require to solve the equation

cos 6 H
.,
.
cos 20 -= o o
To change
Theii
into terms of cos 6 write

cos 6
A
,
2 cos 2 6
in place of cos ^6.
-\
-2 cos
2 COS 6
~
2
8 cos 6
6i
or
2X2 + 8X
V6 4 +
4
8-485
-485
1=0
by
where
X = cos 6.
The
solutions of this equation are given
x_ 8 _- 8
=
=
But cos 6 cannot
hence the
first
4 16-485 4 4-1212
or or
4
-12 12,
which are the values of cos

is
6.
=-
root
is
4-1212, since cos 6 disregarded.
never greater than

solutions,
i,
cos &
i.'e..
= =
-12 12,
83
2' or
which gives the required 276 58'.
be observed that when 6 has If a skeleton diagram is drawn it will are very nearly at nghi these values the crank and connecting-rod angles to one another.
290

Exercises 33.
On
the Solution of Trigonometric Equations.
Solve the equations (for angles between o and 360). 2 2 1. Sin A + 2 sin A = 2 cos 2 A. 2. 2 sin 6 + 4 cos 2 6
3.
5.
7.
9.
10. 12.
14. 16.
18. 19.
= 4. 2 sin* 6 6. 5 cos 6 = 4. Tan x tan 2X = i. 8. = o. Cos A + 2 sin A 2-5 sin A Cos x tan # = -5842. B 2 tan B 11. 3 tan 1 13 13 i = Tan # + cot x = 2. 13. 3 tan Q + i = 4 tan 6. Cos* # = 3 sin x. 15. Cos 2X + sin 2* = i. Cos # + \/3 sin # = i. sin # = -^ 17. Cos x 16 2-35 sin # 1-72 cos x = -64.
Cos0
6cos 2
2
= 3. Cot 14 tan 6 = 5. = 12-6. 15 cos $ + 9 sin Tan A + 3 cot A = 4.

o.
2
rj
The velocity
of a valve actuated
i'2p* cos pt
gear
is
maximum when
by a
particular Joy valve
where p = angular velocity of the crank shaft. Find the values of the angle pt for maximum velocity. 20. To find the maximum bending moment on a circular arch
i-8p* sin pt
it is
necessary to solve the equation ;R 2 sin 6 cos 6 -9340^* sin 6 = o. Find values of 6 to satisfy this equation. 21. The following equation occurred when taking soundings from a boat, the position of the boat being fixed by reference to three points on the shore. [Compare Exercise 31, p. 272.]
sin (70 14"
+ *) =
1-195 sin (4 8 5 6/
+ *)
Find the value of x to satisfy
this equation,
x being an acute angle.
(Fig. 155)
Hyperbolic Functions. Consider the circle of unit radius and the rectangular hyperbola whose half-axes are also
'.
unity (Fig. 156),
e.,
OA
in either case
i.
Fig. 155-
Fig. 156.
Draw any "

angle
EOA =
angle
Q,
EOA
let
and
the
in each diagram, "
and
"
let
the
"
circle
hyperbola angle
EOA =
ft.
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
radkns
291
or "hyperbolic"
T-
* ******
*****
"
circular
"
length of circular or hyperbolic arc ""mean length of radius vector
'
Now
in Fig. 155
_ =E X=sin0,
EX
is
or by 2
area of sector
OAE
and the corresponding

termed
sinh p.*
ratio, viz.
EX,
of the hyperbolic angle

in Fig. 155 in Fig. 155
Similarly
At
OX = cos = tan
i.e.,
and OX and A*
2
In Fig. 155
(EX)*
sin 2
2 In Fig. 156 (OX) rectangular hyperbola is equal to unity and the centre
+ (OX) + cos -(EX) = x*-y* = i

2
2
= cosh in Fig. 156 = tanh p in Fig. 156. =i = i .........

ft
(!)
is
Hence
or
*. e.,
or
sinh 2 p = i p cosh 2 p + i x sinh 2 )8) 2 cosh p + (V~i X sinh cosh 2 p + (j sinh /3) 2 = i
the equation of the if the semi-axes are each taken as the origin.
i,
since
cosh 2
=i =
2
.where
written to indicate V^-i. Comparing the last equation with equation (i), we see that we may change from circular to hyperbolic functions if we write / sinh ft for sin 0, and cosh p for cos 6, and hence / tanh P for tan 6,
/ is
If these substitutions are
made, the ordinary
rules for circular
functions follow.
E. g., sin (x -f- y) = sin % cos y -f cos x sin y and the corresponding expansion with hyperbolic functions
.
is
= / sinh X cosh Y + cosh X sinh Y / sinh (X+ Y) or sinh (X+ Y) = sinh X cosh Y + cosh X sinh Y sin x cos x ........ see p. 280 cos 2x = or again, sinh X) + (cosh X) cosh 2X = = sinh X + cosh X, since = (V11 =
;
-f-
t. e.,
(/
!)
i.
It can be shown that these hyperbolic functions can be expressed in terms of the exponentials in the forms
e
-x
?
i.e.,
= cosh x = cosh x
e
sinh x
-f-
sinh x
cosh*=
*T5 + i. 2.3.4"*
,
and
*
.2.3.4.5
sinh
is
the To avoid confusing with "

"
shine,"
circular
functions,
usually
pronounced
and tanh
tank."
292

relations for the circular functions are
-f-
The corresponding
= cos x = cos x cos* =

e
ix
j sin
;
e~5x
sin
x x
y*
j
_
O
= =
1.2
.A-
1.2.3.4
.
sm
A;
2;
1.2.3-1.2.3.4.5
e. g.,
Hyperbolic functions occur frequently in engineering theory; in connection with the whirling of shafts the equation
y y
= A cos mx + B sin mx + C cosh mx + D sinh mx

:
plays a most important part cosh x and so on.
the equation of the catenary
is
It is in electrical
work that these functions occur most
fre-
quently; thus, for a long telegraph line having a uniform linear leakage to earth by way of the poles the diminishing of the voltage
is
y = sinh x
represented
by a curve
of the
form y
= cosh x,
whilst the curve
represents the current.
Example 38. A cable weighing 3 Ibs. per foot hangs from two points on the same level and 60 feet apart and it is strained by a horizontal Find the pull of 300 Ibs. The form taken by the cable is a catenary. length of the cable from the formula
;
Length
where
,
= = =
20 sinh
zc
L = span
L=
and
horizontal tension J-T-T7 7 r 7 TTweight of i foot of cable

-
Here we have
60 and
=
3
100
hence
-3
=
2C
200
-3
Thus
Table
length of cable
= 2X 100
:
sinh
at the end of the book may be utilised to find the value Look down the first column until of sinh -3, in the following manner follow the line in which this value occurs 3 is seen as the value for x The value there shown is until the column headed sinh x is reached. that of sinh -3 and is -3045.
:
XI
Hence length
of cable
200 x '3045
60*9
ft.
form of the cable

length
is
This rule gives the exact length of the cable, but in practice the is assumed to be parabolic, and the approximate
given by
Length
span
8 (sag) ' 3 span
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
293
the sag also being calculated on the assumption of the parabolic form In this case the sag is found to be 4-5 ft. and hence of the cable.
length of cable
60
6o g
.
In this instance the result obtained by the true and approximate in the majority of cases met with in practice the approximate rule gives results sufficiently accurate.
methods agree exactly: and
Example
line is 8-3
39.
ohms per ohms per km. The

at distance
resistance of the conductor of a certain telegraph kilometre and the insulation resistance is 600 megdifference in potential E between the line and earth kms. from the sending end is found from the formula
The
E=A
where A and conductor and
line
cosh Vrl.
L+ B
sinh Vrl.
B
I
are constants, r = resistance of unit length of the = conductance of unit length of the path between the
and earth.
If
sending end A and B.
the total length of the line is 100 kms., the voltage at the is no, and at the receiving end is 85, find the values of
We have two unknowns and we must therefore form two L=o At the sending end 1 10 = A cosh Vrl o + B sinh Vrl o and then
.
equations.
=A
Hence
cosh o
A= no.
+B
sinh o
= Ax i = A
NnwrZ =
600 x io 6
i-iSix io~ 8 and
Vrl=
-0001176;
also at a
value of E is to be 85. distance of 100 kms. from the sending end the values in the original equation numerical these Substituting
In and as the given tables of values of sinh -01176 must first be found; this purpose we proceed according for cosh and sinh are not convenient
to the following plan
= no cosh (-0001176 x 100) + Bsinh (-0001176 x 100) = no cosh -01176+ Bsinh -01176 ......... (i) of cosh -01176 and order to solve this equation for B the values
85
and sinh,
^;
=
= ."";
and to evaluate we must take Let y = e' 01176 and then

log y
logs.
= =
-01176 x log e -01176 x -4343

is
-0051
'
so that
Thus
is
*-
1176
y =1-012. 01 "' which 1-012 and e-'
the reciprocal of
01
-9883.
294

cosh -01176
sinh -01176
Then
and
+ -988 =
2
1-012
012
(i)
Substituting these values in equation
85
whence -012
or
Hence
= (no x i) + (B x -012) B = 25 B = 2083 E = no cosh -0001176 L
2083 sinh -0001176 L.
Complex Quantities. Algebraic quantities generally may be divided into two classes, real and imaginary, and the former of these
Fig. 157.
Complex and Vector
Quantities.
may
be further subdivided into rational and irrational or surd
are real, whilst Thus, Vs and also 7 15 is quantities. imaginary; indeed, all quantities involving the square root of a negative quantity are classed as imaginary. An expression that is partly real and partly imaginary is spoken of as a complex quantity and Vzx-}-i6V zy are complex quantities. thus 4
;
+ 7^9,
The
.
first
expression might be written as 4

/
-f-
(jxVq X
i),
e.,
4+21; where
stands for
i.
The general form
for
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
these complex expressions is usually taken as a b may have any real values.
-f-
395
jb,
where a and
((a)
if
represents of OA' were
According to the ordinary convention of signs, if a units, then OA' would stand for
OA
a
Fig. 157)
by
X
tion
must
made equal to that of in other words, to ; multiply revolution has been made through two right Now angles. I X a, so that the multiplication by involve a revolution one-half of that required for the
I,
OA
the length
Vi =
Vî
multiplica-
i; or OA* must represent ja. Accordingly a meaning by has been found for the imaginary quantity /, and that is If -fa is measured to the right and a is measured to the left, from a given origin, then ja must be measured upward, and differs from the other quantities only in direction, which is 90 from either
:
-fa or
a.
To
a distance
AB
represent a -f jb on a diagram, therefore, we must set out OA to represent a, erect a perpendicular AB making equal to b, choosing the same scale as that used for the hori-
zontal measurement, and then join OB b and AB OB' would represent a
be the result of the addition of the simple addition with which we have been
a -f jb. For OB must so that AB', a to jb. The addition is not
=/
then
.
OB =
familiar,
but
is
is
spoken of as
vector addition,
i. e.,
addition in which attention

is
paid
its
to the direction in
which the quantity
measured as well as
to
magnitude. It is often necessary to change from the form a jb to the form r (cos 6 -f / sin 0} ; and this can be done in the following
way
be identically the same as a+/6 If r(cos0 / sin0) is to then the real parts of each must be equal, and also the imaginary.
i. e. t
r cos 6
rj sin r sin
whence
By
division of
(2)
by
(i)
=a = jb =b tan 6 = (2)
2
(i)
(2)
and by squaring both

2 f2 cos
(i)
2
and
rz
and adding
since cos
2
f* sin
=a
r
+&*
2 -f sin
or
a 2-f &a
Thus, at
(b)
Fig. 157
and
Example
40.
OB = = BOA L
3
To change
yjj
into the form
r (cos 6
/ sin 6).
296

the above, since a
r*
From
=
2
3,
and
and
This case
is
tan
= r = =
(~5'7)
= =
5-7
+
or
32-4
= 4iH
6-44
^2 =*
(6)
i-g
62 14$'.
illustrated at
is
Fig. 157, in
which
OB
represents
r.
and the angle
BOA
the angle
6.
Vector quantities, such as forces, velocities, electrical currents
and pressures, may be combined by either graphic or algebraic methods; in the algebraic addition, for example, the components along two directions at right angles are added to give the components along these axes of the resultant. Thus if the vector 4 + -6;', the resultant vector 2+1-5; were added to the vector would be 2 4+i"5/+-6;, i.e., 2+2-1;. The addition is really
OB at (c) simpler to perform by the graphic method, thus Fig. 157 represents the vector quantity 2+1-5; and OD represents
:
4+-6/.
join
in
Through
then
OE;
B OE is
draw
BE
parallel
and equal to
OD
and
be
the resultant of
seen that
OE is
the vector
2+2-1;
a negative direction and

a
FE
= 2-1 units.
Let
i.
OB and since OF = OA ((d) Fig.

r (cos 6
OD.
It will
2 units measured
To multiply complex quantities.

1
157) represent
0)
+ / sin and let OB represent a ^(cos 0j + / sin Then OA x OB = (r cos 6 + rj sin 0)(r cos + rjj sin = TTj cos cos 6j + rr^j sin Oj cos + cos + rr^' sin sin rrrf sin = (cos cos 0j sin sin + cos 0! + cos sin 0J rrtf (sin = (0 + ej + / sin (0 + rr^cos j
e.,
lt
i.
+ jb, + jb
e.,
X)
X)
rr-L
X)
X)
,. ., ^ To divide complex quantities,

....
a jb Let - f-vai 1i
T
,
+ +
= r 4(cos
fi(cos
e
X
+;sin0) \ sin
'.
. ..
0j)
X)
Rationalise the denominator
by multiplying by
~^"
Th
~^~
r cos 9
sm ecos
(cos
2 X
(cos 0j sm 9
;'
sin
sin 2
which can be expressed in the form A ;'B if desired. These results might have been arrived at by expressing
r (cos
;'
sin
0)
as rei
jb)(cii
and
Thus
(a +
x r^ = rr^'+W + jb^ = = rr^cos (0 + Oj) + / sin (0 +

rei*
(cos
;'
sin
X)
as r-^
l
.
0j)}
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
Example
41.
297
The
electric current
system was measured by the product If P = (-068 -0015;) (28 + 30;) and y
in a star-connected lighting Potential P x admittance y.

-9
-18; find C.
P=
y
.'.
(-068
-0015;) (28
30;)
1-949
1-998;
(by actual multiplication).
=
C
-9
-f-
2-791 (cos 45 43' -i8j -9179 (cos 11
Py
+ ; sin 45 43') 19' + j sin 11

2'4-y
sin 57
19')
2')
2-563
(cos
57
t-395
or,
alternatively,
2-1497'.
Inverse Trigonometric Functions. If sin * y, then x is the angle whose sine is y, and this statement may be expressed 1 in the abbreviated form x sin~ 1 y. (Note that sin~ y does not
mean
-^
but the
I indicates
a converse statement, y being the
value of the sine and not the angle.)

sin" 1 y sinh -1
is
called an inverse circular function.

is called
Similarly
an
inverse hyperbolic function

this
Angles are sometimes expressed in

e.
way instead of in
is
degrees
:
g.,
the
referring to the angle of friction for coefficient of friction between the surfaces
when
two surfaces
if
given, that
is
the value of the tangent of the angle of friction, and the angle of friction tan~V*, where /t is the coefficient of friction.
Example
42.
Given sin" 1*
sin" x
1
= y,
find the values of cos
y and tan
y.
i. e.,
sin
cos
=y y = x y = Vi
=
sin y
sin'y
= Vi
x*
X*
and
tan y
cosy
Vi -
Example
43.
The transformation from the hyperbolic to the
logarithmic form occurs If cosh y = x, show that
when concerned with a

cosh" 1*
log ,(*
+ V* 2 -
certain integration.
i).
cosh y
or
whence
/
(Solving the quadratic)
+ Vx*-i

since
Vx
if
= =
=
+
or
(x
._
Vx*
as
is
seen
we multiply
across
log*
log, (x
Vx*
i)
y,
i. e.,
log* (x
+ Vx
2
i)
or
if
only the positive root

1
is
taken
y cosh" *
In like manner
.
= loge = loge
,
+ V* (x + Vx*
i)
i)
it
,
smh.-
can be proved that , x x Vx z 1 -
a2
log,
, x -1 -
loge
x - -f
Vx
a3
Exercises 34.
1. 2.
On
Hyperbolic and Inverse Trigonometric functions.
Read from the tables the values of cosh -7 and sinhi'5. Evaluate 5 cosh -015 + ! sinh-oi5. 3. Find the true length of a cable weighing 1-8 Ibs. per foot, the ends being 120 ft. apart horizontally and the straining force being 90 Ibs. weight. [Refer to worked Example 38, p, 292.] 4. Calculate the sag of the cable in Question 3, from the rule
sag
where
straining force in Ibs. wt. -. T TT ^ i 77 ft. of cable wt. of
cosh
-2C
Hence
find the
approximate length of the cable, from the

length
rule
span
+**J& 3 X span
5. The E.M.F. required at the transmission end of a track circuit used for signalling can be found from
E,
Put this expression into a simpler form, viz. one involving hyperbolic functions.
6. If
the
"
angle of friction
"
for iron
on iron
is
tan~ 1 -i9, find

in
,
this
angle.
7.
The
lag in time between the pressure
alternating
...... current given by

,
and the current
an
circuit is
period *
^
x tan -1
,
2n-L
where
= number of cycles per second, L = self-induction of circuit and R = resistance of circuit, the angle being expressed in degrees. If the frequency is 60 cycles per second, L = -025 and R = 1-2, find the.
n
lag in seconds.
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
8. If 9.
299
both tension.
cosh y = 1-4645, find the positive value of y. block is subjected to principal stresses of 255
The
Ibs. and 171 Ibs., inclination of the resultant stress on a plane inis
clined at 27 to the plane of the greater stress

/!
tan^K?
Vi
tan
A where
/
and /2 are the greater and

10.
lesser stresses respectively
and
is
the
inclination of the plane. for this case.
Find the inclination of the resultant
stress
The solution
of a certain equation
by two
sin
different
methods
gave as results
s
=
53
sin
7* V/
+ tan~ x
45 7
and
=
53
7* V/
tan" 1 2
2
respectively.
By
1 finding the 'numerical values of the angles tan"
and tan -1
-,
show that the two
results agree.
11. The following equation occurred in connection with alternator regulation a = 6 +

<(>
lid
12.
is
= sin"
^4rOIoO
anc*
cos" 1
-55,
find sin a.
The speed
knots of waves over the bottom in shallow water
calculated from
V =
2
i-8
.L,
where
If
40
ft.,
and
= depth in feet L = wave length in feet. L = 315 ft., calculate the value
d
:
of V.
13. By calculating the values of the angles (in radians) prove the truth of the following relations
tan-1 \
4 tan1 4 tan1
tan- 1
=
4
tan- 1 ?fa
1
tan- 1
^ + tan- ^ =
:
by a diagram. in the calculation of the arrival current equation occurring in a telegraph cable contained the following cos -za cosh 2b. _ 9* 3_ cos 2a gink 2,b
Illustrate the first of these
14.
An
N 10 _ 2 Find N when a = 4-5 and b = 2. = x-8 (cos 12 + ; sin 12 15 If C = 5-4 (cos 62 + j sin 62) and y the same meanings have letters The a form the + /&). find P (in
Example
41, p. 297.
CHAPTER
Areas
been given
of Irregular
(see
VII

Curved Figures.
Rules have already
Chapter
III) for finding the areas of irregular figures
bounded by
straight lines,
is
straight sides; if, however, the boundaries are not such rules only apply to a limited extent.
The mean pressure of a fluid such as steam or gas on a piston " indicator diagram," the figure found from the area of the " an drawn automatically engine indicator," correlating pressure by
By far the quickest and most accurate method of the area of this diagram is (a) to use an instrument determining called the planimeter or integrator. Other methods are (b) the averaging of boundaries, (c) the counting of squares, (d) the use
and volume.
of the
computing
scale,
(e)
the trapezoidal rule,

(h)
(/)
the mid-ordinate
rule, (g)
Simpson's rule
and
graphic integration.
:
To
(a)
deal with these methods in turn
The Planimeter.
The Amsler planimeter
is
the instrument
most frequently employed, on account of its combination of simIt consists essentially of two arms, at the plicity and accuracy. end of one of which is a pivot (see Fig. 158), whilst at the end of
the other is the tracing-point P. By unclamping the screw B the length of the arm AP can be varied, fine adjustment being made by and this length AP determines the scale the adjusting screw C rotates or to which the area is read. The rim of the wheel
:
partially glides over the paper as the point P is guided round the outline of the figure whose area is being measured; the pivot O being kept stationary by means of a weight. The motion of the is measured on the wheel N in integers, and on the wheel wheel D in decimals, further accuracy being ensured by the use of the
vernier V.
the ordinary manner, the pivot O being outside the rough trial find a position for the pivot so that the Mark figure can be completely traversed in a comfortable manner. some convenient starting-point on the boundary of the figure and
To use in
figure.
By
s: AS: : 8 r
A ^^ ^
will
- .-
case the area would be 844 sq. units. Along the arm AP are marks for adjustment to different scales f is set at one of these marks the area
be in
sq. ins., at
Fig. 158.
The Amsler Planimeter.
but if there be any doubt about the a rectangle, say 3* X 2* should be drawn, and the tracer guided round its boundary. Whatever reading is thus obtained must represent 6 sq. ins. so that the reading for i sq. in. can be
another, in sq. cms., etc.;
scale,
calculated therefrom.
If,
zero
mark
in the tracing for which the figures are given above, the " -01 sq. in." is had been set at the line at which
found on the long bar, then the area would be 8-44 sq. ins., since the divisions on the vernier scale represent -01 sq. in. each. For large areas it may be found necessary to place the pivot inside the area and in such cases the difference between the first and last readings will at first occasion surprise, for it may give an
;
302
area obviously much less than the true one. This is accounted for by the fact that under certain conditions, illustrated in Fig. 159, the tracer P traces out a circle, called the zero circle, for which the area as registered not revolve at all.
by the instrument is zero, since the wheel does For a large area, then, the reading of the instru-
ment may be
either the excess of the required area over that of the
zero circle, or the amount by which it falls short of the zero circle and III in area. These areas are shown respectively at
EEE
For the [Noie. Fig. 159, while the zero circle is shown dotted. zero circle area of the is Amsler the about ordinary planimeter 220 sq. ins., but it is indicated for other units by figures stamped
on the bar AP.]
Fig. 159.
Zero Circle of Planimeter.
To use in the special manner. By means of a set square, adjust the instrument so that the axis of the tracing arm is perpendicular to a line joining the fixed centre O in Fig. 159 to the point of conMeasure the radius from the fixed tact of the wheel and the paper.
centre O to the tracing-point P, and draw a circle with this radius on a sheet of tracing-paper. Place this over the plot whose area is being measured, and endeavour to estimate whether the figure
is
If this is at once apparent larger or smaller than the zero circle. trace round the figure in the ordinary way and add the area of the
zero circle to the reading, or subtract the reading from the zero
303
circle area as the case
may demand.
If
thus
Set the planimeter to
trace the area in
not apparent, proceed
reading
is
some convenient reading, say 2000 and a right-handed direction. Then, if the final greater than 2000, the area is greater than that of the and
vice versa.
zero circle
(1)
Then
to obtain the area
handed
final
circle, trace in a rightof the last reading over the first to the area of the zero circle; i. e., if x is the excess of the
If
the area
is greater
than the zero
direction
and add the excess
reading over the

If
initial reading,
the true area
= x -f zero
circle area.
(2)
the area
left-handed direction
readings from the last reading over the

direction,
direction.
is
circle, trace in a subtract the difference of the first and last the area of the zero circle. For x excess of
is less
than the area of the zero
and
first, if
-f-
x zero circle area, and the tracing performed in a left-handed direction in order to get a positive
x.
is
and this becomes The true area =
the tracing is in a right-handed x if the tracing is in a left-handed
value for
If
to be used as an averager, as would be the height of an indicator diagram was required, LL in Fig. 158 must be set to the width of the diagram and the outline must be traced as before. Then the difference of the readings
the instrument the
case
if
mean
mean height of the diagram. Further reference to the planimeter is made in Volume II of Mathematics for Engineers.
gives the
The Coffin Averager and Planimeter (Fig. 160) is somewhat simpler in construction as regards the instrument itself, but there are in addition some attachments. It is, in fact, the Amsler instruor
ment with the arm AO its equivalent, moves

circle.
(Fig. 158) made infinitely long so that A, in a straight line and not along an arc of
is conReferring to Fig. 160 it will be seen that the pointer strained to move along the slot GH. To use the instrument to find the mean height of a diagram Trace the diagram on paper and draw a horizontal line and two on the perpendiculars to this base line to touch the extreme points the that a in such Place the way paper boundary of the figure. to the edge of the clip B and set the clips AE base line is
:
parallel
drawn. Then start from along the perpendiculars already and trace the outline F, the reading of the instrument being noted, move the tracingNext reached. is F of the figure until again tracer P against the e., vertical F, keep the through point along
and
CD
*'.
304
the

clip, until it arrives at
M at which stage the instrument records

then the
the initial reading.
FM
is
mean
height of the diagram.
Fig. 1 60
The
Coffin Averager.
If the area of the figure is required, the reading of the instru-
ment must be made when the
tracing-point
is
at F.
The
outline
305
is
again reached and the reading again noted. Then the difference between the two readings is the area of the figure.
(b)
of the figure is then traced until
F is
Method
of
averaging Boundaries.
The area
of
the shape
line in
bounded by the wavy

:
figure
of
Fig. 161 being required, Draw the proceed as follows
polygon
ABCRED
so that
it
shall
occupy the
same area
as
the
original figure, viz. the portions added are to be equal to those
subtracted, as nearly as can be estimated.
etc.,
Then, by joining BD, BE, CE, the polygon is divided into a

of triangles
:
and the area base X height. Therefore draw the necessary perof each is
number
Fig. 161.
Area by Averaging
Boundaries.
pendiculars, scale off the lengths of the bases and the heights, and tabulate as follows
:
Triangle.
306
If

the total
number
Area of
of squares
figure
=N
:
sq. units
(d)
The Computing Scale
is
often
employed
in
the drawing
the areas of plots of land. It consists of two main The slider can parts, viz. a slider A, Fig. 162, and a fixed scale C.
office to find
Tracing
Fig. 162.
Area by the Computing
Scale.
be moved along the

of screws.
slot
B by
is
means
of the handles
D; and
it
carries a vertical wire,
which
kept tightly in position
by means
Along the fixed scales are graduations for acres and roods according to a linear scale of 4 chains to i", and a scale of square poles, 40 of which make up i rood, is indicated on the slider.
To use the instrument. Rule a sheet of tracing-paper with a number of parallel lines exactly J" apart, i. e., i chain apart according to the particular scale chosen. Place the tracing-paper
307 over the plot in such a way that the whole width in any one directio is contained between two of these parallel lines. Place the slider at the zero mark, and move the whole instrument bodily until the wire at a cuts off as much from the area as it adds to it. Next move the slider from left to right until b is reached Remove the instrument and without altering the position of the wire, place the scale so that the wire is in the then position c run the slider along the slot until the wire arrives at d, and so on. Take the final reading of the instrument, and this is the total area of the plot. If the slider reaches the end of the top scale before the area has been completed, the movement can be it
:
reversed,
*'.
e.,
becomes from right to left and the lower scale must be It will be observed that by the movement of the
used'.
slider the
of the various strips are added. Now the strips are each I chain deep, so that if the mean lengths of the strips measured in chains are multiplied by i chain, the total area of the plot is found in square chains. But 10 sq. chains i and the
mean widths
which the plan is drawn is i" = 4 chains. Hence 2j* = 10 chains, and the scale must be so divided that 2\" = i acre, since the strip depth is i chain. If the plot is drawn to a scale other than the one for which the scale is graduated the method of procedure is not altered in any way, but a certain calculation must be introduced. Thus if the figure is drawn to a scale of 3 chains to the inch and the computing
scale to
scale is
acre,
true area
graduated according to the scale i" 2 or T\ of the registered area. (f)
=4
chains, then the
When using this rule divide the (e) The Trapezoidal Rule. base of the figure into a number of equal parts and erect ordinates through the points of division. The strips into which the figure is thus divided are approximately trapezoids. For a figure with a very irregular outline the ordinates should be drawn much closer than for one with a smooth outline. Then the area of the figure is the sum of the areas of the trapezoids, *. e., in Fig. 163,
Area
= %!+y +
2)
% +y
2
3)
+ .......
i%io+yii)
yn)
Or, the area
is
+y +y +
2 3
the
sum
equal to the length of one division multiplied by of half the first and last ordinates, together with all the
remaining ordinates.
Example i. Find the area drawn to the scale of half full
of the figure
size.
ABCD in
Fig. 163. which
is
308

are measured.
The base is divided into 10 equal parts and the ordinates Then the calculation for the area is set down thus
y\
yn
sum
of
first
and
last
= = =
2-5 2-0
y2
ys y\
2-25
= = =
4-40
5 >I0 5-34
4-13 3-83 3-80
3'63
y& y^
ys
Vg
= = = = =
=
i(yi
+
i
Sum =
yu)
Width of one
division of the base
2-25 39-88 h = i"

sq. ins.
Area
x 39-88
At
Fig. 163.
(/)
Area by Trapezoidal Rule.

rule
is
The
Mid
ordinate
very
frequently
used
and
is
similar to the trapezoidal rule. The base of the figure is divided into a number of equal parts or strips, and ordinates are erected
at the middle points of these strips; such ordinates being called mid-ordinates as distinct from the extreme ordinates through the
actual points of section. The average of the mid-ordinates multi-" plied by the length of the base is the area of the figure.
Example 2. Find the area of the figure ABCD in Fig. 164, which an exact copy of Fig. 163, and is drawn to the scale of half full size.
is
The lengths
3'8, 3'73, 3'3
of the mid-ordinates are 3-66, 4-90, 5-24, 5-24, 4*4, 3-92,

ins. respectively,
and 2-13
and the average
4-032.

Hence the area
309
40-32 sq. ins., as against the previous result of 39-88 sq. ins., showing a difference of i%.
The mid-ordinate rule is much in vogue on account of its simAs a modification of this method we may ascertain the total area by the addition of the separate strip areas. It is not
plicity.
necessary to divide the base into equal portions but the divisions may be chosen according to the nature of the bounding curve. If
:
3s
HO
Al
_
Fig. 164.
Area by Mid-ordinate Rule.
is pretty regular for a large width of base, the division be correspondingly wide; but sudden changes in curvature demand narrower widths. Assuming that the area has been divided into strips in the manner suggested, find the lengths of the mid-ordinates and the widths of the separate strips and tabulate
the latter
may
as in the following example.
Example
Strip.
3.
Calculate the area of the figure
ABMP
(Fig. 165).

(g)
Simpson's Rule
scarcely
is
and
its
is
more
difficult to
the most accurate of the strip methods remember or more complicated in
application than the trapezoidal rule. In this rule, the base must be divided into an even
;
number
of
equal divisions
the ordinates through the points of section being

viz.
first
added
in
a particular way,
ordinate
+ last
first
ordinate
+
+
J
Area
width of one division of base
4 (sum of even ordinates) 2 (sum of odd ordinates,

excluding the
and
last).
If the portions of the curve joining pairs of ordinates are straight or parabolic, i. e., if the equations to these portions are of 2 the form y a-}-bx-\-cx , the ordinates being vertical, the rule gives
rn
Scale of
heights and widfhs.
Fig. 165.
In
1
4 3
ins.
Modification of Mid-ordinate Rule.
perfectly correct results ; and the strip width should be chosen to approximately satisfy these conditions.
Taking an example
Example
Fig.
1 66.
4.
Find the area of the indicator diagram shown in
this instance,
convenient horizontal line is selected to serve as a base and, in 10 equal parts. The ordinates are is divided into
,
numbered y\, y z> y t etc., and their heights are measured, being those between the boundaries of the figure, and not down to the
base
line.

The working is set out thus Width of i division = i foot.
Ordinates.
Even.
.".
= 80 ?4 = 55'5 y6 = 43'5 Sum =o Vs = 34'5 Vw= 24 Sum = 237-5 and (Even) 4Xsum = 950 Area = f[o + 950 + 366} = 439 sq.
ist
l
=y =o last = y u = o
Odd.
y,
y3
66
48
38-5
30-5
y&= Vi=
y=
2xsum =
units,
366 (Odd)
this case
which in
would represent to some

KO
scale the
work done per stroke on the
piston.
ho
Fig.
66.
Area by Simpson's Rule.
Notice that this rule agrees with our notion of " " for average height X base
Number
and
if
of ordinates considered
= i+i+4(5)+ 2
(4)
3<>
A = sum
Area
of ordinates according to the particular scheme
= base
is
average ordinate
h = ioAx A = -XA
If
the area
of such a character that two divisions of the base
are sufficient
Area
|{ist O
+ last +
(
(4Xmid.)}
k^
Ist
+ last +
(4Xmid)} since length
= 2*
312
(h) Graphic Integration is a means of summing an area with the aid of tee- and set-square, by a combination of the principles " " " An area in and similar figures." addition of strips of the
Fig. 167 is
ordinates aa'
bounded by a curve a'b'z' a base line az and two vertical and ztf The base is first divided as in method (/),
',
.
, ;
where the widths of the strips are taken to suit the changes of curvature between a' and z' and are therefore not necessarily equal and mid-ordinates (shown dotted) are erected for every division. Next the tops of the mid-ordinates are projected horizontally on
Fig. 167.
Graphic Integration.
to the left of that
to
a vertical
its
line, as
BB'.
A pole P is now chosen

it,
called the polar distance p being a round number of horizontal units. The pole is next joined to each of the projections in turn and parallels are drawn across the corresponding strips so that a continuous curve results, known as
vertical;
distance from
the
the
Sum
first
Curve.
strip;
Thus am
mn
parallel to PB' is drawn parallel to PC' is drawn from
from
a, across
across the
second
in the base gives the area under the original or primitive curve from a up to the point considered.
strip, and so on. The ordinate to the sum curve through any point

Referring to Fig. 167
313
Area of
but,
strip abb' a'
= ab x AB
ab
by
similar figures
B'a or
BA _ ~ bm
whence
i"
-,
AB x ab = p x bm
area of strip
.
or
area of strip
strip to
p.
= pxbm
scale,
i. e., bm measures the area of the first which depends entirely on the value of
a particular
In the same
way nm'
= area of second strip

P
are added, so that
ist
and by the construction nm' and bm

cn
or
area of ist and 2nd
_ area of = p x cn strips
aa'z*z
and 2nd
strips
Thus, summing for the whole area
Area of
Thus the
distance
;
= pXzL
distance should be selected in
scale of area
is
the old vertical scale multiplied by the polar
and accordingly the polar

if
terms of a number convenient for multiplication.

e. g.,
the original scales are

i"
and
then the
i"
= 40 = 25
is
units vertically units horizontally

2", i.e.,
and the polar distance
taken as
50 horizontal units;
new
vertical scale
= old vertical scale X polar distance = 40 X 50 = 2000 units per inch.

If
for the
the original scales are given and a particular scale is desired sum curve, then the polar distance must be calculated as
.
follows
.
.,
Polar distance in horizontal units
= new vertical scale

old yerticaHclOe" "
=
" curve plotted a velocity-time e. g., if the primitive curve is i" = -i sec. (horiand sec. ft. i" (vertically) to the scales, 5 per " of the sum curve, which is a displacementzontally) and the scale " 2-5 ft., then time curve, is required to be i"
Polar distance
(in
horizontal units)
= 2*5 -e =
-5
314
= ! unit along the horizontal, the polar distance and since I* = must be made 5". The great advantages of graphic integration are and its accuracy. (a) Its ease of application area is determined without separate of the whole or The part (b) the growth being indicated by the change in the sum calculation curve. Thus, if the load curve on a beam is known, the sum curve indicates the shear values, because the shear at any section is the
;
sum
of the loads to the right or left of that section.
Example 5. Draw the sum curve for the curve of acceleration given in Fig. 168. Find the velocity gained in 20 seconds from rest, and also in 35 seconds : find also the average acceleration.
Polo,
Scale
Fig.
1 68.
.of
time (sees)
Construction of
Sum
Curve.
Project be horizontally to meet the vertical PC to cut the second ordinate in M. Continue the Project de horizontally and draw parallel to Pe. construction till Z is reached on the last ordinate. The polar distance was chosen as 3", or 15 horizontal units, so that, whilst the old vertical scale was i" = 2 units of acceleration, the sum curve vertical scale (in this case a scale of velocity) will be i" = 2 X 15 = 30 units. This new scale is indicated on the extreme " scale of velocity." Note that Z is at the point right by the title
Method of procedure.
in
c.
AB
Draw
AM
parallel to
MN
* 3
tt^tttt^ ^2**~
m
this being the
average height of the
Graphic integration can only be immediately applied when the is a If it is straight Hne. otherwise, the figure re duced to one wrth a straight base
base
by stepping oQ
the
jjualion
:--u
-oxVkx+oc-H J
Fig. 169.
Comparison of
Sum
Curves.
with the dividers. Therefore, if the full area is required, as in the case of an indicator diagram, the additional complication would neutralize any other gain but if separate portions of the area are wanted the method is the most efficient. It is of interest to note that if the original curve is a horizontal
;
line
"
"
The first sum curve is a sloping straight line, The second sum curve is a parabola of the second
"
degree, or a
square
The
cubic
"
parabola. third sum curve is a parabola of the third degree, or a parabola.
316

These cases are illustrated in Fig. 169, the poles being chosen about equal scales for comparison. Graphic Integration will be again referred to when dealing with
to bring the curves to
All the rules for finding areas can be extended to the calculation of volumes. The area of the figure should then represent the volume : e. g.,if the cross-section at various distances through an irregular solid be noted or estimated, and
the Calculus generally. Calculation of Volumes.
ordinates be erected to represent these cross-sections at the proper the area of the figure on distances along the base of the diagram
;
the paper will represent the volume of the solid.

If
Thus
and
i" represents x feet of length i" represents y sq. ft. of cross-section, then i sq. in. of area represents xy cu. ft. of volume.
Example 6. Find the capacity of a conical tub of oval cross -section, the axes of the upper oval being 28" and 20", those of the base being 21" and 15", and the height being 12".
In this case the rule for the three sections may be applied; the axes of the mid-section are 24^" and 17^" and the areas of the three
sections are
= 14077 sq. ins. = 7 8 '75 = 107-277 Volume + B + 4 M} = ^{140 + 78-75 + 428-8} = 277 x 647-6 = 4070 cu. ins. 4 ' = gallons = 14-7 gallons. Capacity
TT
A= B= M= =
77
77
X 14 X 10 x 10-5 x 7-5 x 12-25 x 8*75
7r
..
,,
-{A
.*.
Other worked Examples on the calculation of volumes found in Chapter VIII.
will
be
Exercises 35.
1.
On
the Areas of Irregular Curved Figures.
gas expands according to the law pv = 150, from volume 3 Find the work done in this expansion. 25. 2. An indicator card for a steam cylinder is divided into 10 equal parts by 9 vertical ordinates which have the respective values of 100, and the extreme 84, 63, 50, 42, 36, 32, 28 and 26 Ibs. per sq. in. ordinates are 100 and 25 Ibs. per sq. in. respectively. Find the mean pressure of the steam. 3. The end areas of a prismoid are 62-8 and 20-5 sq. ft., the section mid-way between is 36-7 sq. ft. and the length of the prismoid is 15 ft. Find the average cross-section and the volume.
to
volume
317 The mid-ship section of a vessel is given, the height from keel to deck being 19$ ft. and the horizontal widths, at intervals of 3-21 ft are respectively 46-8, 46-2, 45-4, 43, 36-2, 26-2 and 14-4 ft., the first being measured at deck level and the last at the keel. Calculate the
4.
;
total area of the section.
5. To measure the area of the horizontal water plane, at load line of a ship, the axial length of the ship was divided into nine abscissa whose half-ordinates from bow to stern were -6, 2-85, 9-1, 15-54, 18, 18-7, 18-45, I 7' 6 I 5'i3 an d 6-7 ft. respectively; while the length of the ship at load line was 270 ft. Find the area of the water plane. 6. The velocity of a moving body at various times is as given in the table
Time
(sees.)

11. Fig. 170
test
case, i.e.,
on a 10 H.P. Diesel engine.
a reproduction of an indicator card taken during a Calculate the mean pressure for this find the mean height of the diagram.
is
O O
I
O
I
I
CHAPTER VIII CALCULATION OF EARTHWORK VOLUMES

IN this chapter a
trate the
series of
method
of
examples will be worked out to illuscalculating volumes of earthwork, such as
railway cuttings, embankments, and other excavation work, mostly for the purpose of estimating the cost of earth removal.
Definitions of
Terms introduced
in these
Examples.
the cutting or
surface at the top of an embankcutting, and in all the cases here considered it will be regarded as horizontal. The line in which the formation surface intersects the transverse section of the cutting or embankment is spoken of as the formation width. The natural surface of the ground is the surface existing before
The formation surface is the ment or at the bottom of a
embankment
is
commenced.
The
is less is
sides of
a cutting or an embankment slope at an angle which
than that of sliding for the particular earth ; and the slope usually expressed as x horizontal to one vertical. few typical values of the slope are given for various soils
SOIL.
320
cross-section

parallel
to these
faces
and multiply by the axial
distance between them.
Thenand
volume
average section
{A
+ 4M}
end sections
axial length; and where L section respectively. middle and the
= - {A + B + 4M} A, B, and M are the
sides be vertical as in Let the base be horizontal and all the to Fig. 171 house. Referring a for excavating foundations
Example
i.
solid
with vertical sides.
A= _ _
Volume
(I2
IO)
X 20
220 sq.
ft.
(4
+ +
8)
(7
I0 )
x 20
170 sq.
ft.
L= 50
/.
^{220
120
170)}
8500 cu.
ft.
314-8 cu. yds.
Fig. 171.
Fig. 172.
Calculate the weight of clay removed in simple wedge-shaped excavation shown in Fig. 172.
Example
2.
making the
In this case
and
then
A = \ x 12 x 84 = 504 sq. ft. B = ^ x 20 x 140 = 1400 sq. ft. M = x i6x 112 = 896 sq. ft. L = 60 ft. 60 volume = + 1400 + (4 x 896)} = -^-{504 = 2032-6 cu. yds.
54880 cu.
ft.
and weight of clay removed
= 2 32 6 X 3I 20 = 3151 tons.
'
tons
321
is
Example 3. A more difficult wedge-shaped excavation, which shown in Fig. 173. To calculate the volume of earth removed.
The earth removed is by a wedge figure ADEF and a triangular pyramid AFBC. The volume of the pyramid can be found if the
represented
Axis of
Sloping
Ground
area of the obtained.
base
is
first
whence
AD = 62-65 sin L BAD =

.
but
sin
BAC = sin 80 -BAD) = sin L BAD

L
(
62-65
and hence
sin
,1
BAC
=7^ 62-65
62-65 I8 7'35Fig. 173.
Also
AC = 250 =
Then area
Wedge-shaped Excavation.
70000 cu. ft. 2592 cu. yds. For the volume of the prismoidal solid ADEF, using the general
/.
ABC = = Height of pyramid = Volume of pyramid =

of triangle
BA AC sin L BAC
.
\ x 78 x 187-4 x
60
62-65
7000 sq.
ft.
30
\
ft.
x 30 x 7000
= =
rule
A= B= M=
.*.
\ x 20 x 60 \ x 30 x 78 \ x 25 x 69
-^-{600
600 sq. ft. 1170 sq. ft.

862-5
an d
L=
60
ft.
Volume =
+
-
1170
-
3450}
52200 cu.
ft.
.'.
1935 cu y ds Total volume removed
4527 cu. yds.
Sections of Cuttings. It will be convenient at this stage to demonstrate the mode of calculation of the areas of simple sections. In Fig. 174 we have the first case, of a cutting whose sides are
sloped and whose natural surface of ground DC is horizontal. " " and let its value Let AB be the base or formation width
be
2. Y
322
GH = height
6
from centre of base to the natural surface

the sloping sides.
h.
EC
= inclination to the horizontal of = horizontal projection of slope.

cot
is is s
Then
slope of the sides
usually denoted by s; or, in other words, the horizontal to i vertical.
EC
Area
FB GC ABCD
= cot 6 = s and FC = FB x s = hs = half width of surface = a-\-hs.

(/. e.,
the area of the section of the cutting)
= -(DC+AB) xh = -(za+2a+2hs} = h(2a-\-hs)

)M- JO.
Fig. 174.
Fig- 175-
Fig. 175 shows the cutting section when the natural surface of the ground takes a slope DC. Let a. inclination to the horizontal of the natural surface,
and
of
let cot
=
;
r.
and DN, though not equal, are called the " half-widths " let these be represented by m and n the section respectively. To find m and n
CM
MG - = tan a = m
Also
-
i
--,
so that
so that
MG = m r
..
(i)
= tan = -,
s
HK = s
MK = m
(2)
MK = tan e =
From
(2)
i -,
whence
(3)
GK = GH+HK = h+S
From
(i)
and
(3)
GK = MK-MG = - - -

Henceand
Similarly
fcf.5-'..
s
323
2_2
s
n
extreme heights
-^-(a+hs).
To
find the
CE and DF BE = HE-HB = m-a BE = =

cot
s,
whence
CE x s
s
= BE
.*.
CExs
= ma
72
or
CE
and
similarly
DF =
To
find the area of the section
Area
ABCD = CDFE DFA-CBE

FF/CE+FD\
\ !
.IBECE
2
if(m-\-n)(ma-\-na)
21
S
(na}(na)
S
_(m
fm' -\-n
2
a)(m
s
a)}
-\-2mn2am2ann
-\-2an
az
2s\
a? -\-2amj
nina
Example 4. A cutting is to be made through ground having a transverse slope of 5 horizontal to i vertical, and the sides are to If the formation width is Co ft. slope at ij horizontal to i vertical. and the height of the cutting (at centre) is 12 ft., find the half-widths, the extreme heights and the area of the section.
Adopting the notation as applied to Fig. 175
2a
60, h
12,
s =' ij,
and
Then-
m=
(a+hs)
= + -^-[30 = 60 ft.
:
(12
ij)]
--
(30
15)
36
ft.
324
MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS "3 = 24 ft. CE =. ^^ = 6

5
I-25
n-a _ 365
30
1-25
2
Area
mna
(60
36)
1-25
looSsq.
ft.
Example 5. Volume of a cutting having symmetrical sides, the dimensions being as in Fig. 176. Calculate the volume of earth removed, if the cutting enters a hill normally to the slope of the latter and emerges at a vertical wall or
cliff.
Fig. 176.
Cutting on a
Hill.
The volume
is
found by application of the general
rule.
^{A+B+ 4 M} h = 24, s = i, 2a = 40 To find A = Area /. h(za + hs) = 24(40 + 36) = 1824 sq. ft. In the case of the other end section, h = o and thus B = o. h = 12, s = i, 20 = 40 For M Area = 12(40 + 18) = 696 sq. ft. L = 170 ft. also 170 Volume = Hence o + 2784} = 130600 cu. ft. -^-{1824 +
or 4837 cu. yds.
Volume
Example
6.
To
find the
volume
(a),
of
a cutting having unequal
sides.
Fig. 177, the cutting enters the hill in an oblique direction, although the outcrop is vertical as before. The
In this case,
shown
at
325
sides of the cutting slope at i horizontal to i vertical, while the natural surface of the ground slopes upward at 4^ horizontal to i vertical.
The solid can be split up into a prismoidal solid SRFE, together with the two pyramids SE and RF. To deal first with the prismoidal solid SRFE its volume can be
:
found from the general

to find the values of
rule
Volume
^{A
+B+
4M}, and in order

first
and
the lengths of
BS and AR must
be found.
Fig. 177.
Cutting with Unequal Sides.
Referring to
(b),
Fig. 177
a,
s
Also
so that
CQ = m r =
and
m=Y
h
(a+hs)
=
=
30,
ft -
and 2a
40
Hence
Now
m= CQ = S =
SO =
^-(20+45) 97-5- 20 = 77'5

tan a
97'5
ft-
=
4'5
5 4'5
.
=
4'5
I7 22 ft
.
Also
Again
and
Hence
=3 51 66 ft< = BS BQ SQ = 51-66 - 17-22 = 34-44 ft. v di = 48-75 ft. n = ~-(a+hs) = ^(20+45) D f~T~S = PD = 48-75 20 28-75 ft = 6-39 whence PR = ^= PD 4*5 4-5 AP = PD tan 6 = *^p- 19-17 ft AR = AP + PR = 19-17 + 6 '39 = 25-56 ft-
BQ *=
22^5
i-5
326

can
We
now
proceed to find the volume of the solid
SRFE.
and
.'.
L = 40 Volume = ^{2583+1278+7500} = 75750 cu. ft. = 2805 cu.

find the
is
A = xBSxBE = 1x34-44x150 = 2583 sq. ft. B = xARxAF = -1x25-56x100 = 1278 sq. ft. M = X3OXI25 = 1875 sq. ft.
yds.
To
The base
volume of the pyramid SE the triangle CSB, of which the area
= JxBSxCQ = *x 34-44x77-5
The height
1335 sq.
ft.
150
ft.,
and hence
Volume
- x -*~ x 1335 cu. yds.
2471 cu. yds.
To find the volume of the pyramid RF The base is the triangle ARD; and its area
The height
= xARxPD = 2X25-56x28-75 = 367-5 s q- ft

-
100
3
ft.,
and hence
Volume
.*.
= -x
/
X 367-5
cu. yds.
453-6 cu. yds.
Total volume
2805
2471
453-6
5730 cu. yds.

;
Cutting and Embankment continuously combined the Sides being Symmetrical. If a road or a railway track has to be constructed through undulating ground, both cuttings and embankments may be necessary. The cost of the road-making " " net weight of earth removed, depends to a large extent on the be transferred from the cutting to the earth that the may seeing embankment. The calculation of the net volume removed will be dealt with according to two methods
:
First
Method.
7.
Example
cutting
is
to be
made through
24^'
the
hill
AC
and an embankment
(Fig. 1 78) in the
^^~ t\S ?
*
j^6QL-94O--H
i050-^-772-V584'f. JL^^^ g el *"-"JC ~ic ^ JR ^ "V. 7
<*
valley BC so as to give a straight horizontal road
fromAtoB. The
width
is
formation
'"*s
jb__JJ<f
>i
i*
to be 40 ft., and the sides of the cutting and the
Fig. 178.
zontal to
vertical.
embankment slope if horiCalculate the net weight of vegetable earth
removed
of
(25 cwt.
per cu. yd.).
The volume of the cutting will be found by considering it made up three prismoidal solids, and the volume of the embankment will be
327
found in the same way. Then the net volume is the difference of these separate volumes. Dealing with the portion between A and C, i. e., with the cutting
:
For
the portion
Aae
/.
A=o B = i8[40 + (18 x 1 1)] = 1287, since h = 18 M = 9[40 + (9 X 1 1)] = 501-75, since h = 9 L = 560 Volume = =^{o + 1287 + (4 x 501-75)} = 307400 cu.
A = 1287 B = 15^0 +
L=
940
(4
ft.
For
the portion abfe
M= i6-5[40+ (16-5 X
.'.
(15
if)]
994.
since h
if)]
1136,
since h
16-5
Volume
= ^{1287 + 994 + = 1,069,000 cu. ft.

A= B=
fbC
994
o
7 5 [4
-
X 1136)}
For
the portion
/.
L= Volume =
total
M=
o+
(7-5
1 1)]
398
1050
5
{994
+o+
+
(4
398)}
= 453oo
cu. ft.
Thus the
volume removed to make the cutting
=
For
307400
1,069,000
453000
1,829,400 cu.
ft.
Dealing with the

the solid
embankment
portion, viz. that
from
B to C
Cch
..
L = Volume =
A=o B = 17^0 + (17 x i|)l = Il8 5 M = 8- 5 4o + (8-5 x if)] = 466

[
772
2|?{o
1185
(4
x 466)}
392000 cu.
ft.
For
the solid chid
A =1185 6=1185
.-.
L=
584
ft.
M=n85
Volume
1185 x 584
692000 cu.
For
the solid dl~B
A =1185 B=o
L= Volume =
M=8-5[40 +
246
(8-5
if)]
=466
466)}
/.
^{1185 +
(4
125000 cu.
ft.
328

total volume required for the embankment 3 = 1,209,000 CU. ft. 3g2 _|_ 692 + 125) X I0 CU. ft. 6 = removed net volume 1-209) x io (1-829 Then = 620000 cu. ft. or 22960 cu. yds. 22960 x 25 - tons and the net weight removed =
Hence the
=
Second Method.
28700 tons
8. Fig. 1 79 shows the longitudinal section of some rough which the road AC is to be cut. The sides of the through ground at ij horizontal to i vertical, cutting and of the embankment slope
Example
Lonqiludinol Section
Fig. 179.
Volume
of
Earth removed
in
making Road.
and the road is to be 50 ft. wide. Calculate the net volume of earth removed in the making of the road.
Divide the length AC into ten equal distances and erect midordinates as shown. Scale off the lengths of these, which are the heights of the various sections. The areas of the sections at a, b, c, d, etc., can be found by calculation as before, or, if very great accuracy is not desired, the various sections may be drawn to scale and the areas thus determined. To = 50 ft., and also the lines illustrate the latter method Draw and EG, having the required slope, viz. ij to i. Through R, the middle point of DE, erect a perpendicular RS, and along it mark distances like RM, RN, etc., to represent the respective heights of the = 24, and = 48. Then to find the area of sections thus the section at a, which is really the figure DPQE, add the length of and multiply half the sum by RM. The area of PQ to that of the section at 6 is % (TV + DE) x RN, and so on. The areas of the
:
DE
DF
RM
RN
DE

;
329
respective sections are 2064, 5856, 4746, 1826, and 650 sq. ft., these being reckoned as positive and 650, 3744, 3444, 1386, and 496 sq. ft., these being regarded as negative. The average of all these sections, added according to sign, is 5422 sq. ft. or 602-4 sq. yds. Then the net volume of earth removed = 602-4 x 1000 = 602400 cu. yds.
Cutting with Unequal Sides, in Varying Ground.

First
Method.
find the average cross-section of
;
To
ground with twisted surface

in Fig. 181.
(Fig. 180)
an end view being shown
The
at B.
surface slopes
downwards
to the left at
and
to the right
End
Fig. 180.
View.
Fig. 181.
Let
WL
h.z
,
w2
n lt h lt and r t be the half-widths, etc., and r 2 the corresponding values for B. Area of
for
A; and
Then-
A=
For the mid-section
m =
and
and the area

/.
of
M = - 33 "-|
Average cross-section
A+B+4M
6
_m
nl 1
6s
6a 2
6s
6s
330

9.
Example
surface,
i
Find the average cross-section of ground with twisted
when the formation width is 20 ft. and the side-slopes are horizontal to i vertical. At the one end of the embankment the
height is 12 ft. and the natural surface of the ground slopes at 20 horizontal to i vertical downwards to the right; while at the other end the height is 6 ft. and the slope of the ground is 10 to i downwards to the left.
Adhering to the notation employed For the section A

20
{10
1-5
in the general description
+ +
(12
1-5)}
30-3
ft.
2O
{10
18}
26-05
ft.
For the section
B
10
10
i I
+
.
(6
1-5)}
=
ft.
16-5 ft.
Hence
5 the average cross-section
= , I o+
_
(30-3
9)
=
x
22-4
26)
(16-5
22-4)
(46-8
48-4)
600
=
Second Method.
9
313-6 sq. yds.
Calculate the volume of earth removed in making a is a longitudinal centre section (Fig. 182). The formation width is 20 ft., the length of the cutting is 4 chains, the
Example
10.
cutting of which
AE
2O
Fig. 182.
Section oT B.
Fig. 183.
sections are equally spaced, and the slope of the sides is 2 horizontal to i vertical. All the sections slope downwards to the left, as indicated
in Fig. 183.
The heights
of the sections, in feet

Section.
above datum
level, are
331
then using the planimeter; and Simpson's rule can afterwards be employed, since there are an odd number of sections.
The
results in this case are as follows
Section.
332

rule
Applying Simpson's
Area of land required
{30
4 (55 '7
6 5'45)
(2
67-8)}
=
Volumes
as
14960 sq.
ft.
or 1663 sq. yds.
of Reservoirs.
Example 12. Find the volume of water in the reservoir formed shown in Fig. 185, when the water stands at a level of 45 ft. above datum level, the bottom of the reservoir being at the level 22 ft.
Fig. 185.
Volume
is
of Reservoir.
i. e.,
In the diagram the land

40, for
shown contoured,
the line
marked
example, joins all points having the level 40 ft. above datum. The problem, then, is to find the volume of an irregular solid, and this may be done in either of two ways, viz.
(a)
By
taking vertical sections.
find the
extreme length of the
reservoir,
According to this method, we should which is about 320 ft., and
then draw the cross-sections at intervals of, say, 40 ft. The area of each cross-section would then be found, preferably by the planimeter,
and the volume calculated by adding the areas according to Simpson's

rule.
This process is somewhat tedious, as each section must be plotted separately; and consequently it is better to proceed as in method (6).
(b)
By
taking horizontal sections,
i.
e.,
sections at heights of 45, 40,
ft., determine the area of the figure ABCD by means of the planimeter. This area is found to be 5-083 sq. ins. Now the linear scale is i" = 80 ft., and therefore each square inch of area on the paper represents 80 x 80 or
35, etc., ft. respectively. To find the area of the section at the height 45

6400 sq.
ft.
333
45
ft.
Thus the area
of the
;
5'
83
x 6400
section at the
in the
level
of
32500 sq.
ft.
and
the levels 40, 35, 30, 25, and 22 ft. o sq. ft. respectively. The length of the irregular solid is 23 ft., i. e., 45 22, and we may plot the various areas to a base of length'.
same way the areas at are 21550, 10560, 3780, 577, and
24000 -
I6ooo
8000
as indicated in Fig. 186. The area of the figure EFG, which is found to be 1-633, gives the volume of water in the reservoir, to some scale. In the actual drawing i" = 10 ft. (horizontally), and i" = 16000 sq. ft. (vertically), so that i sq. in. on the paper represents 10 x 16000
or 160000 cu.
ft.
Hence volume of the

or
its
reservoir
capacity
= =
160000 x 1-633
261300 cu.
ft.
1630000 gallons.
Exercises 36.
On
the Calculation of
Volumes and Weights
of
Earthwork.
1.
Calculate the volume of the solid with vertical sides
shown
in
Fig. 187.
Fig. 187.
334
2. Fig. 188 shows the plan of a wedge-shaped excavation, where the encircled figures indicate heights. Calculate the weight of clay removed in making the excavation. 3. Fig. 189 is the longitudinal section of some rough ground through which a straight horizontal road is to be cut, the width of the road earth (25 cwts. per cu. yd.), and being 64 ft. The soil is vegetable
ROAD
Af
ZOOO-yds.
Fig. 189.
the sides of the cutting and embankment slope at 2 horizontal to I Calculate the weight of earth removed in making the road, vertical. if the natural surface of the ground is horizontal. 4. Determine the area of land required for making the cutting from A to B in Fig. 189. The side-slopes are 2 horizontal to I vertical, the formation width is 64 ft., and a fence is to be built round the working at a distance of 6 ft. from the outcrops.
5. Calculate the capacity of a reservoir for which the horizontal sections at various heights have the values in the following table
:
Height above sea level
(ft.)
335
The natural ground slopes down across the railway from E. to W. at i in 10. Determine at each chain peg the distances of the toes of the embankment from the centre line and the area of the cross-section determine also the volume of the embankment between the 23rd and
;
25th chain pegs.

10.
The formation level wide. The ground
W. through ground sloping N. and S. 15 ft. below the surface centre line and is 20 ft. slopes upwards on the north side of the centre line i vertical to 6 horizontal, and on the south side the ground slopes downwards i vertical to 10 horizontal. The sides of the cutting slope I vertical to i horizontal. Calculate the positions of the outcrops.
runs due E. and
is
A cutting
CHAPTER IX
THE PLOTTING OF DIFFICULT CURVE EQUATIONS = ax". The plotting Plotting of Curves of the Type y
in
Chapter IV was of a rather elementary character in that integral powers only of the quantities concerned were introduced. All calculations could there be performed on the ordinary slide rule; 2 such curves as that representing y were e. g., 5# 7^ If, now, a formula occurs in which one, say, of the possible.
quantities
is
raised
to
a fractional or negative power, and a curve is

required to represent the connection between the
two
quantities
for
all
values
within
given
range, the necessary calculations must be made by
the aid of logs. Suitable substitutions will in some

cases
make
care
these calcuexercised
lations simpler, but unless
great
is
over
of
the
arrangement
the
calculations
and
the selection of suitable

Fig. 190.
Curve
of
be wasted.
importance than
In fact, is the actual plotting.
values for the quantities, 1 . a great deal of time will the method of tabulating values is of more
= 2-2*
1 - 78
Example
from o to
4.
i.
To
plot the curve y
= +
2-2A 1
'
75
,
values of x ranging
y
/.
2*2#^* 7 ^
log y
log 2-2
1-75 log x.
:
Arrange a table according to the following plan
In the
first
THE PLOTTING OF DIFFICULT CURVE EQUATIONS

column write the selected values of x;
in the second
337
column write the values of log x. With one setting of the slide rule the values of I- 75 log x can b6 read off; and these must be written in the third column. In the fourth column we must write the values of log y. which are obtained by addition then the antilogs of the figures in column 4 will be the values of y in column 5.
;
The advantage of working with columns rather than with lines is seen thus we write down all the values of log x before any figure is written in the third column, and this saves needless turning over of
;
pages, etc.
Table
338

Thus
of heat,
for air
339
f r isothermal expansion, i. e., expansion at constant i. It is instructive to plot two or three temperature, n expansion curves on the same diagram, n alone varying, and thus to note the effect of this change.
:
= J> 37
expanding adiabatically,
:
<?.,
without loss or gain
1-41
for the gas in the cylinder of a gas engine
Example 2. from v = 4 to
PV*-" 2500, in Fig. 191.
Plot, on the same v 30, the curves
diagram and to the same
scales,
:
(6)
pv
2500,
(c)
representing the equations (a) pv = 2500. The plotting is shown
Each equation
is
of the form pvn
or
=C log p + n log v = log C n log v. log p = log C

n
Dealing with the separate cases

(a)
Adiabatic expansion of air;
1-41
v.
The
log p log 2500 1-41 log arrangement of the table is as follows

:
340
(c)

Isothermal expansion
;
341
W
*>2
=*
Pi
or
p^f =
n
i
p zvf,
i. e.,
pv*
= Constant.
/3.
Example
3.
/3
If
-9
tan
= = =
Let x then log*
= 30, calculate the value of tan 30)^ = i-(i (i .5774)1-111 = I-(-4226) ul

and a
l
'
(-4226)
i -i 1 1
1 111
'
Then
If
tan
j3
= i-in x 1-6259 = i -i 1 1 + -696 = 1-585 whence x = -3846 - -3846 = -6154 = tan 31 36' = 31 36'. or
x log -4226
ft
i,
then tan
i. e.,
ft
= tan a = a. =
Note.
is
small.
and n
rather a large angle for a if the range to be covered 10 Accordingly, the value of /? is stated here, for a
30
is
1-37.
tan/3
(i
tan
io)^7
=i =i
(i
1763)'
73
.'.
ft
= 7 8 ai'.
-871
-129
Example
4.
tube 3* internal and 8* external diameter

:
is
sub-
show by curves jected to a collapsing pressure of 5 tons per sq. in. the radial and circular stresses everywhere, it being given that at a point r ins. from the axis of the cylinder
The
radial stress
T? = A + -,
and the
circular stress
=A
T^
,
Note that p = 5 tons per sq. in. when r = 4"; and p = o when and the object is to first find the values of the constants r = i -5* A and B from the data given.
;
From
the given conditions
B A+ 2-25
Subtracting
5
=B (^-5 = B (-0625 --4444) = 382B
or
B -=-'3-x.
342
Also
MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS - 13-1) = A --818 5 = A + (-0625 x

A= p = f
5-818.
*/
Hence
[Note
">-8i8
5.
'
a 3
5-818 J
-f-
yZ
that (p + q) = 11-636 = constant. The material is subto crushing stresses p and q in two directions at right angles to jected one another and in the plane of the paper : therefore dimensions at
z:
1-5
3-5
Fig- 193-
Curves of Radial and Hoop Stresses.
right angles to the paper must elongate by an amount proportional to If the cross-section is to remain (P q)plane this elongation must be constant hence (p q) must also be constant.]
To
follows
calculate
:
values of
p and q the table would be
set out as

The curves are shown plotted
ever, to plot the curves of radial and hoop stress in the
in Fig. 193.
It is
343
customary, how-
manner shown
where curve
radial
stress
in Fig. 194,
(i)
gives the
any point and curve (2) gives the circular or hoop stress at any point between a l and b t
between a and
b,
.
at
v/
Circular on
Hoop Stress
Example
5.
According
to a certain scheme (refer to p. 212), the depreciation
fund in connection with a machine can be expressed
byFig. 194.
Curves of Radial and Koop

Stresses.
where
D = amount
ioor
contributed yearly to the sinking fund, and percentage rate of interest allowed on same.
For a machine whose initial value is 500 and scrap value is 80, found to be 14 145., if 3% interest per annum be allowed. If the life of the machine is 21 years, plot a curve to show the state of
is
the sinking fund at
any time,
i. e.,
plot the curve
A=
-2 {i-o3
i},
n varying from o
to 21.
wo
344
It will

be advisable to work out
1-03"
i -03"
separately.
1-03
Let
x; then
log*
14-7
wlog
-oi28
also
^
n,
03
490.
21, the tabulation
Taking a few values only for

will
between o and
be as follows

If
345
the values of y are to be calculated,
we have
5y = y* =
2
60
12
3#
-6x*
y=
Dealing only with one-half of the
Vi2
ellipse,
-6# a
the table of values reads
346
plane

BD, due
to
the stresses /j and
/2
acting as indicated in
2 2 \//! cos
Fig- 197It is
found that the resultant stress /

is
+/
2 2
sin 2 0,
and
if
the angle
made with/!
tan a
/i
tan #
axes to represent the original ellipse be constructed with can stress resultant the very easily be read from it. stresses,
If
an
Along
length
OQ
OQ
in Fig. 198 and perpendicular to BD, mark off a Draw to represent / 2 to represent /j, and a length
OR
Fig. 197Ellipse of Stress.
a horizontal
QM
to
meet a
lies
vertical
/and ^.MOP
= a.
on an
ellipse,
PR
in
P; then
OP
represents
To show that P
we must prove
yv2
that the equa-
/y2
-f-
tion governing P's position is of the nature -^
z j-
=i.
OM = OQ cos =f1 cos 6 MP = RN = OR sin 6 =/2 sin

:.
i. e.,
(PO)
(OM)
(MP)
2 2 /! cos
OP =/
is
+/
x
sin 2
=f
of
If
the origin x then
at O,
2
but
= MP =/ sin and y = OM = / cos e X V = sin 6, f-ss cos y/2 /I = i for all values of sin 6 + cos x ~ v 4T * f / h
0,
0.
2
2
and x and y are the co-ordinates
<
or
lies
on an
ellipse the lengths of
whose axes are 2/2 and 2/x

The
circle
347
may
i.
be regarded as a special case of the
ellipse,
where a =
xz
b,
e., -^
+^
v2
=*
or
+y = a
2
2
,
a being the radius
of the circle.
e. g.,
5*.+
5y
2 z
can be written
x* -f
= =
45
g,
which represents a
circle of radius 3 units.
The Parabola. If the axis is horizontal, and the vertex at the origin, then the equation is y 2 40*. z If the axis is vertical, the equation is x qay, where 40 " latus rectum," the chord through the focus length of the perpendicular to the axis.
To make
x-\- c
4
of
= say,
-2.
the investigation more general,
let
x-\-j: and y
to
y+c x
= say,
x be changed to
also
let
y+n-45;
Then the case will be that of the parabola having a -2, and the axis will be vertical, with the vertex
7,
latus
rectum
at the point
-11-45is
The equation
(*+7)
5*
2
+7*+2-45-H'45
or
5*
+7*~ 9z
(This curve is
shown plotted
in Fig. 88.)
Conversely, the equation y the standard form, thus
= $x + jx
9 might be put into
= = =
5(*+i-4*-i-8)
5(*+7)
-'45
a
(*+7)
which equation where
is of
the form
T>
4#Y
=X
4*
Y = y-HMS.
and
X = *+7-
desired
This analysis is useful if the position of the vertex, say, is and the curve itself is not needed. (Compare maximum
in practical problems the simpler
and minimum values.) For the parabolas occurring

forms are sufficient.

The Hyperbola.
origin, the equation is
If
the centre of
the hyperbola
is
at the
^ 2 _y2
a
b
_
~
where
20,
2b
= the length of the transverse axis (along the x axis) = the length of the conjugate axis (along the y axis).
a and
-\-a,
No
there
is
values should be taken for x between
for
no part of the curve

7.
there.
Example
Plot the curve representing the equation
2# 2
5V
48
(Fig- I99-)
By
dividing throughout
by
48 the equation
may
be written
so that
a
&
=
=
^24
Vg-6
=
=
4-9
3-1
and
If
a rectangle be constructed by verticals through x = 4-9 and and horizontals through y = 3-1 and + 3-1, the diagonals of " " this rectangle will be the of the hyperbola, i. e., the asymptotes boundaries of the curves are known.
4-9,
To
calculate values
5y 5y
= 48-2*2 = 2*2-48 y = -4# -9-6 y = V'4#

2 z 2
2 2
9-6
x,
i. e.,
an expression is found for y The table of values reads

:
in
terms of

find equation oj asymptotes as axes (see Fig. 199.)
349
the
To
the
the
hyperbola when
rejerred
to
From-
P a
point on the curve,
draw
PN
parallel to
OF
and
PM
\
parallel to
OE.
Let
PM = p,
X
i
1-
<*
\
Fig. 199.
The Hyperbola.
and PN = q
then the co-ordinates, when the asymptotes are axes, PN and PM are parallel to the asymptotes, are (p, q}. and not perpendicular to them.
;
Note that
Let
i.e.,
EOA =
COS a
then
tan a
=sin a
also
OM QM
PL PQ PR PL
= = = = =
=
and
OM = ML = q (From equality of angles.) PM-ML = p-q
NP =
q.
PM+MQ = p+q
h
=
&
P-9
or
also
QS
i.e.,
Va*+b*
(2)
350

By
subtracting
(i)
from
(2)
= a?+b .....
z
since -= a*
o*
But a and
If the
b are constants, therefore the

is
ordinates p and q
constant
is
this is
hyperbola
rectangular, b
=
8
product of the coa most important relation. a (the asymptotes being at
right angles)
and
-pa
=a
2
for the isothermal expansion of
Compare the equation PV

a gas.
= C,
Example
8.
referred to its asymptotes.
Find the equation of the hyperbola Answer Pq = i.

:
x3
$y*
3,
Exercises 37.
1. Plot, for
On
the plotting of Equations of the Type
1 x ranging from i to 9, the curve 2. Plot the curve zy = -od^x"" from x = o to x = 2. 3. Plot on the same axes the curves y 1 =^-2x 1 63 and y t = î* 3 and by adding corresponding ordinates obtain the curve 1 83 + '3i.* 3 47 {x to range from -2 to 3-5.} y = 4-2*
values of
y=ax" + b. y = 5-j6x 29
'
'
'
47
'
'
4. Plot,
from y
-5
to y
+'5, a curve to give values of C,
when C
5.
1-69 (log, 3
-j
)
Formulae given for High Dams are as follows : where x = depth in feet of a given point from the top horizontal distance in feet from such point to flank of y z = horizontal distance in feet from such a point to face of P = safe pressure in tons per sq. ft. on the masonry
dam dam
the section of a dam 30 ft. deep, allowing P = 4-5. For a steam engine, if x = mean pressure (absolute) expressed as a percentage of the initial pressure (absolute), and y = cut-off expressed as a percentage of the stroke, then
Draw
6.
y(5-6o5-iogy)-
Plot a curve giving values of x for values of y between o and 70. 7. If a number of observations have been made, say, for a length

of a chain line in a survey, then the probable error e of the
351
of
mean
the observations can be calculated from
where r
tion
difference
and n
j. 2>
= number
between any observation and the mean observaof observations. If to give values of e 2 and 30.
2f
_.
for
p^t a curve values of n between

Plot on the
'
///^7>vÂ Worm
8.
(a)
same axes the curves 1 13 = 8 pv 4000 and (6) pv' = 2540,
9.
D=
=
from 4 to 32. In Fig. 200, the outside diameter of a worm wheel

v ranging
T^T-rA
|Worm -Wheel.
2A(
cos
-j
d.
If 4 and A = -75, show by a graph the variation in D due to a variation in a from
d=
10.
Fig- 200.
20
to
60.
is
The calculated
efficiency
jj
of
worm
n tan
gearing
a)
found from
_
where
/x
tan a(i
p + tan a = coefficient of friction and a = angle of the worm. = -15, plot a curve to show efficiencies for angles from o to 50. If = i f-J of a gas engine is given by 11. The ideal efficiency If n = 1-41, and r = compression ratio, plot a curve giving the efficiency
p.
17
77
for
any compression
12.
ratio
between
;
and
18.
500 its value as scrap is 80. Plot curves to show the state of the depreciation fund as reckoned by the two methods (a) Equal amounts put away each year. (b) A constant percentage of the value of the preceding year set aside each year. The fund at the end of n years = 500 [i(i 0836)**], and the life of the machine is 21 years.
13.
machine costs
The capacity
is
from the earth
K per foot of K= ^4-^
a single telegraph wire far removed

microfarads.
Plot a curve to
2log---6i8
- increases from 500 to give the capacity for wires for which the ratio
20000.
14. Mutton's
formula for wind pressure on a plane inclined to the

is
actual direction of the wind
pressure on a plane at right angles to the direction of the wind, p = pressure on a surface inclined at 6 to the direction of the wind. If P = 20 Ibs. per sq. ft., plot a curve giving values of p for any angle up to 90.
where
P=
352
15. Plot
a curve showing the H.P. transmitted by a belt lapping round a pulley for values of the velocity v from o to 140, the coefficient of friction p being -2.
1
80
350, 16. Aspinall gives as
T=
w=
-4,
g = 32-2, 6 = angle of lap in radians. a rule for determining the resistance to motion
of trains
T
65-82
where
resistance in Ibs. per ton, velocity in miles per hour. for all velocities up to 55 m.p.h. Plot a curve to give values of
R=
V=
17.
(brake energy per
Find the value of r (the ratio of expansion), which makes Ib. of steam) a maximum.
r
--27
00833
18.
,
^+-000903
The
is
efficiency
of a three-stage air compressor with spray
injection
given by
where n
2
= 1-2 and r = ratio of compression. Plot a curve giving the efficiency for any compression ratio between
12.
and
19.
Determine the length of the latus rectum and also the co2X z ordinates of the vertex of the parabola $y 20. A rectangular block is subjected to a tensile stress of 5 tons per sq. in. and a compressive stress of 3 tons per sq. in. Draw the ellipse of stress and read off the magnitude and direction of the resultant stress on the plane whose normal is inclined at 40 to the first stress. Refer to p. 346.] [Hint.
nx2y.
To plot the usual value, one may work directly from the tables, or a preliminary transformation of the formulae may be necessary. If tables of powers of e are to hand, the values of y corresponding to certain values of x are read off at a glance and in such a case the values of x selected are those appearing in
Curves representing Exponential Functions.
curve y
= ex
where
has
its
these tables.
Example 9.
Plot the curves y
ex
and y
e-*
from x
4 to +4.
:
From Table XI
X
at the end of the
book the
figures are
found thus

When x = x
4,
353
3 3, e is
required, and this is found in the 3 rd column. required, and this is found in the 2nd column.
is is shown in Fig. 201, by the curve not available, proceed as follows :
(i).
The plotting
If tables of
for these figures

e are
powers of
e*,
and therefore log y
= x log e =
-4343*
and the table
is
arranged thus
354

10.
Example
To
plot the curve
e 3x .
Write this as
Y = e*,
For
where
Y = y and X = 3*.
= ex exactly as before, and then alter the horiPlot the curve zontal scale in such a way that i on it now reads J, and so on.
X = 3*
i. e.,
construction scale
or
required scale Plot the curve 5^
= 3 x required scale = construction scale
Example u.
4K
This can be written 4

i. e.,
where
Hence, plot that the
Y=
Y= X = -x.
Y=
4 7 e x from the tables, and alter both scales in such a

scale for
way
New
>
y
**
=-
x construction
>
scale
>
7 ^
so that where the vertical construction scale reads 5, 4 must be written and 7 must be written in place of i along the horizontal.
Example 12. If the E.M.F. is suddenly removed from a circuit containing resistance R, and self-induction (coefficient of self -inductance L), the current C at any time t after removal of the E.M.F. is given by the equation B<
C = C e~i
Plot a curve to
when C
show the dying away of the current 50 amps, R = -32 ohm, and L = -004 henry.
^32*
4
for the case
C=
so*It will be sufficient to plot values of

o and -05 sec.
50<T-<x>
80 '
for values of
between
C=
so*e-"1
f*
80 '
C=
where
is
spoken of as C bar]
C=t
and
the
T=
8o/
50
If the maximum value of be 80 x -05, i. e., 4. Hence from the tables
:
is
-05,
maximum
value of
T must
355
These values are shown plotted in Fig. 202, and then the scales are altered so that i on the vertical becomes 50, and i on the horizontal becomes Q
.
oo
5CL
45
40
c I
$ Q
C*"
So
15 *>
356
Example 13. If a pull t is applied at one end of a belt passing over a pulley and lapping an angle 6 (radians), the pull T at the other
end
is greatly increased owing to the friction between the belt and the pulley. = coefficient of friction between belt and pulley If
ft,
T=
lw*
Plot a curve to
show values
of
taking
40,
and
/i
as 6 increases from o to 180,

(n radians
-3.
The angle
6 ranges
from o to
3-14.
180.)
100
4o
~
i-S
-5^
Fig. 203. It will
Values of ft Pull on a Belt.
be rather more convenient in this case to calculate
Substituting values
Then
T = qoe' 39 log T = log 40 + = 1-6021 +
-3^ log e
-3
1-6021
x -43430 -13030

i. e.,
357
in contact for half the circumference of the pulley the tension is increased in the proportion of 2-6 to i. In practice a ratio of 2 to i is very often adopted. The plotting for this example is shown in Fig. 203.
when the
belt
is
Example 14. If an electric condenser of capacity K has its coats connected by a wire of resistance R, the relation between the charge q at any time t sees, and the initial charge q at zero sec. is given by
3.
e~Es.
falls
ft
Find the time that elapses before the charge
to a value
repre-
initial charge,
and indicate the form of the curve which
sents the discharge.

If
*
= RK,
falls
i. e.,
the charge
to
then q
5
= q^ = & =
f
^q
RK
sees.
its
initial
value in time
time constant of the condenser circuit. This time is termed the The curve representing this discharge would be similar to that
plotted for
2*710 "
"
Example
12, viz. in Fig. 202.
if
the
The Catenary. " "

mean
e~ x e* and y Referring to the curves y curve of these is drawn it will represent the equation
y '
e-* = e* +
i.
e..
= cosh x.
" " This curve is known as the catenary ; and it is the curve taken by a cable or wire hanging freely under its own weight. The catenary when inverted is the theoretically correct shape for an arch carrying a uniform load per foot curve of the arch. Ibs., and If the cable is strained to a horizontal tension of the weight per foot run of the cable is w Ibs., then the equation
becomes
*
y
c
__fl_+_l
2
where
=H
is
The proof
of this rule
is
rather difficult, and
given in Volume
II of Mathematics for Engineers.
From what has

the catenary
is
tions multiplied
should be seen that already been mentioned it in both direcscales the x with cosh the curve y be written can its equation c, since
by
358

y Y=c
and
then
Provided
X=-
U=
Therefore, to plot any catenary one can select values of x, read off corresponding values of cosh x from the tables and plot one against the other, afterwards multiplying both scales by c. must If a definite span is suggested, the range of values for
be selected in the manner indicated in the following example.
Cor\st"rvr
Fig. 204.
Scale.
The Catenary.
Example 15. A cable weighing 3*5 Ibs. per ft. has a span of 50 ft., and is strained to a tension of 40 Ibs. Draw the curve representing the form of the cable. Find the sag, and the tension at 10 ft. from
the centre.
H-42. " Also the span is to be 50 ft., i. e., on the new " or " final " scale ft. must be on either side of the centre line. 25 represented But, new scale = c x construction scale on construction scale .*. 25 ft. on new scale 11-42 x
3'5
Here
or
so that
X=
2-19
2-2.
11-42
no values of
X need
be taken beyond, say,
THE PLOTTING OF DIFFICULT CURVE EQUATIONS 359 Taking values of X from o to 2-2, the values of cosh X are found
from Table XI, thus
:
360
After 360
has been reached the cycle of changes is repeated, sin x. 360 is what is called the period, for the function y Because y and x are connected by a law, we conclude that the changes will not be abrupt or disjointed, or in other words, the sin x will be a smooth one. curve representing y
i. e.,
sine curve is perhaps the most familiar of ah curves, there being so many instances of periodic variation in nature. Thus, if a curve be plotted showing the variation in the magnetic
The
declination of a place over a number of years, its form will be so also for a curve showing the mean temthat of a sine curve number of years, for each week of the perature, considered over a
:
year.
l/=SLM.JG
300"
Radionsi
360"
-2
Angle
-1-0
Fig. 205.
Sine Curve.
;
Sine curves occur frequently in engineering theory and practice

in fact,
a sine curve results whenever uniform circular motion is represented to a straight line base. All sine curves are of the same nature, and therefore it is necessary to carefully study one case, and that the simplest, to serve as a basis. To plot y sin x select values of x between o and 90, thus :
x degs.
361
be traced and pricked through to give the portion of the curve between x = 90 and x 180.
Again,
sin
sin
and
*. e.,
205 240
= = sin (180 + 25) = = sin (180 + 60) =
sin 25 sin 60
" " the 3rd portion of the curve is the ist portion folded over the horizontal axis. Similarly, the 4th will correspond to the 2nd " " and accordingly we need only concern ourselves folded over
;
with calculations for the ist quarter of the curve. The maximum value of y, viz. i, is spoken of as the amplitude Thus in the case of a swinging pendulum, the of the function. greatest distance on either side of its centre position is the amplitude of its motion. If y 5 sin x, then the amplitude is 5, and the curve could be
obtained from y
= sin x by multiplying
Plot the curve y
the vertical scale
by
5.
Example
16.
-5 sin 4*.
Writing this as
or
v
f-
= sin 4*
2y,
is
Y = sin X
[where
Y=
- =
and
X = 4*]
=
=
360
we
on
see that the simple sine function Accordingly we plot the curve Y
p. 360),
obtained.
= sin X
x
(making use of the table
and then
alter both scales
so that
and y
Dealing with the last example,
we
see that the period is
or 90 ; i. e.,ii x is multiplied by 4, the period must be divided by 4. sin \x, the period Similarly for the curve representing y 1800. We thus obtain the important rule would be 360 -r r " To obtain the period for a ' sine ' function, divide 360 by the coefficient
of
or t (whichever letter
'
is
adopted for the base or
'
independent
variable
") or briefly
Period in degrees
360
eoeffieient ot
]^T,
>'.
Since
27r
radians = 360,
2ir, if
we should
write
wherever we have written 360 above e., the angle is to be expressed in radians,
(of
27T
the period in radians or seconds
time)
=
Thus
if
coefficient of the
x or
= 4 sin 6x or 6o< Period = ->- = 6 1 3 = and amplitude 4

y
362
is
Example 17. The current in an electric circuit at any time / sees. = 4-5 sin loowt. given by the expression C Plot a curve to show the change in the current for a complete
period.
= IOOTT, .'. / = 50. frequency. In this case 2irf = -02 sec. If / = 50, the time for one cycle, or the period, must = Thus the periodic time = -02 sec. Notice that the period is given in terms of seconds (of time) in this case, and not in degrees. The same periodic time would have been obtained if our previous
per second
The general formula
is
C=C
sin 2nft,
where / = number of cycles
rule
had been applied,

,-.
.
for
,
Period
2ir
coeff. of
T-. T
2ir
-02 sec.
IOOTT
Fig. 206.
Change
in Current in Circuit.
Either of two methods can be used for the calculation of values

(a)
Plotting from the simple sine function.
According to this scheme write the equation in the form
C =
4 '5
sin looirt
sin
,
or
C=
T
and
where
4'5
T=
ioont
Hence to
plot the curve (Fig. 206)

|-
C=
sin T, select values of

off values for
between o and
(o
and
1-571),
and thus read
so that
the first quarter of the curve can be plotted, remembering always that the base must be numbered in radians.

Values for this portion would be of this character
:
363
364
scale
Produce the horizontal through O and along it mark off to some a distance to represent 2 sees., and divide this into 10 equal
parts.
its
When the crank is in the position Oi, i. e., at time -2 sec. after start, hence produce lA to meet projection on the vertical axis is OA
:
Fig. 207.
the vertical through
-2
at
ix
and
this will be a point
on the curve
required. Proceeding similarly for the other positions of the crank, the full curve is obtained, and from its form we conclude that it is a
sine curve.
To prove that
(Fig. 208).
it is a sine curve Suppose that in time / sees, the crank moves to the position
OC
Fig. 208.
Fig. 209.
ir
.'.
In In
I sec.
t
the angle
sec. the angle
moved = moved =
(in this case) (in this case)
itt
or a> or <ot
(in general) (in
general)
where
a>t is
the angle in radians.
OA = CB = CO sin L COB =
where r
r sin
radius of crank circle.
Therefore the curve obtained by the construction is that representing the equation y = r sin at. Hence a graphic means of drawing sine curves can be employed in Great care must, however, be taken in place of that by calculation. connection with the magnitudes involved.

e. g.,
365
to plot
C=
4-5 sin iooirt
by
this
means.
function
Radius of
circle
tat
and
.
= 4-5, the amplitude of the = looirt or = ioor

<>
e.,
100 TT radians must be swept out per sec. 27T radians are swept out in -02 sec.
Therefore, if the circle were divided into 10 equal parts, the distances along the time base corresponding to the angular displacements would be -002 sec. each.
If the crank in Fig. 209, which to revolve were viewed from the right or left, supposed uniformly, it would appear to oscillate up and down the line OA. Such motion
is
Simple Harmonic Motion.
is
known
Looking,
as simple harmonic motion, or more shortly S.H.M. also, from the top, the motion as observed would be
;
OB, and this again would be S.H.M. thereconnecting-rod were extremely long compared with the crank the motion of the piston would be approximately S.H. In the case of the valve rod it would be more nearly true that the movement of the valve was S.H., for the valve rod would be very long compared with the valve travel. At a later stage of the work it will be shown that the acceleration along OB, say, is proportional to the displacement from O;
an
oscillation along
fore, if the
and
this is often
taken as a basis for a definition of S.H.M.
'
is the simplest form of oscillatory motion, and can be illustrated by a sine curve. Suppose that the crank does not start from the inner dead centre position, but from some position below the horizontal, what
S.H.M., then,
modification of the equation and of the curve results? If at time t sees, after starting, the crank is at OC (Fig. 209)
(Oo
is
the initial position of crank}
then
and where
L COo L COB
= = ut c BOo c = y = r sin L COB = r sin

<>*
L.
(<at
c).
Similarly,
if
the crank
is
zontal at the start,
r sin (wt+c). y show that the curve will be shifted will A moment's thought axis one way or the other, but that its shape horizontal the along will be unaltered.
inclined at an angle c
above the hori-
Example
19.
Plot a curve to represent the equation

4-5 sin (loont
i-i) for
C=
a complete period.
366

form with which we have already
i -i)
Let us reduce the equation to a dealt; thus
C= C =
4-5 sin (looirt
sm
4-5
I, loon-! t \
i-i \
I007T/
j. e.,
where
*$
r/vWw?
= sin ioo?r(/ -0035) C = sin loon-Ti = sin 1 T = loou-T, T = -0035,

l
and C
C =4 5
367
y increases very much more rapidly; while at 90 the value of y is infinitely large. After 90 the tangent is negative, for the angle is in the 2nd quadrant. Supposing some form of continuity in
Degrees
Radians
90
Period
/ao*
tT rae/iano
Fig. 211.
Graph
of tan x.
the curve,
side
is
it must now approach from infinity from the negative and come up to cross the axis at 180. After this the curve
is
180
repeated, so that the period for the simple tangent function or TT.
368

from the
:
Selecting values for x, those for y can be read off tables

Thus tan
<j>
369
-1465
and
<f>
=
is
8 20'; also
as follows
:
tan 6 tan
(6
The tabulation
6
8 20')
of values
370

An example
which
" of importance to surveyors concerns the equation " " is the difference between the and the apparent
of time,"
time of day. The apparent time is the actual time as recorded by a sun-dial, whilst the mean time is calculated from its average over a year. Two causes contribute to the difference between the two times, viz.
(a)
,
"
mean
"
The earth
,
in its journey
.
round the sun moves

-1
in
an
ellipse
having an eccentricity
.,
/distance between focf\ i\

(
-~
of
. ,
i -
^-,and
in Con-
sequence of the laws of gravity its speed is greater the sun than when more remote.
(b)
when nearer
to
The
earth's orbit is inclined to the plane of the equator.

Set Watch FAST over J this Period by Amount"! given bv Ond"
Set Watch Period b

I
Variation duel ho
Curve giving
.-
IE
^'Curve giving Variation due to EarftA Orbital Spee
Curve Of
Equation
Fig. 213.
of
Time
Curves for " Equation of Time."
The corrections due to these two causes are found separately, and are represented by the respective curves (a) and (b) in Fig. 213. For curve (a) the period is one year, and the period of (b) is half a
year.
These, when combined by adding corresponding ordinates, due attention being paid to the algebraic sign, give curve (c), for which
the period is one year. By the use of this curve the correction to " " can be sun time be added to or subtracted from the observed obtained. Thus to determine the longitude, i. e., the distance in degrees east or west of Greenwich, of, say, a village in Ireland, it would be first necessary to find the meridian of the place by observation of the pole star. Next the time of the crossing of the meridian by the sun i. e., the local time, would be noted, and this would be corrected by adding or subtracting the equation of time
for the particular day.
Then the
difference
between the corrected

local
371
time and Greenwich mean time as given by a chronometer would give the longitude, since one hour corresponds to fifteen
degrees.
to
Example 22. Plot the curve y show a complete period.

(i),
4 sin
+ -5 sin 2t
=
-5
sufficiently far
Let y\ = 4 sin * then the curve required

of different periods. The period of y
27T
and
is
= y^ + y
/ is
y,
sin it
2)
t , i. e.,
it is
the
sum
of
two curves
-5
4 sin
2ir,
while the period of y
sin 2t is
-V_J
X
=
4sint
\^--^T\
\
Fig. 214.
Complete period of curve y
4 sin
+ '5
sin 2
t.
Therefore the curves must be plotted between / = o and / = lit to be one give the full period of the resultant curve, so that there will period of curve (i) and two of curve (2). The curves are now dealt with separately, because, being of different be so for the other. periods, values suitable for the one would not
The simple scales. " already mentioned would serve for curve (i), template but curve (2) must be previously adjusted in scale to make it possible " to apply the template." It may be sometimes easier to set out the work as follows instead of using a template
sine curve
For curve (i) period = 2n-, and amplitude = 4. The two curves must be plotted to the same
"
Curve
(i).
Values of
need only be taken between o and ^
372
Curve
fore
(2).

Values of
t
need only be taken between o and
there-
take values one-half of those in the previous case, so that the

is
calculation
simplified.
(i)
Curve
t
Curve
(2)

Plot the curve
vertical scale
373
= sin T
from o to
2ir,
and then multiply the

628.
by 50 and divide the horizontal by

the curve of voltage
Curve
(2),
=
provided that This is the
of -00089 sec.
148 sin 628Tj

628"]?!
T=
first
and Tj
its
= 148 sin T = t + -00089.

moved
to the right a distance
curve with
all
axis
and with
ab.
ordinates multiplied
by -4- or
2-96.
Thus
AB =
2-96
Curve (3), the curve of power, is obtained ing ordinates of curves (i) and (2).
by multiplying correspond-
Confusion is avoided by plotting curve (2) along a different horizontal axis from that used for (i).
The reader will find it convenient to draw out the simple sine curve on tracing paper to a scale convenient for his book or paper,
much time and labour being saved means. Curves for Equations of the Type y e~* x sin(6x+c). In plotting such a curve it is not wise to select values of x and then calculate values of y directly it is easier to split the
and
to use that as a template
;
by
this
and plot the curves representing these equations separately, obtaining the final curve y y"iXy 2 by multiplication of ordinates. The forms of the two component curves are already known. They must, however, be plotted to the same horizontal scale,
function
up
into
y1
= e~ ax
and y 2
= sin(&#-f-c),
which should always be a scale of radians (if an angle is measured along the horizontal) or one of seconds (if time is measured along
the horizontal).
Example
24.
Plot the curve y
e~** sin
(5*+
2-4),
showing two
complete waves.
x and y, = sin (5*4-2-4). Let y = yixy, where yt = e~* To avoid any trouble with the scales, this example is worked in used. full, i. e., templates are not It will be slightly more convenient to deal first with curve (2).
Curve
(2)
y,
where
X=x+
= sin (5* +
-48
2-4)
= sin 5(#+'4 8 = sin 5X

)
vertical axis through the zero of x in Fig. 216 will be hence, since the second scale has the to unit right of that for 48 the construction vertical axis must the in plotting, to be used again be chosen -48 unit to the left of some convenient starting-line.
Hence the
y,
= sin 5X,
the period being -^
1-256 radians
374

4 or to -314.
Hence values of x need only be taken between o and
375
Curve (3), or y = yx x y, can next be obtained by selecting corresponding ordinates of the two curves and multiplying them together. When x = 1-06, y^ = -58 and y t = i hence in this case the particular product of y>i and y a has the same value as y lt and accordingly the vertical scale chosen for curve (3) is advisedly that for (i), so that the curve when plotted touches the curve (i) at its highest points.
;
Glancing at the curve (3) we observe that the amplitude is now diminished in a constant ratio, although the period remains the same, i. e., there is some damping action represented. If a condenser discharges through a ballistic galvanometer and
deflections left
a curve
and right are taken, then by plotting the readings obtained (naturally of a very small period) of the character of curve (3). The logarithm of the ratio of the amplitudes of successive swings is called the logarithmic decrement of the
is
galvanometer. For the case considered, the ratio of consecutive amplitudes

-,-}*+l-256
is
'-~ = .'.
f -\x
fl'256 -
=*
1 ' 256
= 3-5
3-5
(approx.)
= log logarithmic decrement
= 1-253.
a fluid, hung by Again, imagine a horizontal metal disc within a vertical wire. If the wire is twisted and then released, the disc Measurements of the oscillates from the one side to the other. the facts that demonstrate the of respective swings amplitudes the ratio of the amplitude of one swing to the amplitude of the
(a)
for any fluid, and (b) this ratio is less preceding swing is constant fluids. for the more viscous Thus if the disc osciUated in air, the successive swings would the be very nearly alike as regards amplitude or, in other words, in the its and representation motion is practically simple harmonic, thick or is water medium the If curve. a sine usual manner
;
oil,
gives No. (3) in Fig. 216, the motion is represented by a curve like in the case of marked more much be would effect the but damping
the
oil.
Exercises 39.
On
the Plotting of Graphs Representing Trigonometric Functions.
1 Write down the amplitudes * sin (3*- 4): i"cos 4 * tions

:
:
and periods of the following func-
of this functionthe amplitude and also the period
"*XA?^*1-*
51*
sin 314'
(<
1S
in
seconds);
376
3.

The range of a
"y"2
gjn
2A
'
projectile fired
with velocity
V at elevation A
is
given by
elevation
Plot a curve to
show the range
for angles of
up to 45, the velocity of projection being 1410 ft. per sec. 4. On the same diagram and to the same scales plot the curves y t = 2 sin x and y t = 5 sin \x, and also, by addition of ordinates, the curve y = 2 sin x + 5 sin \x.
A crank rotates in a right-hand direction with angular velocity starting from the inner dead centre position. To a time base draw a curve whose ordinates give the displacement of a valve, the connecting-rod (or valve-rod) being many times as long as the crank. The travel of the valve is to be i|*.
5.
10,
6. Plot the curve s = 2-83 sin(4< -016) for one complete period, the angle being in radians. -81 cos 3$ for a complete period. 7. Plot the curve y 8. Plot the curve 5^ 4-72 tan 4$ for a complete period. 9. The current from an alternator is given by C = 15 sin iirft, and If the frequency / is 40 and the voltage by E = 100 sin (zirft n). n (the lag) = -611, draw curves of current and E.M.F., and by multiplication of corresponding ordinates plot the curve of power. 10. The acceleration A of the piston of a reciprocating engine is given by COS 20} A = 1 f /I 2 2 A -\ 47r n ri cos
lution
Plot a curve to give values of the acceleration for one complete revo, ,. ,, = connecting-rod length = 10, when r = crank radius = i ft., crank length = R.P.S. = 2. 11. The displacement y of a certain slide valve is given by
m
-2
2 -6 sin (0+ 32)
sin (20+ 105).
Plot a curve to give the displacement for any angle between o
and 360.
curve y = e-'^sin $x, showing two complete waves. a curve to give the displacement x of a valve from its 1-2 cos pt 1-8 sin pt and p = angular centre position when x = velocity of the crank, which revolves at 300 R.P.M. 14. Plot the curve y = 5 cosec 0, showing a complete period. 15. What is the period of the curve 7^ = 2-8 sec3#? Plot this
12. Plot the 13. Plot
curve.
16.
An E.M.F. wave
Draw
period.
is given by the equation 150 sin 3i4/ + 50 sin 942^. a curve to show the variation in the E.M.F. for a complete
E=
" " of an object from a point of observation is found 17. The range by multiplying the tangent of the observed angle by the length of the base. Draw a curve to give ranges for angles varying from 45 to 70, the measured base being two chains long.
Graphic Solution
of
Equations.
The
application of purely
algebraic rules will enable us to solve simple or quadratic equations. Equations of higher degree, or those not entirely algebraic,

can best be solved by graphs
is
;
377
and
in
some cases no other method
possible.
The general plan is to first obtain some approximate idea of the expected result, either by rough plotting or by calculation, and to then narrow the range, finally plotting to a large scale the portion of the curve in the neighbourhood of the result. Occasionally the work is simplified by plotting two easy curves
instead of the more complex one.
e3*
z
Example
25.
Solve the equation
$x
17
= 0.
plotted, their
The equation may be written e 3* = $x z +17. Then if the two curves y x = esx and y t = $x z + 17 are
Tabulating
:
point or points of intersection will give the value or values required.
For Curve
X
(i)
yl
e 3x
For Curve
(2)
yt
$x +17.

occur in connection with problems in hydraulics. take the following
:
As an example
Example
26.
ft.,
of diameter d
Water flows and the loss
at 7-45 cu. ft. per sec. through a pipe of head in 10 miles is 350 ft. The co-\
efficient of resistance is
/=
-005(1
-A
Find the diameter of the
pipe, given that
Head
lost
where
2gm
d 4
Area of pipe
= ~d
Then the
velocity
= Z&. =
area
7J45
ird z
_
d x 64-4 x d*
and
=
Substituting for
40 x 5280 x 9-48 x 9-48 350 x 64-4

8 3 8/.
from which
d6
4-19^
-35
o.
To
taken
;
solve this equation, we know that hence as a first approximation
no negative values need be

-35
Let y
d6
4-19^
Then
d
d-

in Fig. 218, allowing
379
a fairly open scale for
d,
and
straight line. The intersection of this line with the axis of d gives the value of d
by a
join the
two
points
required,
which
is
seen to be
Example 27. The length of an arc is 2-67*, and the length of the chord on which it stands is 2 -5*. Find the angle subtended at
circle.
the
centre
of
the
ence metal in a corrugated sheet.]
[This question has referto the length of sheet

1-5
Arc
radius
6 radians.
where
is
in
Solution of Equation Fig. 218. giving Diameter of Pipe.
Now
.
rd 6 2
= =
2-67
1-25
r
*. '
and
.
= 2-67 ^L
=
i'25
Also
sin
t. e.,
sini
.,
2-67
1-25
or
sin
= -480. ^d 2-67
Making our
mation,
first approxitaking 6 from o to
380

Plotting the
two curves
in Fig. 219,
yx
= sin
Q
-,
and y a
-468$ for
values of 6 from 6 = i-o to 1-5; we note the point of intersection to 6 = 1-19 radians or 68-2. be at 6 = 1-19. .*.
Exercises 40.
1.
On
the Graphic Solution of Equations.
Find a value of x in terms of / to satisfy the equation z 3 = 3 o 3# 3l * + I x being a distance from one end of a beam of length /. z 3 z 3 = o when / = 10. 2. Solve for z the equation I $lz 3. In order that a hollow shaft may have the same strength as a solid one the following equation must be satisfied
*f D*-d*
*
16
*f
16
*'
x i = o. Find Writing x for -r this equation reduces to x* diameters so that the of the condition the ratio given may be satisfied. 4. Find a value of d (a diameter) to satisfy the equation
where r
5.
6.
Solve the equation ex = 4*. Find values of x between 4 and

to
3-2,
/=
6,
P=
15.
+3
to satisfy the equation
los
7.
16
i
4*
xz
and 5 to satisfy the equation x* log* x = 8 ^ sin 4*= 1-8. 8. Solve for positive values of x the equation 50(Note that the value of x must be in radians.) 9. Determine a value of x between o and it to satisfy the equation x1 5 3 sin x = 3 10. To find the height of the water in a cylindrical pipe so that
Find a value of x between
'
the flow shall be a
maximum
it is
necessary to solve the equation
3 uiL/ 2 + 72/L 2 - i 4 L 3 = o 56/ which occurs when finding the most economical arrangement of the three spans of a continuous beam I being the length of each of the end spans and L being the total span.
;
sin 6 o 6(2 3 cos 6) Find the value of 6 (radians) to satisfy this equation. 11. Solve for / in terms of L the equation
12. In finding the ratio of expansion r for a direct acting single cylinder steam engine of 14" diameter and 22" stroke, the equation i+loge r -389^ = o was obtained. Find the value of r to satisfy this equation. 13. The maximum velocity of flow through a circular pipe is reached when the angle 6 at the centre of the circular section subtended by the wetted perimeter has the value given by the equation
sin 6
;
cos 6
Find this value of
0.

14. Solve, for positive values
381
mechanism), the equation
of/
(the length of
a link of a certain
I 9'5/ 2
42-5/ + 546
= o.
a slope
15. Forty cu. ft. per sec. are to pass through a pipe laid at of i in 1500, the pipe to run half full. The velocity is given
.
by^
where
m=
-1530 and the quantity
= -D 2 u
4
-4-
Simplifying and form
collecting these equations
we
arrive at the simpler
to satisfy this equation. 16. The bottom of a trapezoidal channel (the slope of the sides being 2 vertical to i horizontal) is 4 ft. wide. Find the depth of flow d, if the discharge is 12000 gallons per min., the slope is i in 500, and the coefficient of resistance is -006. 2 '3 2 (&*+*)*
Find the value of
/Equations reduce to
r,
17. Find a value of
4-47^ the ratio of expansion, to satisfy the equation
V8 +
225
1083 loge r
18. A hollow steel shaft has its inside diameter 3*. What must be the outside diameter so that the shaft may safely stand a torque of 200 tons ins., the allowable stress / being 5 tons per sq. in. ? Given that
Torque
32
19.
2/
)
(D*
v
Find a value of 6
(the angle of the
crank from
satisfy the equation sin 6 6 n z sin 4 6

[Hint.
line of stroke) to
n* sin
Let
X = sin
n*
= o when
5.
and then solve for X.]

whirling of
20. An equation occurring in connection with the shafts is j cosh x H o cos x
Find a value of x between o and it to satisfy this equation. [Note that the values of cosh x should be taken from Table XI at the end of the book.] 21. Find the height above the bottom of a cylindrical tank of diameter 10 ft. at which a pipe must be placed so that the water will overflow when the tank is two-thirds full.
Construction of
PV
(pressure-volume) and
It is impossible
r<f>
(temper-
ature-entropy) Diagrams.
to proceed far in
the study of thermodynamics without a sound working knowledge of the indicator and entropy diagrams of heat engines and to assist in the acquisition of this knowledge these paragraphs are addressed mainly to students of the theory of heat engines. Although we
;
are not concerned in this volume with the full meaning of these
382
curves,

we can
deal with
More can plotting. ness of an entropy
them as practical examples of graphbe learned about the advantages and usefuldiagram by actual construction and use than of some one else, and taking for granted remarks the by absorbing Careful attention should, therefore, be directed all that he says. to the following exercises, which should be worked out step by
step
by the
reader.
diagram (Fig. 220) and also a T$ diagram Example 28. Draw a steam expanding from a pressure of 100 Ibs. per (Fig. 221) for i Ib. of the steam being dry and sq. in. absolute, to atmospheric pressure,
PV
6
Fig. 220.
12,
16 "I/"
2O
Pressure- Volume or
PV
Diagram.
saturated throughout. [Note. Since these diagrams are to be used for subsequent examples, they must be so constructed that the lowest pressure indicated is 5 Ibs. per sq. in. absolute.]
in Fig. 220 steam To calculate for points on the expansion line tables must be used; the volumes (V) of i Ib. weight of steam for various pressures (P) between TOO Ibs. per sq. in. and 14-7 Ibs. per sq. in. absolute being read off from the tables and tabulated thus :
BD
383
Horizontals through 100 and 14-7 on the pressure scale complete the diagram in Fig. 220. BD is the saturation or 100 dryness curve. For the T$ diagram (Fig. 221) rather more calculation is necessary. The entropy of water at any absolute temperature T Fahrenheit
= log*
if
the entropy
is
considered zero at 32
F.,
i. e.,
at 461
+ 32
For our example we require the " water " line from about 160 F. to 320 F., since these temperatures correspond approximately to pressures 5 and 100. Hence the range of T = 621 to 781 F. absolute, The tabulation is next arranged as follows, it or, say, 620 to 780. being noticed that
log, 6
or 493 F. absolute.
=
493
-log, 493
2-303(log10 r-loglo4 93)
384

be obtained for the temperatures required from steam tables.
:
may
Thus

Example
30.
385
the adiabatics through / and F, the final pressure being 5 Ibs. per sq. in. absolute. (Figs. 22l and 220!)
Draw
Dryncss
Fraction
Enfropy
Fig. 221.
Temperature-entropy or r$ Diagram.
;
The point /, on the constant volume line dcf, has already been fixed and a vertical through / gives the adiabatic ef. EF is obtained from BD in just the same way as BC was derived
4
i. e..
-^r^ lii
t t etc. -7 rt
C C
386
steam

is initially
Draw the Rankine cycle for the case in which the dry; and also for the case in which the steam at the commencement of the expansion has its dryness fraction = ae -j- ab. The initial and back pressures are 100 and 30 Ibs. per sq. in. absolute
Example. 31.
respectively.
cycle is made up of (i) expansion at constant pressure, adiabatic expansion, (iii) exhaust at constant pressure, and (iv) compression at constant volume. Thus the horizontals PL and pi (Figs. 220 and 221) must be drawn, and the Rankine cycle is given by the figures ABPL and abpl for the and aehl for the other. one dryness, and
The Rankine
(ii)
AEHL
Draw
Example
32.
the
common steam
engine diagram with a

;
toe drop from 30 Ibs. to 5 Ibs. per sq. in. absolute showing the case when the engine is jacketed and also that when there is no jacket.
(See Figs. 220
If
and
221.)
the engine is jacketed, the steam expansion line lies along the on the PV diagram Saturation curve, so that the diagram is the line tnn being a (Fig. 220) and abmnw on the r^> chart (Fig. 221) line of constant volume obtained in the same way as cf. in Fig. 220, and abpqw If there is no jacket, the diagram is in Fig. 221; pq being a line of constant volume.
ABMNX
;
ABPQX
Calculate the dryness fraction from the entropy Example 33 for various temperatures, and thence plot on this diagram diagram "
the
quality
" curve for the adiabatic be (Fig. 221).

dryness fraction
ft = -y
;
At 100
Ibs. pressure the
is
i,
whilst at 60 Ibs.
pressure the dryness fraction

fraction
and at 30
Ibs. pressure the
dryness
Ip
fr-.
Selecting
some
vertical line as the base set off hori-
zontals to represent these various dryness fractions, taking -9 as the base of the curve : thus the position of y represents the dryness at 60 Ibs. pressure. A curve through the points so obtained is the quality curve.
Example 34. Calculate the values of the exponent in pvn the expansions represented by BC and EF, Fig. 220.
=C
for
For the
line
BC
p p
= =
100
13
when when
= =
4-44 26-8
Thus
log p + n log v log 100 + n log 4-44 log 13 + n log 26-8 or 2 + -6474% and 1-1139 + 1-4281^ whence by subtraction -8861
also
= log C = log C = log C = log C

=
log
-780771
8861
In like
manner the exponent
for the expansion
EF is
i -06.
THE PLOTTING OF DIFFICULT CURVE EQUATIONS 387 We may compare these values with those given by Zeuner's
rule; viz.
where q is the initial dryness. and therefore n ** 1-035 i'i35 -332 and therefore n 1-068. 1-035 -0332 Constant heat lines may be plotted on the r<f> diagram but before showing how this may be done, we must indicate what is meant by the term " constant heat line." If steam is throttled by being passed through an orifice its dryness is greater than it would be if the expansion were free. Thus in Fig. 223, at the
1-035
For For
BC EF
q = q =
+ 'I?
= =
+ +
= =
temperature r t the dryness fraction

adiabatic expansion
heat.
;
DC*
~?
and not =J~ as DC,
for
and the
line
BCj is known
as a line of constant
hh
Line,
of Constant" Heat
Fig. 222.
Constant Heat Lines.

effect
Four cases of the drying

external work,
known
as
represented
by
(a), (b), (c)
throttling," are possible, these being and (d) in Fig. 222.
"
of expansion without doing
expansion of a mixture of water and At the commencetemperature r2 ment of the expansion the dryness fraction of the mixture is qlt its latent heat is L x and its sensible heat h lt while qz L 2 and h z
Case
(a)
illustrates the
steam from temperature
ij to
are the corresponding quantities at the. temperature T Z since the heat content is unchanged
Then,
in
which equation qlt L 1( A lt L 2 and h 2 would be known, and thus be calculated. could q2 Case (b) is that of water being dried, thus becoming a mixture The equation here is of steam and water.
A!
= ? L + hr
8
388
Case
(c)

is
that of dry saturated steam becoming superheated,

î
and
T,
for this
change
+ L! = h + L +
z 2
-5(1-,
T2 )
is
being the
;
temperature to
r2
which the steam

the degrees of
raised
by the
superheat (only throttling obtained internally). In Case (d) steam of a certain wetness is completely dried by expansion under constant heat. (Any further throttling would
naturally superheat.) For the change shown in the diagram
rs
thus being
?iLi
+ hi = L + &2 = 1115 7*2 + = 1055 +

2
-3/! 2
,
60
from which equation t z the temperature at which the steam is just dry, can be found. From a consideration of the foregoing cases it will be seen that
lines of constant
" heat appear in either the saturated area," viz. " the area between the water and steam lines, or the superheated area," viz. the area beyond the steam line; and these two cases will be dealt with in the following examples
:
Example 35. Steam -3 dry at 400 F. expands to 150 by throttling. Draw the constant heat line representing
If T! and r a are the absolute temperatures, sensible heats
F.,
being dried
this expansion.
and h t and h t are the
T1 -T-*r -*g -fr-4
the line of constant heat it is necessary to calculate From the equation the dryness fraction at various temperatures.
To draw
=
2
In this equation qlt L x and /4 are known, whilst values of t t may be assumed and values of L 2 calculated therefrom, or taken from
,
steam
tables.
/!
Now
400,
Lx =
:
835,
and q {
-3
Then, taking convenient drops of temperature, say 50 table may be arranged as follows
t,
or 100, a
389
-462
[X
and
835 and
?1
Lt =
-3
x 835
251
also
^=
^*Ô
-388,
Jll yIj
The
as
line of
constant heat (Fig. 223)

;
may
be drawn after points such
have been determined
being so placed that ^^r-
LK
=*
-388.
Example 36. On the r<f> chart (Fig. 223) plot the heat for superheated steam, which is dry at 350 F.
line of
constant
Lines of CorisfanTHeaF
I 1
-2
AT<)>
-6
-8
1-0
1-2
1-6
1-8
Fig. 223.
Diagram showing Constant Heat
Lines.
This example is a numerical illustration of Case hence we must use the equation
-i
(c),
Fig. 222,
and
ht
+L +
a
'5( r*
~ r i)
By
transposition
_
r,
î
+ LI
h2
ht
L,
^
2)
or
/,
+ L! L + r, =2(< -/,+ L 1 -L +
2(A X
1 t)
/I
(absolute temp.)
(F.temp.)
We know that * x = 350, L x drops of temperature of 50 F.
870
and
it is
convenient to take
390

table for the calculation
is
Then the manner

:
arranged in the following
<

Starting from the point A, the pressure = 14-7, r = 461 -f 62 and the volume (read off from the steam tables) = 13-14 cu.
find the position of the point
391
=
ft.
523,
To
F.
It is true for all values of p, v

is
and T
that
= constant. At B
:
the temperature
is
1000
F.,
or 1461
absolute
also the
volume
13-14,
hence
*. e.,
14-7x13-14x1461., 2
so that the point
B is
3-14
x 5
fixed.
40
Stirling.
15
K>
10
15
80
-y
30
55
Fig. 224.
PV
Diagram
pv
for Stirling Engine.
the constant is 41-1 x 13-14 = 540. Va 13-14, the value of = 540, points on BC may be found thus Using the equation pv = 20, v = 27, etc. and the isothermal must be If p = 30 v = 18; p at C being three times that continued' until C is reached, the volume = = f 39'423 x 13-14 at B, . e.,
For the isothermal BC,
= constant,
and
since
pB
41-1
and
:
CD
is
vertical
and
also
TD
"f
so that the position of
540 x 523 1461 x 39-42
is
fixed.
39 2

'.
The constant for the isothermal DA is 4-91 X 39-42 = 193 and accordingly the points on the line may be obtained. To draw the T<|> diagram (Fig. 225) Suppose the entropy is zero Then points on the line ab are calculated from the at the start.
equation
<t>
= Kc lo&.
523
where
K = specific
(Iog 10 r
heat
at
constant
volume
=
4>
-1691.
-1691 loge -^-
= =
-1691
x 2-303
-Iog10 523)
-39(log10 r-log10 523)
J500L
/300.
1100
90O
5oo
<
-05
r<p
-15
'2
Fig. 225.
Diagram
for Stirling Engine,
and the table of values reads as follows

T
393
Example 39. Plot PV and r$ diagrams for the Joule engine, when the compression pressure is 60 Ibs. per sq. in. and the lower temperature is 62 F. Work with i Ib. weight of the gas, and take for the adiabatics pv 1 11 = C.
'
Dealing with the

the volume
The
At C the pressure = 14-7, PV diagram (Fig. 226) 13-14 cu. ft., and r 523 hence p vv = 14-7 x 13-14 = 193. point A, at pressure 60, is on the isothermal through C; then
:
/>Af A
whence
VA
= P<,v = 193 = -^ = 3-22
40--
20
10
Fig. 226.
PV
Diagram
1 '* 1
for Joule Engine.
For the adiabatic

log
AD
pv
so that
= K (say) K = 60 x 3-22
= 1-7782 + = 2-4943 K = 312-1.
1 ' 41
K = log 60 +
1-41 log 3-22
(1-41
x -5079
Hence points on the
line
AD may
be found from pv l
'
tl
312-1.
The pressure at
D=
14-7,
and the volume
V
.
14^7"
8 '73 2 -
Also-
t^ = P^
=
3-22
x 60
347 7 F. absolute.
394

u
1" 41
l =i4-7 x i3-i4
'
For the adiabatic CB, the constant=/> and thus this line may be drawn.
values of
1^(4-845) tion
41
= 555-1
Substituting the p, UA TA pB
,
,
in
the equa-
P*v t-5-2
TB
p t vA
TA
-,
TB
is
found
7OO
.
to be 787-7 F. absolute.
/
600
For
(Fig.
the r$
:
diagram
Starting
c,
227)
from the point
draw
50O
the horizontal through it; this being the isothermal for 523 F. absolute. The distance
400
or 347-7 i 787-7. the 2375 log.
30
1
O
T<(>
temperatures being the same. Points on the line ab are obtained from the
equation
<t>
ratios of the
Fig. 227.
Diagram
for Joule Engine.
-2375 log,
~,
;
540
as also are those on cd the latter values of $
being measured backwards, i. e., towards the left of the diagram. The tabulation for this calculation would be in the arranged as
previous example, so that there is no need ô for a detailed list of values here and the
:
diagram
is
by the
verticals cb
completed and
1o
^
PV
18
24
3o
36
Fig. 228.
Diagram
for Ericsson Engine.
Example 40. Plot PV and r<p diagrams for the Ericsson engine, when working between 62 F. and 1000 F., the compression pressure being 60 Ibs. per sq. in. absolute. (Work with i Ib. weight of the gas.)

The
calculation
is left
395
as an exercise for the reader; but his results be checked from Figs. 228 and 229. In Fig. 228 AB and CD are isothermals, the equations to which are P v = 193 and pv = 540 respectively
may
/5oo
soo -/
Fig. 229.
O
T(J>
Diagram
for Ericsson Engine.
Exercises 41.
1.
380 2 to
is
On the Construction and Use of the PV and r<j> Diagrams. Construct a r<t> chart, the temperature range being 120 F. to F. and by the use of this chart solve the problems in Exercises
;
6.
-42 dry at 350 F. expands adiabatically to 140 F. What dryness fraction ? 3. Three hundred heat units are added to a sample of steam dry at 310 F. Find the dryness after the addition of the heat. The steam is now allowed to expand by throttling to 185 F. find the number of heat units that must be added so that the steam becomes dry saturated at this lower temperature. 4. Draw the Carnot cycle, the upper pressure being 150 Ibs. per sq. in. absolute, and the lower being 14-7 Ibs. per sq. in. absolute. 5. Show on the chart constant volume lines for volumes 5, 10, 15 and 20 cu. ft. respectively. 6. Draw constant heat lines in the superheat area for steam dry saturated at 250 F. and 65 F. respectively.
2.
Steam
its
now
Ib. of steam. The equation of this expansion line being PV* = C, find the value of n (a) Directly from the diagram. 1-035 + J <7> <7 being the initial (b) Using Zeuner's rule, viz. dryness. 8. Draw constant-dry ness lines for dryness fractions of -2 and -3
7. Draw on a working with i
PV diagram the adiabatic line mentioned in Exercise 2,
n=
'
respectively. 9. Calculate the dryness fraction for which the constant-dryness

line is straight;
assuming that
L=
1437
"jr
and
<f>
log,:
CHAPTER X
IT is often necessary to embody the results of experiments or observation in concise forms, with the object of simplifying the future use of these results. Thus the draughtsman concerned with the design of steam engines might collect the results of research
concerning the connection between the weight of an engine and its horse-power, and then express the relation between these variable He might, however, prefer to plot quantities in the form of a law. a chart, from which values other than those already known might
be read off. The object of this chapter is to show how to fit the and before proceeding best law to correlate sets of quantities with this chapter the reader should refer back to Chapter IV, where a method of finding a law connecting two quantities was
:
The results of the experiments there considered gave straight lines as the result of directly plotting the one quantity against the other, and from the straight line the law was readily
demonstrated.
determined. The values of the quantities obtained in experiments, except in special cases, do not give straight lines when plotted directly the one against the other, but, by slight changes in the form of one or both, straight lines may be obtained as the result of plotting.
The general scheme then
is to first
reduce the results to a
"
linear
"
or
"
straight-line
"
equation, to plot the straight line
and then
to calculate
the values of the constants.
The general equation
of the straight line
may
be stated as
Y = aX + b
or (Vertical)
= a (Horizontal) + 6
" " the slope of the line. It is the only for which curve the slope is constant ; hence the reason for our method of procedure. e. g., suppose we know that two quantities P and Q are con-
where a
is
nected by an equation of the form

We
can rewrite this as
397
I = aQ +
where
P3 and Q
=Q
and
this equation is
plotting
against
then of the straight-line form. a straight line must result.
Therefore by
3 Conversely, if the plotting -of P against the equation must be of the form
,
Q2
gives a straight line
P3
= aQ +
2
b.
In dealing with the results of any original work there will probably be no guide as to the form of equation, and much time will therefore be spent in experimenting with the different methods of plotting until a straight-line form is found. Sometimes the shape
some idea
ence
is
of the curve plotted from the actual values themselves will give of the form of the equation, but a great deal of experi-
needed before the various curves can be distinguished with

be found of great value to work according to the scheme
certainty.
It will
of substitutions here suggested, for by the judicious use of the method much of the difficulty will be removed. Thus small
or large letters stand for the original quantities, and large or " " " " bar letters respectively stand for the corresponding plotting
quantities.
e. g.,
we
are told that given values of x
and y are connected by
an equation of the type
y
If
= bx +
2
c.
we
write
Y for y and X for xz the equation Y = 6X + c
becomes
which
is
form required. The change here made but very effective. extremely simple aD n is given as the type. the equation Again, suppose must take logs thus Seeing that a power occurs we
is
of the straight-line
H=
= log a + n log D. log H

As
this equation stands, it is not
apparent that
it
is
of the
straight-line
form; but
by rewriting Has H = A + nU
where
it is
(H bar)
= log H, A = log a
and
D = log D,
We
seen to be of the standard linear form. that shall deal in turn with the various types of equation
occur most frequently.

Laws
Example
the form
I.
of the
Type y = a + -; y
+ bx
z
,
etc.
The following quantities are connected by a law of ax 3 + b y

Subtracting
Substituting in
(2)
399
i. e.,
245 = 8ioa a = -302 15 = 24-2 + b b = 9-2 Y=. 3 o2X+(- 9 3 y = '$O2X 9-2.
2)
Alternatively,
a and b might be found from the graph; since

-302
.*.
;
a o
= = slope = g^ = X of 9-2.
and b
= intercept
(
on
vertical axis
through
Y=
y
and
-302X4-yzx*
9-2)
9-2.
65
60
CP
55
50
I
234567
Amperes
-
Fig. 231.
Law
connecting Volts and Amperes of Electric Arc.
Example 2. An electric arc was connected up in series with an and the adjustable resistance. The following readings of the volts amperes A were taken, the length of arc being kept constant and the resistance in the circuit being varied
400
By plotting V against A, as in Fig. 231, a curve is obtained which shows clearly that the connection between V and A must be of an inverse rather than a direct character, since A increases as V decreases.
Hence a good suggestion is to plot to assume an equation of the form
against V, or, in other words,
Rewriting this equation as equation for a straight line.
V=b+
we
see that this
is
the
Fig. 232.
Law
connecting Volts and Amperes of Electric Arc.

will
The plotting table
then be as follows

Selecting
401
two
sets of values
and
Inserting values
V = 52 Y = 64-5
64-5
12-5
c
when when
.
X=
5=
-15"!
= b + -456 = =
-y
41-7
-45/
(i)
Subtracting
and by substitution
in (i)
whence
64-5 b
= 6+1875 = 45-75 =
45-75
V=
different
Notice that this problem could have been attacked in a slightly
way.
Multiplying through by
AV = 6A + c
but the product of amps and volts gives watts (W).
/.
W = 6A +
c.
Therefore a straight line results if the power (watts) against the current (amperes). The table for the plotting would then read
:
is
plotted
4 oz
an equation of the type with thought that they are connected by " " table must be or new a now are we which plotting dealing,
made, in which the given values are replaced by their logarithms. These must next be plotted, and if a straight line passes through or near the points, the form of equation is the correct one. The values of the constants n and a may be found, as before, by either of two methods (a) by simultaneous equations, or from the graph. (b) by working directly
:
4 60
4-78
4-76
4-74
E
4-72
08
4-70
4-ee
624-66
4-4
4-6
Fig. 233.
4-8
5-O
5-2
5-4
Steel Rods.
5-6
Endurance Tests on Mild

:
To
illustrate
by an example
In
Example
results
3.
some endurance
:
tests
on mild
steel rod the following
were obtained
skin
^ in Ibs. \
. .
Maximum stress F
per sq.
in.

The table
F = logF
of values reads
:
403
404
After plotting, the slope is are plotted directly from the rule. calculated, both horizontal and vertical distances being measured this in centimetres or in inches, the scales on the rule being used
:
slope Note.
is
the value n.
If
the
scale of the rule is

,,
,
used for both horizontal and

difference of horizontal
-^,
difference of vertical vertical measurements, then the slope = -77^
the
same units being employed for both lengths. If, however, a more open scale is required, say, for the vertical, i. e., the B scale is used for the horizontal and the C scale for the vertical, then the vertical difference must be divided by 2 before
comparing with the horizontal
difference.
4-OG5 4-77
1-2
Fig. 234.
Hardness Tests of Mild
Steel.
Example
4.
As a
result of
some
;
tests for hardness,
on mild
steel,
the following figures were obtained

Pressure (tons inch width)
per\
. .

For the actual plotting, shown in Fig. 234, the C scale of the rule was used along both axes, and therefore n = slope = ^ = i. For d = pn In the log form log c + log i = n log p
or
,
405
slide
log
.,
= n log p = P_C
log c
vertical difference
horizontal difference'
zontally.
lf
T Z 1S
.
P lotted
vertically
and
hori-
ae bx , where e = 2-718, the base of have already seen that many natural phenomena may be expressed mathematically by an equation of the type bx ae so also is it possible that an y equation of this type may
Laws
of the
Type y
natural logs.
We
best
fit
If
a series of observations so as to correlate them. " ae
then
and, since log e
is
y log y
= = log a + bx log e
1
a constant and equal to -4343, logy log a -43436*
or
where
the equation of a straight line of slope C, and whose intercept on the vertical axis through the zero of the horizontal scale is A; provided that Y, e., log y, is plotted against x.
is
*'.
Y = A + Cx
Y = A + Cx Y = log y, A = log a,
and C
-43436.
In the cases in which this law applies we have to employ both direct and log values in the same plotting, and hence there is little advantage in using the slide rule in fact, it seems better to take the logs required from the tables only. Also, in finding the constants, simultaneous equations must be formed and solved.
;
Example 5. The following are the results of Beauchamp Tower's experiments on friction of bearings. The speed was kept constant, corresponding values of the coefficient of friction and the temperature being shown in the table
:
406

:
Hence the plotting table reads

t

Laws
of the
407
Type Suppose that given values of x are plotted against those of y and instead of the straight line a fairly well-defined curve suits them best. The curve is most likely to be a portion of some parabola, if not of the types of the two previous paragraphs. Its equation may then be of the form y a bx ex 2 dx? any terms of which
.
y = a + bx -f ex
= +
,
be absent. This case thus includes types already discussed a bx 2 and y a dx 3 ). If nothing is stated to the (e. g., y and it is that the curve is some form of parabola, contrary, thought it is usually accurate to assume as its equation sufficiently
may
= +
= +
= a-\-bx-\- ex
2
.
In this equation there are three constants a, b and c\ and to determine them in any case three equations must be stated.
If, then, the equation is to be of this type, plot the given values, sketch in the best smooth curve to pass well amongst the points, and select three convenient points on this curve the three equa:
tions can
now be formed and

If possible,
solved in the
manner indicated
in
one point should be on the y axis, for Chapter a -f o o or the value of y is such that then x o and y the value of the unknown a is found directly.
II.
Example
6.
Readings were taken as follows in a calibration of a

:
thermo-electric couple
Temperature
C.
(T)
408

Subtracting
2800
370
2,400,000
c
900
2,400,0005
=c =
=
-00154
Substituting in
(i)
5800
+
150
150
b
iooo&
7-49-
1540
2
.
whence
E=
6ooo_
7'49T
OOI54T
000
/ooo _
Zoo
Fig. 236.
4oo
600
800
/ooo
Calibration of a Thermo-Electric Couple.
To
find
an expression for T, solve the quadratic

ooi 54 T 2 - 7'49T+ (150- E)
o.
Thus
__
7-49
V$6
'00616(150
E)
00308
=
Equations
y =
-f-
2430
325^/55-08
-oo6i6E.
of
Types other than the Foregoing.
sionally one meets with laws in the m a ax"z
be,
or y
:
Very occan a form y bxn y b(x -\- a) These may be dealt with in the
= +
following
(a)
manner
Type y
= a + bx*.
:
This
may
be written
= bx
;
or
Y=
bx
the type already discussed but for the change from the pne form to the other to be effective, the value of a, roust be known,
is of
and
409
a is the value of y when % o, so that if possible the curve with y plotted against x should be prolonged to give this value and it is worth while to sacrifice the scale to a certain extent to allow of this being done. Otherwise select two points on the curve, draw the tangents Let the slopes be s x and s 2 when there, and measure their slopes. x has the values # x and x z respectively. Then n, b and a can be calculated from
;
= logs,
,
log *!
logs, log x t
+
,
>
a
(b)
=y
).
Type
y
-f-
= b(x +
If X = x
When
= 6Xn a, then y = = a o or o, x-\y
a standard type already discussed. # a, so that the value of x
a. Values of b and n can where the curve crosses the x axis is then be found in the ordinary way. An alternative, but rather tedious, method is as follows Select three sets of values of x and y, viz. * lf x z x 3 and y lf y 2
:
,
and y s
_ ~
log
(*!+*)- log (* 3 +
log y 2 log
Then
Y = A,
because log y l
y3
= log b + n log + a) = log 6 + n log (* + a) = log b + n log (*, + a)

(*,.
Whence by
and
subtraction
= {log + a) log (* + a)} log y - log (x + a)} = n{log (*! + a) log y log yj
log y x
2
(*,.
a
3
{By division w
is
eliminated.}
this equals n and b
o can
;
A) until For various values of a plot values of (Y and values thus the required value of a is found
:
of
now be
(c)
obtained by logarithmic plotting.
Type
y
;
=a+
draw the
Plot y against x; select two points on the curve and of these s l and s,. tangents there call the slopes
410
Then
= log 5j
" b ^^
- log S -* 4343(*i
*i
M'T
2)
Type y = ax z The method of dealing with

(d)
n m.
this
:
form of equation
will
be demon-
strated in the following examples
Example
7.
Assuming that the

is
loss of
pipe in which water in the form

find the
flowing with a
h
cv 3
mean
head A in a unit length of velocity v can be expressed
~d- n
numerical values of c and expressed in feet and second units for a pipe of 4* diameter and 28 ft. long, using the experimental data
of the
annexed table
Loss of head in feet

Subtracting
-195 = = In = n =
(2)
411
(3
-3 -3
w) -0999 -in
- -195 =
-105
1-05.
Substituting in
2-6721
= log c + (1-95 x -8633) + (-477 x = log c + 1-682 + -501 log c = 4-489

c
1-05)
.'.
=
=
-0003083
-0003083
rfl-05
Hence
OE
4-5678
Experiment on Loss of Head
in Pipe.
;
Fig. 237.
Alternatively, we might have proceeded from (i) in the following find the slope of the resulting : Plot log h against log v the value of this n; find also the intercept on 3 line, being straight
manner
the vertical axis through o of the horizontal scale which gives the n log d, in which everything is known except c, and value of log c then calculate the value of c.
Example 8. During experiments on the loss of head in a 6* diam. of 10 ft. the following observations were pipe on a measured length
made
Experiment.
412

Assuming that the
loss of
head in
feet per foot
run
and that
m+n=
3,
find values of n,
p.
and m.
m=
02-
-01
AFig. 238.
6
d
789
area
10
Experiments on Loss of Head in 6"-diameter Pipe.
6",
294
gals,
per min.
= =
-196 sq. ft. ^ . cu.
6-24
x 60
ft.
per sec.
-785 cu.
ft.
per
sec.
Hence
Similarly

Plot h against v (Fig. 238) and select grapn, viz.
V
413
points on the
two convenient
= =
5,
h=
h
8-5,
-022-|
-057/
f I log
I
NowXT
v = te^r
d d
= =
'5
\ [
log h
= log p +
n log
+
(3
(n
=-. 3 oiJ
1-699
3)
log
d.
Substituting the above values

2 7559 2 '34 2 4
= log/i + -699
= log + -9294 +
/i
n) w)
+(3
x X
-301 -301
(i)
(2)
Subtracting
2304
Substituting in (i)
27559
log
p, p.
Hence
= log/* + 1-672 + = 4723 = -0005284 j,l-8 = -000528-^
-361
Exercises 42.
On
the Determination of Laws.
exercises it should be understood that " [In the finding " following means finding the constants in the equation.] the law
1. Find the law to express the following results of a test on an arc lamp, in the form
W=m+ = = W watts volts x amps. where

V
(volts)
.

3.
The working loads
given in the table.
Find a law connecting
for crane chains of various diameters are and d of the form
W=a+
bd*.

9.
415
6,
find
Given the following values of torque T, and angle of twist a law connecting these quantities in the form T = a6 n
.
(Ibs.in.)
416
15.

Find a law, of the form v
= aHn
connecting the values

21.
417
ax* + bx
Given that
y and x are connected by a law of the form
c.
4i8

and b
in the equation
27. Find values of a case :
ae bx for the following
CHAPTER XI
IT has been seen that the correlation of two variables constiIf two or more interdependent variables are plotted on the same axes so as to solve by intercepts problems of all con-
tutes a graph.
Charts may be ditions of related variability, the result is a chart. classified as (a) correlation charts or graphs, (b) ordinary intercept
charts, or
(c)
alignment charts.
X Y
302-7
--,L
1-52
5. units
.
3A 4
IO 12
IS
20
3O
AO 50
Number
Chart giving Fifth Roots.
Fig. 239.
Correlation Charts may be regarded as forms of the graphs already treated, but specially adapted for particular circumstances. The modification in the construction of the graph frequently consists of the substitution of a straight line in place of a curve, the
former being far the easier to draw, and when powers occur, this
necessitates logarithmic plotting.
Example
I.
Construct a chart to read the
fifth roots of all
numbers
up to
100.
scale in Fig. 239 mark out log scales, using the and Along The scale of numbers being along of the slide rule for both directions.
OX
OY
420

this axis to
OX, extend
show 100 at
its
I unit, i. e., y. Join 5 units, say 2$", and set off and produce to C. Then to find the fifth root of 38, erect a perpendicular through 38 on the horizontal scale to meet OC and project horizontally to meet
OA =
AB =
highest reading.
Set off
OB
OY in
D,
i. e.,
at the reading 2-07
then '^38
2-07.
2
Fig. 240.
3^56
8/0
14t>
20
)-41 .
Chart to show Values of
The value of the exponent is thus the slope of the line, and hence this method can be used to great advantage when the power is somewhat awkward to handle otherwise.
Example 2. In calculating points on an expansion curve, it was 1 41 v ranging from i to 30. Construct a required to find values of v chart by means of which the value of i; 1 41 for any value of v within the given range can be determined.
' ,
'
THE CONSTRUCTION OF PRACTICAL CHARTS 421 In Fig. 240 draw the axes OX and OY at right angles, and starting
from
i
at the point
set out log scales along
both axes
the same
scale of the slide rule being used throughout.
= i unit of length and = 1-41 units of length actual distances) and produce to cover the given join 1 41 = range. Then for v = 5, w 9-7, the method of obtaining this value being indicated on the diagram.
Make
OM
MN
(i. e.,
ON
'
If it
be desired to have a more open scale along one
axis, allow-
ance must be
made
in the following
way
Referring to Example i, suppose that the B scale of the slide rule is used for the scale of numbers and the C scale of the rule
for the scale of roots.
must be made = shown to the left
Then the slope of the line The scale for roots and not
.
O^
(Fig. 239)
for this case is
of the diagram, viz., along
O^j.
of
Ordinary
more graphs
Intercept Charts.
is
combination
two or
often of far greater usefulness than the separate graphs, since intercepts can then be read directly and from the one
chart.
Intercept charts
may
take various forms, and the following

:
examples
illustrate
some
of the types
Construct a chart to give the horse-power transmitted 3. cast-iron wheels for various pitches and at various speeds. The in. and the pitch from speeds vary from 100 to 1500 ft. per min.
Example
by
to 4 ins.
pressure to be carried
Working with the units as stated, and allowing for the whole by any one tooth at a time, the formula reduces to
110
This formula might be written as

that
if
H=p
2
.
or
H = ^xV,
i)
sc
is
constant
or
if
V is constant We may thus

:
H oc V H oc p
draw on one diagram
(see Fig. 241)

2,
a number of
-0364 V,
graphs
for
on the assumption that p
say,
H = 4_ =
and this relation may be represented by a straight line. By varying * other lines may be obtained, and as they are all straight lines passing = o when V = o) only one point on each through the origin (for the calculation need be calculated, though as a check it is safer to make for a second point. * = i, giving a point on the and V = 440, E. g., when p = and Join the origin to the V horizontally. of Plot values vertically
422
= i and V = 440 and produce this line to cover the point for which that this is the line for pitch = \" Indicate range. given = 16. = = V and 2" For p 440, Hence join the origin to the point (16,440) produce this line and mark it for p-= 2*. By two simple calculations in each case a number of such lines may be drawn, say for each \" difference of pitch. To use the chart. To find the H.P. transmitted when the pitch is Draw a horizontal through 3j" and the velocity is 560 ft. per min. line marked p = si", and project the meet scale to the on sloping 560 from the point so obtained to the scale of H, where the required value, viz., 54, is read off.
/v I
1200
1KX)
<
if
>IOOO
0900
800
Jf 700
/I
600
5oo
4OO 3OO
aoo
loo
Values
to
of
12O
H
I4Q
50
50
7O
9O
16Q
/8O
200
Fig. 241.
Chart giving H.P. transmitted by Cast-iron Wheels.
Again, if the pitch is ij*, what speed is necessary if 3^ H.P. is to be transmitted ? Draw a vertical through 3-5 on the scale to meet the line marked p = if* and project to the vertical scale, meeting it
in
V=
125.
In an exactly similar fashion a most useful chart might be constructed to give values of the rectangular moments of inertia for rectangular sections of various sizes. Since I (moment of inertia
3 of a rectangular section) -^bh , then I oc b if h is constant. Then for each value of h a straight line can be drawn, and the chart can
be used in the same
way
as before.
Example
necessary,
4.
Construct a chart to give the diameters of crank shaft

to both bending
when subjected
and twisting
actions, the
423
greatest stress allowable in the material being 6000 Ibs. per sq. in. Given that
Equivalent twisting
moment
X.
T,
i67
= M+ VM 2 +T 2
3
and also
-^/D
where/ = 6000 and

chart suffices
;
T and D, one simple being constructed in the following manner near the centre of the page, Referring to Fig. 242, select an axis and along this axis set out the scale of torque in Ibs. ins. Along the
it
:
D = diam. of shaft in inches. Although there are three variables, viz., M,
OY
.300,000
z
100,660
7
Diam
X
5 6
sopoo
Fig. 242.
Chart to give Diameters of Crank-shaft subjected to Stresses.
indicate a scale for diameters, taking the maximum horizontal axis value as 6-^". Two of the three variables may be combined by the 125000 Ibs. Suppose T 75000 Ibs. ins. and following device then set off along OP a distance to represent T, using the same ins. to represent M. With centre L and scale as along OY; make
:
OX
M=
radius
LP strike
an arc to cut
OY in R. Then OR = T,, OR = OL+LR = OL+LP

= OL+ V(LO)+(OP) = M+ VM 2 +f 2 = Te
.
OL
since
Now T
sented
and D are connected by an equation which can be by a curve, and

irX6oooD 8
16
repre-
= H76D 1
424
For
this

curve the plotting table
is
425
In the right-hand division of the diagram lines must be drawn of various inclinations, the slopes depending on the values given to v. E. g., if v = 2, when the value of y (i. e., zo'^d*) is 500, the value of Q is 1000, therefore join the origin to the point for which Q = 1000, y = 500, and mark this as the line for v = 2. The diagram is com10. pleted by the lines for v = i, 3, 4 Use of the chart. To find the discharge when the pipe is 2 \" diam. Erect a perpendicular from and the velocity of flow is 5 ft. per sec. 2j on the d scale to meet the curve OA; then move across on the and a vertical from this point horizontal till the line for v = 5 is met on to the scale of Q gives the required value, viz. 637 Ibs. per min.
. . . . .
lily
pC'
sec
Quantity.
i . i .
i
Q
600O 7OOOV
.
!
i i
OOO
SOOO 400O
SOOO
Inches
Fig. 243.
Lbsper* minute
Chart to give Quantity of Water flowing through Pipes.
the quantity is 3000 Ibs. per min. and the velocity is Erect a perpendicular through 9 per sec., to find the diameter = 9 draw a horizontal 3000 on the Q scale to meet the line marked v and cut the to this curve, drop a perpendicular finally point through on to the scale of diameters. The diameter required is seen to
Again,
if
ft.
be
4*. If desired,
(cu. ft.
per
sec.)
the scale of Q may be modified to or Q, (cu. ft. per min.).
show values
of
6. The weight in Ibs. of a cylindrical pressure tank with heads (allowing for manhole, nozzles, and rivet-heads) may be = ioDT(L+ D), where L = length in expressed, approximately, by = of shell in sixteenths of an thickness = T and in diam. feet, feet, D Construct a chart to show weights for tanks of any diameter inch. the maximum thickness of metal ft. to ft. and to
Example
flat
up
lengths
up
30
to be
*.
426
MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS = ioD(L+D). e., Wj Let W = ioDT(L+D) = W/T,

.
On the left of the diagram (see Fig. 244) no notice is taken of the for various values of D. x is plotted against (L+D) thickness, i. e.,
A number
OY
for
(L+D). of straight lines result, since for (L+D), and along Along OXi indicate the scale from o to 35 will be that scale The o to from along for the scale 1750. x
WiW
OX
W,
For
the
maximum
value required being 8x1750,
i. e.,
14000
30
Ibs.
the left-hand portion.
Suppose
D=
2,
then for
L=
Wi = loxax (30+2) =
640.
the point for which (L+D) = 32 and W\ = 640, Join the origin to = 2. Proceed similarly for other and mark this as the line for
values of
D.
4<X>0
&?
6060,
iff 8OOO 10OOO

.
Lbs.
Fig. 244.
Chart to give Weights of Pressure Tanks.
T = ", e., $". When W x = looo, W = W\T = 1000 X 8 = 8000. Join the point for which W = 8000, Wt = 1000 to the origin, mark this as the line for T = $*. Draw lines for T = *, etc.,
For
the right-hand portion.
Suppose
i.
and
in a
similar manner.
Let it be required to find the weight of a tank of and of diameter 4 ft., with thickness of shell f. Here (L+D) = 18+4 = 22. Hence erect an ordinate through 22 = 4; draw a horizontal on the scale of (L+D) to meet the line for * then project to OX, and the value to meet the line for which T = f
To use
the chart.
length 18
ft.
of
is
read
off as
5250
Ibs.
427
Again, what will be the length of the tank, of diameter 4 J ft., the thickness of shell being J*. and the weight 7000 Ibs. ? Erect a perpendicular through to meet the 7000 on the scale of sloping line for which T = J", and draw a horizontal to meet the line for which D = 4-5. A perpendicular through this point cuts in the point for which = 38-5, but as D = 4-5, then L must = 34 tft.
L+D
OX
Example
7.
The next chart involves a considerable amount
of
calculation, which, however, once done serves for all cases. wish to find the volume of water in a cylindrical tank for various
We
and various lengths.

Preliminary calculation.
the water be h (Fig. 245).
depths
Let the depth of

taking the radius as
245.
Then
i ft.,
OC =
h.
h,
or,
Let
E.
g.,
L DOC
for
= -,
2
then cos
21
=L
-i i
i-/*
= =
25
cos50',
-9
= cos
25 50'
..,
= 5 i4o'
Now, the area
of the cross-section of the water
= area of segment
=
where &
is
sin Q
expressed in radians
A
i. e.,
6 (radians)
(degrees)
Hence our
may
be arranged as follows
table, giving areas of cross-section for different heights, h being expressed as a fraction of the
;
radius
/;
428

Plot a curve with h horizontally and areas vertically, as in Fig. 246.
Now
volume
= area
x length
and for a length of 10 ft. and area 3 sq. ft. the volume Hence join the origin to the point for which V = 30, A =
this as the line for
/
=
3,
30 cu.
/
ft.
and mark
as
10.
Add
other lines for different values of
before.
If
the chart
is
to be
made
perfectly complete, a
number
of curves
must be drawn
the diameter.
in the left-hand portion, one for each separate value of
For diam.
ft.,
ordinates of the curve would be
(-]
\
Valu
46
-0
.*
2-7
Vo/i. to
1-6
t-S
SO
SO
456 40
SO
60
Fig. 246.
Chart giving Volume of Water in Cylindrical Tanks.
i. e., four times those of the curve for d = 2 as already drawn. This tends to cramp the scale, so that it is preferable to work from the one curve and to multiply afterwards, remembering that the variation will be as the squares of the diameters. E. g., if diam. = 2 ft., h = -46 ft., and / = 5 ft., then vol. = 2-7 cu. ft., the lines for this being shown on the diagram. But if the diam. = 6 ins., h = -46 x radius, and / = 5 ft., then
vol.
=
=
2-7
(|)
ft.
-169 cu.
Again,
find the
2
ft.
1-72 x radius, diam. 5 ft., and length = 16 ft., to volume proceed as indicated on the diagram. The volume for diam. is 45-6, so that the volume for 5 ft. diam.
if
45-6
cu. (1)*= 285
ft.

chart
429
as a
The following construction may reasonably be introduced

:
Example
in parallel
;
8.
what
Resistances of 54 and 87 ohms respectively are joined is the combined resistance of these ?
be worked graphically in the following mannerFig. 247, lines making 120 with one another. OA set off a distance to represent 54 ohms, thus Along obtaining the point E, and along OB set off OF to represent 87 ohms to the same scale. Bisect the angle AOB by the line OC.
This question
Draw OA and OB,
may
Join
is
EF
to intersect
scale as that used along
OC at D. Then OD measures, to the same OA and OB, the combined resistance, and it
found to be 33-2 ohms.
Alignment Charts. In these charts two or more variables are set out along vertical axes, which are so spaced, and for which the scales are so chosen, that complicated formulae may be evaluated
by the simple expedient of drawing certain crossing lines. Then for the same connection between the variables, one chart will give all possible values of all of them within the range for which the chart is designed. Thus transposition and evaluation of formulae become unnecessary; and, in fact, the charts can be used in a perfectly mechanical manner by men whose knowledge of the rules of transposition is a minimum. Referring to our work on straight line graphs, we see that the
aX+6. By suitably general equation of a straight line is choosing the values of a and b we may write this equation in the
form AX+BY wish to deal.
Y=
= C;
and
it is
with the equation in this form we
Plotting generally is to most minds connected inseparably with two axes at right angles that is certainly the easiest arrangement of the axes when two variables only are concerned. Suppose,
:
43 o
now, that three, four, or even eight or nine variables occur; then our method fails us, and in such a case it is found that vertical axes only can be used with advantage. It is not our intention to fill the book with alignment charts, for examples of these intensely practical aids may be found in the
technical periodicals;
what
is
intended
is
that the theory of the
Fig. 248.
Principle of Alignment Charts.
charts should be grasped, so that

suit his
own
any one can construct a chart to and conditions. needs particular

firstly
the simplest case, viz. x-{-y c, or, as we shall write it, (u and v being adopted for the sake of clearness, since both the u and the v axes are to be vertical, whereas axes for x and y are horizontal and vertical respectively).
Let us consider
+u = c
Draw two
verticals
AE
and
BF
(Fig. 248)
any convenient
dis-
tance apart, and let AE be the axis of u and BF be the axis of v. Draw also the horizontal AB, which is to be the line on which the zeros of the scales along the u and v axes lie. Assume some value for c and calculate values of and v for
two cases
per inch, per inch.
set off along
AE
these values of
to a scale of
/t
units
and along
Let
AH
these values of v to a scale, say, of l z units represent the value of u when v has the value
BF

represented by BK, and value of v represented by
431
AM
BN.
the value of
Join
HK and MN to intersect at G,
u1
vr
since
-
corresponding to the
G draw a vertical GC, which will be referred to throughout as the mid-vertical.

and through
Then and
AH represents the BK represents the Similarly AM and BN represent
first
value of
call it
call
it
',
first
value of v x ;
u-\-v
= c for all values of u and = MJ, /jXAM =

(/ 1
and
v z respectively,
2
and
2
v,
!+*>!
= c and +v = c
xBN =
2
.
AH, AM, BK, and

/
BN
x AH
are actual distances on the paper, hence v 1( and / 2 v2 u 2 J2

,
xBK =
(/ 2
Substituting in the equations u 1 -\-v 1
=c
and
+v 2
== c >
(i)
and
(/ x
xAH) xAM)
From
the figure
+ xBK)=c ........ + xBN) =c ........ AH = AM+MH .......... BK = BN-NK ..........

(/ a
(2) (3)
(4)
By
multiplication of
(3)
by
lt
and
(4)
by
)
lz,
we
obtain the
equations
AHX/ 1 =(AMX/ ) + (MHX/ 1 BKx* a =(BNx/ 2)-(NKx/ 2

1
....... .......
(5) (6)
By
similar figures
MH = AC NK CB'
Add
equations
(5)
XTV Whence NK=

(6),
MHxCB ..... -AC~

)
(7)
and
then
1
)
(AHx/,)+(BKx/i)
and by substitution
=(AMx/ )+(MHx/ 1 + (BNx/ 2)-(NKx/ 2

for
NK
its
value found in equation
(7)
MHxCB
AC
~\
*. e.,
by
substitution from
(i)
and
(2)
Hence
x/ t
Muf^-xl) AL/ / \
MH = o
must equal
zero, so that either

,
CB
'i-
or
x/2
432

Accordingly, since
MH is not
zero
X'i
Let the lengths AB,
...........
m
1
(8)
AC and CB
(8)
be represented by m, be written
1
and
respectively, then equation

..
may
=-
itoyt
j u -i 2 î and by similar reasoning /i+/2 ^1+^2 c Any pairs of values of w and v to suit the equation w+w might have been chosen, and the same argument might have been applied, so that as long as the scales for the u and v axes and the
whence
m, --
= L
,
,
W = m
,*
constant c remain the same, the ratio
will hold,
i. e.,
there can
is
only be the one mid-vertical. Also G will be a fixed spot, since it vertically over C, and any one crossline satisfying the equation M+V c will give the position of G. The length of GC is thus
Let it represent the constant c to relation between units per inch. found.
fixed.
13
some
/
scale,
of
3,
/j
and
/2
say the scale can now be

1
GC
is
an actual length, representing
c to
the scale of
units
per inch
Substituting in
(i)
and
(2)
and
this value
(/iXAHJ-H^xBK) (/! X AM) + (l t x BN)
= xGC = x GC.
/3
/
Calculate the value of v

;
join
AL, then
c,
when u o, and plot this line passes through G,
BL
to represent
by the arguc,
ment already given. When u = o, v =

But
so that
BL
also
actually represents
c-
or
BLx/2 =
GCx/s
BLx/ 2
By
similar triangles
=c = GCx/ = AC x BL x
3.
.-=
/,
m
'

Now
433
m
or
= -A
/.
= /!+/,
is
<?.,
the scale along the mid- vertical

of mechanics
the
sum
of the scales along
the outside axes.
The student
may
be helped by the analogy of
the case of parallel forces. If weights of Wj the ends of a bar of length /, their resultant
and
3 is
are
hung
at
the
sum
of the
separate weights, and acts at a point which divides the length into two parts in the inverse proportions of the weights. Thus, in Fig. 249, if C is the point of action of the resultant 3
_ --
j-
*fc
**
_
I
Fig. 249.
AC_W
B
--H
A
T,
*'
U-m,-4*-m.T^ *L
Fig. 24Qa.
_
this,
\
W^
This is exactly the same kind of thing as we have in connection with the scales along the three axes, for we may replace 2 and 8 by l lt 1 2 and l a respectively, and we get the bar loaded as
in Fig. 2490.
We
can
now proceed
to the
c. the equation is au-\-bv Use may be made of the
more general
case, viz., that in
which
used
same diagram
for
the simpler equation,
viz.,
the scale of " "

b
times
u must be opened out a times, and that of v opened the distance BL, which formerly represented c, now
f*
= u+v " "
(Fig. 248) as that
c.
To do
however,
representing
T,
since
if
it
shows the value of

1'2
when u
is zero.
Accordingly,
l\
and
are the
1
new
scales along
AE
and
BF
l\=a
Hence,
the scale along
and
^=4* b
GC
*
= Ii+l
=
/
and
*w 2
a/!
FF
4 34
l\

and
/' 2
For a general scales used. l and as these can t and the scale /j regard statement, therefore, we forms in the results our sum we 1 so as up 3 along GC
would be the actual
bl 2
where J lf 1 2 and 1 3 are the actual scales used. * These results might also be summarised in the following way bv c, then the scale of c (along If the general equation is au
:
10'
A
Fig. 250.
D
Alignment Chart
for
B
41*
Equation
+ 6 = 30.
" " " " times the b the mid-vertical) a times the scale of scale of v, and the division of AB at C is such that
CB AC
To
To
illustrate
first
_ a times the u scale ~

b times the v scale
:
by some numerical examples
Let us
deal with the equation 4M+6v 30. construct a chart for this equation, draw two vertical lines,
as in Fig. 250, fairly well apart, say 6" (this distance being simply a matter decided by the size of the paper and the degree of accuracy Number from the same horizontal line scales for and v, desired). and let the two vertical scales be equal in value, viz.
/j
= =2
Ja
(units per inch).

Then the mid-vertical must be
or
so placed that
435
^ =^ w
l
a/
4X2
i.e.,
MI = xm =
^
x6"
D
= 3-6*
.
is 3-6" distant from the axis of Also the scale along the mid-vertical is fixed, since / is 3 given by or i* represents /!+&/ 2 i. e., 1 3 20, (4x2) (6x2) 20 units. If AB is the horizontal on which the zero of the scale of u and also that of the scale of v lies, number from the point D the scale along the mid-vertical, and indicate the for the
,
or the mid- vertical
marking
constant term in the equation, viz., 30. If u o, and it will be noticed that if a line is drawn 7-5, v from 7-5 on the scale of through the point C (30 on the midvertical), it intersects the axis of v at the point B, *. e., at the point
for
joining 5 point C.
which v o. o, and the line 5, then u Similarly, if v on the axis of v to o on the axis of u passes through the
if
Hence
equation
noting its of v when
a value of
4+6y = 30
u, say, is given, the value of v to satisfy the
straight line
can be readily obtained by drawing a that through given value of u and the point C, and intersection with the axis of v e. g., to find the value
:
=3
the axis of v
required.
join 3 on the axis of u to C and produce to cut read off this value of v, viz., 3, and this is the solution
:
As an
illustration of the fact that the alteration in the value
of c alone alters the position of the point C on the mid-vertical and not the position of the mid-vertical, let us deal with the equa-
Working with the same scales, join 4-5 on the This line of v, since if u = 4-5, v = o. passes through the point C x numbered 18 on the mid-vertical. To find the value of v when u = o, join o on the axis of u to 18 on the mid-vertical and produce to cut the axis of v in the point 3
tion
18.
4+6v =
u
to o
axis of
on the axis
then the required value of v
is 3.
Construct a chart to read values of / in the formula 9. d = thick= "jd+'OO^D, where t thickness at edge of a pulley rim, ness of belt, and D = diameter of pulley, all in inches, d is to range
Example
from
-i* to -5*
and
D from
3* to 10*.
Construction of the chart (see Fig. 251). Draw two verticals, say Let values of d be 5* apart (as in the original drawing for Fig. 251).
436
set out on the left-hand vertical. The range of d being -4*, let 4* repreis 7", sent this value, so that i* = -i unit or / x = !. The range of so let 3^* represent this, so that i* = 2 units or /, = 2. a = -7 and b = -005, so that /, = o/x+Wj Also
= =
(-7X-i)
-07+ -oi
+ (-005x2) = -08
i.e.,
To
fix
i" = -08 unit of *, along the the position of the mid-vertical
mid -vertical.
m _ ~~
2
al-i
_ ~
5",
-7X-I
~~ _7
i
m^
so that the mid-vertical
is
bl t
-005x2
i. e.,
-625
from the axis of
d.
Chart Full Size.
Fig. 251.
Alignment Chart giving Thickness at Edge of Pulley Rim.
The zero on the t scale will lie on the line joining the zero on the axis of d to that on the axis of D. are not, however, bound to in fact, in a great enlarge the diagram to allow this line to be shown number of cases the line of zeros or virtual zeros is quite outside the
We
range of the diagram. As a matter of convenience let -i on the d scale 3 on the D scale be on the same horizontal then, since / = -085 when d = -i and D = 3, this horizontal will cut the mid-vertical at the point to be numbered -085. The scales along the three axes can now be set out, and the chart is complete. Use of the chart. To find the value of t when d = -5 and D = 3, join -5 on the d scale to 3 on the D scale to intersect the mid-vertical in the point -365; then the required value of t is Again, if -365.
and

E =
>
437
found by joining 6 on the axis > to -325 on the axis of t and producing the line to cut the axis of d in -421 the required value of d thus being -421.
is
;
6 and
-325, the value of
addition containing taking logs, the multiplications are converted to additions, and the methods of chart construction already detailed can be applied with slight modifications. To deal with a simple case, by of introduction
To carry this work a step further tered in practice contain products,
Most of the formula encoun-
powers and roots.
many
in
By
way
Chart giving Horse-power supplied to Electric Motor.

to
Example 10. Construct a chart to give the horse-power supplied an electric motor, the amperage ranging from 2 to 12 and the
voltage
from
no
to 240.
[Watts \
= Amps
x Volts and H.P.
Watts \
746
;
Taking
initials to represent
the quantities
W = AV and H = ^X 746
or
746H
log 746
= AV.
+ log H = log A + log V. C, then if for log A we write K and for log V we write V, the equation becomes A + V = C, which is of exactly the same form as an + bv = c, where a = b = i. = al +bl = li+l Hence
Let log 746
+ log H =
/8
In order that the scale along the mid-vertical may be the sum of the scales along the outside axes, the mid-vertical must be so placed that it divides the distance between the outside axes in the inverse proportion of the scales thereon. By the scales, it must now be clearly understood that i* represents so many units of logarithms and not units of the actual quantities. Slide rule scales will often be found convenient for small diagrams. If the B scale is used, 9-86* (the length from index to index) would log i), whilst if the C scale is used, represent 2 units (i. e., log 100
would represent i unit. a log scale is not used, the best plan is to tabulate the numbers, their logarithms, and corresponding lengths, before indicating the scales on the diagram. One setting of the slide rule will then serve for the
9-86*
If
conversion of the logs to distances, according to the scales chosen. In this case A varies from 2 to 12, i. e., log A varies from -301 to and a fairly open scale will result if 1-0792, a range of about -8 units i* = J unit is chosen, t. e., l^ = -2.
;

For V the range is no to 240, so that the range in the logs and accordingly let l t = -i. to 2-3802, or about -35 unit l a = li+l z = -2+-I = -3 Then 2 -2 a /!
;
is
2-0414
and
-r
ja
In the original drawing (Fig. 252) m, the distance between the

outside axes, was taken as 6"; hence
m =
1
of 6*,
i. e.,
2",
or the
mid-vertical
must be placed 2* from the
axis of A.
240
220
200
190 180 170 I6O
150
140
130
110
110
Fig. 252.
Chart giving H.P. supplied to Electric Motors.
Preliminary tabulation for the graduation of the outside axes

reads
:
For
the
axis.

:
439
The marking for 2 is first fixed, and then all distances are measured from that thus to find the position of the point to be marked 4, log 4 log 2 = -301, and since i" = -2 units the actual distance from
2 to 4
301 must be ^
viz., 1-51*.
For
the
axis
440

:
For other graduations, tabulate thus

Transposing
In the log form.
441
Q
^34~
log
e.,
log
Q - log Q - log
-34
-34
= log d + log v = 2 log d + log v

2
Pi g. 253 ._Chart giving the
Flow
of
Water through
Circular Pipes
Let
i. e.,
then log t> + 2 log d = C V+aD = C or a = i and b = form, standard the with in comparison
C=
log
Q-
log -34.
2.
442
Assume the range of pipe diameters to be i* to 9*, and the range Then the same scale of the velocity of flow to be i to 10 ft. per sec.
will
be convenient for both axes.
Let
/x
/a
4'93
7^7,
i. e.,
use the
scale of the slide rule.
2X-
Now
IX
so that
if
4'93 4'93 the original drawing for Fig. 253),

is
is
taken as 6*
4*,
(as in
m = -x6*,
3
i. e.,
or the mid-vertical
2"
removed from the axis of
v.
Alsoor i*
I.
- * 1+ W.
-607 unit along the axis of Q. Draw the axes of v, Q and d and graduate the outside ones, using the B scale of the slide rule. In Fig. 253 the I of each scale is on a horizontal, but it is quite immaterial where the graduations begin. To select a starting-point on the mid-vertical, join 10 on the axis of v to i on the axis of d, and call the point of intersection with the
axjj
-607,
mid-vertical G.
Now,
chosen,
G is
The
w, and therefore Q = 34^ 2 Q = -34Xi x 10 = 3-4.

2
for the particular values of d
and
therefore at the position to represent 3-4 Ibs. per sec. table for the graduation of the mid-vertical will then be
Q.

and the
rate of flow
is
443
ft./sec. ?
scale
and produce the

is 5-4*.
line
required diameter
Join 3 on the v scale to 30 on the to cut the axis of d in 5-4; then the
To
iUustrate the question of scales further, consider the follow:
ing cases
Example
12.
Show how
to decide upon the scales for the chart

in the equation
giving the values of T, the torsion of shafts.
/ and d
T=
to ^fd*, referring
The equation may be written - taking logs throughout

log 5-1
= fd3
i. e.,
5-iT
=fd 3 and by
,
Write this log/+3logd

being written to
+ log T = log/ + 3 log d. = C, then F+ 3 D = C (the large represent logs). Thus a = i and 6 = 3.
I*
letters
Hence
if li
5.
sa y. and
i
t
=
t *
2,
/,
al^+bl^
and
w bl 6 3x2 _ -? a m = = 1x5 = 5
alj.
(iX5)+(3X2)
6
ii
x
= n
or
m =
of w.
n Similarly for pv
1-41, etc.
C,
where n
may have
v
values such as
-9,
1-37,
Here
t. e.,
log
n log
so that
Hence
and
i, b = n. = (ixlj+(nxl = m, bl _* = -J _? = nl
P + wV
= log C =C
a) l t
la
+nl t
0/|
/!
Questions involving more complicated formulae can be dealt with by a combination of charts. From the above work it will be seen that when three axes are employed, three variables may be However correlated, or one axis is required for each variable. in be connected variables threes, occur, together they may many so that the graph work is merely an extension of that with the
three axes.
Chart giving
Number
of
Teeth in Cast-iron Gearing.

number
of teeth
Example 13. To construct a chart giving the necessary for strength in ordinary cast-iron gearing.
Given that
T = ~j^r
of teeth in wheel,
where
T = No.
N = revs, per min.

p
H = H.P. transmitted,
= pitch.
444
H
so that
and
.
also
^p
Tp 3 = C =C
(i)
'
(2)
the scales i e., two charts can be constructed, and by suitably choosing and the positions of the axes the charts may be made interdependent. unit of p, For chart (i), let / t = -i- unit of T and let /, =
i. e.,
use the
scale of the slide rule for
both the
and the p axes.
5 Chart giving
Fig. 254.
Number
log/>
of
Teeth necessary in Cast-iron Gearing.

/,
Then, since
logT+ 3
log C,
=
4
4'93
Also
4-93^3 i _l_
4'93
BO that
m = 3 of
1
m.
4
in the
Draw two
axes for
and p respectively 4* apart, as drawn
original. drawing for Fig. 254, and also put the mid-vertical 3* from the axis of T. The last is simply a connecting-link between charts
(i)
and
(2),
and therefore no graduations need be shown upon
it.

Along the axis of
rule) for, say,
445
T mark off readings
(using the
B scale
of the slide
must now proceed to

process
is
6 up to 80 and along the axis of p, readings from i to 8. Join 2 on the paxis to 30 on the axis of T, and note the point of intersection with the mid-vertical this must be marked 240, since 30x2' = 240. For chart (2), we already have the mid-vertical and its scale. We
;
find scales for the axes of
H and N,
N is
C
.
t. e.,
the usual
reversed.
Suppose the range of
H is
or
5 to 100 and that of

l
we decide to use the same

Then
'.
20 to 150, and
~
i,
TJ
scale for both, say
/->
=
79!
log
If,
H - log N =
= =
log
- log
791
however, the numbering for N is placed in the opposite direction to that for H, we may say that b = i.
e.,
whilst 6
=
/
i.
Hence
also
t. e.,
/,
+/4
2/4
or
/4
-?-
-406
between the axes of
the mid-vertical, which has already been drawn, must be = t and N. For convenience let l Then for the tabulation is as follows
m = 4*.
midway
446

for the graduation of the
The table
H scale is

4.
447
According to the B.O.T. rule the permissible working pressure in a boiler having a Fox's corrugated steel furnace is P = -^, where
/
= thickness
of plate in sixteenths of an inch and
is
the internal
diameter in inches. Construct a chart to give values of P for boilers of diameters ranging from 2 ft. to 5 ft., the thickness of the shell varying between -fa" and *. 5. The diameter in inches for a round shaft to transmit horse-power
H at N revs, per min. (for a steel shaft) is given by d = 2-g\/ =^. If N varies from 15 to 170 and H from J to 10, construct a chart to show
the diameters necessary within this range. 6. For tinned copper wire the fusing current C is found from C = 6537<Z 1 403 where d is the diameter in inches. Construct a chart to read the diameter of wire necessary if the fusing current is between
all
' ,
3/rr
22 and 87 amperes. 7. Hodgkinson's rule for the breaking load for struts
is
_
where d
stant.
= diameter in inches and L = length in feet, A being a conConstruct a chart to give the breaking load for cast-iron struts with rounded ends, the diameters ranging from 2* to 15* and the lengths from 6 ft. to 20 ft. The value of A for solid cast-iron pillars with rounded ends is 14-9. 8. Construct a chart to give the points on an adiabatic expansion line of which the equation is pv l n = 560, the range of pressure being 14-7 Ibs. per sq. in. to 160 Ibs. per sq. in. 9. The coefficient of friction between a certain belt and pulley was If the angle of lap varies from 30 to 180, construct a chart to 32. give the tensions at the ends of the belt, the smaller tension varying from 50 Ibs. wt. to 100 Ibs. wt. Given that T = te?*, ft being the coefficient of friction, and 6 being the angle of lap in radians. [Note that the scales for T and t will be log scales, but that for 6 will be one
'
of
numbers
10. If
stock,
and / =
P = safe
only.]
load in tons carried by a chain, d safe tensile stress, then for a chain with
= diameter
open
links
of
P=
4 <* /.
between 4 and 10 tons per sq. in., and the diameter of the If/ stock ranges from J* to 2", construct a chart to give the safe load for any combination of / and d.
varies
CHAPTER
XII
II
VARIOUS ALGEBRAIC PROCESSES, MOSTLY
INTRODUCTORY TO PART
i
Continued Fractions.
Consider the fraction
3+;
or, as it
would usually be written as a continued fraction

1
_g._
4
7
2+
Its true value
3+
5+
would be found by
simplification,
working from
the bottom upwards; thus,
5+= ^
39
39
7
131
"39"
39'
39
131
131
131
and
-L =
301
i. e.,
*3i 301
true
o*
o
the
\N? X
of
2
Converge nh
3_L
value
of
the
o/
fraction,
known
fraction, is
^
301
as a continued
02
Fi &' 2 55-
Conversely,
if
the resulting fraction
^1 is given,
various approxi-
mations can be made for
it by taking any portion of the continued the order correct fraction, being maintained.
VARIOUS ALGEBRAIC PROCESSES

Thus, for example, a
too large
;
449
-,
first
approximation would be
T
is
which
is
is
the second approximation
Q -,
which
too
2+|
small, but is nearer the correct value.
The approximations, or convergents, are alternately too large and too small, but the error becomes less as more terms of the
fraction are taken into account.
To
illustrate this fact
a curve
is
plotted dealing with the above fraction, in which the ordinates are errors and the abscissae the numbers of the convergents. (Fig. 255.)
-*Occasionally in engineering practice a fraction such as

occurs which
is not convenient to deal with practically, so that one seeks for some more convenient fraction which is a fair approximation to that given. The following example introduces such a
JO J
case
Example i. A dividing head on a milling machine be set for the angle 19 25'!* with great accuracy.
For the Brown & Sharpe dividing heads, make one revolution of the spindle, and there with number of holes as follows
15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 2o^|
is
required to
40 turns of the crank are three index plates
21, 23, 27, 29, 31,

37. 39, 41. 47,
33V
of
49
Thus one turn of the index crank would give an angle
~
4
-,
i. e.,
9.
and i25'i* has then to Evidently two turns will be required for 18, be dealt with. Expressing this as a fraction of 9, the proportion of one turn is found.
Now
i25'i"
=
.
-- mms.
u
hence the fraction of one turn required
We wish to reduce this fraction to its best approximation having a denominator between 15 and 49, according to the numbers of holes as above. Proceed as though finding the G.C.M. of 5101 and 32400.
Thus
5101)32400(6 I794)5 IOI (2
281)1513(5 108)281(2 65)108(1
22, etc.
^ x Q x ^ = ^35
5101
5101
G G
ô

fraction
is
Then the continued

_i_
j__
JL
1+
2nd
_i_
6+
ist
2+
5+
^-,
2
3 rd
JL +
T
-
+
4th
235 these being found by simplification of the fraction, a method which is a trifle laborious. The 3rd convergent might have been found from
g,
convergent
'
=
108'
5th
'
the 2nd in the following
way
Numerator
of 3rd convergent
= {numerator
of
2nd
convergent
X denominator
of last fraction
added} + {numerator of ist convergent x numerator of last

fraction added}.
Denominator of 3rd convergent
==
{denominator of 2nd convergent X denominator of last fraction
added} + {denominator of convergent x numerator of

In this case
ist
ist
last
convergent
= ^,
12
2nd
fraction added}.
and the next x

i)
fraction
I =-
3 rd
convergent
x i) x
+6 x
=
2
,
(i
Now
found
;
from the and and 3rd convergents the 4th convergent

for the
may
be
2nd convergent
the
3rd
=
x
^
,
and the next
fraction
(3
5)
(2
i)
17
To obtain the 5th convergent

4th
the
3rd
convergent
the
17 and the next fraction ^,

.*.
=(108
the 5th convergent
,,
,,
(17 = 7-^
x x
2)
:
2)
+ +
(3
,
x
x
(19
i) '. i)
L = 37
-^-
235
For the purpose of the question we require the convergent with denominator between 15 and 49 the only one is Therefore, it
:
.
would be best to take two complete turns together with 3 holes on the i9-hole circle. The error in so doing is very small. Thus
5101 "*
'
32400
i.e.,
I J/ 5744 ^
whilst
or
..
=
^
19
-15790
the error
is
46 in 15744
x 100
292
J 5744
% too large.

Example
2i'45*.
2.
451
Find a suitable setting of the dividing head to give
No. of turns of index crank
= 88
2I/45*
2I2 ? 2160
= Q I7<>7
^2160
720
589 = g2_*
Hence 9 complete turns are necessary together with ^-?
of a turn.
To
find
a convenient convergent for
^5_?
720
589)720(1
65)131(2 1)65(65
/.
The
fraction
-L
i+
4.
4+
-L 2+
-L
65
The
ist
convergent
= -,
the 2nd convergent
=
(i (i
(
so that the 3rd convergent

also the 4th convergent
= =
J4
* x
2) 2)
+ +
x x
i) i)
=
')
_o_
ii
9 X 6
/ x (n
+ = 5?? ? f 65) +(5x1) 720

x
Thus the best convergent for our purpose 33-hole circle would give this ratio.
circle are required.
and 27 holes on the
Therefore, 9 complete turns together with 27 holes on the 33-hole
An
interesting
example concerns the convergents of

of
IT
IT.
Example 3. To 5 places of decimals the value what fractions may be taken to represent this ?
~ */ ^ 3-14159 J
is
3-14159
3*/
-\
14159 ^ -^ 'IOOOOO
14159)100000(7
887)14159(15 5289 854)887(1 33)854(25 194
29)33(1 4
I.e.,
rr
i +-
7+
15+
i+
25+
452

ist
The
convergent
3,
the 2nd convergent

,
22
and hence the 3 rd convergent

the 4th convergent
the 5 th convergent
a.
= = -
(22
\7 x
J355 (113
X l) (22 X l) x ^ + \ y x ,/ x 25) + (333 x x 25) + (106 x

,
^ ++(3x1) J g| +
15)
333
i)
i)
355 ff| = 9208 2931
The values of these convergents

3,
in decimals are
and 3-14159 respectively. a good setting of the slide rule for multiplicaSet 355 on the one scale level with 113 on the tion or division by IT is other, etc. The reason for this is seen from the above investigation;
3-14286, 3-14151, 3-14159 -K
rule often given for

:
5^ as a
113
value for
TT
being far more accurate than, say,
Partial Fractions.
and their sum. 2# 7 To find their sum, i. e., to combine them to form one fraction, 2 the L.C.D. is found, viz., (x 28; the 15* 4) (2* 7) or 2x numerators are multiplied by the quotients of the respective denominators into the L.C.D. and the results are added to form the X
,
,
Consider the fractions
final
numerator.
Thus-
I '
4 2x 7
2x 2 15*4-28 8x 30
be spoken of as the complete and are the partial fractions. fraction, for which x 4 2* 7 It is often necessary to break up a fraction into its partial fractions they are easier to handle, and operations may be performed on them that could not be performed on the complete
fraction last written
The
may
A.
fraction.
To resolve into partial fractions, proceed in the lined in the following examples :
Example
4.
manner out-
Resolve
30
*
2X Z
,
1$X
+
30
5 28
into partial fractions.
8*
8*-
where
A and B
4) have values to be found.
(2*-7)(*-
(X
A -
4)

Reduce to a common denominator,
this
453 and
calling
(zx
7) (#
4),
8*
-30 _
A( 2 *
7)
D
7)
B(*
4)
Equating the numerators 8* - 30 = A(2*
B(*
4 ).
:
This relation must be true for all values of x accordingly let x = 4, this particular value being chosen so that the term containing B,vanishes, and one unknown only remains.
Then
Now
Then
2 = A. or let the term containing A be
32-30
= A (8 -
7)
B( 4
4)
made
to vanish
by writing 3$
in place of
/.
the
- 30 = A(7 -2=- B B=4 fraction =

28
7)
B( 3 i
4)
*-4
~-
2 *~7
Example
5.
Express
as a
sum
of
two or more
fractions.
in such cases divide out until the
The numerator and denominator are here both of the same degree numerator is of one degree lower
;
than the denominator.
Now suppose
then the fraction
^ = C with D remainder
~ = C+ ^
Applying to our example, by actual division the quotient

the remainder
=-
and
^
3
(a)
hence the fraction
*-
-f-
6\5 X
,/J.
m
)
Example
6.
Find the sum of

4
(2*
7*
I) 5 (X ~" 12 * 24 * I)
~T,
(X
I)
and
(b)
resolve
*
?2
into Partial fractions.
f*A*
"
(a)
2*+
5(^44 X
2o^-
i)
x+
2
5^ +
I)
20
7Ar(2^r
i)
7*
X 5(*
8
l)(2*
+
I5
l)
5(2^+ i)(x+
i)
40^
14**
30*'
45*
24**
D
+
5
12*
454
(6)
To
resolve
MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS ~ 4

.,
.%
into partial fractions, therefore,
it is
i) as a necessary to consider the possibility of the existence of (x 8 2 denominator, in addition to (x i) , for (x i) is included in (x i)
Let the fraction
[Bx is written in place of B, so that the numerator shall be of degree one less than the denominator, i. e., all terms of the numerator, when over the same denominator, will then be of the same degree.]
Thus the
fraction
A(*
+ +
,)*
5 B*( 2 *
i)
5 C(a*
x)(*
z)
Equating numerators 2 4 * a - 12* + 5 = A(*
Let x
{i.e.,
+ 5B*(2* + i) + 5C(2X + i)(* + i) terms containing (#+i) are thus made to vanish}
2
i)
/.
-24+12+5 = + 5 B(-i)(-i)+o
Let
{i. e.,
2X+i
= o}
-6+6+5 = A
A=
20.
e.,
The numerators must be identically equal, i. therefore the coefficients of # 2 must be equated. Thus
24
term for term
= A + loB + loC =
/.
20
+ loC = zoC 30 C = -3
14
2
.
,
-I
for
A = 20 and B =
/.
the fraction
..
2
-- _
x+i
3
5(2^+1)
4
5(*+i) 7*
Example
7.
Resolve
_ ^,~^^ x
.
into partial fractions.
Let the fraction
A B* + C - 3) + (x* + 5* + 9) _ A(* 2 + 5 x + 9) + (B* +C)(zx =

.
(2X
3)
Equating the numerators
9*-i7
A(#
5*
9)
(B*
C)(2x
3)

LetThen
455
i. e.,
let
2*
=o
A
Equating the coefficients of contain # 2 its coefficient = o,
,
14
75
x*,
and as no terms on the L.H.S.
=A+
/.
2B=-H + 2B
2B =
H
75
75
sides of the equation
B = J7
Equating the
coefficients of
x on the two
_ 7 66
456

Now
let
us take values of x slightly in excess of
i.
When When
x x
= 1-05, = 1-1,
~ F F
= =
2-12
.
._
-i
4-41+1-05-5
2-2
46
-2174.
4-84+I-I-5
i
Therefore for values of x in the neighbourhood of
the fraction
has perfectly definite values, and consequently it is unreasonable to suppose that there is no value of F for i. If we plot a curve, x
as in Fig. 256, of F against x, we see from it, assuming that it is continuous (and there is nothing to negative
this
'225
22
supposition) value of F when 2222.
that
the
i is
say, then, that the limiting value of F when x
We
approaches i
is
-2222, or -2222.
Fig. 256.
L
4*
2X2 =
2
+*-5
To
of
obtain this value without the aid of a graph
we might take
values of x closer and closer to i and see to
what
-2232
-2227.
figure the value
F was
tending
e. g.,
when x when x
= =
-99,
-995,
F= F=
This method, besides being somewhat laborious, is not definite enough. As an alternative method if x does not actually equal i but differs ever so slightly from it, (x i) does not equal o, and there:
fore
we may
divide numerator
and denominator by
i)
(,
it.
Thus
F=
(x
(*-i)(4*+5)
As x approaches more and more nearly

becomes more nearly
9
to
i,
this last fraction

i,
= - and in the limit when x =
= -.
9 Later on we shall see that this method of obtaining a value or " " limit by it is of great approaching utility and importance,

Example
table
:
457
8.
Corresponding values of y and x are given in the
458

*
in -R
TH
F=
2(*
*2
-2+7 =
.
+13^-38^- 80) ~(x+2)(6x* + x- 40)
use being made of the Remainder [(x + 2) is tried as a factor, Theorem, to which reference is made on p. 55.]
.
F_
(*+7) 6# 2 +# 40
5
18
24240
=
Example
10.
Io
(#
when x
=
x*
2.
Find the limiting value of
+ +
.
a) -
when a
= o.
By
direct substitution of o for a
we again
arrive at the indeter-
minate form
-.
Proceeding along other lines
F=
(x
a)*
-x _
l
x*
8 4* a
a
^
3 4# a
6* 8a 8 + 4*a 3 a
a*
.
a4
x*
6# 2 a 2 + 4x0? a
o, and the value of F is then required, this value extremely slightly from the value if calculated on the assumption that a is infinitely near to o but not exactly so. If a is not zero, we may divide by it
If
is
to equal
must
differ
then F = 4* + 6x*a + 4x0* + a*. the value to which F approaches as a is made Hence, limiting nearer and nearer to zero is 4# 3 for all the terms containing a may be made as small as we please by sufficiently decreasing a.
3
,
L(x +
5
-a) '
4
L
=
4#
, 3
.
x*
is
the abbreviation recognised for the

fraction
,,
statement
"
:
The limiting value to which the
a a
'
approaches as x approaches more and more nearly to
a, is 4**."
Example n.
given that
sin 6
this
'-'^j-
when
6
= o,
it
being
- + -^1 = 6 -6 6 120
expansion
(
I
te^Z
measured:!
J
in radians
Adopting
sing _
6
120
~e~
~
6
and
L
0->o
sm
6
as terms containing 2 and higher powers of 6 must be very small compared with i.

This result
the sine of
is
459
replace
of great importance
for small angles
we may
use of in numerous instances.
made Thus when determining the period of the oscillation of a compound pendulum swinging through small the is replaced by 6 arcs, an equation occurs in which sin
an angle by the angle
itself (in radians).
This rule
is
change being legitimate since

Exercises 44.
1.
0,
the angular displacement,

ete.
is small.
On
Continued Fractions,
Find the first 4 convergents of 8-09163. the 3rd convergent differ from the true value ?
2.
By how much
does
Find the 5 th convergent of Convert

?
^
What
|.
is
3.
4--- into a continued fraction.
the
3rd
convergent
4.
Express as a continued fraction the decimal fraction -08172.
5.
59i4
and
Using the dividing head as in Example i, p. 449, How 5* is required to be marked off accurately. partial turns would be required for this ? 6. Similarly for an angle of 73 2'i9*.
/
/
an angle of
many
turns
Similarly for an angle of 5i9 3i'8. It is desired to cut a metric screw thread on a lathe on which the pitch of the leading screw is measured in inches. To do this two wheels to give the change wheels have to be introduced in the train of If i cm. = -3937*, find the number of teeth in each of correct ratio. the additional wheels, i. e., find a suitable convergent for the decimal
7.
fraction -3937.
On
Partial Fractions.
9.
Express
3*+ 8 x 2 + 7* + 6
Q^ a
sum
or difference of simpler fractions.
10-16. Resolve the following into partial fractions *(* + 2 3* -H 12" 10 ' ** - 3* ** ~ 3* - 88
+5
-
')
l6
6*+i9*+i5 6x* - 9* + 3Q
x
3
'
14 '
8)
22**
(x- 5 )(x*+2X-
6* 3
~ 240 179* 2 - 126 57* is* 2
4C 1J>>
+ 2 + 2x* - x 3*
16 *
2
2*
(x
3.
3)(*
3*
3)
On
17.
Limiting Values.
*
2
+
ijx
2Ar
when x =
I.
*. ^
19.
L^ x
is
3*2 ^2 +
+
8
14
Show exactly what

T
- 6ax + 5 g2 _ _ji n ioa a ^ô x z + gax

x*
meant by the statement
20.
Determine the limiting value of the sum of the
series 16, 8,
etc. 4, 2,
460
21.

.
A body is moving according to the law, space = 4 x (time) 3 taking small intervals of time in the neighbourhood of 2 sees., and thus calculating average velocities, deduce the actual velocity at the
By
end of 2
sees.
e?
22. If
= i+xH
x1
x3
h
o.
.
.
find the limiting value of
the fraction
when x
23
If i >
0->o
cos 6
sin 6,
6
i
1.2
T
1
6*
;
and
sin 6
6 6
3
1
1.2.3.4
1.2.3
I-2.3-4-5
Find
\
-L cos
0->
6,
and by combination of these

is
results
^ 9^K>
an
.
Hence show that no serious error
made when
calling
the taper of a cotter the angle of the cotter.

24.
Find
*-*"
into this branch of algebra, most useful rules.
Permutations and Combinations. Without going deeply we can summarise the principal or
By the permutations of a number of things is understood the different arrangements of the things taken so many at a time, regard being paid to the order in these different arrangements. By the combinations of a number of things is understood the different selections of them taken so many at a time.
e.g.,
a firm retains 12
men
for their
mo tor- van
service.
There
are 6 vans
and 2 men are required
By
simply arranging the

i. e.,
men
if
for each, I to be the driver. in pairs, a number of groups or com-
binations is obtained.
But
if
the
is
first
one of the 6 vans,

pairs,
regard
pair might be sent to any paid to the arrangement of the
any pair might drive, we get further are then dealing with permutations. arrangements. To make this example a trifle clearer let the men be repreand
if
also either of
We
Also A might drive or B might, so that the arrangements in the vans themselves would be increased. As we might write it for one van, the different arrangements would be A (driver) and B, or B (driver) and A. To find a rule for the number of permutations of n things taken r at a time. If one operation can be performed in n ways and (when that has been performed in any one of these ways), a second operation
D, etc. Then the different selections of the 12, taken 2 at a time, would be A and B, A and C, A and D ., B and C, B and D But A and B ., C and D ., and so on. might be in the ist van or in any of the others, so that a number of different arrangements of pairs amongst the vans would result.
sented
by A, B,
C,
461
can then be performed in p ways, the number of ways of performing the two operations in conjunction will be nxp: e.g., suppose a cricket team possesses 5 bowlers; then the number of ways in which a bowler for one end can be chosen is 5. That end being settled, there are 4 ways of arranging the bowler for the other end.
For each of the 5 arrangements at the one end there can be 4 at

the other end, so that the total
will
number
is
of different arrangements
be 5x4, i. e., 20. Suppose a choice of r things
to be
made out
of
total of
to
fill
up r places. Then the 1st place can be
filled in
n ways.
For the 2nd place (the ist being already filled) choice can only be made from (n i) things; hence the number of different ways in which the ist and 2nd can together be filled is n(n i). The ist, 2nd and 3rd together can be filled in n(n 1)( 2) ways, and so on, so that all the r places can be filled in n(n i)
(n
2)
...
to r factors.
.*.
When When When
there are 3 factors, the last there are 4 factors, the last
there are r
of permutations of
= (n = (n factors, the last = (n

n
is
2)
3)
= (n = (n
at
3+1) 4+1)
a time
.*.
The number
things taken
r+i) r
For shortness
If
this
product
often written
nr
places are to be filled from the
things the
number
of
possible
= n Pn = nn = (i) (n 2) .... = n(n I)(M 2) .... 2.1

is
ways
+2)(n
n+i)
spoken of as
i.e.,
factorial
n and
24. 1.2.3.4 4 [4 To find the number of combinations of n things taken r at a n n B Obviously Cr must be less than Pr because time, written Cf
: ,
Thus-
the product of all the integers to or n is written \n " "

\
this is
factorial
be altered amongst themselves to give different groups of things may For groups of r things, the number of different permutations. each in group must be \r_ (r things taken r at a arrangements X the number of permutations must number the hence [r time) of combinations
or
Pr
= n(ni)(n2)
I 2.3
.... .... r
(n
r+i)
462
If

both numerator and denominator are multiplied by \n
i. e.,
by
1.2.3
')
then
nr
_n(n
i)
....
(n
r+i)x(n
r)
....
2.1
from which we conclude that
Cr
a result often useful.
= nCn-
The number
b of
of permutations of
n things taken n
at a time
\n
when
them
are alike
and
all
the rest are different
= Hr
\L
The number of permutations of n things taken r when each thing may be repeated once, twice, r any arrangement = n The total number of ways in which it is possible i. selection by taking some or all of n things = 2
.
at a time
r times in
to
make a
rt
Example
12.
Find the values of
P, =
6(6
9,
[3
i)
P =
9
2,
C 3 and
15
CU
30
=
1-2-3
cu = I5u
III
or
III
154
HI
14
If
=
When w and
required,
is
15.14.13.12. J ^
1.2.3.4
1365. ^
r are nearly alike (as in this last case)
we
use the form n Cr
= nCn_r
and n Cr is and the arithmetical work
thus reduced.
Example
board
If
itself
;
13.
find the
number
all
There are six electric lamps on a tramcar direction of different signs that may be shown by these.
the lamps
show the same coloured
light,
the question resolves
into finding the total possible arrangements of 6 number of them are lighted.
If 5
lamps when any
in
in
Thus if 6 lamps are on, there is only one arrangement possible. lamps are on, these can evidently be placed amongst the six places six different ways or, in other words, the number of arrangements this case is 6 C B or 'C^ ["Q. = n Cn_ f]. If 4 lamps only are to be
; , .
switched on, the possible arrangements will be *Ct i. e., 6 C, Similarly the numbers of arrangements for the cases of
e.,
15.
i
3,
2 and

C, and C X respectively hence the total of different arrangements giving the different signs will be 6 I CS 8 C4 C S 6 C, "Ci 1 20+15 6
463
lamp on
will
be C,,
fl
number
+ 6+15 +
= (.
This result could also have been obtained by making use of the rule given on p. 462 for the total number of ways in which it is possible to make a selection by taking some or all of n things.
Thus
If
total
2n
2'
641
63.
the lamps had been of different colours the number of different signs would be greatly increased, since the different sets of the above could be changed amongst themselves.
Example 14. Twelve change wheels are supplied with a certain find the number of different arrangements of screw-cutting lathe these, 4 being taken at a time, viz. for the stud, pinion, lathe spindle, and spindle of leading screw.
;
In this case the order .in which the wheels are placed is of consequence hence we are dealing with Permutations. As there are 12 to be taken, 4 at a time, the total number of arrangements = 12P4 = 12.11.10.9 = 11880.
;
The Binomial Theorem.

verified that
By
simple multiplication
it
can be
(x+a)* (x+a)* (x+a)'
=x = =
+2ax+ a*
such expansions;
It is necessary to find
a general formula
for
(x+a) is a two-term or binomial expression, and the expansion of (x+a}* is performed by means of what is known as the Binomial Theorem. For simple cases, such as the above, there is no need for the theorem, but for generality it is desirable that some rule 3 should be found. The expansion of (x+ a)' could certainly be
*
found by writing
it
as
and then performing the

it
division,
an endless
process.
series resulting,
but
would be a painfully laborious
of (x+a)(x+b)(x+c) .... to Suppose the continued product a n n factors is required, being positive integer. The ist term is obtained by taking x out of each factor, giving x. The 2nd term is obtained by taking x out of all brackets but letters a, b, c .... out of the one, and then taking one of the ~ xn l (a+b+c+d .... thus term The 2nd bracket. remaining
to n terms). The 3rd term is obtained by taking x out of the two, and combining with the products
of all brackets but

letters a, b, c
.
. . .
taken two at a time.
464

The 3rd term thus = x*~ z (ab + ac + ad say, P terms). p is then the number of combinations of n
.+
be
to,
letters
taken two at
a time
.,
[2
1.2
so that the 3rd term
is
found.
particular term
In the
same way any

15.
may
be found.
Example
Write down the value of the product
ist term 2nd term
= x* e., x is = x { 2+4+6
(i.
taken out of each bracket). = x 3 (x being taken out of 7}
all
brackets
3 rd
term
= ^(-2)x(+ 4 )+(-2)x(+6)+(-2)x(-7)
= # {-8 12+14+24 28-42} = 52**. = *{(- 2 )(+ 4 )(+6)+(-2)(+6)(-7)+(+ 4 )(+6)(-7) + (-2) (+4) (-7)}= #{-48+84168+56} = 76*. = (-2)(+ 4 )(+6)(- 7 = 336. = **+* -5 2 * -7 7)
2
)
but one).
4th term
5 th term
Now let
b
= c = d=
= a, then
n
(x+a)(x-\-b)(x-{-c)
....
to
factors,
becomes (#+)".
Then
ist
= xn a the 2nd term of the expansion = x*~*(a + a = nx n ~ a ~ the 3rd term of the expansion = x n (a -}-a -\-a i) n -J-= n(n 'x -*a?
-f-
term of the expansion
to
n terms)
...
to n Ca terms)
1.2
Similarly, the 4th term of the expansion

.
n(ni)(n2) v W ~
^\
__
/_\
>/7 **
1.2.3
=
of
x
l.J
Thus the indices of x and a together always add up to n, that x decreasing by one each term. The numerical coefficients can be remembered in a somewhat similar fashion; the numerator
465
having a factor introduced which is one less than the last factor in the preceding numerator, whilst the denominator has an additional factor one more than the last factor in the preceding denominator,
i. e.,
The proof here given is applies when n is a positive

theorem
is
a kind of equality is preserved. of an elementary character, and only integer, but it can be proved that the
all
true for
values of n, integral or fractional, positive

the
or negative.
To
find
an expression for any particular term in
expansion
The 3rd term

throughout, and
is
=
is
n ~2
2
,
i.e.,
is
distinguished
by the
2's
on that account called term (2+1) or

thus written
(J
+D
The I4th term

a glance,
e. g.,
(1J
down at Putting the terms in this form we i. e., without full expansion, any particular term desired.
the 6th term
+ 1) are enabled to write
=T
is
(6+1)
is
^x
a5.
The
it is
(r
th
i)
term
usually taken as the general term, and
given by
or
Example
16.
Find the 8th term of the expansion of
(x
2y)
10
.
Here
and
n x a
= 10 = x Î = 2y )
in comparison with the standard form.
Hence
T8 = T(7+1) =
^V- '(-*?)'
-V(_ 2 j,)i
Li
[for
"C7 = "C lt _ = "CJ

7
= i^!*s
Example 17. Expand (a 3&) to 4 terms. an [Whenever n is fractional or negative the expansion gives terms infinite series, and therefore it is necessary to state how many
1
are required.]
Comparing with the standard form x = a

a
(-36)
-*
H
II
466
Hence the expansion
1.2.3
*
a-
-fx -Jx
Example
Here
18.
Expand f 3m j
to 3 terms.
3m, a
Hence the expression
4.3~
1.2
,
m- 5
* 4 X 5 X 2 x 25
6
Sim*
I2I5W
3645m
The method of setting out the work in these examples (Nos. 17 and 18) should be carefully noted the brackets inserted helping to avoid mistakes with signs, etc. Thus in the evaluation of n(n i)
;
when n
4 one
is
away
i. e.,
as
4X
3,
very apt to write down the result straight whereas its true value is ( 4)( 4 i),
-f 20.
" In the Anzani aero engine the cylinder is 19. offset," the cylinder axis does not pass through the axis of the crank shaft, " " but is offset by a small amount c. The length of the stroke is given
Example
t. e.,
c* by the expression V(l + r)* V(l connecting-rod and v = length of crank.
r)
c 2,
where
length of
Show
,
that
stroke
zr\
{(/
c 2 we may rewrite Dealing with the expression V(l + r) z 2 c 2 }* and then y) expand by the binomial theorem.
,
it
as
Thus
{(I
r)*
c 2 }*
{(/
r) }*
{(l
r) }l~
x (-c 2 )
(/
r)
-f
terms containing as factors
the fourth and higher powers of c; these terms being negligible, since 6 c\ c , etc., are very small.

In like
467
manner
it
can be shown that
Hence
stroke
=(<
+ r) -
Comparing
not
offset,
we
see that there
this result with the length of the stroke of the engine if is small gain in the length of the stroke
;
the increase being the value of
rc a
-i-
r1
Use of the Binomial Theorem for Approximations. Let us apply the Binomial Theorem to obtain the expansion for
(!+*).
Writing form
/
i in place of x,
and %
,
in place of a, in the standard
(i+#)
If
\n n
= i+nx-\
n(ni) 2 '-x
s
-1.2
-\
n(n *-
-1)( '-
2)
'x3 -\-
1.2.3
,
3 z very small compared with i, then x x in Hence comparison. powers of x will be negligible
is
and higher
(l+jr)
= l+flx
when x
is
very small.
Example 20. In an experiment on the flow of water through a pipe the head lost due to pipe friction was required. The true velocity was 10 f.p.s., but there was an error of -2 f.p.s. in its measurement. What was the consequent error in the calculated value of the head 2 loss of head oc (velocity) ? lost, given that
Let He
calculated loss of head.
H =
Making use
Kv 2 = K(io +
-2)*
{v
2
being the measured velocity}
=K
of the
x io a (i
-02)
above approximation H = iooK(i + -02 x 2) = iooK(i + -04) But true head lost = K x io 8 = looK error = iooK x -04 or 4 %.
Find the cube root of 998.
998
Example
21.
/.
cube root of 998
998*
= = = =
1000
1000(1
-002)
-002)* iooo*(i io (i J x -002) io (i 9-993-0007)
468

22.
Example
Find the value of 1005*.
1005 1005*
= =
1000 (i+ -005) iooo 4 (i+-oo5)*
= =
iooo[i+(4X-oo5)]
IO la XI'O2.
With a
powers
little practice one can mentally extract roots or find for cases for which these approximations apply
e. g.,
Vcfi 9-9 For 98 differs from 100 by 2, hence its square root differs by \ of -2, *. e,, -i from 10. 3 1-09 very nearly. Similarly, (i-O3) Further instances of approximation are seen in the following
(i+*)(i+y)
(i-\-x)(i-\-y)(i-\-z)
= i+x+y+xy = i+x+y
= i+x+y+z
when x and y when x, y and
are small
z are small
Example
23.
X 5 Find the value of g85 1004

1000(1
5(1
'015)
'
F_
5(1
'Qi6)
=
Example
24.
If
1000(1
-015
-004) -004)
-016
4-985.
= =
L=
h
measured length of a base line in a survey correct or geodetic length, i. e., length at mean sea-level height above mean sea-level at which the base
line is
measured
and
Then
und
it is
= mean ^ = -JL, / r + h
r
radius of the earth
required to find a
T = L
lr
more convenient expression

I
for L.
-' Whence L r.
since h
is
very small compared with

Exponential and Logarithmic Series.
469
i+(i\"* w/
)
1.2
-i) JL m(m-i)(m-2) x a+
1.2-3
m\
~~
f
w/
-^
w\
-f
V wA
1.2.3
m)
~\
= I
+ I+
^^ +
m
is
1.2.3
+
etc.,
Suppose now that
increased indefinitely, then nt tn
become exceedingly
small,
and may be neglected.
Hence when
/
m is infinitely large
.
i\ m
..i
(i+is)
This
is
+i+
.
i
j5
+
,
+....
the case of
compound
interest with the interest very
small but added to the principal at extremely short intervals of The letter e is written for this series time.
[If
it is
any aid
to the
memory
|i
this statement
may
-i
be written
\o
1,1,1,1, + + + +'
J2 J3 mx
)
']
(I\
i-\
would be
e*
if
m were infinitely large.

.
But
i\ m'
i
.
mx(mxi) -L
mx(mxi)(mx2) -
X X = T.+X++.-+
2
....
(when
m is
very large)
47 o
obtain a more general series, i.e., one for k e so that log* a k. value whatever, let a any 1 a e** Then
To
a*,
where
a.
has
The
kx
series for e
kx
can be obtained from that for

llv\*
e*
by
writing
in place of x.
Then
and substituting
a*
lbv\Z
for k its value
we
arrive at the important result
This
is
known
as the Exponential Series.
further series
may
be deduced from
this,
;
by the use
of
which
common logarithms natural logarithms can be calculated directly from obtained the natural in turn logs by multiplying by the being
constant -4343.
For
let
=I+y
series
Then by employing the exponential
It is
now
be done by equating
required to obtain a series for loge ( i coefficients on the two sides.
-f-
y),
which can
The
giving
left-hand side
may
be expanded by the Binomial Theorem,

x(x
-
2)y - i)(x -3
'
Now
The
of x in the second
x occurs in every term except the term y.
first,
and the
coefficient
third term is %(x 2y z

is
xy
3
z
)
;
and the
2
coefficient of
) ;
v2
is
2
3
3
of
The fourth term 3 x is y

.
^(^y
3# y -f 2#y
and the
coefficient
Hence the
coefficients oi
=y
yZ
-f--y3
,y4
-f
and, equating the coefficients of x on the two sides
10ge(l+^)=^-^+^-^+ ......
which
(I)
is known as the logarithmic series. In the form shown, however, it is not convenient for purposes of calculation, because the right-hand side does not converge

rapidly enough; and a huge number
of terms
471
would need to be
y;
taken to ensure accurate results. In the expansion for log,(i+y) then

log,
let
y be replaced by
(i-y)
~=-y-y
.
__
(2)
.......
(i)
2)
Subtracting the two series,

log*
e.,
taking
from
(i+y) (i+y)
- log, (i-y) = - log, (i-y) = log,

log,
2-j
-
but
log,
hence
= 2 (y +
,
+^+
m
or
....)
Now
let
L_
be denoted by
i.
e.,
my-= n+ny
y
/i\
= nin
+K then
log,,
m =2 of"" n
{
s
w+n
.
.
Im+n
^ s( 3\fn+/i/
;
1/ni
n\ 3
- + + 5V/n+n/
-(
I/in -
which
is
a series well adapted for the calculation of

25.
logs.
Example
To
calculate log, 2.
m = 2, n = i, and thus y = J then log, 2 = 2J- + (-x a) 4 (~ x ~5j + = -6930

Let
(which is one wrong in the 4th decimal place; and this have been remedied by taking one more term of the series)
.
error
would
An
equally convenient series would be obtained

,
by
writing
for
T i
i+y
-i. ,
'.
e .,
-
y =
y'
2w+i
Then
Thus
if
=
and
this latter
-6930 as before.
is slightly easier to
form
remember.
472

log, 3 let
To obtain Then
= 2.
= -40546 = log, 3 log* 2 but log* | 2 6931 40546 = log, 3 = 1-0986. log, 3 = 2 X log, 2 and log, 5 can be obtained by using Again, log 4 when n = 4, and the value of log, 4, so the series for log,
-
way
that a table of natural logs could be compiled log tables are made.
in fact, this is the
The corresponding natural logs by -4343.

Example
26.
common
logs are found
by multiplying the
in con-
The " modified area " A, a term occurring nection with the bending of curved beams, is given by
for
Show
a rectangular section of breadth 6 and depth that this can be written as
d.
R_
might be written as
-j-
and
is
therefore of the form,
Hence
R in
if
this
formula
is
the radius of curvature of the beam, and hence
the
beam
is
originally straight
i. e.,
R = oo
so that
sion for
^ = o and the expres-
reduces to bd,
the area of the section.

Exercises 45. On the Binomial Theorem, Write down the 5th term in the expansion of
11
473
etc.
1.
(a
6)
2.
Expand (20 + $c) to 4 terms. 3. Find the aoth term of the expansion of (3*
* T? j ( 4. Expand
(
2\ --
y)
23
.
to 4 terms.
5 terms of the expansion of (a
2)"*.
5. 6. 7. 8.
Write down the
first
Find the 7th term of (i
j^"
2
9.
# )*. Expand to 3 terms (2 to terms + Expand ($a 4 4c)~*. Write down the 3rd term of (a
26)"*
10.
Expand ^/
-^
sin #
/
to
terms, and
hence
is
state
its
approximate value when
/length of connecting-rod \ I,, \ a \ length of crank )
large.
On
11. In the
Permutations and Combinations.

letters is repre-
Morse alphabet each of our ordinary sented by a character composed of dots and dashes.
that 30 distinct characters are possible if the characters are more than 4 dots and dashes, a single dot or dash being an admissible character. 12. Find the number of ways in which a squad of 12 can be chosen from 20 men. e. each man is distinguished (a) When the squad is numbered off (i.
to contain not
t
Show
by
his
(6)
number).
When no
regard
is
paid to position in the

15
line.
13.
Find the values of
C 1S
12
,
P4 5 P
,
On
14. 15.
Approximations.
Use the method of p. 467 to obtain the value of (-996)*. * 2 3 X '" 8 Evaluate by the same method. 'f3
^^
8
\'997l
16. State the

(a)
approximate values of
7
:
(d)
c ( ) (ioo2) ; (6) (-9935) -17) X -995 X 4-044(10
(i
-oo6)
5
;
17.
is
The maximum
T
efficiency of a screw
t. e.,
/I
(
tan 4*\ a
~}~
i
\l
tin
the angle of friction,
tan
= p. Show that this may be

Series.
) -j <p/
where $
written
in the
form
i
**
if
is
small.
+/*
On
18.
Find
series for the expression

i.e.,
cosh
and
for
sinh x,
(-
x, i.e., (^
474
19. Find, of decimals.

by means
20. Express
this fraction
^ K. + y
is
T>
of a series, the value of loge 4 correct to 3 places
as a series.
What
is
the approximate value of
when y
small compared with
21. A cable hanging freely under its own weight takes the form % of a catenary, the equation of which curve is y = c cosh -, c being the
.
value of the ratio
horizontal tension weight per foot run

series,
Express y as a
and thence show that
if
the curve
TT
may
be considered as a parabola, having the equation y
is flat it iv2
-\
jj-
22.
By
substituting
-5
for
x in Newton's
series
calculate the value of
re
correct to 3 places of decimals.
Determinants. When a long mathematical argument is being developed, as occurs for example when certain aspects of the stability of an aeroplane are being considered, it frequently happens
that the coefficients of the variable quantities become very involved and in such cases it is often convenient to express the coefficients " " in determinant form. This mode of expression is also utilised for the statement of some types of equations, for by its use the
;
form of equation and its solution are suggested concisely and the attention is not distracted from the main theme of the working. Thus when dealing with the lateral stability of an aeroplane in horizontal flight the equation occurred
AX4
where A, B, C,
etc.,
-f
BX3
+ CX
all
-f
DA
+E=o
and
hi
were
solutions of other equations
some
a zbz
cases rather long expressions. For example, had the form c4 and E was equal tog' sin Q(l in 1 / w S cos în 3~ n z^)2 2)
To avoid
writing these expressions in their expanded form, they
were expressed thus
A=
-c 2
and
it will
-c-
and
E = g sin 6
g cos
b*
" be shown that from these " determinant forms the expansions may easily be obtained. Before proceeding to illustrate the use of determinants it is necessary to define them and to show how they may be evaluated.

Let
475
D=
d f g h k I
then
is
called the determinant of the quantities a b c
I,
and a determinant of the third order since there are three columns and three rows; its value being found according to the following
plan
:
letter a occurs both in the first row and in the first column take this letter and associate it with the remaining columns and rows, thus
:
The
[It
will
be observed that
/ g
k
I
is
a determinant of the
second order and it is termed the minor determinant of a.] Then the value of the minor of a is found by multiplying f by and subtracting from it the product k by g.
Thus
In
like
=
b
k and
= a(fl-sk} =A.
of b is
manner the minor containing the products

g h I d f h k
= b(dl - gh) = B
= c(dk -fh) = C.
and
for c
Then the value
of the full determinant
= D = A - B + C = a(fl - gk) - b(dl - gh) + c(dk -fh).

To avoid the minus sign before the second term the might be written out as follows
a
b
c
letters
f
h
k
I
and the one sequence could be maintained, thus
D = a(fl - gk) +
D=
b(gh
- dl) + c(dk - hf)
fourth order Similarly, for a determinant of the
m
r
476
m
r
h k
f
I
h k
f g
I
n p
s
t
n p
t
m
r
-d
f g
I
p
t
m
r
n
s
q s
each of these determinants of the third order being evaluated in the
manner previously explained.

Example
27.
Evaluate the determinant

6
235 319
4
2
(
D=
Example
2[ 3 6
76
_ _ 2)] _ 3[ _ 54 _ _ 6)] + 5 [_6-l2] 4 144 90=130.

(
28.
Evaluate the determinant
D=
477
Solution of Simultaneous Equations of the first degree
by the determinant method. Equations containing two or more unknowns may be readily solved by setting them in a determinant
form and proceeding according to the following scheme
:
To
solve the equations
5*
$x
4y
4y
23
23
Write the equations as
=o
and
set out in the
determinant form
375
5
-4 -23
the last column containing the constants.
Then
x x minor
=
35
"
v -y
y minor
=
i
minor
''
20
+
30.
161
whence
Example
+ 12 x = 3 and
âx $bx
and
*
"25
y
+ 69
2.
'
35
12
Solve the equations
= 6a + 2ay = a*
cy
x and y being the unknown quantities.

Set out thus
x
4a
y
c
20,
b2
a2
Then
and
ca
8a 2
whence
_ ~
a zc 8a 2
+ +
2ab 2
tfc
3&c.
y=
Example
31.
8a 2
Solve the equations 2a 56 + 4^ lib o $c c 2& 3a
= = =
28
41
3
473

a
i
Set out thus
2-5
3
ii 2
428
5
i
- 41 3
c c I
i
Then
Thus
-b
a minor
minor
minor
mnor
5(15
41)
4(
33
82)
i
28(
ii
10)
15)
2-33)
28(
2(15
41)
4(
5(
-6
123)
15)
112
I
and
2(
33
82)
123)
2 8(
-2-
33)
112
whence
Exercises 46
On
Determinants.
Evaluate the determinants in Nos. 14.

1.
5'4 -3 -
6 5
2.
R
4.
when
2
3.
354
-3
1-5
2-5 2
75
C
2351 3246 8-4 3-5

2
I
R = R! = R = R =
2 3
3-6 7-2
710 220
5.
coefficient
in
an equation was expressed as

-}-
=
!,
U0
Zn
U =
Evaluate this when Zw

I,
=
a 2
3
Xu =
Xg
= -5, MM =
3,
Mu Mw =
O,
2-5,
6.
Solve the equation
53=0
2
i
KJB
=
-4
Mg
20,
=
XK,
= -2,
200,
Z3
tt
9,
I.
1-6
7.
Using the determinant method solve the equations in Nos. 7-10. n# 4y = 31 20 b = 8. 8a 2X + 37 =28 ioa + 76 = 71
4*
9.
5y
7*
14
10. za
36
5c
=
=
4-5
5.2=11
96
ioa
39-3
Exercises 1
48o

Exercises
._
481
ioi-6\/area
21. 23.
/=
w=
.
length i4-8--ooooi38(*
+ 97
6o)
a
20.
E = -i6 4 -i + 7- 3 o 9 T+-ooo326T 22. /= i6-i--oooo26(/ - 6o) a
W = 8-28 +
10-3
,
n*
24.
25.
i7oo/ w = total + -y1

(
steam per hour - and must be

'
first
calculated
26. 28.
27.
A=
8610 of iron; 7000 of copper 120, B = 140, C = 160

;
99-8;
K=i
m =
t
m =
44-71,
31-54
29. 311-1 tons of saltpetre
388-9 tons of ginger.
Exercises 7
1. 3. 5.
7.
(X+22)(X(#-5)(*
4)
2.
4. 6.
- 1 1) (3* + 4) (8* - 56) (a + 96) (a

(8 + *)(n 3*) a 3 - - (9&r/- i6/ 3 + 5/Ar -24^r ) g
21)
8.
9.
10.
25&* + - 36) (56 - a) 5a - 7y)(^x - i 5 y) (3* 2(5W an) (2m - 5**)

(
(*-!!)(* -8) 2 a (2a-5& )( 4 a +
ioa& 2 )
11.
12. ^ 14. 16. (20

3
13. (94*
15. 17.
19.
z
32 1) (x
3)
21.
6a b(a + 2c)(ga - 25c) 6 2 2 3 a 8(2C + Ja 6) 4 c + ia 6 - i) (2* - 5) (* + 7 )(* = 18308 199 x 23(2 + 6 4)

(
36
4c)(2a
2
36
2
6c 2 )
18.
{R
i)( 3 /
20. (^
+ Rr + r } + 7 )(2p + 5)
22. 14,130
24.
23. 12 (*
r 9 ^ 5-
3) (*
4) (*
2)
-a
66 J cTT
."^
4(^+
5
2)
1^^)
21
oR ^'
6)
3(3*
(a-
'
ort
4(9 ii
2g '
__ 30. 37'8
I4&)
a ~ 4*- 6) 2(^-2^-8) - 327* + 99* 2 - I20* 3 560 - 5) (3*+ io)(2* - 7) 20(3*
29.
32. 3*(* 33.
-or -407 31. + 9)(* 7) (8 9*) (3 + 8x) (5* - i}(x + 7X + 26). {Hint Let X = x* + (x + 8)(x
; ;
jx
6.}
34 '
Pas(i8s+2 5
35 *
t;
3(6
+
1-13
Exercises 8
1. 4. 4 7.
4 or
or
-i
2. 2-5 or 3 5. 2-83 or --83
3. 4-13 or 6. --278
-381;
10. 2-421 x io 5 or 12. 28-98 or 1-03 14. 57-5 or 56-5
9. --125 8. 4-23 or -2-43 1-219; 5 11. 2-75 or 457 2-379 x io 4 13. 3-89 x io or 2-97 x io* 15. 23 (18 has no meaning here)
II
482
nr
16. /,

=ab
**
_ u~
VaW - 24t v +
2
Satgv
6t
19. 120 or 13-3.
(Divide
all
6 through by 75 x io
first)
20. 155 or 32 22. v 25. -2ii
21. -845 23. 5 or
(2-845 h as no meaning
7-5
here)
g$Vmi
and
24. 80 or
90
27. 1-475
-789 of span from one end 28. 6-55 or 3-05
26. 13 or 10-42 29. 100 ft.
Exercises 9
1.
*= 7 or-3
y x
1
6
2.
4.
9.
y 765 (the work
= | or = 2\ = 5/
29J
5.
y a
= ôr 3 I = *- or V = -6 or i \ b = 2-8 or 2)
3.
2) q = 6. 3-63 or 2-3
7.
=T
3\
-68*
8. 5
10. 16.
m=
197
shortened by dividing by 25-6 straight away) 11. 27-4 12. I 13. 14. 9-22 15 7-37
is
-01277; n
-0026
17. 3-9 or 15-8
18. 6-763
Exercises 10
1. 91-1
nautical miles
6.
(a)
2.
i
22-63*
(b) i
3.
70-7
5. 3 1 '-9* 8.
10. 14.
18.
21.
15 ft. 72-4 12. 480 13. 51-2 26 11. 405 grey; 340 red 16. 6110 Ibs. 17. 8-66"; -307 15. 2-36" 132 20. ^3 175. od. 19. 65-80* 5-11 tons 22. (b) 12-25; ( c ) 4'> (<0 5"86 7-24 sq. ins.
AB= 12-37'; BC= 12-15"; AC = 21-63"
in 12-5;
in 12-46
7.
9.
Exercises 11
3-44 sq. ins. 4. -2374
1.
2. 10-2*; 52-1 sq. ins. 5. 12-82 sq. ins.
3. 6.
6 sq. ins.; 2-4 ins.

-536
7. 58-5 sq.ft.;
18-07
ft.
8.
137-5 sq.
ft.
10. 301-5 sq. 13. 69-5
ft.
11. 13-25 sq. ins. 14. -52 amp. 16. 9-13 sq. ins.
9 - 3'6i ft. 12. 47-7 sq. ins.

15. 6-42 ins.
Exercises 12
2. 29-1 ft. 5. 2-51* 1-46; 2-14; 3-33; -35; -06 7. 2-9 ft. 8. 18" 10. 31-23* 11. 8-92* 12. 66 15. 27-13 sq. ins. 16. 3'-2 J*
1.
22-4"
3. 6.
161 sq. ft
4.
1-571" 9. 1380 ft. per sec. 14. 5935 13. 970
18. 12080 Ibs.
19.
4816
Ibs.
22. 16-65 sq. ins. 23. 1010 sq. ft. 26. 24-378*; 66 and 36 27. 214 sq. ins.
17. -196 sq. in. 20. 3-76 miles 21. 12-8* 25. 2-68 24. -0294 ohm
28. 60
ohms
Exercises 13
1- c i
483
3. 7 5. 7.
= 475*; h = -36* = 62-8"; A = 4'97*
2. c,
44-72*, h
20*
9-06 sq. ins.; 60 2-n*; 3-33*; 1-29 sq. ins.; -56* 9. 1686 10. 29-8 sq. ins.
13.
4. 6-12*; 2-07 sq. ins. 6. i-ii'; 3-67'

8.
13-1 12. 5-8* 16. -375*
11.
B = A/fRT
6076
i
14. 141
15.
'-26'
Exercises 14
2. 1-8"; i"; 7-2:3"; -55" from base 4-5"; 36^"; 8-48" 3. 2-48"; 12" 4. 473"; 8"; 1-8"; 25-14"; 25-91*; 25-57' 5. 66-30*; 3'88*; 29-6"; 29-75*; 29-3* 6. 3340* 7. 30-4 ft. tons; 3-38 ft. tons 8. 623 yds. 9. 3*; ii* 10. 7000 1.
Exercises 15
1. 5.
689 cu. ft.

-833
2.
-28;
7-75
3.
-3125*
;
4.
144
6. 5-13 cu. ft. 9.
7. 6-91
25900
8. 41-1
52600
11. 23-85 sq.ft.; 40-17 sq.ft.; 19-3 cu. ft. 13. -53 (watt volts x amps) 14. 31-85 Ibs.
10. 47-94 cu. ft.; 6715153. 12. 70
15. 245 Ibs.

19.
i 5 '-6" 22. 1-74* 25. 12-55*
16. 9 20. 508000
17. 852 sq.
ft.
18. 14*
24. 137
21. -0006
23. 1-83
x io- 10 ohms
Exercises 16
1.
3.
593 cu. 200 sq.
ft.
ins.; 321 sq. ins.; 13-55 ins. 4. 13-4 cu. ins.
2. 5. 8.
20-4*
1592 Ibs.
6. 26-1 ft.; 9.
581 sq.
ft.
;
ft.
7.
4'O3"; 10-69"
12. 213-5 cu. ft.
367
cu. ins.
14520
sq.
70420
cu.
ft.
10. 773'8; 967-4 Ibs.
11. 173-8 sq. ins. ; 234-3 13. 241 tons 15. 155 cu. ins. 40-2 Ibs. 17. 4-63*
;
29,890
;
Ibs.
14. -389" 16. 559 cu. ins.
243 sq.
ins.
19. 105 sq. ins.;
138 sq.
ins.
18. 2*; 5*; 6-12* 20. U59sq. ins.;
2530 cu.
ins.
Exercises 17
1.
4.
160 sq. ins.; 191 cu. ins. 8610 Ibs.

;
2. 8-3; 5.
518
Ibs.
3. 8-8 cu. ins.

6. 5-44 cms. 10. 559 sq. ft. 14. 15,520 sq.
-1033
7. 100-4 sq. ins.
11.
15. 18.
21.
8. 4-2* 9. 636 151 cu. ins. 12. 1440 sq. yds. 13. 1-082* -0941* 16. 104-6 sq. ins. 7-59* from vertex 20. 16-1, 47-3, 19. 77* 53-51 acres 22. 72 ft. 406 Ibs.
ft.
17.
14-7; 2-45
27-6, 27-6 sq. ins. 23. 1-3*
Exercises 18
1.
3. 5.
175 sq.ft.; 100 cu. ft. 847 sq. ins.; 1057 cu. ins. Paraboloid = J cylinder
2. 4.
ins.; 98-2 cu. ins. 7. 2-02 Ibs. 6. 90-2 cu. ins.
326 sq. 136 sq.
ins.;
244 cu.
ins.
484

Exercises 19
6-44 Ibs.
1.
Exercises 25
1.
485
486

Exercises 28 2.6 =
4.
6.
a = 11-65"; 6 = 43-47" 6 = 43-5* 3. a = 48-3"; 5. a = 22-14"; b = 16-08* 7. a = 20-8"; 6=10-72" 10. 30-6 ft. 9. 8 8' 14. (a) 14 16'; 13. 2"
1.
a a
= =
c 8-72"; 66-73"; c
57-66";
ft.
;
= = =
14-83*
74-8;
92-63"
8.
6037
2927
ft.
11. 78
(6)
16. 18.
19.
A = o, 50 B = 33-9, 77-8 C = 74-6, 20-5 D = 15-2, 13 A = 10, 20 B = 19-05, 14-8 C = 12-58, 12-06
49 links
2856'
17.
AB = 5 oxAD
20 53'
12. 14 4i' 15. 2-38"
R.B. of BC = 35-5 S.E. R.B. of CD = 82-5 S.W. R.B. of DA = 23 N.W. Area = 2700 n' R.B. of BC = 67 S.W. R.B. of CA = 18 N.W. Area = 29
21. 235 i' 24. -121*
20. 3 chns. 23. -2901"
22. 73-6 ft.
Exercises 29
1.
-8988
13.
487
14.
A = 863i', B = 4557', c = 16-11 C = 43V, A = 8i2i', a = 47-28;

16. 8
area
637
15. 19-46 ft. 17. 55. 87, 38 19. 1-224 chns.,
30'
OB =
CF =
18. 18-75 Ibs.; 58 -3236 chn.,
OC =
BE =
ft.
-7673 chn.,
ft.
667 chns.
20.
23.
26.
28.
AB = 2983 links AB = 527-4"} DC = 475-3 Hnks BC = 774-6 J

;
21. Jib 5636' 647^.; 374ft.
26-2 ft.; tie
24. 53-2 ft. 27. 767 links 29.
BG =
17-4 ft. 25. 2083
22. 1191
(horiz.) Diff. of level
AB
74-96 chns.; CH = 607-5 yds. \ = 129-3 yds./
74-14
30. r
9 6 7' 126-7' h CF CG 473-3' J CP 919' 32. I233f.p.s.; 29 36' 33. diam. = -506 36. 60-3 sq.ft.; 422 Ibs. 35. 9-06 to i 39. 244 sq.ft. 38. 10-3"; 14-5"
BE = BF =
473-3'
31.
AP = BP =
983' (AC
nSo'U
J
34.
106-4; 93'
37. 7-46"; 10-65"
40. 2286;
2912
41. 17-25 sq. ins.
Exercises 31
1.
cos
A=
-893,
tan
A=
3. 4.
'
(A+B) tan (A+B)

^
i
cos
= =
.
'
-442, sin
7.
P=
- tan a + n tan a
36-7,
(A-B) = -298 tan (A-B) = -536

6
-504
p=
2nrpfji
1-162
-576)
(sin a
+
i)
/i
cos a)
8.
9. 4-99 sin (5*
10. 238-5 sin (50*
" R=
13.
E=
-os''+
I2i-6sin (i2on-f
12
1-022)
'
'
I89: I0 42
'
Exercises 32
1.
2. 4. 5.
= -566; tan 2 A = 1-455 sin 2A = -7962; cos 2A = -605 a sin 2B = 2 cos B\/i-cos B; -731 A A = -987; sin 3A = cos sin - = -161
cos 2 A
2
;
3. |(i
cos
28)
-8236
7. 2-5(1
6. 8.
cos
4A =
-616; tan
-114
cos
4*)
9.
- sin 131) = 7-85 (sin 189 2 sin gt {cos 6t + sin it}

x sin 2a; 53 2cos323o'
7-85 (- sin 9
10. sin
sin
A = A = cos
49)
tan
-261
A=
-270 -2701
J
-991
11. 505 12. (a)
sin
I53o';
(6)
(c)
2 cos
423o' cos 383o';

sin 45
24 sin 50
13. 25-91; 63-73 cos 15. 9'4 {'995
14. -333
or-
1-25
U"/'

Exercises 33
1. 30 or 150 3. 120 or 240 5. 120 or 240 7. 30 or 150, 210 9. 30 or 150
11. 13.
15. 18. 20.
45. ^S 225 or 315 88' or 188 8', I5326' or 33326' 6. 538', 191 32', I26 5 2' or 34828' ' 8. 45, 7i34'. 225 or 2 5 i 3 4 or 330 10. 3545' or I44i5' * 2 45 or 225 45, 225, i6i34' or 34i34' 14. 30, 150, 210 or 330 or i826' I9826' 225, 45, 17. 27^' or 2433o' 120 o or 16. o or 45 19. I46 ig or 326I9' 4856' or I5639' 21. 57' o; 180; 2o56' or 339
2.
4.
'
Exercises 34
1.
1-2552; 2-1293
2.
ft.
5-0018
5.
3.
151
ft.
4.
6.
40-54
ft.
156-6
7.
E cosh x *J - +
9.
^rV sinh x lj^

11. -86 12.
io45'
-00383
14. 44-09
8. -93 15. 1-928
i852'
2-298;
19-4
Exercises 35
1.
4. 7.
9.
318 765 sq. 430 sq. 730
2.
ft.
51-7 Ibs. per sq. in.
3. 6. 8.
38-35 sq.ft.; 575 cu.
ft.
ft.;
7231 sq. ft. 2190 cu. ft. per sec.

5.
269 ft. 6850 sq.
ft.
10. 8-72 sq. ins.
11. 60-5 Ibs. per sq. in.
Exercises 36
1.
168750 cu. yds.
2.
8350 tons
6
3.
6.
4. 7.
44920 sq. yds. 12020 cu. yds.
5. 5-21 x io galls. 8. 96-6 ft.; 61-9 ft.;
244000 tons 40 ft.; 51-43
ft.
11600 cu. yds.
9. 26-5 ft.; 17-66 ft.; 33-5 ft.; 22-35 ft -.' 27-5 ft.; 18-33 ft.; 184, 325, 202 sq. ft.; 1375 cu. yds. 10. 28-25 anc* 43'3 ft- from the centre line
Exercises 37
14. 6
The table
of values
would be arranged thus
rectum 2-5; vertex 20. 4-27 tons per sq. in. 23
19. latus
;
489
is
at (2-75,
8-42)
Exercises 38
1. 8.
-404
6.
62-2 Ibs.
alter
Plot
E=
cosh#(# ranging from o to 500 Vgr) and then
both scales
Exercises 39
1.
Amplitudes:
T>
8; -2; 51-8; -116; -91

If
Periods:
2.
Amplitude
Period
= =
23
;
27r
;
/-
-02;
-r.
-0102; 36-9
.r
-4 if
.ic
j Period as for cosine curve
2jr
:
or 120
Exercises 40
1.
-{Assume some convenient value for
2. *
6.
/}.
-403^
5*3
3.
-221
7.
4.
4-58
8.
5. -36
or 2-17
12. 7-9
1-9 or
-2-45
2-79
-143 or -333
9. 2-66
13. 4-49 rad. (257) 16. 1-484' 17. 2-9
10. 5-37 (308) 11. / 14. 10-42, 13 18. 6-005*
-3 5
15. 5-523' 19. 796'34*
20. 1-87.
(Plot the curves y l
= cosh x
and y a
sec
and note the point of
intersection.)
21. 6-34 ft.
Exercises 41
2. 9.
-454
-22.
3.
-3341 560
<*>
7.
;
[Hint.
Let
= a + br
also
<t>
= log
1-043; i-o?? g ^ 437
-J4OX
~T
^
;
and
solve for
q.]
1.
W = 47 + 6o-5A
m = 4o5 S = lo-gi/
-
Exercises 42
2.
5.
8.
/i=
-2
+ -oo4\/t/"
6.
3.
W = 3-28^
'
4. 7.
+^H
1 51
'
/=-oi 4 82
H = -0955^ u
10. 13.
<Z=i"2v7
T=
/
1-29
io/ a
x io-
7
.
16.
17.
= 5 4 i'079 14. Q = 6-nH- 48 a = 1205, b = 53-5 18.

11. T
2
'
46
W=ri<P + i8 9. T = 435 238 12. h = -0724W 15. y = 224\/H = a 1320, 6 = 54-4

1 8
'
19
'
21. 22. 23.
24.
25. 27.
31.
= 20< W = g.gx'io' -02 a = 14-9, b = -58, c = E = -I + -OI32T -00000583T 2 E = -15 + -OO795T 'Ooooo2iT a A = 144-6 2-7631; + -OI384U 2 R = 160 I6-4V+-4V 2 26. v = a = 10, b = -277 28. -2 29. 26 82. Q = y = i85- *
h
'
87
'
C=
2 5
3-195
-3
+'452D 30. -4
2' 5
i-sH
490

Exercises 43
-115*; 92-6 Ibs./n*
3.
5.
Write equation
log
d- log 2-9= JlogH- JlogN

Exercises 44
or
D = JH - |N
2.
1. 8,
8^, 8f,
8^
i
-009% too low

i
i
i. 7'
31
10+
4
x
2+
_I_
15+
i+
JL_
1
i+
325
JL
4+
12+
5. 6gf, 6. 7.
4+
91.2 x+i x+6

'
say 6 complete turns with 19 holes on 33 hole circle 8 complete and 2 holes on 18 hole circle (approx.) 10 holes on 17 hole circle 8. 50 to 127
^
j j
* *
MATHEMATICAL TABLES
TABLE
Angle.
I.
TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS
492
MATHEMATICAL TABLES TABLE II. LOGARITHMS
MATHEMATICAL TABLES
493
TABLE
II.
(contd.)
494
MATHEMATICAL TABLES
TABLE
III.
ANTILOGARITHMS
MATHEMATICAL TABLES
TABLE
III.
(contd).
495
496
MATHEMATICAL TABLES
IV.
TABLE
NAPIERIAN, NATURAL, OR HYPERBOLIC LOGARITHMS
I
Number.
MATHEMATICAL TABLES
TABLE IV
6
(contd.)
497
Mean
8
9
Differences.
123456 789
8 IO 12 8 IO 12 8 9
51 52 53 54 55 56 57 53 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
7-2 7-3 7-4
1-6292 6312 6332 6351 6371 6390 6409 6429 6448 6467 648/|65o6'6525!6544 6563 6582 6601 662OJ6639 6658
f
-
246 246 6 6677:6696,6715673467526771 ---'---- 679o68o8|6827J6846|2 4 69196938:69566975699370117029 246 7048 70 66 7084 7102 7120 7138 7156 7174:7192,7210 245 7228 7246 7263 7281 7299731773347352,7370,738712 4 5 745 7422 7440,7457 7475 7492 75097527|7544;75i| 245 769977167733' 235 7750 7767 7783 7800 7817 7834 7851 7868 7884 7901 235 8001 7918 7934 7951 7968 7984 8017 8034 8050 8067 235 8083 8099 8116 8132 8148 8165 8181 819718213 8229 235 82 4 62 8278 8294 8310 8326 8342 8358 8374^390 235 6|82 84068421 8437 8453 8469 8485 8500 8516 8532 8547 235, 8 503'8579 235 8594J86ioJ8625 8641 871887338749)876418779 8795 8810 8825|884o|8856 235: 887188868901 8976 8991 9006 235 902190369051 9066*9081 9095 9110 9125 9140^155 234 9169 9184 9199 92139228 9243 9257 9272 9286,9301 234
'
7
7
9 ii 9 ii 9 ii 9 10 9 10 8 10 8 10
8 10 8 10 8 10
7 7
7
7
7
6 6
9315 9330,9344,935919373 9387 942 94i,943i 9445 9459 9473 9488,9502 9516 953 9545 9559 9573 9587
9601 9615^629 9643 9657 9671 9685 9699^7139727 9741 9755!97 6 9'9782!9796]98io 9824 9838,985119865 loooi
oi49'oi62 0176 0189 0202 0216 0229 0242 0255 0268 0281 029510308 0321(0334 0347 0360 0373 03860399 0412 \J^4.^) \J^^V,\JI^ U^X^ 0425^438 0451,0464 0477 0490 0503 0516 0528 0541 0554 0567Jo58o'o592 0605 061810631 0643^0656
J.
l
i i
i
3 3 3 3 3 3
4 4 4 4 4 4
i i
689 689 689 679 679 679 679 678 678 8

5 5
75 76
7-7 7-8
134 134
i i
i i i i i i i
5 5
7 7 7
3 3
79 80
8-1 8-2
075707690782 066906811069410707,071907320744 -- ~ Q<; ~' 0794 0807:0819 0832 0844 o 857 0869 O882 0894 O9O6
.
3 3
3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
4 4 4 4
83 84
8-5 8-6 8-7 8-8 8-9
0919 0931 0943 0956 0968 0980 0992 1005 1041 1054 1066 IO78|IO9O IIO2 III4 1126 113 1163 1175 1187 1199 I2II 1223 1235
1282 1342 1354 1305 1401 1412 1424 1436144814591471 1483!
1029
4 4 4 4 4 4
3 3
3
J 578 568 568 567 567 5
151815291541 1552 1564 15761587 1599 1610 1622 1033 1645 1656 1668 1679 1691 I7O2 171317251736 1748 I759I77 1782 I793I804 18161827 1861 18721883 1894 1905 1917 1928 1939 I950I96I
1972 1983 1994 2OO6 2OI7 2083 2094 2105 2116 2127 2192 22O3 221 4 222512235 2300 23IIJ2322|2332 2343
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99
2513 2523 2534 2544
261826282638 2649
2721 2732 2742 2752 28242834 2844 2854 2 925 2935 2946 2956 10 2-3026
2O28 2O39 2050 2O6l 2072 2138 2149 2159 2170 2181 2246 2257 2268 2279 2289 2354 2365 2375 2386 2397 2481 2492 2502 2555 2565 2576 2586 2597 2607 2659 2670 268O 2690 2701 2711 2762 2773 2783 2793 2803 2814 2865 2875 2885 2895 2905 2915 2966 2976 2986 2996 3006 3016
2
2
3 3 3
3 3 3
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
3
3 3
567 567 567 567 567 56? 467 467 4 5 I 456 456 456 456 456 456 456
KK
498
MATHEMATICAL TABLES
TABLE
V.
NATURAL
SINES.
I Q
MATHEMATICAL TABLES
TABLE
8
499
V.
(contd.)
5oo
MATHEMATICAL TABLES
TABLE
VI.
NATURAL COSINES
MATHEMATICAL TABLES
TABLE VI
j w
501
(contd.)
502
MATHEMATICAL TABLES
TABLE
VII.
NATURAL TANGENTS.
MATHEMATICAL TABLES
TABLE
g
503
VII. (contd.)
9 Q
504
MATHEMATICAL TABLES
TABLE
VIII.
LOGARITHMIC SINES.
MATHEMATICAL TABLES
TABLE
j ff
505
VIII. (contd.)
506
MATHEMATICAL TABLES
TABLE
IX.
LOGARITHMIC COSINES
MATHEMATICAL TABLES
TABLE IX
1
507
(contd.)
5 o8
MATHEMATICAL TABLES
TABLE
X.
LOGARITHMIC TANGENTS.
E
be
MATHEMATICAL TABLES
TABLE
V b
of
509
X.
(contd.)
5 io
MATHEMATICAL TABLES
TABLE
XI.
EXPONENTIAL AND HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
INDEX
A2 B2 A3 - B3 A3 + B3
,
,
factors of, 52
,
Area of regular polygon, 88 of rhombus, 84

of sector of circle, 101 of segment of circle, 101 of trapezoid, 85 of triangle, 79, 80, 267 Areas of irregular curved figures,
,;
53 53
Abbreviations,
Abscissa, 159 Addition formulae in Trigonometry
by
273 Adfected quadratic, 60 Algebraic fractions, Addition

,
of,
57
Multiplication of, 56 Alignment chart with four variables,
443
Choice of scales 434 involving powers of the variables, 440 Principle of, 429
charts,
for,
averaging boundaries, 305 computation scale, 306 counting squares, 305 graphic integration, 312 mid-ordinate rule, 308 planimeter, 300 Simpson's rule, 310 trapezoidal rule, 307 Asymptotes of hyperbola, 108. 349
Allowance
"
Ambiguous
for depreciation, 211 " case in the solution of
triangles,
260
Amplitude of sine functions, 361 Amsler planimeter, 300 Angle of elevation, 239
of regular polygon, 88 Angles of any magnitude, Ratios of, 251 Angular velocity, 363 Annulus, Area of, 93 Antilogarithms, 16 by use of the Approximation, binomial theorem, 467 for the area of a circle, 92 for products and quotients, 6 for square roots, 8 for the volume of a cylinder, 1 1 1 Arc, Height of elliptic, 105 Height of circular, 97 Length of circular, 98 Area of annulus, 93 of circle, 90 of ellipse, 104 of fillet, 132 of indicator diagram, 87 of irregular polygon, 87 of irregular quadrilateral, 87 of parabolic segment. 106 of parallelogram, 84 of rectangle, 79
,
,
Bearing, Reduced, 244 Whole-circle, 245 Binomial theorem, 463 Boussinesq's rule for the perimeter of an ellipse, 105
,
Calculation of co-ordinates in land-
surveying, 244 Cardan's solution for cubic equation?, 67 Catenary, 217, 292, 357 Ccntroid, Definition of, 129 Centroids, Positions of, 130 Characteristic of a logarithm, 14 Charts, Alignment, 429 Correlation, 419 Intercept, 421 Circle, Arc of, 98 Area of, 90 Chord of, 97 Circumference of, 90
Sector
of,
Coffin averager and planimeter, 303 Combinations, 460 Complement of an angle, 233 Complex quantities, 294 Compound interest, 208 periodic oscillations, 369
Segment
of,
101 101
5*2
INDEX
Factor theorem, 55
Factorisation. Factors, i
Fillet,
,
Computing scale, 306 Cone, Frustum of, 117 Surface area of, 116 Volume of, 116 Constant heat lines, 387 volume lines, 384 Constants, Useful, 4 Construction of regular polygons, 88 Continued fractions, 448 Convergents of ir, 451 Co-ordinates, Calculation of, 244 Plotting of, 159 Correlation charts, 419 Cosine rule for the solution of triangles, 256 Cubic equations, Solution of, 67 n Curves of type y = ax , 336 bt y = ae ax 352 y = e~ sin (bx + c), 373 Cutting, Section of, 321 Volume of, 324 Cylinder, Surface area of, in
,
, ,
Method
of,
51
Fathom, 3 Area
of,
Centroid
of,
132 130
Formula
for solution of cubic equations, 67 of quadratic equations, 64 Fractions, Addition of algebraic, 57

,
Continued, 448
Multiplication of algebraic, 56
Partial, 452 of cone, 117
2,
Frustum
Function,
161
Volume
i
of,
in
D
Definitions,
of a sine function, 359 tangent function, 366 Graphic integration, 312 solution of equations, 3-76 of quadratic equations, 1 76 of simultaneous equations,
Graph
Depreciation allowance, 211, 343 Determinants, 474 Determination of laws, 396 Difference of two squares, Factorisation of, 52 Dividing head problem, 449
164 Graphs, Introduction to, 148 of quadratic expressions, 174 Guldinus, Rules of, 129
H
Homogeneous equations, 73
Hyperbola, Definition of, 108 Equation of, 348 Hyperbolic functions, 290
,
E
Efficiency curves, Plotting of, 151
Ellipse,
, ,
Area of, 104 Equation of, 344 Height of arc of, 105
Perimeter
of,
Hypotenuse of right-angled
So
triangle,
of stress, 345
,
105
of,
Embankment, Section Volume of, 326

,
321
Imaginary quantities, 67 Independent variable, 161

Indices, 10 Intercept charts, 421
Equation of time, 370 of a straight line, 162

Equations, Cubic, 67, 181
,
,
Inverse trigonometric functions, 297
Graphic solution of, 376 Quadratic, 61, 176 with Quadratic, imaginary roots, 67
j,
Meaning
of,
67
Simple, 31 Simultaneous, 43, 46, 164 Simultaneous quadratic, 70 Surd, 74 Trigonometric, 287 - to conic sections, 344 equilateral triangle, Area of, 82 Equivalent acute angle, 252 Ericsson engine diagrams, 394 Euclid, Propositions of, 4 Expansion curves for gases, 338
, , , ,
Joule engine diagrams, 393
K
Knot, 3
Latus rectum of parabola, 106 Laws of machines, 166

of type y
Exponential
series,
470
y y
= a + -, = ax n 401 = ae*, 405

.
398
INDEX
407 y y -fy y L.C.M., Finding the, 51 Length of chord of a circle, 97 Limiting values, 455 Logarithm, Definition of, 12 Logarithmic decrement, 375 equations, 224 series, 470 Logarithms, Napierian, 216 of trigonometric ratios, 247 reading from tables, 13 Log-log scale on the slide rule, 337
,
,
513
equations.
Laws
of type
+ bx + ex*, y = a + bx", 408 = b(x + a)", 409 = a fee"*, = ax"z m 410409

a
Quadratic
, ,
Solution
of.
by
. ,
factorisation, 61
on the drawing-board, 176

of,
by graphs, 176 by use of formula, 63
Quadratic expressions, Plotting of, 1 74

Quadrilateral, Area of irregular, 87
,
Centroid
130
R
Radian, 99 Ratios of multiple and sub-multiple angles, 279 Trigonometric, 232 Rectangle, Area of, 79 Reduced bearing, 244 Remainder theorem, 55 Reservoir, Volume of, 332
,
If
Maximum and minimum

Mensuration, 79 et seq. Mid-ordinate rule, 308
Mantissa of logarithm, 14
values, 183
Rhombus, area of, 85 Right-angled triangle, Relation between sides of, 80 Solution of, 239 " " Roots of a quadratic equation, 61
,
N
Napierian
,
,
logs. 13
"
Calculation
of, 216, 471 reading from tables, 216
"
rule for area of triangle, 80
Parabola, Area of segment Definition of, 106

,
, :
of,
106
circle. Area of, 101 of circle, Area of, 101 Semicircular arc, Centroid of, 130 area, Centroid of, 130 perimeter, Centroid of, 130
Sector of
Segment
Series,
,
Equation of, 347 Length of arc of, 106
200 Exponential, 470
for calculation of logs, 471
Parabolic segment, Centroid of, 130 Parallelogram, Area of, 84, 268 Partial fractions, 452 Period of sine functions, 361 Permutations, 460 Planimeter, Use of the Amsler, 300 Use of the Coffin, 303 Polygon, Area of irregular, 87 Area of regular, 88 Construction of regular, 88 Prism, Surface area of, no
, ,
.
Logarithmic, 470 Similar figures, 122 Simple harmonic motion, 365

,
Simpson's
rule,
310
Sine curves, Plotting of, 359 et seq. rule for the solution of triangles,
256
Slide rule, Area of circle by, 92 Log-log scale on, 337 Reading of logs from, 17 Reading of trigonometric ratios from, 242 Special markings on, 17 Uses of, for plotting log quantities, 403, 419 solution of tri, in
,
. , .
Volume
of,
no
Prismoidal solid, Volume Products of IT, 94

,
of,
319
Progression, Arithmetic, 201 Geometric, 205 PV diagrams, 381 et seq. Pyramid, Frustum of, 117 Surface area of, 115 Volume of, 115
, ,
Volume
Q
Quadrant
of circle, Centroid of, 130
of,
by, in Solution of triangles, 255 et seq. Sphere, Surface area of, 120 Surface area of zone of, 120
,
,
angles, 261 of cylinder
Quadratic equations, Solution completion of square, 61
by
Volume Volume Volume
of,
120
of segment of, 121 of zone of, 120
Square measure, 3
514
INDEX
Triangles, Solution of, 255 et seq. Trigonometric equations, 287
ratios,
Sterling engine, Diagrams for, 390 Sub-normal of parabola, 106 Sum curve, 312 Surd equations, 75 Surds, Rationalisation of denominators of, 74 Surface area, for cuttings and em-
232 from slide rule, 242 from tables, 234
Turning-points of curves, 183
bankments, 331
of cone, 116 of cylinder, 1 1 1 of frustum, 117 of prism, of pyramid, 115 of sphere, 1 20
U
Units, Investigation for, 26
no
Surveyor's measure, 87
Table of areas and circumferences of circles, 127 of areas and circumferences of plane figures, 144, 145 of earthwork slopes, 319
of signs of trigonometric ratios,
Variation, 193 Vectors, 295 Velocity ratio of machine, 169 Volume of cone, 116 of cylinder, in of frustum of cone or pyramid,
of prism, of prismoidal solid, 319 of pyramid, 115 of reservoir, 332 of segment of sphere, 121 of sphere, 120 of wedge-shaped excavation, 321 of zone of sphere, 120
"7
no
253
of
volumes and surface areas of

solids, 146,
147
of weights of earths, 319 of weights of metals, 132 Tables of weights and measures, 3
W
Wedge-shaped excavation, Volume
of,
Terms,
Transposition of a factor in an equation, 33 of term in an equation, 32 T< diagrams, 381 et seq. Trapezoid, Area of, 85 Centroid of, 130 Trapezoidal rule for area of irregular
,
321
of. 3
Weights and measures, Table

,
Calculation of, 132 et seq. of earths, Table of. 319 of metals. Table of, 132 Whole circle bearing, 245
curved
,
figure,
307
Triangle, Area of, 79, 267 Lettering of, 80 relation , Right-angled, sides of, 80
between
Zero circle of planimeter, 96, 302 Zone of sphere, Surface area of, 120 Volume of, 120
THE DIRECTLY-USEFUL (D.U.) TECHNICAL SERIES

Founded by the
late
WILFRID
J.
LINEHAM,
B.Sc., M.Inst.C.E.,
etc.
Particulars of the books in this series are given below. Numerous other volumes are in preparation, and the publishers will always be pleased to send full particulars of of these books or to
any forward prospectuses of each book as published.

be sent with pleasure upon request.
Catalogues
will
Treatise on
Architects,
By the
Hand -Lettering
Surveyors,
for
and
Engineers, Students of
Mechanical Drawing
late WILFRID J. LINEHAM, Hons. B Sc., M Inst.C.E., M.I.Mech.E., M.I.E.E., Author of "A Text-book of Mechanical Engineering." Containing 282 pages, 115 plates, and 4 folding Size, 8 in. X 12^ in. plates 9/6 net.
Arithmetic for Engineers

By CHARLES
B.
CLAPHAM,
lions.
Sc.
(Eng.),
Lecturer in
Engineering and Elementary Mathematics at the University of London, Goldsmiths' College. Second Edition. Demy 8vo.
7/6 net.
Treatise on Mechanical Testing

R. G. BATSON, M.Inst.C.E., M.I.Mech.E., and A.M. Inst.C.E., M.I.A.E.
By
J.
H. HYDE,
Volume Volume
I.
Testing of Materials.
i8/- net.
Demy
8vo.
i8/- net.
II.
Testing of Apparatus, Machines, and Structures.
Demy
By
S.
8vo.
Theory and Practice

T. G.
of Aeroplane Design
ANDREWS,
8vo.
B.Sc. (Eng.), and S. F. BENSON, B.Sc.

15/6 net.
(Eng.).
Demy
Geometry
J. E.
for Builders
and Architects
figures, and i5/- net.
PAYNTER. Demy 8vo. 421 pages, 376 By numerous examples and exercises with answers.
Metric System for Engineers

By CHARLES
for
B.
" CLAPHAM, B.Sc. (Eng.), Author of Arithmetic
Engineers."
tables
numerous
Demy 8vo. 200 pages fully illustrated and valuable folding charts for office use.
Demy
Electrical Engineering Testing By G. D. ASPINALL PARR, M.Sc., M.Inst.E.E.

692 pages, 300 figures and numerous
>5/- net
-
8vo.
tables.
Fourth Edition.
DETAILED PROSPECTUSES SENT ON REQUEST
CHAPMAN & HALL,
LTD.,
1 1
Henrietta
St.,
London, W.C. 2
Selection from the
Scientific List of
Chapman and
Hall, Ltd.
Text -Book
of Mechanical Engineering M.I.E.E. WILFRID J. LINEHAM, B.Sc., M.I.C.E., M.I.M.E., By The eleventh edition of this standard treatise contains 1244 pages (8x5), 1063 illustrations, and 19 folding plates. Price
21 f- net.
The Strength
By EWART
S.
of Materials
B.Sc. Eng. (Lond.).
ANDREWS,
Text-Book
for
Engineers and Architects. With numerous illustrations, tables, and worked examples. 600 pages. Demy 8vo. 13/6 net.
Elementary Strength
By EWART
S.
of Materials
ANDREWS,
B.Sc.
DemySvo.
200 pages,
jj- net.
The Theory and Design

Third Edition.
of Structures For the use of Students, By EWART S. ANDREWS, B.Sc. Draughtsmen and Engineers engaged in constructional work.
Demy
8vo.
Fully illustrated.
13/6 net.
Slide Rules By THOMAS

Edition.
and
8vo.
How
to
Use Them
New
and
Revised
1/6 net.
JACKSON,
M.I.Mech.E.
Demy
32 pages.
Concrete
Work
:
By WILLIAM K. HATT,
C.E., Ph.D., and WALTER C. Voss, B.S. Deals extensively with the following subjects Reading blue prints,
calculation of quantities, estimates of cost, selection o.nd inspection of materials, selection and disposition of equipment, organization of gang,
staking out, excavating form work, measuring, mixing and depositing concrete and protection of work, etc. 451 pages, 224 figures, 20 fullplates.
23/- net.
page
Graphical and Mechanical Computation

By
J.
LIPKA, Ph.D.
large
number
Designed as an aid in the solution of a of problems which the Engineer, as well as the
264 pages.
205
student of engineering meets in his work.

figures.
22/- net.
Alternating -Current Electricity And its Applications to Industry. By W. H.

HIGBIE.
First Course:
:
TIMBIE and H. H.
net.
Second Course
544 pages; 389 figures. 17/6 738 pages; 357 figures. 2i/- net.
CHAPMAN & HALL,
LTD., 11 Henrietta
St.,
London, W.C. 2
University of Toronto
Library
o o CM
JO
Acme
Library Card Pocket

Pat. "Ref. Index File"
Under
Made by LIBRARY BUREAU

Mathematicsforen01roseuoft BW

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Mathematicsforen01roseuoft BW

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Mathematicsforen01roseuoft BW

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

What is the book about?

What is the book about?

What topics are covered in the book?

What topics are covered in the book?

m

MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

The Directly-Useful Technical

Mathematics for Engineers

B.Sc. Eng. (Lond.)

principles to engineering practice,

Particulars of other books in this Series are given on page 515.

LINEHAM, B.Sc., M.Inst.C.E.

Mathematics for Engineers

B.Sc. ENG. (LOND.)

Borough Polytechnic Institute

LONDON CHAPMAN & HALL, LTD.

FEINTED IN GRF.AT BRITAIN BY RICHARD CLAY & SONS, LIMITED,

requires a few words

Technical books of the past have arranged

themselves largely under two sections

the Theoretical and the

Theoretical books have been written

for the train-

ing of college students than for the supply of information to

omitting the scientific basis upon which

whether discernible or not.

occupy a midway position.

the exercises are to be of a directly useful character, but must at

planation which alone

will satisfy the inquiring

technical people throughout the land, either

students or those in actual practice.

mathematical processes needful in the development of the higher

solids are stated in

Hence the north and south

when transforming any equation

into the linear

form for the purpose of determining the law correlating two

Alignment charts are here explained in the

Goldsmiths' College, New Cross, S.E., January, 19 iS.

NOTE TO SECOND EDITION

whilst a few exercises have

NOTE TO THIRD EDITION

Previous knowledge Definitions weights and measures Useful constants.

Indices Logarithms: i. Reading from Determination of characteristic Antilogarithms Ap-

Investigation for units.

With two unknowns. 2. The remainder and

Solution of surd equations.

maximum and minimum

Arithmetic and geometric progression,

The expansion of sin (A + B), A 3 A and 4 A in terms of the

AREAS OF IRREGULAR CURVED FIGURES

CALCULATION OF EARTHWORK VOLUMES

THE CONSTRUCTION OF PRACTICAL CHARTS

VARIOUS ALGEBRAIC PROCESSES, MOSTLY INTRODUCTORY TO

491 492 494

496 498 500 502 504 506 508

MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS

not explained in detail