Global Implications of Western

Education on the Antipolo/Amduntug

Ifugao
One should resist the temptation to view tribal societies in isolation from the influences of Western
culture. This article shows the tremendous influence Western society has had on tribal
cultures to the degree that some have become peasant societies. What and how they are affected also
influences the way tribal and peasant peoples perceive Christianity.

by Tom Steffen

I n this paper I will consider some of

the major implications western
education had, and continues to have,
these “stairsteps to the sky” would
span approximately 20,000
They also depict the race that devel-
miles.
their children sent to them for educa-
tion in the cities. Wise Christian work-
ers do not minimize the preexisting
upon the Antipolo/Amduntug Ifugao oped centuries ago and maintains linkages between the urban, peasant,
of the Philippines, and identify several them currently today: industrious, and tribal societies.
avenues the Ifugao have taken to pre- ingenious, persistent, strong, and
serve their cultural identity in the independent.
International Linkages
midst of such powerful influences. To
accomplish this I will first look at the Wolf (1982), who takes a Marxist
National Linkages diachronic view of history, argues that
educational philosophies of the two
One should not view tribal socie- no society stands totally independent
major international educational
ties in isolation from the influences of from any other society. He contents
players in the history of the Philip-
urban society (Steffen 1993). While that the world is totally integrated
pines, the Spanish and the American.
geographical distances may exist with each specific part affected to
I will follow this by identifying how the
between some tribal societies and
two educational systems influence some extent by the whole. The basic
urban societies, the latter often have
traditional Ifugao values. cause for these global linkages,
plans for, and exert a powerful hold
argues Wolf, is economics, that is, the
upon the former. For example, urban-
system of how goods are produced,
Background ites provide public education for tri-
consumed, dispersed, and so forth. As
The Antipolo/Amduntug Ifugao, bals (often with teachers from outside
societies are inevitably brought
numbering around 3,200, make their the tribal dialect). The urbanites ask
together through economics and
home in the Kiangan municipality of for land declarations so they can
modes of production, conflict results,
Ifugao Province, Central Luzon, Philip- issue land titles, and in some cases,
creating continual change to all socie-
pines. They are located on the south collect taxes. Tribals institute commu-
western border of Ifugao. The Antipolo ties involved. Wolf views the conflict
nity councils to interact with the
Ifugao speak the Keley-i Kallahan dia- induced changes as positive.
national government. They go to town
lect while the Amduntug Ifugao speak to purchase necessities and to sell The Philippines has experienced
Yattuka, both of which are included in their goods. As for education, tribal the control of three foreign powers:
Kallahan, a subfamily of Ifugao, a families often find themselves sending the Spanish, the American twice, and
branch of the Malayopolynesian lan- their children to cities for higher edu- the Japanese. The Spanish and Amer-
guages (McFarland 1980:76). These cation. In the religious realm, major icans brought with them their educa-
people, along with other groups of Ifu- religions, such as, Catholicism or tional systems which has had signifi-
gao, are known for creating the eighth Islam, etc.., continue to have some cant influence on all Filipinos,
wonder of the world—the Ifugao rice success with tribals, if not directly in including the Ifugao highlanders. The
terraces. If stretched out in a line the geographical areas, then through Antipolo/Amduntug Ifugao cannot be

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Global Implications of Western Education
understood adequately apart from an Focusing on the Filipinos’ Spanish—these would eventually cost
understanding of the educational response to Spanish education him his life.
influences brought to the Philippines Schwartz also divides the educational Other factors helped bring about
from the distant shores of Spain and history of the Philippines into three a change of climate to Philippine edu-
America. In this system education phases, but with different time cation. One was the opening of the
and economics are closely connected, frames: 1) Filipinos take teaching Suez Canal which brought many more
Wolf’s premise of international link- roles in mission schools and start visitors and trade to the Philippines. A
ages becomes obvious. Just as there their own private schools following the middle-class eventually developed,
are national linkages that affect tribal Spanish pattern (1590-1640), 2) edu- seeking indigenous education.
peoples, so there are international cation extended throughout the Another factor was the influence of
linkages. islands but Filipino mission schools European Liberalism on Spain which
and attendance remained virtually the resulted in the legal foundation for
same (1640-1840), and 3) Filipinos
Spanish Influences primary education for every Filipino.
attended their own private and secon- Even so, schooling for Filipinos after
In 1565, the Spanish discovered
dary school along with a number the Educational Decree of 1863
the Philippines. With the sword in one
attending the University of Santa remained rooted in the propagation of
hand and a Bible in the other they
Thomas. Still others sought degrees in
began to systematically conquer the Spanish values. This is evident in one
Europe (1841-1896).
islands. Along with the conquest came way through the teaching style that
Schwartz’s insightful observation consisted basically of the memoriza-
a great influx of Spanish citizens. As
raises two contrasting characteristics tion of religious materials in contrast
more and more Spanish moved to the
of the Filipino: the ability to imitate to the development of analytical or
conquered Philippines it became nec-
and the love for independence. In language skills (Hunt and McHale
essary for the Spanish government to
Schwartz’s first phase Filipinos began 1965:64).
set up schools to educate their own
their own private schools patterned
children, from primary to the univer- The first American census (1903)
after the Spanish counterparts. Fili-
sity level. In that the Spanish did not revealed that only around 20 percent
pino priests who were not allowed to
separate church and state, education of the adult population claimed any
establish their own parishes because
included vigorous instruction in the exposure to formal education or
of the type of blood that flowed in
Catholic religion. fluency in the Spanish language
their veins often pioneered these
But the Spanish were not only (Smith and Cheung 1981:29-30). Nev-
schools. Some may have joined the
interested in educating their own, so ertheless, Spanish education helped a
movement just to make a living.
they instituted separate schools to small but influential group of Filipi-
Whether their motives were religious
educate the Filipinos. The purpose of nos, formerly controlled by fatalism,
or economic, the Spanish school
the Catechism Schools was not to pro- to see that the physical world could
served as a model for the Filipino
vide Filipinos an avenue of upward be changed. They learned that nature
schools.
social mobility, but rather dissemi- was not capricious; that people and
By the time of Schwartz’s third
nate “colonial-Hispanic-Catholic” val- God were all a part of a rational sys-
phase, the independence characteris-
ues. tem; that answers to people’s prob-
tic became evident. The Filipinos had
lems could be found in the West
Alzona (1932) divides the educa- their own primary and secondary
(Hunt and McHale 1965:65). This set
tional history of the Philippines under schools called Latinities (still pat-
the stage for the Filipinos’ next colo-
Spanish rule into three periods: 1) terned after the Spanish model) which
nial master.
founding the schools (1565-1768), 2) qualified their graduates for entry into
progress of education (1768-1863), the Spanish controlled universities.
and 3) the educational decree and But the Filipino tired of Spanish American Influences
after (1863-1898). Schwartz (1971) racism. Alzona (1932:168) was con- While the Spanish used the sword
believes this breakdown correctly vinced the objective of Spanish educa- and the Bible to colonize their new
emphasizes the educational policies tion was to make Filipinos “the pas- subjects the Americans used Krag
and practices of Spanish colonialism sive, servile and blind servants of the rifles and American textbooks. After
but fails to take into consideration friars.” So was Jose Rizal, a renown the Americans defeated the Spanish
how the Filipinos used education for national hero, who authored two key and took control of the Philippines a
their own purposes. books calling for the overthrow of the call went out for American teachers.

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Tom Steffen
According to the Philippine Islands Unlike the Spanish, the Ameri- sufficiently to carry over into their
Board this was “because of the cans separated church and state adult lives. They blamed this not on
absence of an educational system in (excluding the Protestant work ethic), the teachers, but lack of time spent by
the Islands from which teachers could focusing on the secular. The reason the children in school. They also
be procured” (1925:17) to set up a given for the de-emphasis of religious called for textbooks that would reflect
nation-wide public school system in instruction in the schools by the Phi- Filipino culture rather than American
the Philippines patterned after that of lippine Island Board (1925:99) was culture.
the United States. By One of the goals of
1901, American teach- the American administra-
ers began arriving in the Spanish education helped a small tion was to develop a core
Philippines armed with of Filipino teachers to
western values. One of
but influential group of Filipinos,
replace the American
these teachers, Roy Bar- formerly controlled by fatalism, to see teachers. The training of
ton (1969a; 1969b), that the physical world could be these Filipinos, however,
taught and conducted changed. They learned that nature was was all too often not that
significant anthropologi- thorough. The Philippine
cal fieldwork among the
not capricious; that people and God
Islands Board provided
Kiangan Ifugao. Before were all a part of a rational system; and some statistics on the
the teachers arrived, that answers to people’s problems American/Filipino
however, the American could be found in the West. teacher ratio after twenty
military staffed and years of effort and the
organized the first ele- influence:
mentary schools in ...the crux of the whole spoken
1898 (Gates 1973). that around a hundred years of exper- English problem lies in the oral
imentation with this issue in the speech of the Filipino teachers. Of
The Americans set out to pacify the 27,305 teachers in the teach-
the Filipino by providing every Filipino American public school system ing personnel 26,980 are Filipi-
resulted only in “religious dissensions nos. The influence on the spoken
child a free elementary education. The
English of the Islands of the 325
imported curriculum promised every and antagonisms,” therefore, religious American teachers who are now in
Filipino child the opportunity to learn instruction should fall under the func- the schools is practically nil
(1925:154).
to read, prefer democracy, work hard tion of the Church and family. Never-
theless, the Americans did allow relig- Funding for the massive project of
(long fingernails had to go as factories
ious instruction to be taught in the free elementary education for all Fili-
needed workers), seek self-
schools to meet the needs of a deeply pino children could not be raised
improvement, have a common lan-
religious society. entirely from the Insular Government.
guage, grasp scientific thought, move
While the Philippine government
up the social ladder, and, be prepared In that the Americans only knew
favored the education plan, levying
to eventually govern themselves. English, and the textbooks were in
some education tax, the majority of
The Philippine Island Board English, English soon became the lan-
the funds came from the United
argued: “That every child should have guage medium in a nation of over a
States.
an elementary schooling is the ideal of hundred languages. It was not
uncommon for teachers to penalize The Americans took schooling far-
all modern public education”
students for using their own language ther down several roads the Spanish
(1925:33). So vigorous were the Amer-
at school. Filipinos found themselves did not traverse. Believing that the
ican’s activities that by 1918 “virtually
again required to learn the language “wealth of the Archipelago is agricul-
all of the colony’s 800 municipalities
of their colonial masters if they ture,” they instituted agricultural
had at least an elementary school
wished to be involved in commerce or schools, e.g., the Central Luzon Agri-
and, even more remarkably, one in
with the government. While the Amer- cultural School at Munoz. These
four of the more than 16,000 barrios
icans included Spanish in the curricu- schools took the emphasis on garden-
had some kind of school in operation”
lum it was seldom taught. ing in the elementary schools another
(Smith and Cheung 1981:30). Even
step—farming. The agricultural
the Catholic Church was influenced As for language ability, the Philip-
schools were to be independent of
by the Protestant work ethic inherent pine Islands Board (1925:45) felt the
other schools in the area, located in
within the American school system. children were not learning English
farming areas, and accept only stu-

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Global Implications of Western Education
and for what they accomplish
dents who planned this type of occu- abroad, especially in the U.S.A. This
(1970:55).
pation (which did not always happen). desire creates a “brain drain” as many
Following Lynch, I see themes
Not only was the Philippines in youth leave the Philippines in search
encompassing the more important val-
need of agricultural schools, they of lucrative jobs.
ues of a society. Opler (1945:198)
were also in need of industrial schools Elementary education continued
defines a theme as: “a postulate or
that could train Filipinos to produce with six grades while secondary edu-
position declared or implied, and usu-
commercial goods from local prod- cation was reduced to four years,
ally controlling behavior or stimulat-
ucts. Through these “hands-on” types resulting in a ten-year, pre-college
ing activity, which is tacitly approved
of schools the Americans strived to schooling. School uniforms stressed
or openly promoted in a society.” I will
make manual labor look attractive, an solidarity. Occupation is often unre-
now investigate eight major themes
attitude they believed the Spanish lated to college training, however, in
found in traditional Ifugao society:
had destroyed among the Filipino. that who one knows is often more
family, children, reciprocity, land,
The Spanish emphasized educa- important than what one knows (Hunt
rice, rice wine, animals, unity, sacrifi-
tion for males. The Americans and McHale 1965:71). American prag-
cial system, and education. (For a dis-
included females in education, where matism, Hunt and McHale also note,
cussion on the opposing themes, see
today, male and female students are did not “lead to a stress on science
Chapter 13 of my book Passing the
about equal in number (Smith and laboratories nor has the lecture and
Baton: Church Planting That Empow-
Cheung 1981). The Spanish pointed memorization approach been dis-
ers.)
Filipinos toward the west for scientific placed by discussion and experimen-
The Ifugao family is based on the
answers. The Americans continued tation” (1965:67).
bilateral system, common in all of the
this thinking. Both colonial powers While the Filipinos’ bent for imita-
Philippines, which includes relatives
created the feeling of dissatisfaction tion remains, they have not lost their
back to the third cousin on both sides
within the Filipino and a lust for mov- love for independence. English
of the mother and father. The ances-
ing up the social ladder, which often remained the national language until
tors and unborn comprise the invisi-
meant a move to the big city. Filipino (Tagalog) replaced it in the
ble extended family. Within the
early 1970’s under a new rise of
nuclear family, says Barton
Contemporary Filipino nationalism. Because of the Filipino’s
(1969a:18), a husband and wife,
Education love for imitation and independence, a
“...are never united into one family.
love-hate relationship remains with
The Filipinos have retained many They are merely allies.” Should a dis-
their former colonial powers.
of the values and institutes brought to pute arise between a husband and
their shores by past colonial powers. wife the families on either side will
Positive features include: 1) a nation- Traditional Ifugao back their own.
wide literacy program that provides a Themes According to Barton (p. 85): “An
means of social mobility for a number Every society has a shared set of Ifugao’s family is his nation.” He
of youth, 2) a nation-wide education values that serve as a guide to life for states elsewhere: “The family is the
system that provided the ground work its members. Bock defines cultural only thing of the nature of an organi-
for the Philippines to become one the values as: “shared conceptions of zation that the Ifugao has, and he
world’s highest student ratio for col- what is desirable, they are ideals cherishes it accordingly (p. 8). Any-
lege education (Hunt and McHale which the members of some social thing that would attempt to break up
1965:70), 3) female students that bal- group accept....and which therefore the Ifugao family (pamilyah) will be
ance the number of male students, 4) influence the behavior of group mem- met with resistance. For example,
agricultural schools remain highly bers” (1969:407). Lynch believes that should the reputation of a family
esteemed, 5) age-grading for classes values should be distinguished from member be challenged by an outsider,
remains in that it corresponds with themes when he states: the accused can most always count
the Filipino’s own age-grouping (bar- The extremely basic values, or on his family to back him. Again Bar-
kada), and 6) independence and indi- themes, are....buried below two ton says, “A member of an Ifugao fam-
levels of less fundamental values;
vidualism fostered through the school namely instrumental values, ily assists in the punishment of
system has helped erase the “little which are important only for what offenders against any other member of
they can achieve or get, and inter-
brown brother” image. A negative fea- mediate values, which people
his family, and resists the punish-
ture includes the search for education appreciate both for what they are ment of members of his family by

International Journal of Frontier Missions

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Tom Steffen
other families (p. 7). On the other stingy (makinit), one of the worst thing and spirits ask the spirits of certain
hand, should two brothers, or any any Ifugao can be called. Just as an things (animals, money, bolos, betel
children of a family, fight for any rea- Ifugao is expected to share what they nut, skirts, loin clothes, blankets, rice
son the family is deeply shamed. The have, they can expect to receive from wine, and so forth) in exchange for
family should always stand together others those things they need. protection from sickness and misfor-
for therein, and only therein, is found The theme of reciprocity can be tune, or to gain material wealth.
true security. The bigger the family, seen in the parent/child relationship. Receiving gifts (tangible and intangi-
the more security. ble) is a two-way street.
The child (u-ungnga) is Land (puyek) is another
the central figure in the Ifugao important theme among the
family. Says Barton: “The Ifu- Life is changing fast for the Ifugao. Land provides the Ifu-
gao family exists principally Ifugao. Desires from within and gao access to many food
for the child members of it” (p. sources, cash crops, materi-
pressures from without are
30). Agreeing and adding the als, and therefore the opportu-
reason why, Hoebel helping create a new Ifugao nity to expand wealth. Parents
(1967:104) contents: “Because capable of coping with a fast have their children inherit the
children provide the continu- changing world. land early in life, with the old-
ity essential to the perpetua- est child usually receiving the
tion of the kinship group, the largest and best share—if not
small family exists primarily for its Ifugao law demands that parents take all of it.
child members.” Children are so care of their children while they are The Ifugao distinguish numerous
important to an Ifugao couple that young. But when the parents grow types of land. In the village (bebley),
divorce is almost assured should they old, Ifugao law expects the children to families usually have a small piece of
not be able to produce offspring after reciprocate that care. land for their home. Outside the vil-
a period of time. The theme of reciprocity is also lage, most have ponds (payew) where
From the time of birth an Ifugao evident in the work force. Groups they grow wet rice, the main food sta-
child is never left alone. Should the (ubbu) work together in the fields. ple. Those families who own land with
baby cry, he/she will receive immedi- When a field owner calls a workday, water sources are envied because
ate attention. If the parents are not other workers, usually the same par- their fields will receive ample water.
able to quiet the baby they become ticipants, will join him. On another Those having fields down the line will
extremely upset. day, someone else will call a workday. have to settle with whatever water is
As the children grow, they are He can expect to receive help from left over. Some will own grasslands
never forced to do anything they do those he has helped. Should those (patulan) where animals can be pas-
not want to do. For example, even if summoned not be able to make it, tured. Most will have forest land (muy-
the child is extremely sick but does they will send another representative ung) where firewood, wood for the con-
not wish to take the prescribed medi- from the family. struction of a home and granary,
cine, no medicine will be given. Par- The sacrificial system demon- vines for basket weaving, herbs, and
ents give the children whatever they strates reciprocity. One example is so forth, can be found. Coffee trees
desire. Should the child desire an found in a major sacrifice where many will also be planted under the cool
education the family will go into animals are killed. In that it is often shade of taller trees providing the Ifu-
extreme debt to see the child’s will ful- impossible for the participants to con- gao the biggest cash crop. All will
filled. The child is central to the Ifu- sume all the meat, and there are no have land for swidden farming (habal)
gao family. refrigerators, meat is sent home with to grow crops for consumption and/or

Another major theme is that of the attendees and given out to the sale. The numerous civil cases dealing

reciprocity (man-indawdawat). From neighbors. The provider of this meat with land disputes argues the impor-

early childhood community members will not go unrewarded. On another tance of this important commodity.

teach the young the importance of occasion his family will receive meat Rice (pagey) is the Ifugao’s basic
sharing. No matter what the child has from someone else’s sacrifice. food staple. Without rice as a meal,
he is to share it with those around Reciprocity also carries over in the Ifugao will not feel full. Much of
him for no one wants to be called the spirit world where the ancestors an Ifugao’s life is spent in the rice ter-

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Global Implications of Western Education
races securing the food he loves so agreement, the litigants drink rice believers manifest the concept of
dearly. Until the late 1970’s, they wine, signifying a settlement. The Ifu- unity when they refer to unbelievers
planted and harvested only once a gao consider it unethical for people in as those who have not yet believed
year because “that is what our ances- disagreement to drink together. (eleg ni pay mangullug).
tors told us to do” (“tep humman inhel After land, Ifugao rank animals as Schools have long been a part of
ni a-ammed mi”). Some new believers the second most important commod- the Ifugao world. Those who remem-
decided to try for two crops in one ity. Of the animal world, they consider ber the Japanese invasion often talk
year. In that the ancestors did not kill water buffaloes (newang) the most sig- about the U.S. aircraft that went
them, two crops per year are now nificant. They use water buffaloes to down in the school yard. The Ameri-
common in the wider, easier to work, work the gently sloped terraces, sav- cans set up and administered the Ifu-
terraces. ing hours of manual labor. Should gao schools from grade one through
After harvest, the Ifugao count the logs from the forest be needed for fire- six. Teachers instructed in English,
bundles of rice before storing them in wood or construction, the water buf- used American textbooks and levied
the granary. That does not mean the falo drag them in. But water buffalo small fines on students caught using
rice cannot increase. Shamans not only meet the needs of the living, their own dialect. (Some Ifugao can
(mabeki) conduct special sacrifices to they also meet the needs of the ances- still recite the capitols of all the states
increase the rice so that it will extend tors and/or spirits through sacrifices
in the U.S.) Those who attended
till the next harvest. called for in major rituals, such as
school initially tend to speak English
weddings or death.
Not only do Ifugao store rice in without accent. Today, English often
the granary, in some cases they store The Ifugao’s second most sought serves as the medium for Ifugao inter-
it in the home. This provides those after animal is the pig (killum) fol- acting with outsiders.
who own numerous rice fields the lowed by the chickens (manuk). Like
Today, Filipinos staff the grade
opportunity to display their wealth to the water buffalo, they use pigs only
schools in Antipolo and Amduntug,
visitors. The larger the pile of bundles in sacrifices of significance. Ifugao will
some of whom are Ifugao. Teachers
go into great debt to secure these ani-
of rice in a corner of the house, the from outside Ifugao will most likely
mals if the sacrifice demands them.
wealthier the family (baknang). speak Ilocano although will be quite
Shamans use chickens in virtually
The Ifugao plant a number of fluent in English. In the late 1970’s,
every sacrifice. Before the late 1970’s,
types of rice, one of which is dayyak- under the rise of nationalism, English
the Ifugao killed water buffaloes, pigs
ket. From this rice wine (bubud) is textbooks were translated into Taga-
and chickens for the express purpose
made. While wine fermented for three log at the primary level. The young
of sacrifice. When Christianity took
days is quite mild, by the time ten or Ifugao student became a victim of this
hold the new believers asked what
more days pass, it takes only a small policy in that teachers often spoke
they should do with the animals now
amount to make someone drunk. languages unknown to the student
that they no longer sacrificed. Other
The Ifugao serve rice wine at all and used textbooks printed in Eng-
animals, such as goats (gelding), cat-
important occasions. Any sacrifice of tle (baka), ducks (gawgawwa) and lish.
any significance will include rice wine. dogs (aso) were introduced from the While studying a western curricu-
The ritual priests sip wine for each set lowlands and not normally used in lum the young Ifugao is exposed to
of ancestors and spirits they call to sacrifices. values that sometimes contradicts tra-
attend the sacrifice. They also use Most Ifugao seek to preserve unity ditional values (hidden curriculum).
wine as a libation. Workers expect to (ulnus). Few village meetings or civil Teachers teach the students the
receive rice wine at any work function, cases go by without someone calling beauty of flowers through raising
such as planting, harvesting, building for unity between the two opposing them and learn to tend gardens. They
a house, sawing lumber in the forest, parties. The Ifugao know that disunity learn to appreciate the delicate bal-
and so forth. The Ifugao believe rice will destroy their closely knit society. ance of nature in relation to farming,
wine and work should always go They believe they survive because value cleanliness and personal
together for wine strengthens the they eat, drink, work, play and sacri- hygiene (regarding brushing one’s
worker. fice together. Community members teeth and using the outhouse). Teach-
Another interesting use of rice attack any form of independence ers also allow qualified religious advo-
wine is after the settlement of a civil through verbal confrontation, or in cates (Protestant or Catholic) to pro-
case. When both parties reach an more serious cases, sorcery. The vide religious instruction.

International Journal of Frontier Missions

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Tom Steffen
Formerly, a student who wished fices tend to follow the calendric agri- return, the ancestors and/or spirits
to enter high school had two options. cultural cycle, peaking in October and will cause the offerer’s animals to
The first, go to Kiangan (a three hour November with weddings and other have numerous offspring, thus mak-
hike away), board five days a week wealth-oriented sacrifices. The second ing them wealthy. The increase in fer-
and attend St. Joseph’s school, pio- class of sacrifices occur whenever tility can also extend to the wife.
neered by Jerome Moerman in 1910. needed, such as sickness or death. The words that surfaced most fre-
The second, the Ifugao Academy Whether the Ifugao sacrifices for quently in approximately 300 pages of
established by Miss Myrtle Metzger in wealth or hardship, Barton astutely random Ifugao text material were
1925, presently under the United observes: those pertaining to wealth (pihhuh,
Christian Church of the Phi- baknang, kedangyang). The
lippines (Dumia 1979:39,53). traditional Ifugao spends his
Students who attend either The Ifugao worldview cannot entire life advancing through
secondary schools will receive be understood apart from the five major sacrifices per-
instruction in the respective taining to wealth (balihung,
religions. Today, a third
understanding the global
leteb, balihung, baleg,
option exists, a government historical, socio-economic and hagebi). Should an Ifugao be
school located in Amduntug. political influences on the able to complete a hagebi (a
Most Ifugao parents Philippines. The values large carved log that is placed
encourage their children to under the home for all to
promoted in the past by Spain and
get as much formal education admire) he will most likely
as possible. They proudly dis-
the United States continue to have exhausted all wealth
play pictures of graduates for play a major role in influencing because of the numerous ani-
all visitors to admire. Their Ifugao society. mals required for all the sac-
children’s homework deco- rifices. But while his animals
rates the walls. They willingly may be depleted he has
sacrifice to buy the necessary placed those who partici-
school uniforms and shoes. The par- The constant demand for sacri- pated in his sacrifices in his debt.
ents know that should their children fices has greatly stimulated economic Reciprocity reigns.
receive a salaried job someday in the activity, especially that of the male, Wealth is displayed in numerous
city some of that salary will flow back and has led to a great deal of borrow- ways among the traditional Ifugao. I
to the family. ing, which in some ways strengthens previously noted two, rice bundles in
While the educational system kinship solidarity. The demands of the home and the hagebi. A third is
challenges the Ifugao’s values in some prestige feasts are particularly note- the adorning of homes with water buf-
areas (time, individualism, under- worthy in the extent to which they fos- falo horns and pig skulls. These
standing separated from activity, and ter industry and accumulation objects symbolize that the family who
so forth), it reinforces them in others: (1969b:210). offered them was wealthy, they could
peer-groups, family and kinship ties, The Ifugao sacrifice for three basic afford the sacrifices, and will become
separation of sexes, discipline, and reasons: 1) health (endi degeh) , 2) wealthier because of continued sacri-
modesty for females (Steffen 1997b). long life (ketu-tuan), and 3) wealth fice. Another display of wealth is the
Schooling also enables children to (kedangyang), which seems to include various types of loincloths and skirts
help their parents (some illiterate) in the first two. The Ifugao believe that woven by the women. As the Ifugao
the ever increasing amount of unfa- long life and health are evidence of complete the various wealth related
miliar government paper. blessing from the ancestors and spir- sacrifices, the husband and wife indi-
The last major theme, the sacrifi- its. This is important because longev- cated their new rank by the type of
cial system (baki), is the central ity and health provide more opportu- loincloth or skirt worn.
theme around which all other themes nity to acquire wealth. Even in natural death the Ifugao
revolve. The Antipolo/Amduntug Ifu- Here is how the sacrificial system emphasize wealth. Numerous sacri-
gao have two basic types of sacrifices works. The Ifugao provide the ances- fices (penanglian, panhengngaan,
that fall under the term, henga. The tors and/or spirits whatever they penengbuan, penengbuan, penglen-
Ifugao use the first set of sacrifices, desire, i.e., the spirits of animals, gan, dawdawat) that may take a
keleng, to acquire wealth. These sacri- blankets, rice wine, and so forth. In month to complete all relate to wealth.

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Global Implications of Western Education
They place dirt in the home of the education. That means shoes and uni- promoted formally and informally
dead but do not sweep it out until all forms for at least ten years. Should through the local school system fires
the sacrifices are completed. To sweep the children go on to college the price the Ifugao’s latent desire for personal
the dirt out early would be to sweep tag increases dramatically. Tuition, independence. As gardens increase,
out the possibility of gaining wealth. boarding, and books, soon deplete the the need for large work groups has
Should a husband die, the wife is not family’s resources. Should a number decreased. Group unity seems to have
to bathe for a month. When she does of siblings desire a college education moved from cooperation on the larger
bathe she is to do it in the family rice at the same time the family finds itself level of agriculture territories to coop-
pond so that the wealth will remain strapped for cash. eration on the smaller levels, e.g.,
there. As the population increases and churches and business adventures.
Until the late 1970’s, the dead the water sources decrease as water The Ifugao still value animals
were transferred to the houses of his/ sheds are destroyed, land has become highly, but no longer for the sole pur-
her children. The wealthier the dead, a premium. This has caused a num- pose of sacrifice. Rather than waiting
the longer he/she remained unburied ber of reactions. Many young Ifugao for the ancestors and spirits to bless
(twenty-one days is the longest I have head for the cities looking for work, the family through the fertility of their
heard). The person (usually someone and remain. Some establish small animals, they can gain quick cash by
of that village) who carries the body businesses selling fertilizers for rice, selling the animals whenever a need
on his naked back (pengbaan ni netey) and so forth. Others establish supply arises. They can use some of the cash
from one village to another hopes that lines to the cities to sell goods raised for their children’s education.
some of the body fluids of the in the mountains. Still others, many While Christianity played a major
deceased will drip on him. Should this of whom are females, use advanced role in changing the use of animals in
happen, upon returning home he will schooling as a means to land salaried Ifugao society, other influences
perform a sacrifice to gain the wealth jobs. As the Philippines experiences included the need for cash to pur-
of the deceased. Life for the traditional “brain drain” to other nations, so the chase rice and other necessities (inter-
Ifugao revolved around the acquisition Ifugao community experiences “youth nal pressures), along with the expense
of wealth through the sacrificial sys- drain” to the cities. Those who remain of education that promises future divi-
tem (emin umlaw di baknangan). in the villages take up gardening dends (external pressure). Certificates
(learned at school) to produce cash and diplomas, therefore, begin to
Contemporary Ifugao crops to buy rice (never supplemented replace skulls and horns displayed on
Themes before) and other supplies from the homes as status symbols. For many
cities. Ifugao, formal education replaced the
Life is changing fast for the Anti-
sacrificial system as a means to
polo/Amduntug Ifugao. Desires from While many Ifugao move out of
obtain wealth. Education moved to
within the tribe and pressures from the tribal area to find a way of making
the center of the theme chart, replac-
without are helping create a new Ifu- a living, money continues to flow back
ing the sacrificial system as a means
gao capable of coping with a fast to the village. Children tend not to for-
to obtain health, wealth, and long life.
changing world. Some of these outside get their debt of gratitude to their par-
factors that affect the major Ifugao ents. The use of rice wine has dimin-
themes include the following. ished but the Ifugao’s taste for Preserving and
The family remains the Ifugao’s alcoholic beverages has not. The Integrating
nation that provides security. The world renown San Miquel beer and While the sacrificial system slowly
centrality of the children still remains, White Castle whiskey produced in the becomes a part of Ifugao history, the
but with a few distinctions. While the cities has replaced much of the home- desire for health, wealth, and long life
Ifugao still desire children, self- made rice wine used on social occa- continues. The Ifugao search for a
administered abortion is on the rise, sions. substitute for the sacrificial system to
as is sterilization after three children. While the call for unity (ulnus) is acquire these felt needs. For many,
Why this change of attitude towards still heard it has lost much of its for- education has become that substitute
children? One reason is often heard— mer power. Competing religious sys- in that it provides the means to tap
it’s expensive to raise children. For tems now vie for converts, dividing vil- outside sources to increase the fam-
children to make it in today’s world, lages and families. The western values ily’s wealth. Many Ifugao believe eco-
reasons the Ifugao, they must have of independence and individualism nomic development is premised on

International Journal of Frontier Missions

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Tom Steffen
educational attainment. The Ifugao’s whether one claims to be Catholic or Philippine Islands Board of Educa-
need for a religion that speaks to Protestant. tional Survey, 1925, Educational
these same needs is found in Catholi- System of the Philippine Islands.
cism or Protestantism, with various References Manila: Bureau of Printing.
modifications. Schwartz, Karl, 1971, “Filipino Educa-
Alzona, Encarnacion, 1932, A History
The micro-culture of Ifugao is of Education in the Philippines, tion and Spanish Colonialism:
slowly giving way to the macro-culture 1565-1930. Manila: University of Toward an Autonomous Perspec-
of the Philippines, yet retains the tri- the Philippines Press. tive.” Comparative Education
bal identity in those areas of deepest Review 15(2): 202-218.
Barton, R. F., 1969a, Ifugao Law. Los
concern to Ifugao society. And this is
Angeles: University of California Smith, Peter C. and Paul P. L.
what most Ifugao prefer, tribal iden-
Press.1969b, The Religion of the Ifu- Cheung, 1981, “Social Origins and
tity within the national system,
gaos. New York: Kraus Reprint Co. Sex-differential Schooling in the
including its global western influ-
Bock, Philip K., 1969, Modern Cultural Philippines.” Comparative Educa-
ences.
Anthropology: An Introduction. New tion Review 25(1): 28-44.
York: Alfred A. Knopf. Steffen, Tom A., 1993, “Urban-Rural
Conclusion Dumia, Mariano A., 1979, The Ifugao Networks and Strategies.” Urban
The Antipolo/Amduntug Ifugao World. Quezon City: New Day Pub- Mission 10(3): 37-42. 1997a, Pass-
worldview cannot be understood apart lishers. ing the Baton: Church Planting That
from understanding the global histori-
Foster, George M., 1973, Traditional Empowers. La Habra, CA: Center
cal, socio-economic and political influ-
Societies and Technological Change. for Organizational & Ministry
ences on the Philippines. The values
San Francisco: Harper & Row, Pub- Development (rev. ed.). 1997b,
promoted in the past by Spain and
lishers. “Socialization Among the Ifugao:
the United States continue to play a
Gates, John Morgan, 1993, School- Guidelines for Curriculum Develop-
major role in influencing Ifugao soci-
books and Krags: The United States ment.” International Journal of
ety. The macro-levels influence the
Army in the Philippines 1898-1902. Frontier Missions 14(4): 191-197.
micro-levels.
Westport, Conn: Greenwood.
Filipino schools, patterned off of
Hoelbel, E. A., 1954, The Law of Pri-
Spanish and American schools, con-
mitve Man. Cambridge: Harvard
tinue to serve as propagation tools for
University Press.
westernization. Hunt and McHale
(1965:70) astutely observe: “By its Hunt, Chester and Thomas R.
very existence the school serves as a McHale, 1965, “Education and Phi- Dr. Tom Steffen
reminder of a world beyond the bar- lippine Economic Development.” served 15 years
Photo
rio.” Foster would agree. Observing Comparative Education Review 9 here as a missionary
village improvements, such as health (1): 63-73. of in the
facilities and schools, whets the Lynch, Frank, 1970, “Social Accep- Steffen Philippines
tance Reconsidered” in Frank with New
youth’s appetite for the good life in the
Tribes Mission.
cities while at the same time better Lynch and A. de Guzman, Four
Currently he is
preparing villagers for competing in Readings on Philippine Values.
associate
the city’s work force (1973:52). Quezon city: Ateneo de Manila Uni-
professor of Intercultural Studies at
Schools promote values that versity Press. Biola University in La Mirada,
recreate societies. Ifugao society, McFarland, Curtis D., 1980, “A Lin- California.
while retaining certain Ifugao distinc- guistic Atlas of the Philippines”
tives considered important, is at the Studies of Languages and Cultures
same time being recreated by the Fili- of Asia and Africa. Monograph
pino educational system brought to Series No. 15.
the archipelago by the Spanish and Opler, Morris E., 1945,”Themes as
Americans. Wealth formerly sought Dynamic Forces in Culture.” Ameri-
through the sacrificial system is pres- can Journal of Sociology 51: 198-
ently sought through education, 206.

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106

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International Journal of Frontier Missions