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Top-Down Parsing: - The Parse Tree Is Created Top To Bottom. - Top-Down Parser

- Top-down parsing builds the parse tree from the top-down. There are two main types of top-down parsing: recursive descent parsing and predictive parsing. - Recursive descent parsing uses backtracking if a production rule choice does not work, while predictive parsing avoids backtracking by using special LL(1) grammars. - LL(1) parsing uses a predictive parsing table to uniquely determine the production rule based on the next input symbol, without backtracking. Not all grammars can be converted to LL(1) grammars without ambiguity.

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105 views

Top-Down Parsing: - The Parse Tree Is Created Top To Bottom. - Top-Down Parser

- Top-down parsing builds the parse tree from the top-down. There are two main types of top-down parsing: recursive descent parsing and predictive parsing. - Recursive descent parsing uses backtracking if a production rule choice does not work, while predictive parsing avoids backtracking by using special LL(1) grammars. - LL(1) parsing uses a predictive parsing table to uniquely determine the production rule based on the next input symbol, without backtracking. Not all grammars can be converted to LL(1) grammars without ambiguity.

Uploaded by

Chandra Sekhar D
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© Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
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Top-Down Parsing

The parse tree is created top to bottom. Top-down parser


Recursive-Descent Parsing
Backtracking is needed (If a choice of a production rule does not work, we backtrack to try other alternatives.) It is a general parsing technique, but not widely used. Not efficient

Predictive Parsing
no backtracking efficient needs a special form of grammars (LL(1) grammars). Recursive Predictive Parsing is a special form of Recursive Descent parsing without backtracking. Non-Recursive (Table Driven) Predictive Parser is also known as LL(1) parser.

Recursive-Descent Parsing (uses Backtracking)


Backtracking is needed. It tries to find the left-most derivation. S aBc B bc | b S input: abc S

a
b

B
c

B
b

fails, backtrack

Predictive Parser
a grammar
eliminate
left recursion

left
factor

a grammar suitable for predictive parsing (a LL(1) grammar) no %100 guarantee.

When re-writing a non-terminal in a derivation step, a predictive parser can uniquely choose a production rule by just looking the current symbol in the input string.

A 1 | ... | n

input: ... a .......


current token

Predictive Parser (example)


stmt if ...... while ...... begin ...... for ..... | | |

When we are trying to write the non-terminal stmt, if the current token is if we have to choose first production rule. When we are trying to write the non-terminal stmt, we can uniquely choose the production rule by just looking the current token. We eliminate the left recursion in the grammar, and left factor it. But it may not be suitable for predictive parsing (not LL(1) grammar).

Recursive Predictive Parsing


Each non-terminal corresponds to a procedure. Ex: A aBb (This is only the production rule for A)

proc A { - match the current token with a, and move to the next token; - call B; - match the current token with b, and move to the next token; }

Recursive Predictive Parsing (cont.)


A aBb | bAB proc A { case of the current token { a: - match the current token with a, and move to the next token; - call B; - match the current token with b, and move to the next token; b: - match the current token with b, and move to the next token; - call A; - call B; } }

Recursive Predictive Parsing (cont.)


When to apply -productions. A aA | bB |

If all other productions fail, we should apply an -production. For example, if the current token is not a or b, we may apply the -production. Most correct choice: We should apply an -production for a nonterminal A when the current token is in the follow set of A (which terminals can follow A in the sentential forms).

Recursive Predictive Parsing (Example)


A aBe | cBd | C B bB | Cf
proc C { proc A { case of the current token { a: - match the current token with a, and move to the next token; - call B; - match the current token with e, and move to the next token; c: - match the current token with c, and move to the next token; - call B; - match the current token with d, and move to the next token; f: - call C } first set of C } match the current token with f, and move to the next token; }

proc B { case of the current token { b: - match the current token with b, and move to the next token; - call B e,d: do nothing } }

follow set of B

Non-Recursive Predictive Parsing -- LL(1) Parser


Non-Recursive predictive parsing is a table-driven parser. It is a top-down parser. It is also known as LL(1) Parser.

input buffer

stack

Non-recursive Predictive Parser Parsing Table

output

LL(1) Parser
input buffer
our string to be parsed. We will assume that its end is marked with a special symbol $.

output
a production rule representing a step of the derivation sequence (left-most derivation) of the string in the input buffer.

stack
contains the grammar symbols at the bottom of the stack, there is a special end marker symbol $. initially the stack contains only the symbol $ and the starting symbol S. $S initial stack when the stack is emptied (ie. only $ left in the stack), the parsing is completed.

parsing table
a two-dimensional array M[A,a] each row is a non-terminal symbol each column is a terminal symbol or the special symbol $ each entry holds a production rule.

LL(1) Parser Parser Actions


1. 2. 3. The symbol at the top of the stack (say X) and the current symbol in the input string (say a) determine the parser action. There are four possible parser actions. If X and a are $ parser halts (successful completion) If X and a are the same terminal symbol (different from $) parser pops X from the stack, and moves the next symbol in the input buffer. If X is a non-terminal parser looks at the parsing table entry M[X,a]. If M[X,a] holds a production rule XY1Y2...Yk, it pops X from the stack and pushes Yk,Yk-1,...,Y1 into the stack. The parser also outputs the production rule XY1Y2...Yk to represent a step of the derivation. none of the above error
all empty entries in the parsing table are errors. If X is a terminal symbol different from a, this is also an error case.

4.

LL(1) Parser Example1


S aBa B bB |
a b B bB $

S
B

S aBa
B

LL(1) Parsing Table

stack
$S $aBa $aB $aBb $aB $aBb $aB $a $

input
abba$ abba$ bba$ bba$ ba$ ba$ a$ a$ $

output
S aBa
B bB B bB B accept, successful completion

LL(1) Parser Example1 (cont.)


Outputs: S aBa B bB B bB B

Derivation(left-most): SaBaabBaabbBaabba
S

parse tree
a B a

b b

B B

LL(1) Parser Example2


E TE E +TE | T FT T *FT | F (E) | id id E E T T F F id E TE E +TE T FT T T *FT F (E) T FT T T + * ( E TE E E ) $

LL(1) Parser Example2


stack $E $ET $E TF $ E Tid $ E T $ E $ E T+ $ E T $ E T F $ E Tid $ E T $ E $ input id+id$ id+id$ id+id$ id+id$ +id$ +id$ +id$ id$ id$ id$ $ $ $ output E TE T FT F id T E +TE T FT F id T E accept

Constructing LL(1) Parsing Tables


Two functions are used in the construction of LL(1) parsing tables:
FIRST FOLLOW

FIRST() is a set of the terminal symbols which occur as first symbols in strings derived from where is any string of grammar symbols. if derives to , then is also in FIRST() . FOLLOW(A) is the set of the terminals which occur immediately after (follow) the non-terminal A in the strings derived from the starting symbol. * Aa a terminal a is in FOLLOW(A) if S * A $ is in FOLLOW(A) if S

Compute FIRST for Any String X


If X is a terminal symbol FIRST(X)={X} If X is a non-terminal symbol and X is a production rule is in FIRST(X). If X is a non-terminal symbol and X Y1Y2..Yn is a production rule if a terminal a in FIRST(Yi) and is in all FIRST(Yj) for j=1,...,i-1 then a is in FIRST(X). if is in all FIRST(Yj) for j=1,...,n then is in FIRST(X). If X is FIRST(X)={} If X is Y1Y2..Yn if a terminal a in FIRST(Yi) and is in all FIRST(Yj) for j=1,...,i-1 then a is in FIRST(X). if is in all FIRST(Yj) for j=1,...,n then is in FIRST(X).

FIRST Example
E TE E +TE | T FT T *FT | F (E) | id FIRST(F) = {(,id} FIRST(T) = {*, } FIRST(T) = {(,id} FIRST(E) = {+, } FIRST(E) = {(,id} FIRST(TE) = {(,id} FIRST(+TE ) = {+} FIRST() = {} FIRST(FT) = {(,id} FIRST(*FT) = {*} FIRST() = {} FIRST((E)) = {(} FIRST(id) = {id}

Compute FOLLOW (for non-terminals)


If S is the start symbol $ is in FOLLOW(S) if A B is a production rule everything in FIRST() is FOLLOW(B) except If ( A B is a production rule ) or ( A B is a production rule and is in FIRST() ) everything in FOLLOW(A) is in FOLLOW(B). We apply these rules until nothing more can be added to any follow set.

FOLLOW Example
E TE E +TE | T FT T *FT | F (E) | id FOLLOW(E) = { $, ) } FOLLOW(E) = { $, ) } FOLLOW(T) = { +, ), $ } FOLLOW(T) = { +, ), $ } FOLLOW(F) = {+, *, ), $ }

Constructing LL(1) Parsing Table -- Algorithm


for each production rule A of a grammar G for each terminal a in FIRST() add A to M[A,a] If in FIRST() for each terminal a in FOLLOW(A) add A to M[A,a] If in FIRST() and $ in FOLLOW(A) add A to M[A,$] All other undefined entries of the parsing table are error entries.

Constructing LL(1) Parsing Table -- Example


E TE E +TE E FIRST(TE)={(,id} FIRST(+TE )={+} E TE into M[E,(] and M[E,id] E +TE into M[E,+]

FIRST()={} none but since in FIRST() and FOLLOW(E)={$,)} E into M[E,$] and M[E,)] FIRST(FT)={(,id} FIRST(*FT )={*} T FT into M[T,(] and M[T,id] T *FT into M[T,*]

T FT T *FT T

FIRST()={} none but since in FIRST() and FOLLOW(T)={$,),+} T into M[T,$], M[T,)] and M[T,+] FIRST((E) )={(} F (E) into M[F,(]

F (E)

F id

FIRST(id)={id}

F id into M[F,id]

LL(1) Grammars
A grammar whose parsing table has no multiply-defined entries is said to be LL(1) grammar.
one input symbol used as a look-head symbol do determine parser action

LL(1)

left most derivation

input scanned from left to right

The parsing table of a grammar may contain more than one production rule. In this case, we say that it is not a LL(1) grammar.

A Grammar which is not LL(1)


SiCtSE | a EeS | Cb FIRST(iCtSE) = {i} FIRST(a) = {a} FIRST(eS) = {e} FIRST() = {} FIRST(b) = {b} FOLLOW(S) = { $,e } FOLLOW(E) = { $,e } FOLLOW(C) = { t }

a
S Sa E

e
EeS E

i
S iCtSE

$
E

Cb
two production rules for M[E,e]

Problem ambiguity

A Grammar which is not LL(1) (cont.)


What do we have to do it if the resulting parsing table contains multiply defined entries?
If we didnt eliminate left recursion, eliminate the left recursion in the grammar. If the grammar is not left factored, we have to left factor the grammar. If its (new grammars) parsing table still contains multiply defined entries, that grammar is ambiguous or it is inherently not a LL(1) grammar.

A left recursive grammar cannot be a LL(1) grammar.


A A |
any terminal that appears in FIRST() also appears FIRST(A) because A . If is , any terminal that appears in FIRST() also appears in FIRST(A) and FOLLOW(A).

A grammar is not left factored, it cannot be a LL(1) grammar


A 1 | 2
any terminal that appears in FIRST(1) also appears in FIRST(2).

An ambiguous grammar cannot be a LL(1) grammar.

Properties of LL(1) Grammars


A grammar G is LL(1) if and only if the following conditions hold for two distinctive production rules A and A 1. Both and cannot derive strings starting with same terminals. 2. At most one of and can derive to .

3. If can derive to , then cannot derive to any string starting with a terminal in FOLLOW(A).

Error Recovery in Predictive Parsing


An error may occur in the predictive parsing (LL(1) parsing) if the terminal symbol on the top of stack does not match with the current input symbol. if the top of stack is a non-terminal A, the current input symbol is a, and the parsing table entry M[A,a] is empty. What should the parser do in an error case? The parser should be able to give an error message (as much as possible meaningful error message). It should be recover from that error case, and it should be able to continue the parsing with the rest of the input.

Error Recovery Techniques


Panic-Mode Error Recovery
Skipping the input symbols until a synchronizing token is found.

Phrase-Level Error Recovery


Each empty entry in the parsing table is filled with a pointer to a specific error routine to take care that error case.

Error-Productions
If we have a good idea of the common errors that might be encountered, we can augment the grammar with productions that generate erroneous constructs. When an error production is used by the parser, we can generate appropriate error diagnostics. Since it is almost impossible to know all the errors that can be made by the programmers, this method is not practical.

Global-Correction
Ideally, we we would like a compiler to make as few change as possible in processing incorrect inputs. We have to globally analyze the input to find the error. This is an expensive method, and it is not in practice.

Panic-Mode Error Recovery in LL(1) Parsing


In panic-mode error recovery, we skip all the input symbols until a synchronizing token is found. What is the synchronizing token?
All the terminal-symbols in the follow set of a non-terminal can be used as a synchronizing token set for that non-terminal.

So, a simple panic-mode error recovery for the LL(1) parsing:


All the empty entries are marked as synch to indicate that the parser will skip all the input symbols until a symbol in the follow set of the non-terminal A which on the top of the stack. Then the parser will pop that non-terminal A from the stack. The parsing continues from that state. To handle unmatched terminal symbols, the parser pops that unmatched terminal symbol from the stack and it issues an error message saying that that unmatched terminal is inserted.

Panic-Mode Error Recovery - Example


S AbS | e | A a | cAd
FOLLOW(S)={$} FOLLOW(A)={b,d} stack $S $SbA $Sba $Sb $S $SbA $Sba $Sb $S $ input aab$ aab$ aab$ ab$ ab$ ab$ ab$ b$ $ $ output S AbS Aa Error: missing b, inserted S AbS Aa

a S S AbS A A a

$ sync

sync S AbS sync A cAd

sync S e S sync sync

S accept

stack input output $S ceadb$ S AbS $SbA ceadb$ A cAd $SbdAc ceadb$ $SbdA eadb$ Error:unexpected e (illegal A) (Remove all input tokens until first b or d, pop A) $Sbd db$ $Sb b$ $S $ S $ $ accept

Phrase-Level Error Recovery


Each empty entry in the parsing table is filled with a pointer to a special error routine which will take care that error case. These error routines may:
change, insert, or delete input symbols. issue appropriate error messages pop items from the stack.

We should be careful when we design these error routines, because we may put the parser into an infinite loop.

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