Gears

2
2.1

GEARS
Introduction

Gears are toothed elements that transmit rotary motion from one shaft to another. Gears are generally rugged and durable and their power transmission eciency is as high as 98 percent. Gears are usually more costly than chains and belts. American Gear Manufacturers Association, AGMA, has established standard tolerances for various degrees of gear manufacturing precision. Spurs gears are the simplest and most common type of gears. They are used to transfer motion between parallel shafts, and they have tooth that are parallel to the shaft axes.

2.2

Geometry and nomenclature

The basic requirement of gear-tooth geometry is the condition of angular velocity ratios that are exactly constant, i.e. the angular velocity ratio between a 30-tooth and a 90-tooth gear must be precisely 3 in every position. The action of a pair of gear teeth satisfying this criteria is named conjugate gear-tooth action. Law of conjugate gear-tooth action

Gears

The common normal to the surfaces at the point of contact of two gears in rotation must always intersect the line of centers at the same point P, called the pitch point. The law of conjugate gear-tooth action can be satised by various tooth shapes, but the one of current importance is the involute of the circle. An involute (of the circle) is the curve generated by any point on a taut thread as it unwinds from a circle, called the base circle (Fig. 2.1(a)). The involute can be dened also as the locus of a point on a taught string that is unwrapped from a cylinder. The circle that represents the cylinder is the base circle. Fig. 2.1(b) represents an involute generated from a base circle of radius rb starting at the point A. The radius of curvature of the involute at any point I is given by =
2 r2 rb ,

(2.1)

where r = OI . The involute pressure angle at I is dened as the angle between the normal to the involute IB and the normal to OI , = IOB . In any pair of mating gears, the smaller of the two is called the pinion and the larger one the gear. The term gear is used in a general sense to indicate either of the members and also in a specic sense to indicate the larger of the two. The angular velocity ratio between a pinion and a gear is

Gears (Fig. 2.2) i = p /g = dg /dp ,

(2.2)

where is the angular velocity and d is the pitch diameter, and the minus sign indicates that the two gears rotate in opposite directions. The pitch circles are the two circles, one for each gear, that remain tangent throughout the engagement cycle. The point of tangency is the pitch point. The diameter of the pitch circle is the pitch diameter. If the angular speed is expressed in rpm then the symbol n is preferred instead of . The diameter (without a qualifying adjective) of a gear always refers to its pitch diameter. If other diameters (base, root, outside, etc.) are intended, they are always specied. Similarly, d, without subscripts, refers to pitch diameter. The pitch diameters of a pinion and gear are distinguished by subscripts p and g (dp and dg , are their symbols, Fig. 2.2. The center distance is c = (dp + dg )/2 = rp + rg , where r = d/2 is the pitch circle radius. In Fig. 2.3 line tt is the common tangent to the pitch circles at the pitch point and AB is the common normal to the surfaces at C the point of contact of two gears. point P, and the inclination of AB with the line tt is called the pressure angle, . The most commonly pressure angle used, with both (2.3)

Gears

English and SI units is 200 . In the United States 250 is also standard, and 14.50 was formerly an alternative standard value. Pressure angle aects the force that tends to separate mating gears. The involute proles are augmented outward beyond the pitch circle by a distance called the addendum, a, (Fig. 2.4). The outer circle is usually termed the addendum circle, ra = r + a. Similarly, the tooth proles are extended inward from the pitch circle a distance called the dedendum, b. The involute portion can extend inward only to the base circle. A llet at the base of the tooth merges the prole into the dedendum circle. The llet decreases the bending stress concentration. The clearance is the amount by which the dedendum in a given gear exceeds the addendum of its mating gear. The circular pitch is designated as p, and measured in inches (English units) or millimeters (SI units). If N is the number of teeth in the gear (or pinion), then p = d/N, p = dp /Np , p = dg /Ng . (2.4)

More commonly used indices of gear-tooth size are diametral pitch, Pd (used only with English units), and module, m (used only with SI). Diametral pitch is dened as the number of teeth per inch of pitch diameter Pd = N/d, Pd = Np /dp , Pd = Ng /dg . (2.5)

Gears

Module m, which is essentially the complementary of Pd , is dened as the pitch diameter in millimeters divided by the number of teeth (number of millimeters of pitch diameter per tooth) m = d/N, m = dp /Np , m = dg /Ng . One can easily verify that p Pd = (p in inches; Pd in teeth per inch) p/m = (p in millimeters; m in millimeters per tooth) m = 25.4/Pd . With English units the word pitch, without a qualifying adjective, denotes diametral pitch (a 12-pitch gear refers to a gear with Pd = 12 teeth per inch of pitch diameter). With SI units pitch means circular pitch (a gear of pitch = 3.14 mm refers to a gear having a circular pitch of p = 3.14 mm). Standard diametral pitches Pd (English units) in common use are 1 to 2 by increments of 0.25, 2 to 4 by increments of 0.5, 4 to 10 by increments of 1, (2.6)

Gears 10 to 20 by increments of 2, 20 to 40 by increments of 4. With SI units, commonly used standard values of module m are 0.2 to 1.0 by increments of 0.1, 1.0 to 4.0 by increments of 0.25, 4.0 to 5.0 by increments of 0.5.

Addendum, minimum dedendum, and clearance for standard full-depth involute teeth (pressure angle is 200) with English units in common use are addendum a = 1/Pd , minimum dedendum b = 1.157/Pd . For stub involute teeth with the pressure angle equal to 200 the standard values are (English units) addendum a = 0.8/Pd , minimum dedendum b = 1/Pd . For SI units the standard values for full-depth involute teeth with pressure angle of 200 are

Gears addendum a = m, minimum dedendum b = 1.25 m.

2.3

Interference and contact ratio

The contact of segments of tooth proles which are not conjugate is called interference. The involute tooth form is only dened outside the base circle. In some cases, the dedendum will extend below the base circle, then the portion of tooth below the base circle will not be an involute and will interfere with the tip of the tooth on the mating gear, which is an involute. Interference will occur, preventing rotation of the mating gears, if either of the addendum circles extends beyond tangent points A and B , Fig. 2.5, which are called interference points. In Fig. 2.5 both addendum circles extend beyond the interference points. The maximum possible addendum circle radius, of pinion or gear, without interference is ra(max) =
2 + c2 sin2 , rb

(2.7)

where rb = r cos is the base circle radius of pinion or gear. The base circle diameter is db = d cos . (2.8)

Gears

The average number of teeth in contact as the gears rotate together is the contact ratio CR, which is calculated from the following equation (for external gears) CR =
2 r2 + rap bp 2 r 2 c sin rag bg

pb

(2.9)

where rap , rag are addendum radii of the mating pinion and gear, and rbp , rbg are base circle radii of the mating pinion and gear The base pitch pb is computed with pb = db /N = p cos . (2.10)

The base pitch is like the circular pitch except that it represents an arc of the base circle rather than an arc of the pitch circle. The acceptable values for contact ratio are CR > 1.2. For internal gears the contact ratio is CR =
2 r2 rap bp 2 r 2 + c sin rag bg

pb

(2.11)

Gears are commonly specied according to AGMA Class Number, a code which denotes important quality characteristics. Quality numbers denote tooth-elements tolerances. The higher the number, the tighter the tolerance. Gears are heat treated by case hardening, nitriding, precipitation hardening,

Gears

or through hardening. In general, harder gears are stronger and last longer than soft ones. Example Two involute spur gears of module 5, with 19 and 28 teeth operate at a pressure angle of 20 . Determine whether there will be interference when standard full-depth teeth are used. Find the contact ratio. Solution A standard full-depth tooth has the addendum of a = m = 5 mm. The gears will mesh at their pitch circles, and the pitch circle radii of pinion and gear are rp = m Np /2 = 5 (19)/2 = 47.5 mm, and rg = m Ng /2 = 5 (28)/2 = 70 mm. The theoretical center distance is c = (dp + dg )/2 = rp + rg = 47.5 + 70 = 117.5 mm. The base circle radii of pinion and gear are rbp = rp cos = 47.5 cos 20 = 44.635 mm, and rbg = rg cos = 70 cos 20 = 65.778 mm. The addendum circle radii of pinion and gear are rap = rp + a = m(Np + 2)/2 = 52.5 mm, and

Gears rag = rg + a = m(Ng + 2)/2 = 75 mm.

10

The maximum possible addendum circle radii of pinion and gear, without interference, are ra(max)p = ra(max)g =
2 rbp + c2 sin2 = 60.061 mm > rap = 52.5 mm, and 2 + c2 sin2 = 77.083 mm > r rbg ag = 75 mm.

Clearly, the use of standard teeth would not cause interference. The contact ratio is CR =
2 r2 + rap bp 2 r2 c sin rag bg

m cos cos

= 1.590,

which should be a suitable value (CR > 1.2).

2.4

Linkage transformation

The half joint at the contact point of two gear in motion can be substituted for two full joints A and B and an extra link 3, between gears 1 and 2 (Fig. 2.6). The mechanism still has one DOF, and the two gears system (0, 1, and 2) is in fact a fourbar mechanism (0, 1, 2, and 3) in another disguise. The following relations can be written O1 O2 = m (N1 + N2 ) , 2

O1 A = r1 cos ,

Gears O2 B = r2 cos , AB = AP + P B = mN1 mN2 m sin + sin = (N1 + N2 ) sin . 2 2 2

11

Because m, N1, N2 and are constants, the links of the fourbar mechanism are constant too.

2.5

Ordinary gear trains

A gear train is any collection of two or more meshing gears. Figure 2.7(a) shows a simple gear train with three gears in series. The train ratio is computed with the relation i13 = 1 1 2 N2 = = 3 2 3 N1 N3 N2 = N3 . N1 (2.12)

Only the sign of the overall ratio is aected by the intermediate gear 2 which is called idler. Figure 2.7(b) shows a compound gear train, without idler gears, with the train ratio i14 = 1 2 3 N2 = 2 3 4 N1 N3 N2 N4 N3 = N2 N3 N4 . N1 N2 N3 (2.13)

Gears

12

2.6

Epicyclic gear trains

When at least one of the gear axes rotates relative to the frame in addition to the gears own rotation about its own axes, the train is called a planetary gear train or epicyclic gear train. The term epicyclic comes from the fact that points on gears with moving axes of rotation describe epicyclic paths. When a generating circle (planet gear) rolls on the outside of another circle, called a directing circle (sun gear), each point on the generating circle describes an epicycloid, as shown in Fig. 2.8. Generally, the more planet gears there are the greater is the torque capacity of the system. For better load balancing, new designs have two sun gears and up to 12 planetary assemblies in one casing. In the case of simple and compound gears it is not dicult to visualize the motion of the gears and the determination of the speed ratio is relatively easy. In the case of epicyclic gear trains it is often dicult to visualize the motion of the gears. A systematic procedure, using the contour method is presented below. The contour method is applied to determine the distribution of velocities for several epicyclic gear trains.

Gears The velocity equations for a simple closed kinematic chain are i,i1 = 0, AAi i,i1 + vAi,i1 = 0,

13

(i)

(2.14)

(i)

(i)

where i,i1 is the relative angular velocity of the rigid body (i) with respect to the rigid body (i 1), AAi is the position vector of the kinematic pair, Ai, between the rigid body (i) and the rigid body (i 1) with respect to a xed reference frame, and vAi,i1 is the relative velocity of the link (i) with respect to the link (i 1), permitted by the joint at Ai . The proof of the contour equations is given in Appendix 1.

Example 1 The rst epicyclic (planetary) gear train considered is depicted in Fig. 2.9 The system consists of a central gear 2 (sun gear) and another gear 3 in mesh with 2 (planet gear) at B . Gear 3 is carried by the arm 1 hinged at A, as shown. The ring gear 4 meshes with the planet gear 3 and pivots at A. The sun gear, and the ring gear are concentric. There are four moving bodies 1, 2, 3, and 4, (n = 4) connected by four full joints (c5 = 4): one hinge between the arm 1 and the planet gear

Gears

14

3 at C , one hinge between the frame 0 and the shaft of the sun gear 2 at A, one hinge between the frame 0 and the ring gear 4 at A, and one hinge between the frame 0 and the arm 1 at A; two half joints (c4 = 2): one between the sun gear 2 and the planet gear 3, and one between the planet gear 3 and the ring gear 4. The system possesses two DOF M = 3 n 2 c5 c4 = 3 4 2 4 2 = 2. (2.15)

The sun gear has N2 = 40-tooth external gear, the planet gear has N3 = 20tooth external gear, and the ring gear has N4 = 80-tooth internal gear. If the arm and the sun gear rotate with input angular speeds n1 = 200 rpm, and n2 = 100 rpm, nd the absolute output angular velocity of the ring gear. Solution The velocity analysis is carried out using the contour method. The system shown in Fig. 2.9 has a total of ve elements (p = 5): the frame 0 and four moving links 1, 2, 3 and 4. There are six joints (l = 6), four full joints and two half joints. The number of independent loops is given by nc = l p + 1 = 6 5 + 1 = 2 . This gear system has two independent contours. The graph of the kinematic chain is represented in Fig. 2.10.

Gears

15

The angular speeds of the arm and the sun gear expressed in radians per second are 1 = 10 = 2 = 20 = First contour The rst contour is formed by the elements 0, 1, 3, 2, and 0 (clockwise path). For the velocity analysis, the following vectorial equations can be written 10 + 31 + 23 + 02 = 0, AC 31 + AB 23 = 0, where the input angular velocities are 10 = [10 , 0, 0] = [1 , 0, 0] = 1 + 0 + 0 k, 02 = [02 , 0, 0] = [2 , 0, 0] = 2 + 0 + 0 k, and the unknown angular velocities are 31 = [31 , 0, 0] , 23 = [23 , 0, 0] . (2.16) n1 20 = rad/s, 30 3 n2 10 = rad/s. 30 3

Gears

16

The sign of the relative angular velocities is selected positive, and then the numerical computation will give the true orientation of the vectors. The vectors AB, AC, and AD are dened as follows AB = [xB , yB , 0] , AC = [xC , yC , 0] , AD = [xD , yD , 0] , where yB = r2 = m N2 /2, yC = r2 + r3 = m (N2 + N3 )/2, yD = r2 + 2 r3 = m N2 /2 + m N3 . The module of the gears is m. Equation (2.16) becomes 1 + 31 + 23 2 = 0, k k xC 31 yC 0 0 + xB 0 23 yB 0 0 = 0. 0 (2.18) (2.17)

Equation (2.18) can be projected on a xed reference frame xOyz 1 + 31 + 23 2 = 0, yC 31 + yB 23 = 0.

Equation (2.19) represents a system of two equations with two unknowns 31

Gears

17

and 23. Solving the algebraic equations, the following values are obtained 31 = N2 (1 2 )/N3 = 20/3 rad/s, 23 = 1 + 2 N2 (1 2 )/N3 = 10 rad/s. Second contour The second closed contour contains the elements 0, 1, 3, 4, and 0 (Fig. 2.10). The contour velocity equations can be written as (counterclockwise path) 10 + 31 + 43 + 04 = 0, AC 31 + AD 43 = 0, (2.19)

where the known angular velocities are 10 , 31 , and the unknown angular velocities are 43 = [43 , 0, 0] , 04 = [04 , 0, 0] . Equation (2.19) can be written as 1 + 31 + 43 + 04 = 0, k k xC 31 yC 0 0 + xD 0 43 yD 0 0 = 0. 0 (2.20)

Gears From Eq. (2.20) the absolute angular velocity of the ring gear is 40 = 04 = or n4 =250 rpm. 2N2 1 + 2N3 1 N2 2 = 25/3 rad/s, N2 + 2N3

18

Example 2 The second planetary gear train considered is shown in Fig. 2.11. The system consists of an input sun gear 1 and a planet gear 2 in mesh with 1 at B . Gear 2 is carried by the arm S xed on the shaft of the gear 3, as shown. The gear 3 meshes with the output gear 4 at F . The xed ring gear 4 meshes with the planet gear 2 at D. There are four moving gears (1, 2, 3, and 4) connected by four full joints (c5 = 4): one at A, between the frame 0 and the sun gear 1, one at C , between the arm S and the planet gear 2, one at E , between the frame 0 and the gear 3, and one at G, between the frame 0 and the gear 3; three half joints (c4 = 3): one at B , between the sun gear 1 and the planet gear 2, one at D, between the planet gear 2 and the ring gear, and one at F , between the gear 3 and the output gear 4. The module of the gears is m = 5 mm.

Gears The system possesses one DOF M = 3 n 2 c5 c4 = 3 4 2 4 3 = 1.

19

(2.21)

The sun gear has N1 = 19-tooth external gear, the planet gear has N2 = 28-tooth external gear, and the ring gear has N5 = 75-tooth internal gear. The gear 3 has N3 = 18-tooth external gear, and the output gear has N4 = 36tooth external gear. The sun gear rotates with input angular speed n1 = 2970 rpm (1 = 10 = n1 /30 = 311.018 rad/s). Find the absolute output angular velocity of the gear 4, the velocities of the pitch points B and F , and the velocity of joint C . Solution The velocity analysis is carried out using the contour equation method. The system shown in Fig. 2.11 has ve elements (0, 1, 2, 3, 4) and seven joints. The number of independent loops is given by nc = l p + 1 = 7 5 + 1 = 3 . This gear system has three independent contours. The graph of the kinematic chain and the independent contours are represented in Fig. 2.12. The position vectors AB, AC, AD, AF, and AG are dened as follow AB = [xB , yB , 0] = [xB , r1 , 0] = [xB , m N1 /2, 0] ,

Gears AC = [xC , yC , 0] = [xC , r1 + r2 , 0] = [xC , m (N1 + N2 )/2, 0] , AD = [xD , yD , 0] = [xD , r1 + 2r2 , 0] = [xD , m (N1 + 2N2 )/2, 0] , AF = [xF , yF , 0] = [xF , r3 , 0] = [xF , m N3 /2, 0] , AG = [xG , yG , 0] = [xC , r3 + r4 , 0] = [xG , m (N3 + N4 )/2, 0] . First contour

20

The rst closed contour contains the elements 0, 1, 2, and 0 (clockwise path). For the velocity analysis, the following vectorial equations can be written 10 + 21 + 02 = 0, AB 21 + AD 02 = 0, where the input angular velocity is 10 = [10 , 0, 0] = [1 , 0, 0] , and the unknown angular velocities are 21 = [21 , 0, 0] , 02 = [02 , 0, 0] . The sign of the relative angular velocities is selected positive, and then the numerical results will give the real orientation of the vectors. (2.22)

Gears Equation (2.33) becomes 1 + 21 + 02 = 0, k k yB 0 0 + xD 0 02 yD 0 0 = 0. 0

21

xB 21

(2.23)

Equation (2.34) projected on a xed reference frame xOyz is 1 + 21 + 02 = 0, (2.24)

yB 21 + yD 02 = 0.

Equation (2.35) represents a system of two equations with two unknowns 21 and 02 . Solving the algebraic equations, the following value is obtained the absolute angular velocity of planet gear 2 20 = 02 = Second contour The second closed contour contains the elements 0, 3, 2, and 0 (counterclockwise path). For the velocity analysis, the following vectorial equations can be written 30 + 23 + 02 = 0, AE 30 + AC 23 + AD 02 = 0, (2.26) N1 1 = 105.524 rad/s. 2 N2 (2.25)

Gears The unknown angular velocities are 30 = [21 , 0, 0] , 23 = [23 , 0, 0] .

22

Solving Eq. (2.37) the following value is obtained for the absolute angular velocity of the gear 3 and the arm S 30 = Third contour The third closed contour contains the links 0, 4, 3, and 0 (counterclockwise path). The velocity vectorial equations are 40 + 34 + 03 = 0, AG 40 + AF 34 + AE 03 = 0, or 40 + 34 30 = 0, k k yG 0 0 + xF 0 34 yF 0 0 = 0. 0 (2.29) (2.28) N1 1 = 62.865 rad/s. 2 (N1 + N2 ) (2.27)

xG 40

The unknown angular velocities are 40 = [40 , 0, 0] ,

Gears 34 = [34 , 0, 0] . The absolute angular velocity of the output gear 4 is 40 = N1 N3 1 = 31.432 rad/s. 2 (N1 + N2 ) N4

23

(2.30)

Linear velocities of pitch points The velocity of the pitch point B is vB = 10 r1 = 14.773 m/s, and the velocity of the pitch point F is vF = 40 r4 = 2.828 m/s. The velocity of the joint C is vC = 30 (r1 + r2 ) = 7.386 m/s. Gear geometrical dimensions For standard external gear teeth the addendum is a = m. Gear 1 pitch circle diameter d1 = mN1 = 95.0 mm; addendum circle diameter da1 = m(N1 + 2) = 105.0 mm; dedendum circle diameter dd1 = m(N1 2.5) = 82.5 mm.

Gears Gear 2 pitch circle diameter d2 = mN2 = 140.0 mm; addendum circle diameter da2 = m(N2 + 2) = 150.0 mm; dedendum circle diameter dd2 = m(N2 2.5) = 127.5 mm. Gear 3 pitch circle diameter d3 = mN3 = 90.0 mm; addendum circle diameter da3 = m(N3 + 2) = 100.0 mm; dedendum circle diameter dd3 = m(N3 2.5) = 77.5 mm. Gear 4 pitch circle diameter d4 = mN4 = 180.0 mm; addendum circle diameter da4 = m(N4 + 2) = 190.0 mm; dedendum circle diameter dd4 = m(N4 2.5) = 167.5 mm. Gear 5 (internal gear) pitch circle diameter d5 = mN5 = 375.0 mm; addendum circle diameter da5 = m(N5 2) = 365.0 mm; dedendum circle diameter dd5 = m(N5 + 2.5) = 387.5 mm. Number of planet gears

24

The number of necessary planet gears k is given by the assembly condition (N1 + N5 )/k = INT EGER,

Gears

25

and for the planetary gear train k = 2 planet gears. The vicinity condition between the sun gear and the planet gear m (N1 + N2 ) sin(/k ) > da2 is veried. The group and assembly drawings for this mechanism with planetary gears are given in Appendix 2.

Example 3 The third planetary gear train considered is shown in Fig. 2.13. The system consists of an input sun gear 1 and a planet gear 2 in mesh with 1 at B . Gear 2 is xed on shaft of the gear 2. The system of gears 2 and 2 is carried by the arm 3. The gear 2 mashes with the xed frame 0 at E . There are three moving gears (1, 2, and 3) connected by three full joints (c5 = 3): one at A, between the frame 0 and the sun gear 1, one at C , between the arm 3 and the planet gear system 2, and one at D , between the frame 0 and the arm 3; two half joints (c4 = 2): one at B , between the sun gear 1 and the planet gear 2, and one at E , between the planet gear 2 and the frame 0.

Gears The system possesses one DOF M = 3 n 2 c5 c4 = 3 3 2 3 2 = 1.

26

(2.31)

The sun gear has the radius of the pitch circle r1 , the planet gear 2 has the radius of the pitch circle r2 , the arm 3 has the length r3 , and the planet gear 2 has the radius of the pitch circle r4 (Fig. 2.13). The sun gear rotates with the input angular velocity 1 . Find the speed ratio i13 between the sun gear 1 and the arm 3. Solution The system shown in Fig. 2.13 has four elements (0, 1, 2, 3) and ve kinematic pairs. The number of independent loops is given by nc = l p + 1 = 5 4 + 1 = 2 . This gear system has two independent contours. The graph of the kinematic chain and the independent contours are represented in Fig. 2.14. The position vectors AB, AC, AD, and AE are dened as follow AB = [xB , yB , 0] = [xB , r1 , 0] , AC = [xC , yC , 0] = [xC , r1 + r2 , 0] , AD = [xD , yD , 0] = [xD , r1 + r2 r3 , 0] , AE = [xE , yE , 0] = [xE , r1 + r2 r4 , 0] . (2.32)

Gears First contour

27

The rst closed contour contains the elements 0, 1, 2, and 0 (clockwise path). For the velocity analysis, the following vectorial equations can be written 10 + 21 + 02 = 0, AB 21 + AE 02 = 0, where the input angular velocity is 10 = [10 , 0, 0] = [1 , 0, 0] , and the unknown angular velocities are 21 = [21 , 0, 0] , 02 = [02 , 0, 0] . Equation (2.33) becomes 1 + 21 + 02 = 0, k k yB 0 0 + xE 0 02 yE 0 0 = 0. 0 (2.34) (2.33)

xB 21

Equation (2.34) projected on a xed reference frame xOyz is 1 + 21 + 02 = 0,

Gears yB 21 + yE 02 = 0.

28 (2.35)

Equation (2.35) represents a system of two equations with two unknowns 21 and 02 . Solving the algebraic equations, the following value is obtained the absolute angular velocity of planet gear 2 20 = 02 = Second contour The second closed contour contains the elements 0, 3, 2, and 0 (counterclockwise path). For the velocity analysis, the following vectorial equations can be written 30 + 23 + 02 = 0, AD 30 + AC 23 + AE 02 = 0, The unknown angular velocities are 30 = [21 , 0, 0] , 23 = [23 , 0, 0] . Solving Eq. (2.37) the following value is obtained for the absolute angular velocity of the arm 3 30 = r1 r4 1 . r3 (r2 + r4 ) (2.38) (2.37) r1 1 . r2 r4 (2.36)

Gears The speed ratio is i13 = 10 1 r3 (r2 + r4 ) = = . 30 30 r1 r4

29

(2.39)

2.7

Dierential

Figure 2.15 is a schematic drawing of the ordinary bevel-gear automotive dierential. The drive shaft pinion 1 and the ring gear 2 are normally hypoid gears. The ring gear 2 acts as the planet carrier for the planet gear 3, and its speed can be calculated as for a simple gear train when the speed of the drive shaft is given. Sun gears 4 and 5 are connected, respectively, to each rear wheel. When the car is traveling in a straight line, the two sun gears rotate in the same direction with exactly the same speed. Thus for straight-line motion of the car, there is no relative motion between the planet gear 3 and ring 2. The planet gear 3, in eect, serves only as keys to transmit motion from the planet carrier to both wheels. When the vehicle is making a turn, the wheel on the inside of the turn makes fewer revolutions than the wheel with a larger turning radius. Unless this dierence in speed is accommodated in some manner, one or both of the tires would have to slide in order to make the turn. The dierential

Gears

30

permits the two wheels to rotate at dierent velocities while at the same time delivering power to both. During a turn, the planet gear 3 rotate about their own axes, thus permitting gears 4 and 5 to revolve at dierent velocities. The purpose of a dierential is to dierentiate between the speeds of the two wheels. In the usual passenger-car dierential, the torque is divided equally whether the car is traveling in a straight line or on a curve. Sometimes the road conditions are such that the tractive eort developed by the two wheels is unequal. In this case the total tractive eort available will be only twice that at the wheel having the least traction, because the dierential divides the torque equally. If one wheel should happen to be resting on snow or ice, the total eort available is very small and only a small torque will be required to cause the wheel to spin. Thus the car sits there with one wheel spinning and the other at rest with no tractive eort. And, if the car is in motion and encounters slippery surfaces, then all traction as well as control is lost. It is possible to overcome the disadvantages of the simple bevel-gear differential by adding a coupling unit which is sensitive to wheel speeds. The object of such a unit is to cause most of the torque to be directed to the slowmoving wheel. Such a combination is then called a limited-slip dierential. Angular velocities diagram

Gears

31

The velocity analysis is carried out using the contour equation method and the graphical angular velocities diagram. There are ve moving elements (1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 ) connected by ve full joints (c5 = 5): one between the frame 0 and the drive shaft pinion gear 1, one between the frame 0 and the ring gear 2, one between the planet carrier arm 2 and the planet gear 3, one between the frame 0 and the sun gear 4, and one between the frame 0 and the sun gear 5; three half joints (c4 = 3): one between the drive shaft pinion gear 1 and the ring gear 2, one between the planet gear 3 and the sun gear 4, and one between the planet gear 3 and the sun gear 5. The system possesses two DOF M = 3 n 2 c5 c4 = 3 5 2 5 3 = 2. The input data are the absolute angular velocities of the two wheels 40 and 50. The system shown in Fig. 2.15(a) has six elements (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5) and eight joints (c4 + c5 ). The number of independent loops is given by nc = 8 p + 1 = 8 6 + 1 = 3 . This gear system has three independent contours. The graph of the kinematic

Gears chain and the independent contours are represented in Fig. 2.15(b)

32

The rst closed contour contains the elements 0, 4, 3, 5 and 0 (clockwise path). For the velocity analysis, the following vectorial equations can be written 40 + 34 + 53 + 05 = 0, or 40 + 34 = 50 + 35 . (2.40)

The unknown angular velocities are 34 and 35 . The relative angular velocity of the planet gear 3 with respect to the sun gear 4 is parallel to Ia line and the relative angular velocity of the planet gear 3 with respect to the sun gear 5 is parallel to Ib. Equation (2.40) can be solved graphically (Fig. 2.16). The vectors OA and OB represent the velocities 50 and 40 . At A and B two parallels at Ib and Ia are drawn. The intersection between the two lines is the point C . The vector BC represents the relative angular velocity of the planet gear 3 with respect to the sun gear 4, and the vector AC represents the relative angular velocity of the planet gear 3 with respect to the sun gear 5. The absolute angular velocity of planet gear 3 is 30 = 40 + 34 .

Gears The vector 0C represents the absolute angular velocity of planet gear.

33

The second closed contour contains the elements 0, 4, 3, 2 and 0 (counterclockwise path). For the velocity analysis, the following vectorial equations can be written 40 + 34 + 23 + 02 = 0. (2.41)

Using the velocities diagram (Fig. 2.16) the vector DC represents the relative angular velocity of the planet gear 3 with respect to the ring gear 2, 23, and the OD represents the absolute angular velocity of the ring gear 2, 20 . From Fig. 2.16 one can write 1 20 = |OD| = (40 + 50), 2 1 32 = |DC | = (50 40 ) tan . 2

(2.42)

When the car is traveling in a straight line, the two sun gears rotate in the same direction with exactly the same speed, 50 = 40 , and there is no relative motion between the planet gear and the ring gear, 32 = 0. When the wheels are jacked up 50 = 40 and the absolute angular velocity of the ring gear 2 is zero.

Gears

34

2.8

Gear force analysis

The force between mating teeth (neglecting the sliding friction) can be resolved at the pith point (P in Fig. 2.17) into two components tangential component Ft , which accounts for the power transmitted; radial component Fr , which does no work but tends to push the gears apart. The relationship between these components is Fr = Ft tan , where is the pressure angle. The pitch line velocity in feet per minute is equal to V = d n/12 (ft/min), where d is the pitch diameter in inches of the gear rotating n rpm. In SI units V = d n/60, 000 (m/s), (2.45) (2.44) (2.43)

where d is the pitch diameter in millimeters of the gear rotating n rpm. The transmitted power in horsepower is H = Ft V/33, 000 (hp), (2.46)

Gears where Ft is in pounds and V is in feet per minute. In SI units the transmitted power in watts is H = Ft V (W), where Ft is in newtons and V is in meters per second. The transmitted torque can be express as Mt = 63, 000 H/n (lb in), where H is in horsepower and n in rpm. In SI units, Mt = 9549 H/n (N m) , where the power H is in kW and n in rpm.

35

(2.47)

(2.48)

(2.49)

Example: Forces in ordinary gear trains Figure 2.18 shows a two stage gear reducer with identical pairs of gears. An electric motor with the power H = 2 kW and n1 = 900 rpm is coupled to the shaft a. On this shaft there is rigidly connected the input driver gear 1 with the number of teeth N1 = Np = 17. The speed reducer uses a countershaft b with two rigidly connected gears 2 and 2 , having N2 = Ng = 51 teeth and N2 = Np = 17 teeth. The output gear 3 has N3 = Ng = 51

Gears

36

teeth and is rigidly xed to the shaft c coupled to the driven machine. The input shaft a and output shaft c are collinear (two identical pairs in each stage), and facilitate machining of the housing. The countershaft b turns freely in bearings A and B . The gears mesh along the pitch diameter and the shafts are parallel. The diametral pitch for each stage is Pd = 5, and the pressure angle is = 200 . The distance between the bearings is s = 100 mm, and the distance l = 25 mm (Fig. 2.18). Geometry The pitch diameters of pinions 1 and 2 are d1 = d2 = dp = Np /Pd = 17/5 = 3.4 in. The pitch diameters of gears 2 and 3 is d2 = d3 = dg = Ng /Pd = 51/5 = 10.2 in. The circular pitch is p = /Pd = 3.14/5 = 0.63 in. Angular speeds The following relation exists for the rst stage n1 N2 N1 17 = n2 = n1 = 900 = 300 rpm, n2 N1 N2 51 and for the second stage n2 N3 = n3 N2 n3 = n2 N2 17 = 300 = 100 rpm. N3 51 (2.51) (2.50)

The angular speed of the countershaft b is nb = n2 = 300 rpm, and the angular speed of the driven shaft c is nc = n3 = 100 rpm.

Gears

37

Torque carried by each of the shafts assuming 100% gear eciency The relation between the power Ha of the motor and the torque Ma in shaft a is Ha = and the torque Ma in shaft a is Ma = The torque in shaft b Mb = 9549 Ha N2 51 = Ma = 21.22 = 63.66 N m, nb N1 17 9549 Ha 9549 (2 kW) = = 21.22 N m na 900 rpm Ma na , 9549 (2.52)

and the torque in shaft c is Mc = 9549 Ha N3 51 = Mb = 63.66 = 190.98 N m. nc N2 17

Torque carried by each of the shafts assuming =95% eciency of each gear pair In this case the torque in shaft b is Mb = 9549 Ha = Mb = (63.66) (0.95) = 60.47 N m, nb

and the torque in shaft c is Mc = Mb N3 51 = (63.66) (0.95) = 172.36 N m. N2 17

Gears

38

The eect of power losses in each stage =95% was to decrease the torque transmitted to the output while keeping the speed ratios the same. Each stage reduces the torque transmitted by a factor. Loads applied to bearings A and B for =100% gear eciency All the gear radial and tangential load is transferred at the pitch point P . The tangential force on the motor pinion is Ft = Ma 21.22 = = 492.34 N, rp 0.0431

where rp = dp /2 = 1.7 in = 0.0431 m. The radial force on the motor pinion is Fr = Ft tan = 492.34 tan 200 = 179.2 N. The force on the motor pinion 1 at P (Fig. 2.19) is F21 = Fr21 + Ft21 k = 179.2 492.34k N. The force on the countershaft gear 2 at P is F12 = F21 = Fr12 + Ft12 k = 179.2 + 492.34k N. (2.54) (2.53)

The forces on the countershaft pinion 2 at R are three times as large i.e. Ft = Mb 63.66 = = 1477 N, rp 0.0431

Gears Fr = Ft tan = 1477 tan 200 = 537.6 N, and F32 = Fr32 + Ft32 k = 537.6 1477k N. The unknown loads applied to bearings A and B can be written as FA = FAy + FAz k, FB = FBy + FBz k.

39

(2.55)

The sketch of the countershaft as a free body in equilibrium is shown in Fig. 2.19. To determine these forces two vectorial equations are used. Sum of moments of all forces that act on the countershaft with respect to A are zero MA = AP F12 + AR F32 + AB FB = k k l 0 r2 Fr12 0 + s+l 0 k 0 FBz r2 Fr32 0 Ft32 +

Ft12 s 0

= 0,

(2.56)

0 FBy or

MA = lFt12 (s + l)Ft32 sFBz = 0,

Gears MA k = lFr12 + (s + l)Fr32 + sFBy = 0.

40 (2.57)

From the above equations FBy = 627.2 N, and FBz = 1969.33 N. The radial load at B is FB = FBy 2 + FBz 2 = 2066.8 N.

Sum of all forces that act on the countershaft are zero F = F12 + FA + FB + F32 = 0, or Fr12 + FAy + FBy Fr32 = 0, Ft12 + FAz + FBz Ft32 = 0. (2.59) (2.58)

From Eq. (2.59) FAy = 89.6 N, and FAz = 984.67 N. The radial load at A is FA = FAy 2 + FAz 2 = 988.73 N.

Example: Joint reactions for planetary gear trains The planetary gear train considered is shown in Fig. 2.20. The sun gear has N1 = 19-tooth external gear, the planet gear has N2 = N2 = 28-tooth

Gears

41

external gear, and the ring gear has N5 = 75-tooth internal gear. The gear 3 has N3 = 18-tooth external gear, and the output gear has N4 = 36-tooth external gear. The module of the gears is m = 5 mm, and the pressure angle is = 200. The resistant or technological torque is M4 = M4 , where M4 = 500 Nm, and is opposed to the angular velocity of the output gear, 40 = 4 , 4 < 0 (Fig. 2.21). The joints are frictionless. The position vectors of the joints are dened as follow (Fig. 2.20) rA = [0, 0, 0] , rB = AB = [0, r1 , 0] = [0, m N1 /2, 0] , rC = AB = [0, r1 + r2 , 0] = [0, m (N1 + N2)/2, 0] , rC = AC = [0, r1 r2 , 0] = [0, m (N1 + N2 )/2, 0] , rD = AD = [0, r1 + 2 r2 , 0] = [0, m (N1 + 2 N2 )/2, 0] , rE = [#, 0, 0] , rF = AF = [#, r3 , 0] = [#, m N3 /2, 0] , rG = AG = [#, r3 + r4 , 0] = [#, m (N3 + N4 )/2, 0] . The x parameter # is not important for the calculation. Gear 4 The force of gear 3 that acts on gear 4 at the pitch point F is denoted (2.60)

Gears

42

with F34 . The force between mating teeth can be resolved at the pith point into two components, a tangential component Ft34 = F34 cos , and a radial component Fr34 = F34 sin or F34 = [0, Fr 34, Ft34 ] = F34 sin + F34 cos k. (2.61)

The equilibrium of moments for the gear 4 with respect to its center G can be written as MG
(gear 4)

= M4 + GF F34 = 0,

(2.62)

where GF = rF rG = r4 . Equation (2.62) can be written as M4 + 0 r4 k 0 = 0. (2.63)

0 F34 sin F34 cos Solving Eq. (2.63) the reaction F34 is obtained F34 = 2 M4 2 500 = = 5912.1 N. m N4 cos 0.005 36 cos 200 (2.64)

The reaction of the ground 0 on gear 4 at G is F04 = F34 . Link 3

Gears

43

The link 3 is composed by the gear 3 and the planetary arm. The reaction of the gear 4 on gear 3 at F is known F43 = F34 = F34 sin F34 cos k. The unknowns are the reactions of the planets gears 2 and 2 on planet arm at C and C F23 = F23r + F23t k, F2 3 = F23r F23t k. The reaction of the ground 0 on gear 3 at E is F03 = F43 . From free-body diagram of link 3 (Fig. 2.21), the tangential component of the force F23t can be computed writing a moment equation with respect to the center of gear 3, E ME
(link 3)

(2.65)

= (rF rE ) F43 + (rC rE ) F23 + (rC rE ) F2 3 = k k r3 0 + # r1 + r2 0 F23r 0 F23t +

0 F34 sin F34 cos k 0 F23t

# r1 r2 0 F23r

= F34 r3 cos + 2F23t (r1 + r2 ) = 0. (2.66)

Gears The force F23t is F23t = Gear 2 The forces that act on gear 2 are M4 r3 = 1063.83 N. 2 (r1 + r2 ) r4

44

(2.67)

F32 = F23r F23t k the reaction of the arm on the planet 2 at C , the tangential component F32t = F23t is known; F12 = F12 sin + F12 cos k the reaction of the sun gear 1 on the planet 2 at B , unknown; F02 = F02 sin + F02 cos k the reaction of the ring gear 0 on the planet 2 at D, unknown. Two vectorial equilibrium equations can be written. The sum of moments that act on gear 2 with respect to the center C is zero MC
(gear 2)

= (rD rC ) F02 + (rB rC ) F12 = k k 0 + 0 r2 0 = 0, (2.68)

r2

0 F02 sin F02 cos

0 F12 sin F12 cos

and the sum of all the forces that act on gear 2 is zero F(gear 2) = F02 + F12 + F32 = (F02 sin + F02 cos k) + (F12 sin + F12 cos k) +

Gears (F23r + F23t k) = 0. Solving the system of Eqs. (2.68) and (2.69) result F32r = 0, F12 = F02 = Gear 1 M4 r3 sec = 566.052 N. 4 (r1 + r2 ) r4

45 (2.69)

(2.70)

The equilibrium torque Me = Me that acts on the input sun gear 1 is computed from the moment equation with respect to the center A MA and Me = M4 r1 r3 = 50.531 Nm. 2 (r1 r4 + r2 r4 ) (2.72)
(gear 1)

= Me + 2rB F21 ,

(2.71)

The equilibrium torque Me has the same direction and orientation as the angular velocity 10 .

Example: Forces diagrams Figures 2.22, 2.23, 2.24, and 2.25 show free body diagrams for dierent types of planetary gear trains. The torque on the sun gear is M1 and the torque on the planet arm is M3 . The tangential force that acts on the sun gear 1 at the pitch point is Ft21 = Ft12 = M1 , r1 (2.73)

Gears and the radial force is Fr 21 = Fr12 = Ft21 tan ,

46

(2.74)

where is the pressure angle. The reactions of the ground on the sun gear are F01r = Fr21 and F01t = Ft21 . (2.75)

Figure 2.22 shows a planetary gear train with a single planet. For the planetary gear trains with double planet (Figs. 2.24, and 2.25) the tangential force of the planet system that act on the arm is F23t = F32t = The output torque on the ring gear is M4 = Ft2 4 r4 . (2.77) M3 . r1 + r2 (2.76)

2.9

Strength of gear teeth

The ank of the driver tooth makes contact with the tip of the driven tooth at the beginning of action between a pair of gear teeth. The total load F is assumed to be carried by one tooth, and is normal to the tooth prole (see Fig. 2.26). The bending stress at the base of the tooth is produced by the

Gears

47

tangential load component Ft which is perpendicular to the centerline of the tooth. The friction and the radial component Fr are neglected. The parabola in Fig. 2.26 outlines a beam of uniform strength. The weakest section of the gear tooth is at section A A where the parabola is tangent to the tooth outline. The bending stress is = and Ft = B (t2 /6h) = B (t2 /6hp)p, (2.79) 6M 6Ft h = , Bt2 Bt2 (2.78)

where M = Ft h is the bending moment, h is the distance between the section A A and the point where the load is applied, and t is the tooth thickness. In the above equations B is the face width and is limited to a maximum of 4 times the circular pitch, i.e. B = k p, where k 4. The form factor = t2 /6hp is a dimensionless quantity tabulated in Table 2.1. Substituting in the above equation, the usual form of the Lewis equation is Ft = Bp, (2.80)

Gears or
2 Ft = p2 k = 2 k/Pd .

48

(2.81)

If the pitch diameter Pd is known, then the following form of the Lewis equation may be used
2 Pd / = k 2 /Ft ,

(2.82)

where is the allowable stress, k = 4 (upper limit), Ft = 2Mt /d is the transmitted force, and Mt is the torque on the weaker gear. If the pitch diameter is unknown, the following form of the Lewis equation may be used
3 2Mt Pd = , k 2 N

(2.83)

where = stress than the allowable stress, and N is the number of teeth on weaker gear. The minimum number of teeth, N , is usually limited to 15.

2.9.1

Allowable tooth stresses

The allowable stress for gear tooth design is Allowable = 0 = 0 = 0 600 for V less than 2000 ft/min 600 + V 1200 for V 2000 to 4000 ft/min 1200 + V 78 for V greater than 4000 ft/min, 78 + V

Gears

49

where 0 is the endurance strength for released loading corrected for average stress concentration values of the gear material, measured in psi, and V is the pitch line velocity, measured in ft/min. The endurance strength is 0 = 8000 psi for cast iron, and 0 = 12, 000 psi for bronze. For carbon steels the endurance strength range is from 10,000 psi to 50,000 psi.

2.9.2

Dynamic tooth loads

The dynamic forces on the teeth are produced by the transmitted force, and also by the velocity changes due to inaccuracies of the tooth proles, spacing, misalignments in mounting, and tooth deection under load. The dynamic load Fd proposed by Buckingham is Fd = 0.05V (BC + Ft ) + Ft , 0.05V + BC + Ft

where Fd is the dynamic load (lb), Ft is the transmitted force (tangential load), and C is a constant which depends on the tooth material, form, and the accuracy of the tooth cutting process. The constant C is tabulated in Table 2.2. The dynamic force Fd must be less than the allowable endurance load F0 . The allowable endurance load is F0 = 0 B p, where 0 is based on average stress concentration values.

Gears 2.9.3 Wear Tooth loads

50

The wear load Fw is Fw = dp BKQ, (2.84)

where dp is the pitch diameter of smaller gear (pinion), K is the stress factor for fatigue, Q = 2Ng /(Np + Ng ), Ng is the number of teeth on gear, Np is the number of teeth on pinion. The stress factor for fatigue has the following expression K= s2 es (sin )(1/Ep + 1/Eg ) , 1 .4

where ses is the surface endurance limit of a gear pair (psi), Ep is the modulus of elasticity of the pinion material (psi), Eg is the modulus of elasticity of the gear material (psi), and is the pressure angle. An estimated value for surface endurance is ses = (400)(BHN) 10, 000 psi, where BHN may be approximated by the average brinell hardness number of the gear and pinion. The wear load Fw is an allowable load and must be greater than the dynamic load Fd . Table 2.3 presents several values of K for various materials and tooth forms.

Gears Example 1

51

A driver steel pinion with 0 = 20, 000 rotates at n1 = 1500 rpm and transmits 13.6 hp. The transmission ratio is i = 4 (external gearing). The gear is made of mild steel with 0 = 15, 000 psi. Both gears have 20 pressure angle, and are full depth involute gears teeth. Design a gear with the smallest diameter that can be used. No less than 15 teeth are to be used on either gear. Solution In order to determine the smallest diameter gears that can be used, the minimum number of teeth for the pinion will be selected Np = 15. Then Ng = Np i = 15(4) = 60. It is rst necessary to determine which is weaker, the gear or the pinion. The load carrying capacity of the tooth is a function of the 0 product. For the pinion 0 = 20, 000(0.092) = 1840 psi, where = 0.092 was selected from Table 1 for a 20 full-depth involute gear with 15 teeth. For the gear 0 = 15, 000(0.134) = 2010 psi, where = 0.134 correspond to a 20 full-depth involute gear with 60 teeth. Hence, the pinion is weaker. The torque transmitted by the pinion is Mt = 63, 000H/n1 = 63, 000(13.6)/1500 = 571.2 lb in. (2.85)

Gears Since the diameter is unknown the induced stress is =

52

(2.86)

where a maximum value of k = 4 was considered. Assume allowable stress 0 /2 = 20, 000/2 = 10, 000 psi. This assumption permits the determi3 nation of an approximate Pd . Equation (2.86) yields Pd 10, 000/20.97 =

476.87. Hence, Pd 8. Try Pd = 8. Then dp = 15/8 = 1.875 in. The pitch line velocity is V = dp n1 /12 = 1.875 (1500)/12 = 736.31 ft/min. Because the pitch line velocity is less than 2000 ft/min, the allowable stress will be = 20, 000 600 = 8979.95 psi. 600 + 736.31

Using Eq. (2.86) the induced stress will be = 20.97(83 ) = 10736.64 psi. The pinion is weak because the induced stress is larger than the allowable stress (10736.64 > 8979.95). Try a stronger tooth, Pd = 7. Then dp = 15/7 = 2.14 in. The pitch line velocity is V = dp n1 /12 = 2.14 (1500)/12 = 841.5 ft/min. Because the pitch line velocity is less than 2000 ft/min, the allowable stress is = 20, 000 600 = 8324.66 psi. 600 + 736.31

Using Eq. (2.86) the induced stress will be = 20.97(73) = 7192.71 psi. Now the pinion is stronger because the induced stress is smaller than the

Gears

53

allowable stress. Then the parameter k can be reduced from the maximum value of k = 4 to k = 4(7192.71/8324.66) = 3.45. Hence, the face width B = kp = 3.45(/7) = 1.55 in. Then Pd = 7, B = 1.55 in, dp = 2.14 in, and dg = dp (4) = 2.14(4) = 8.57 in. The circular pitch for gears is p = dp /Np = dg /Ng = 0.448 in, and the center distance is c = (dp + dg )/2 = 5.35 in. The addendum of the gears is a = 1/Pd = 1/7 = 0.14 in, while the minimum dedendum for 20 full-depth involute gears is b = 1.157/Pd = 1.157/7 = 0.165 in. The base circle diameter for pinion and gear are dbp = dp cos = 2.14 cos 20 = 2.01 in, and dbg = dg cos = 8.56 cos 20 = 8.05 in, respectively. The maximum possible addendum circle radius of pinion or gear without interference can be computed as ra(max) =
2 rb + c2 sin2 ,

where rb = db /2. Hence, for pinion ra(max) = while for the gear ra(max) =

1 + 5.352 sin 20 = 3.29 in,

42 + 5.352 sin 20 = 5.1 in. The contact ratio

CR is calculated from the equation CR =

pb

where rap , rag are addendum radii of the mating pinion and gear, and rbp , rbg are base circle radii of the mating pinion and gear. Here, rap = rp + a =

Gears

54

dp /2 + a = 1.21 in, rag = rg + a = 4.42 in, rbp = dbp /2 = 1.0 in., and rbg = dbg /2 = 4.02 in. The base pitch is computed as pb = db /N = p cos 20 = 0.42 in. Finally the contact ratio will be CR = 1.63, which should be a suitable value (> 1.2).

Example 2 A steel pinion (0 = 137.9 106 N/m2 ) rotates an iron gear (0 = 102.88 106 N/m2 ), and transmits a power of 20 kW. The pinion operates at n1 = 2000 rpm, and the transmission ratio is 4 to 1 (external gearing). Both gears are full depth involute gears and have a pressure angle of 20 . Design a gear with the smallest diameter that can be used. No less than 15 teeth are to be used on either gear. Solution To nd the smallest diameter gears that can be used, the number of teeth for the pinion will be Np = 15. Hence, Ng = Np 4 = 15(4) = 60. It is rst necessary to determine which is weaker, the gear or the pinion. For pinion, the product 0 = 137.9(0.092) = 12.686 106 N/m2 , where = 0.092 was selected from Table 1 for a 20 full-depth involute gear with 15 teeth. For gear 0 = 102.88(0.134) = 13.785106 N/m2 , where = 0.134

Gears

55

corresponds to a 20 full-depth involute gear with 60 teeth. Hence, the pinion is weaker. The torque transmitted by the pinion is Mt = 9549H/n1 = 9549(20)/2000 = 95.49 Nm. Since the diameter is unknown the induced stress is = 2Mt 2 k Np m3 = 2(95.49) 4 2 (0.092)(15)m3 = 3.5 , m3 (2.88) (2.87)

where Pd was replaced by 1/m, and a maximum value of k = 4 was considered. Assume allowable stress 0 /2 = 137.9/2 = 68.95 106 N/m2 . This assumption permits the determination of an approximate m. Equation (2.88) yields m3 3.5/68.95 = 3.7 mm. Try m = 3 mm. Then dp = Np m = 15(3) = 45 mm. The pitch line velocity is V = dp n1/60, 000 = 45 (2000)/60, 000 = 4.71 m/s. The allowable stress will be = 137.9 600 = 136.85 106 N/m2 . 600 + 4.71

Using Eq. (2.88) the induced stress will be = 3.5/(3 103 )3 = 129.83 106 N/m2 . The pinion is stronger. Because the smallest diameter is required, will determine the smallest m such that the induced stress to remain lower than allowable stress. Try m = 2.75 mm. Then dp = Np m =

Gears

56

15(2.75) = 41.25 mm. The pitch line velocity is V = dp n1 /60, 000 = 41.25 (2000)/60, 000 = 4.32 m/s. The allowable stress will be = 137.9 600 = 136.91 106 N/m2 . 600 + 4.32

The induced stress will be = 3.5/(2.75 103)3 = 168.56 106 N/m2 . Now the pinion is weak. Hence, the minimum m which satises the stress constraints is m = 3 mm. Then the parameter k can be reduced from the maximum value of k = 4 to k = 4(129.83/136.85) = 3.79. Hence, the face width B = kp = 3.79(m) = 35.77 mm, and dp = 45 mm. Then dg = dp (4) = 45(4) = 180 mm. The circular pitch for gears is p = dp /Np = dg /Ng = 9.42 mm, and the center distance is c = (dp + dg )/2 = 112.5 mm. The addendum of the gears is a = m = 3 mm, while the minimum dedendum for 20 full-depth involute gears is b = 1.25m = 3.75 mm. The base circle diameter for pinion and gear are dbp = dp cos = 45 cos 20 = 42.28 mm, and dbg = dg cos = 180 cos 20 = 169.14 mm, respectively. The maximum possible addendum circle radius without interference for the pinion is ra(max) = 21.142 + 112.52 sin 20 = 69.1 mm, and for the gear is ra(max) =

84.572 + 112.52 sin 20 = 107.15 mm. The contact ratio CR is CR =

pb

Gears

57

Here, rap , rag are addendum radii of the pinion and the gear, and rbp, rbg are base circle radii of the pinion and the gear. Here, rap = rp + a = dp /2 + a = 25.5 mm, rag = rg + a = 93 mm, rbp = dbp /2 = 21.14 mm, and rbg = dbg /2 = 84.57 mm. The base pitch is computed as pb = db /N = p cos 20 = 8.85 mm. Hence, CR = 1.63 > 1.2 should be a suitable value.

Gears TABLE 2.1 - Form Factors - for use in Lewis strength equation
Number of Teeth 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 23 25 27 30 34 38 43 50 60 75 100 150 300 Rack 14 1 2 Full-Depth Involute or Composite 0.067 0.071 0.075 0.078 0.081 0.084 0.086 0.088 0.090 0.092 0.094 0.097 0.099 0.101 0.104 0.106 0.108 0.110 0.113 0.115 0.117 0.119 0.122 0.124

58

20 Full-Depth Involute 0.078 0.083 0.088 0.092 0.094 0.096 0.098 0.100 0.102 0.104 0.106 0.108 0.111 0.114 0.118 0.122 0.126 0.130 0.134 0.138 0.142 0.146 0.150 0.154

20 Stub Involute 0.099 0.103 0.108 0.111 0.115 0.117 0.120 0.123 0.125 0.127 0.130 0.133 0.136 0.139 0.142 0.145 0.147 0.151 0.154 0.158 0.161 0.165 0.170 0.175

Source: A. S. Hall, A. R. Holowenko, and H. G. Laughlin, Theory and Problems of Machine Design, Schaums Outline Series McGraw-Hill, 1961.

Gears

59

TABLE 2.2 - Values of Deformation Factor C - for dynamic load check

Tooth Error inches 0.0005 400 550 800 415 570 830 430 590 860 0.001 800 1100 1600 830 1140 1660 860 1180 1720 0.002 1600 2200 3200 1660 2280 3320 1720 2360 3440 0.003 2400 3300 4800 2490 3420 4980 2580 3540 5160

20 full depth 20 full depth 20 full depth 20 stub 20 stub 20 stub

Source: A. S. Hall, A. R. Holowenko, and H. G. Laughlin, Theory and Problems of Machine Design, Schaums Outline Series McGraw-Hill, 1961.

Gears TABLE 2.3 Values for Surface Endurance Limit ses and Stress Fatigue Factor K
Surface Average Brinell Hardness Number of steel pinion and steel gear 150 200 250 300 400 Brinell Hardness Number, BHN Steel pinion 150 200 250 150 200 C.I. Pinion C.I. Pinion Gear C.I. C.I. C.I. Phosphor Bronze Phosphor Bronze C.I. Gear C.I. Gear 50,000 70,000 90,000 50,000 65,000 80,000 90,000 44 87 144 46 73 152 193 60 119 196 62 100 208 284 Endurance Limit ses 50,000 70,000 90,000 110,000 150,000
14 1 2

60

Stress Fatigue Factor K 20 41 79 131 196 366

30 58 96 144 268

Source: A. S. Hall, A. R. Holowenko, and H. G. Laughlin, Theory and Problems of Machine Design, Schaums Outline Series McGraw-Hill, 1961.

I4 involute I3 I2 I1 B1 A B2 B3

AB1 = B 1I1 AB2 = B 2I2 AB3 = B 3I3 B4 AB4 = B 4I4

base circle

(a)

B r r B r = for a straight line

(b)

Figure 2.1

pinion pitch circle dp

P c center distance pitch point g

gear pitch circle

dg

Figure 2.2

pitch circle

contact point
B t A P C t

normal to surfaces

pitch point
pitch circle base circle

line of centers

Figure 2.3

w ace

idt

addendu
addendum working depth whole depth dedendum tooth thickness clearance fillet radius
circular pit ch

m circle

top

lan

d e

fac

space width

pitch c ircle

fla

nk lan d

bo

m tto

dedendum circle

Figure 2.4

addendum circle

pitch circle base circle dedendum circle

Pinion (driving)

rp
this portion of profile is not an involute

p Op
addendum dedendum

ap

position of teeth entering contact

P t B ag
dedendum base circle this portion of profile is not an involute

A t

addendum addendum circle

pitch circle dedendum circle

rg

g
Gear (driven)

Og

Figure 2.5

0 1

O A

P t B

t B

1 3

2
O O

2 0

Figure 2.6

1
1
X

2
2
X

3
X

(a)

3 1
1
X X X X

(b)

Figure 2.7

generating circle

epicycloid

directing circle

Figure 2.8

3 planet gear C C 3 B 1 A 2 0 4 ring gear

43

31
B 1 arm

10

20
z

23 04
0

10
2 sun gear 0

20

Figure 2.9

04
0

II

43 31
3

10 02

1 I 2

23

Figure 2.10

D 2 G C S B F A 3 1 z 2 5

planet gear C

02
X

23
B S arm

G 0

40

21 10 10
0 A sun gear

F 3

34 30
0 x

X
1

Figure 2.11

1 A B

10 02

I D

21
2

40
4

G F

III

03

II 3

23
C

34

Figure 2.12

r4 r2 2 C

23

X
r2 B r1 1 r3

21
3

02

E 0

10
0

A x

30

Figure 2.13

10
I 0

21 02 02
II 2

30
3

23

Figure 2.14

drive shaft pinion (1)

X
planet gear (3) b left axle a

ring gear (2)

X
0 sun gear (5)

sun gear (4)

right axle

X
0

(a)

02
II

23 34 53
3

40
4

05
I

(b)

Figure 2.15

IIIb

IIIa

30
O

34
B

20

35 32
D A

40

50

Figure 2.16

pitch circle

Fr12 = Fr

F21 P Ft21 = Ft

Ft12 = Ft

P Fr12 = Fr

F12 pitch circle

Figure 2.17

c 2 1 R

1
b B P A s O l l

a 2

Figure 2.18

3 y c R

Ft23

Fr23

a Ft21 P Fr21 Fr32 Ft32 FBy 2 Fr12 Ft12 2 P k O A FAz z s FAy b B FBz l R x

Figure 2.19

D G C C 2 4 r2 B r1 A 3 1 k z 0 A 2 r2

r4 G

X
r4

4 F

r3

X
r1 1

X
r3

E 3

r2 C 2 C r2

Figure 2.20

y Fr02 D Ft02 F 02 F 12 Ft12 F 21 1 Ft21

40
4 G F04

M4

20
C F 34 F F Ft34 F 43 Fr34 3 E F 03 Ft12 Fr12 F 23 F 32 2 C B Fr12

Fr21

30

10
A M e F 21 Ft21

F 12 C F 23 F02 Ft 02

20
C

F 32 2

Fr21

Fr02

Figure 2.21

4=0 Fr42 2 3 r2 r2 0 r1 0 Ft21 Fr21 M1 Fr12 F32 t

Ft24

2 Ft42
Ft12

F23 t M3 r3

Fr24

X
1

3
F01t F03t

F01r

4=0

Figure 2.22

2
2 2 r2 2 F 32r F32t Ft21 Fr21 Ft21 Fr21 M1 F 01r Ft42 Fr42 F03t F03r F23r F23t M3 Fr24 = Fr20 Ft24 = Ft20 4=0

X
1 0

r2 r1

X
3 4=0

1
r4 1

3 F01t

Figure 2.23

Fr42 2 2

Ft 42 F23r M3 Fr12 Ft 12 F03t 3 F23t

Ft 24 Fr24 M4 F04t F 04r 4 r4

X
0 1

r2

F32t Ft 21 Fr21 1 F01r F01t M1

F32r

r2 r1

X
3 4

1
0

3
F03r

Figure 2.24

Ft 21

Fr21

Fr12 Ft 42 Fr42

Ft 12 F23r F32 t F23t M3 F03t F03r F04t Ft 24 Fr24 M4 r4 F04r

X
0 1

X
2 3 4

r2 r2 M1 F01r F01t

F32 r

X 2

1
0 r1

Figure 2.25

Fr

Ft

A t

Figure 2.26

0.006 0.005 0.004 0.003 0.002 0.001 0.000 0.0

Permissible error ( e)

1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0
V

6.0

7.0

8.0

9.0

10.0

ft/ min

Pitch line velocity

Figure 2.27

0.0050 Error in inches ( e ) 0.0040 0.0030 0.0020 0.0010 0.0005 0.0000

carefully cut gears precision gears

11.0 10.0

9.0

8.0

7.0

6.0
Pd

5.0

4.0

3.0

2.0

1.0

Diametral pitch

Figure 2.28