The construction of real numbers, Dedekinds cuts

The construction of real numbers, Dedekinds cuts

George Mpantes mathematics teacher
Abstract

www.mpantes.gr

.
Dedekind constructed the real numbers through the cuts. In
his memoir Continuity and irrational number perceived the essence of
the continuity of a straight line.

Arithmetizing this idea through the

correspondence of the points with real numbers, he considered the

cuts in the ordered set of rational numbers, having the complete
ordered field of real numbers .

The logical gap of Cauchy

Dedekind transmuted the real numbers in a continuous set. We cant visualize this
picture of continuity, since the next of a given real a, (ordered set) is infinitely near in a.

The bridging of the gap between the areas of distinctness and continuity, or between
arithmetic and geometry, is a central, perhaps the more

central problem of the foundations of

mathematics .... this gap is even the oldest problem in the foundations of mathematics and in the
related philosophical fields .... Abraham Fraenkel

The distinctness that characterized arithmetic towards geometry, now

repealed with the work of Dedekind, and the consequence of that removal was the
basis for a rigorous formulation of calculus .
Arithmetic and geometry are intertwined since the
Pythagoreans , when they linked irrational numbers with line
segments and this relationship was maintained in calculus to
account for all fundamental concepts : continuity , limit, infinity ,
the concept of variable , the derivative. Moreover, the early
years calculus was the calculus of curves and therefore it was
near their geometric character .
This connection started to decline with the work of Cauchy , where (another
article) , the subject of calculus began to be transported from geometry to algebra ,
the first systematic attempt to lay the foundations of the calculus in rigorous basis.
However some elements of geometry and
Cauchys formalism, which created

the image of

motion, remained in

problems of rigor in accuracy, pointed out by

subsequent researchers .
Cauchy tried to prove what has become known as Cauchys theorem that a
necessary and sufficient condition for a sequence converges to a limit is that the
difference between the sums Sn+p and Sp as n tends to infinity, can be made less in

George Mpantes , mathematics teacher

The construction of real numbers, Dedekinds cuts

absolute value,

than any assignable quantity

by taking n sufficiently large. A

sequence satisfying this condition is now said Cauchys sequence. The necessity of
the condition follows immediately from the definition of convergence, but the proof of
the sufficiency requires a previous definition of the system of real numbers, in which
belongs the supposed limit S. Without a definition of the irrational numbers, this part
of proof is logically untenable.
Cauchy had stated in his Cours d analyse that irrational numbers are to be
regarded as the limits of sequences of rational numbers. Here the existence of the
irrational number depends, in the definition of limit, upon the known existence and
hence the prior definition, of the very quantity whose definition is being attempted.
How can we prove that the limit of the sequence 1, 1,4, 1,41

, 1,414

.is the

number 2 if we do not prove previously the existence of this number? (Carl

B.Boyer ).. So here happens a circularity that seems Cauchy did not notice but tacitly
assumed that every (Cauchy) sequence had a limit.! 1. Cauchys theory of
convergence lost in rigor because of the phenomenon of irrational numbers.
This belief of Cauchy and his perception of continuity, is due to images of the
geometry on the straight line, where the infinite approximation of two points two
successive terms of the sequence as shifted to the right (Cauchys sequence) -

lim(S n p S n ) 0

p , any -

were leading to the picture of convergence without suspects that this happens
only in the environment of R, (metrical continuum), which R was unknown. Rational
numbers w e r e

not a contInuous set.

So in order to make the convergence concept independent of geometrical

intuition, mathematicians (Weierstrass, Cantor, Dedekind), attempted, in the second
half of nineteenth century, definitions of irrational numbers which did not make use of
the definition of limit, but using the concept of continuity which was prior of all . The
existence of 2 as a limit, presupposes the continuity of the environment around it. If
real numbers were continuous, the behavior of irrational from the viewpoint of
convergence would not differ from that of rational, and so Cauchys reasoning
would be valid, furthermore this would produce the identity of irrational number. To
operate the definitions of the limits numerically, numbers should be a numerical
continuum.
This was the work of Dedekind continuity and Irrational numbers
1

Today we know that this happens only in R.

George Mpantes mathematics teacher

The construction of real numbers, Dedekinds cuts

Rational numbers and the points of a straight line

The statement is so frequently made that the differential calculus deals with
continuous magnitude , and yet an explanation of this continuity is nowhere given; even the
most rigorous expositions of differential calculus do not base their proofs upon continuity but,
more or less consciousness of the fact , they either appeal geometric notions or depend upon
theorems which are never established in a purely arithmetic manner..Dedekind

Dedekind considers the points of a straight which are in 1-1 correspondence

with the real numbers ( axiom Cantor-Dedekind). Initially joining the real line with
rational numbers, noted that their known order

properties transfer

in line

the

respective relationship for the points. These are

1. Whether a, b , c rational and a>b , b>c then a>c
2. Whether a, c are different rational numbers then there are infinitely different
numbers between a and c.
3 . If a is a given rational , then all numbers fall into two classes A1 and A2
where the first class comprises

all numbers a 1

that are < a and the second

comprises all numbers a2 > a The a can be seen in the first class or the second
class being respectively the greatest number of the first class or the least of the
second. .
The correspondence of the rational numbers and the points of a straight line is
established when we select upon the straight line a definite origin or a zero-point O and a
definite unit of length for the measurement of segments. The numbers correspond to points,
then two numbers a, b correspond to two points A, B, and if a> b then A is to the right of B. The three
previous relationships fully correspond to positional relationship between the points ... Dedekind

So what is the essence of continuity in this line of ordered points ? What

means that the points of the line is a continuus set ?
Initially, we can directly observe that the straight line is infinitely richer in
points than the set of rational numbers . For example, point with abscissa 2 exists
in the straight line , but not the rationals.
From proposition 3 , we observe that each point P of the line produces a
separation of itself into two parts so that each point of one part is to the left of all
the points of the other part .
I find the essence of continuity of points in the converse i.e the following
principle:

George Mpantes , mathematics teacher

The construction of real numbers, Dedekinds cuts

if all points of the straight line fall into two classes such that every point of the first
class lies to the left of every point of the second class, then there exists one and only one
point which produce this division of all points into two classes , this severing of the straight
line into two portionsthe assumption of this property of the line is nothing else than an
axiom by which we attribute to the line its continuity, by which we find the continuity of the line
.Dedekind

This proposal is known today as the geometric axiom of continuity of

Dedekind. This consideration excludes the existence of gaps in the line of points , but
there are gaps in the set of rational numbers .
But he big idea was to define real numbers as something that divides the
rational in two separate parts ( left and right) . If the points translated as " real
numbers , or cuts ," then the geometric axiom of continuity is the arithmetic axiom
of continuity of real numbers of Dedekind: a set of numbers is continuous if and
only if for every Dedekind cut A / B in this set of numbers , there is a number a, which
is the maximum of A or the minimum of B . But this happens in the set of real

numbers as we see below.

Now we define the cuts.

Definitions and theorems in cuts , the continuity of cuts .

A cut (A / B ) in the set of rational is called a distribution of rational numbers into
two non- empty classes A and B such that
(for every ) and (for every ) ............(4)

It is obvious that the classes are disjoint , the class A is called lower class and B the
upper class .There are three possible types of Dedekind cuts in the set of rational
numbers , which reflect the following statements:
A. set A has a maximum element and B has not a minimum ie A = { rational 2}
and B all the others rational.
B. The set A has not maximum , but that B has a minimum e.g.
A = { rational < 2 } and B the others rational .
C. A has no maximum element and B has no a minimum (we will see in particular)

A fourth case where A has a maximum a, and B a

minimum b can not occur because between two discrete
George Mpantes mathematics teacher

The construction of real numbers, Dedekinds cuts

rational a, b there is always a rational c ( dense set ), which does not belong to
neither the A nor B, which is contrary to the formation of A and B.
Theorem 1. Whether the class A has a maximum or B has a minimum, then
and only then the cut (A / B ) defines rational number . For a 1-1 correspondence of
cuts with the rational numbers, we consider all sections that are type B. That is the
Dedekind cuts are upper bound opened subsets of Q. For each rational aQ, we
consider the Dedekind cut a = {q Q / q < a }
The question is born : it is possible to construct a cut that neither class A has
a maximum nor class B has a minimum ? ( the case C )
We will see this case with an example : we divide all rational numbers into
two classes A and B so that B contains all rational whose square is > 2 and A the rest
rational.. It is obvious that ( 4 ) applies so is defined a cut (A / B ) .Easily proved that
neither class A has a maximum nor class B has a minimum.. So the cut (A / B ) does
not define a rational number . In this case the cut defines a new element which we
call irrational number. In the new set of numbers , (set of cuts ) , this is the maximum
element of A (or minimum B) and so the axiom of continuity of Dedekind, is applied !
In this property that not all cuts are produced by rational numbers consists the
incompleteness or discontinuity of the set of rational numbers ... Dedekind

Each cut then defines a real number, as in straight line defines a point .
Departing from the rational numbers, we construct new elements ( cuts ) other of
which are rational and others not. We call real numbers the set of Dedekind cuts in
the set of rational numbers. Each blind chop on the imaginary line of real numbers
falls on a real number. This is the picture of continuity ( continuity axiom of
Dedekind).2
It should be noted that this consideration of continuity with Dedekinds cuts is
not unique (Weierstrss, Cantor), but is one that creates clearer images in the mind
and becomes better understood .

Operations with real numbers .

To reduce any operation with two real numbers a,b to operations with rational
numbers , it is only necessary from the cuts (A1/A2), ( B1/B2) produced by the numbers a and
2

Mankiewicz describes Dedekind cuts as follows: "Imagine the line of numbers as a

solid tube of infinite length, filled with ordered rational numbers. A cut of the tube will give us
two portions, A and B, and will reveal two cross sections (the edges of A and B). Seeing
these exposed sides, we can read the numbers show us (one or the other). If they do not
show us any number, then the intersection has become on an irrational. "(Amalia Babili)

George Mpantes , mathematics teacher

The construction of real numbers, Dedekinds cuts

b , to define the cut (C1/C2) which is to correspond to the result of the operation,
c.Dedekind

In chapter VI of his essay (Continuity and irrational numbers)

Dedekind

describes the above reasoning in the case of the sum a+b and so his belief that
every numeric system which

extends,

must

incorporate the properties of its

operations to the new system, applies for the rational and real numbers. The set of
real numbers is closed under the operation of forming cuts within it. Now the irrational
numbers exist, and the real numbers are continuous.
Other constructions of real numbers were:
a. the construction of Weierstass, never published but presented in his class
lectures, and published by his students with different variations.
b. The construction of Cantor expressed by Cauchys sequences (proof of Cantor,
http://www.math.nus.edu.sg/~urops/Projects/RealNumbers.pdf).
published at the same period. The last two published in 1872.
But there are many other mathematical constructions that have been proposed as a
new structural interpretations of real numbers. Each generation reviews real numbers
in light of its own mathematical standards.
Eventually the mathematical existence of the phenomenon of real numbers
even needs a theorem, which we will mention without proof (Schehter).
Theorem of isomorphism.
two complete ordered fields are isomorphic.
This means that there is a one to one correspondence between them which
retains the operations in both directions, e.g. the image of the sum is the sum of the
images and conversely. I.e. two isomorphic fields are substantially the 'same field ",
just one is a renamed copy of another (isomorphic copy).
The isomorphism allows us to say that there is only one complete ordered field, the
set of real numbers.
Epilogue .
The theory of irrational numbers here presented

is based on the phenomenon

occurring in the domain of rational numbers which I designate by the term cut (Schnitt) and
which I was the first to investigate carefully; it culminates in the proof of the continuity of the
new domain of real numbers . It appears to me to be somewhat simpler , I might say easier,
than the two theories , different from it and from each other , which have been proposed by
Weierstrass and Cantor and which likewise are perfectly rigorous. Also i show that the addition
and all operations of real numbers are defined with all the rigor and that on this basis, the proposals

George Mpantes mathematics teacher

The construction of real numbers, Dedekinds cuts

form the backbone of arithmetic can be proved fully .... (Dedekind, Continuity and rational numbers
internet)

Now the logical foundation of calculus has achieved, the numbers were
continuous and mathematics have overcome their second major logical crisis, just at
the end of the 19th century: from the paradoxes of Zeno to the numerical continuum.
The end of infinitesimals .
The axiom of continuity will ensure Archimedean structure of R ( finding ) , so
you banish the calculus of infinitesimals .
Archimedean law to R: Let a and b two positive real numbers , then there is a

positive integer n such that n.a > b

A proof is in Howard Eves, but there are other evidence based on the
properties of real numbers which are produced by the axiomatic basis, in conjunction
with other , e.i.
(for

the reader )
In the calculus of infinitesimals we had that if a is an infinitesimal then the

n.a will also be infinitesimal , so contravenes the Archimedean principle . So there

are not infinitesimals in real numbers . ( old Archimedes conviction ) .
Sources
R.Dedekind :Continuity and irrational numbers , the nature and meaning of
numbers, internet
. ( ):
,
Spencer Scoular :, the unlimited infinite , exploring the philosophy of
Mathematics
Carl B. Boyer: the history of Calculus and its conceptual development, Dover
:
Howard Eves : foundations and fundamental concepts of mathematics, Dover
Ethan D.Bloch Springer: The real numbers and real analysis
(Eric Schechter, : What are the real numbers really?
George Mpantes, mathematics teacher

George Mpantes , mathematics teacher

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