Theory of Automata Lecture 1

Lecture 01:
Theory of Automata:08
Theory of Automata
Source Net Presentation by Abu Turab
Introduction to Computer Theory, by

Daniel I. Cohen
Lecture 01:
Text and Reference Material

1. Introduction to Computer Theory, by Daniel I.
Cohen, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1991, Second Edition
2. Introduction to Languages and Theory of Computation, by J. C. Martin, McGraw Hill

Book Co., 1997, Second Edition
Theory Of Automata
Lecture 01:
Background
We shall form several mathematical models that will describe with varying degrees of accuracy parts of computers, types of computers, and similar machines. In particular, the way we shall be studying about computers is to build mathematical models, called machines, and then to study their limitations by analyzing the types of inputs on which they can operate successfully. The collection of these successful inputs is called the language of the machine.
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Every time we introduce a new machine, we will learn its language; and every time we develop a new language, we will try to find a machine that corresponds to it. This interplay between languages and machines will be our way of investigating problems and their potential solutions by automatic procedures, which we call algorithms. We will study different types of theoretical machines that are mathematical models for actual physical processes. By considering the possible inputs on which these machines can work, we can analyze their various strengths and weaknesses.
Lecture 01:
What is mathematical about the models?

we are obliged to prove the truth about whatever we discover.
So consider only question of whether certain tasks can be done at all. Conclusion are of the form this can be done or this can never be done. When reach conclusions of the second type, we mean not just that techniques for performing these tasks are unknown at the present time, but that such techniques will never exist in the future.
Lecture 01:
We will arrive at what we may believe to be the most powerful machine possible. When we do, we will be surprised to find tasks that even such machine cannot perform. Our ultimate result is that no matter what machine we build, there will always be questions that are simple to state and that the machine can not answer.
Theory Of Automata
Lecture 01:
What does automata mean?
It is the plural of automaton, and it means something that works automatically
Theory Of Automata
Lecture 01:
Languages
In English, we distinguish 3 different entities: letters, words, and sentences.
Groups of letters make up words and groups of words make up sentences.
However, not all collections of letters form valid words, and not all collections of words form valid sentences.
This situation also exists with computer languages.

Certain (but not all) strings of characters are recognizable words (e.g., IF, ELSE, FOR, WHILE ); and certain (but not all) strings of words are recognizable commands.
Lecture 01:
To construct a general theory of formal languages, we need to have a definition of a language structure, in which the decision of whether a given string of units constitutes a valid larger unit is not a matter of guesswork, but is based on explicitly stated rules. In this model, language will be considered as symbols with formal rules, and not as expressions of ideas in the minds of humans. The term formal emphasizes that it is the form of the string of symbols that we are interested in, not the meaning.
Theory Of Automata
Lecture 01:
Basic Definitions
A finite non-empty set of symbols (letters), is called an alphabet. It is denoted by ( Greek letter sigma). Example: ={a,b} ={0,1} //important as this is the language //which the computer understands. ={i,j,k}
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Strings
Concatenation of finite symbols from the alphabet is called a string. Example: If = {a,b} then a, abab, aaabb, ababababababababab
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Words
Words are strings belonging to some language. Example: If = {x} then a language L can be defined as L={xn : n=1,2,3,..} or L={x,xx,xxx,.} Here x,xx, are the words of L
All words are strings, but not all strings are words.
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Lecture 01:
EMPTY STRING or NULL STRING

We shall allow a string to have no letters. We call this empty string or null string, and denote it by the symbol . For all languages, the null word, if it is a word in the language, is the word that has no letters. We also denote the null word by . Two words are considered the same if all their letters are the same and in the same order. For clarity, we usually do not allow the symbol to be part of the alphabet of any language.
Lecture 01:
Discussion of null
The language that has no words is denoted by the standard symbol for null set, . It is not true that is a word in the language since this language has no words at all. If a certain language L does not contain the word and we wish to add it to L, we use the operation + to form L + {}. This language is not the same as L. However, the language L + is the same as L since no new words have been added.
Lecture 01:
Introduction to Defining Languages

The rules for defining a language can be of two kinds:
They can tell us how to test if a string of alphabet letters is a valid word, or
They can tell us how to construct all the words in the language by some clear procedures.
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Lecture 01:
Defining Languages
Example: Consider this alphabet with only one letter ={x} We can define a language by saying that any nonempty string of alphabet letters is a word L1 = { x, xx, xxx, xxxx, } or L1 = { xn for n = 1, 2, 3, } Note that because of the way we have defined it, the language L1 does not include the null word .
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Lecture 01:
Example:
The language L of strings of odd length, defined over ={a}, can be written as L={a, aaa, aaaaa,..} Example: The language L of strings that does not start with a, defined over ={a,b,c}, can be written as L={b, c, ba, bb, bc, ca, cb, cc, }
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Lecture 01:
Example:
The language L of strings of length 2, defined over ={0,1,2}, can be written as L={00, 01, 02,10, 11,12,20,21,22}
Example: The language L of strings ending in 0, defined over ={0,1}, can be written as L={0,00,10,000,010,100,110,}
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Lecture 01:
Example:
The language EQUAL, of strings with number of as equal to number of bs, defined over ={a,b}, can be written as { ,ab,aabb,abab,baba,abba,}
The language EVEN-EVEN, of strings with even number of as and even number of bs, defined over ={a,b}, can be written as {, aa, bb, aaaa,aabb,abab, abba, baab, baba, bbaa, bbbb,}
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Lecture 01:
Concatenation
Let us define an operation, concatenation, in which two strings are written down side by side to form a new longer string. xxx concatenated with xx is the word xxxxx xn concatenated with xm is the word xn+m For convenience, we may label a word in a given language by a new symbol. For example, xxx is called a, and xx is called b Then to denote the word formed by concatenating a and b, we can write ab = xxxxx It is not true that when two words are concatenated, they produce another word. For example, if the language is L2 = {x, xxx, xxxxx, } = {x2n+1 for n = 0, 1, 2, } then a = xxx and b = xxxxx are both words in L2, but their concatenation ab = xxxxxxxx is not in L2
Lecture 01:
Concatenation makes new Words?

Note that in this simple example, we have: ab = ba But in general, this relationship does NOT hold for all languages (e.g., houseboat and boathouse are two different words in English). Example: Consider another language by beginning with the alphabet = { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 } Define the language L3 = { any finite string of alphabet letters that does not start with the letter zero }
Lecture 01:
This language L3 looks like the set of positive integers: L3 = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, } If we want to define L3 so that it includes the string (word) 0, we could say L3 = { any finite string of alphabet letters that, if it starts with a 0, has no more letters after the first}
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Lecture 01:
Definition: Length
We define the function length of a string to be the number of letters in the string. Example:
If a = xxxx in the language L1, then length(a) = 4 If c = 428 in the language L3, then length(c) = 3 If d = 0 in the language L3, then length(d) = 1 In any language that includes the null word , then length() = 0
For any word w in any language, if length(w) = 0 then w = .

Lecture 01:
Recall that the language L1 does not contain the null string . Let us define a language like L1 but that does contain : L4 = { , x, xx, xxx, xxxx, } = { xn for n = 0, 1, 2, 3, } Here we have defined that x0 = (NOT x0 = 1 as in algebra) In this way, xn always means the string of n alphabet letters xs. Remember that even is a word in the language, it is not a letter in the alphabet.
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Lecture 01:
Definition: Reverse
If a is a word in some language L, then reverse(a) is the same string of letters spelled backward, even if this backward string is not a word in L. Example:
reverse(xxx) = xxx reverse(145) = 541 Note that 140 is a word in L3, but reverse(140) = 041 is NOT a word in L3
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Lecture 01:
Definition: Palindrome
Let us define a new language called Palindrome over the alphabet = { a, b } PALINDROME = { , and all strings x such that reverse(x) = x } If we want to list the elements in PALINDROME, we find PALINDROME = { , a, b, aa, bb, aaa, aba, bab, bbb, aaaa, abba, }
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Lecture 01:
Palindrome
Sometimes two words in PALINDROME when concatenated will produce a word in PALINDROME
abba concatenated with abbaabba gives abbaabbaabba (in PALINDROME)
But more often, the concatenation is not a word in PALINDROME

aa concatenated with aba gives aaaba (NOT in PALINDROME)
The language PALINDROME has interesting properties that we shall examine later.
Lecture 01:
Task
Q) Prove that there are as many palindromes of length 2n, defined over = {a,b,c}, as there are of length 2n-1, n = 1,2,3 . Determine the number of palindromes of length 2n defined over the same alphabet as well.
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Lecture 01:
Solution
To calculate the number of palindromes of length(2n), consider the following diagram,
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which shows that there are as many palindromes of length 2n as there are the strings of length n i.e. the required number of palindromes are 3n (as there are three letters in the given alphabet, so the number of strings of length n will be 3n ).
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Lecture 01:
To calculate the number of palindromes of length (2n-1) with a as the middle letter, consider the following diagram,
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which shows that there are as many palindromes of length 2n-1, with a as middle letter, as there are the strings of length n-1, i.e. the required number of palindromes are 3n-1. Similarly the number of palindromes of length 2n-1, with b or c as middle letter, will be 3n-1 as well. Hence the total number of palindromes of length 2n-1 will be 3n-1 + 3n-1 + 3n-1 = 3 (3n-1)= 3n .
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Lecture 01:
Kleene Closure
Definition: Given an alphabet , we define a language in which any string of letters from is a word, even the null string . We call this language the closure of the alphabet , and denote this language by *. Examples: If = { x } then * = { , x, xx, xxx, } If = { 0, 1 } then * = { , 0, 1, 00, 01, 10, 11, 000, 001, } If = { a, b, c } then * = { , a, b, c, aa, ab, ac, ba, bb, bc, ca, cb, cc, aaa, }
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Lecture 01:
Lexicographic order
Notice that we listed the words in a language in size order (i.e., words of shortest length first), and then listed all the words of the same length alphabetically. This ordering is called lexicographic order, which we will usually follow. The star in the closure notation is known as the Kleene star. We can think of the Kleene star as an operation that makes, out of an alphabet, an infinite language (i.e., infinitely many words, each of finite length).
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Lecture 01:
Kleene Closure
Let us now generalize the use of the Kleene star oprator to sets of words, not just sets of alphabet letters.
Definition: If S is a set of words, then S* is the set of all finite strings formed by concatenating words from S, where any word may be used as often as we like, and where the null string is also included.
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Lecture 01:
Kleene Closure
Example: If S = { aa, b } then S* = { plus any word composed of factors of aa and b }, or S* = { plus any strings of as and bs in which the as occur in even clumps }, or S* = { , b, aa, bb, aab, baa, bbb, aaaa, aabb, baab, bbaa, bbbb, aaaab, aabaa, aabbb, baaaa, baabb, bbaab, bbbaa, bbbbb, } Note that the string aabaaab is not in S* because it has a clump of as of length 3.
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Lecture 01:
Kleene Closure
Example: Let S = { a, ab }. Then S* = { plus any word composed of factors of a and ab }, or S* = { plus all strings of as and bs except those that start with b and those that contain a double b }, or S* = { , a, aa, ab, aaa, aab, aba, aaaa, aaab, abaa, abab, aaaaa, aaaab, aaaba, aabaa, aabab, abaaa, abaab, ababa, } Note that for each word in S*, every b must have an a immediately to its left, so the double b, that is bb, is not possible; neither any string starting with b.
Lecture 01:
How to prove a certain word is in the closure language S*

We must show how it can be written as a concatenation of words from the base set S.
In the previous example, to show that abaab is in S*, we can factor it as follows: abaab = (ab)(a)(ab) These three factors are all in the set S, therefore their concatenation is in S*. Note that the parentheses, ( ), are used for the sole purpose of demarcating the ends of factors.
Lecture 01:
Observe that if the alphabet has no letters, then its closure is the language with the null string as its only word; that is if = (the empty set), then * = { } Also, observe that if the set S has the null string as its only word, then the closure language S* also has the null string as its only word; that is if S = { }, then S* = { } because = . Hence, the Kleene closure always produces an infinite language unless the underlying set is one of the two cases above.
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Lecture 01:
Kleene Closure of different sets

The Kleene closure of two different sets can end up being the same language.
Example: Consider two sets of words S = { a , b, ab } and T = { a, b, bb } Then, both S* and T* are languages of all strings of as and bs since any string of as and bs can be factored into syllables of (a) or (b), both of which are in S and T.
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Lecture 01:
Positive Closure
If we wish to modify the concept of closure to refer only the concatenation of some (not zero) strings from a set S, we use the notation + instead of *. This plus operation is called positive closure. Example: if = { x } then + = { x, xx, xxx, } Observe that:
1. If S is a language that does not contain , then S+ is the language S* without the null word . 2. If S is a language that does contain , then S+ = S* 3. Likewise, if is an alphabet, then + is * without the word .
Lecture 01:
S**?
What happens if we apply the closure operator twice?
We start with a set of words S and form its closure S* We then start with the set S* and try to form its closure, which we denote as (S*)* or S**
Theorem 1: For any set S of strings, we have S* = S** Before we prove the theorem, recall from Set Theory that
A = B if A is a subset of B and B is a subset of A A is a subset of B if for all x in A, x is also in B
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Proof of Theorem 1:
Let us first prove that S** is a subset of S*: Every word in S** is made up of factors from S*. Every factor from S* is made up of factors from S. Hence, every word from S** is made up of factors from S. Therefore, every word in S** is also a word in S*. This implies that S** is a subset of S*. Let us now prove that S* is a subset of S**: In general, it is true that for any set A, we have A is a subset of A*, because in A* we can choose as a word any factor from A. So if we consider A to be our set S* then S* is a subset of S** Together, these two inclusions prove that S* = S**.
Lecture 01:
Example
Defining language of EVEN Step 1: 2 is in EVEN. Step 2: If x is in EVEN then x+2 and x-2 are also in EVEN. Step 3: No strings except those constructed in above, are allowed to be in EVEN.
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Lecture 01:
Example
Defining the language factorial Step 1: As 0!=1, so 1 is in factorial. Step 2: n!=n*(n-1)! is in factorial. Step 3: No strings except those constructed in above, are allowed to be in factorial.
Lecture 01:
Defining the language PALINDROME, defined over = {a,b} Step 1: a and b are in PALINDROME Step 2: if x is palindrome, then s(x)Rev(s) and xx will also be palindrome, where s belongs to * Step 3: No strings except those constructed in above, are allowed to be in palindrome
Lecture 01:
Defining the language {anbn }, n=1,2,3, , of strings defined over ={a,b} Step 1: ab is in {anbn} Step 2: if x is in {anbn}, then axb is in {anbn} Step 3: No strings except those constructed in above, are allowed to be in {anbn}
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Lecture 01:
Defining the language L, of strings ending in a , defined over ={a,b} Step 1: a is in L Step 2: if x is in L then s(x) is also in L, where s belongs to * Step 3: No strings except those constructed in above, are allowed to be in L
Lecture 01:
Defining the language L, of strings beginning and ending in same letters , defined over ={a, b} Step 1: a and b are in L Step 2: (a)s(a) and (b)s(b) are also in L, where s belongs to * Step 3: No strings except those constructed in above, are allowed to be in L
Lecture 01:
Defining the language L, of strings containing aa or bb , defined over ={a, b} Step 1: aa and bb are in L Step 2: s(aa)s and s(bb)s are also in L, where s belongs to * Step 3: No strings except those constructed in above, are allowed to be in L
Lecture 01:
Defining the language L, of strings containing exactly aa, defined over ={a, b} Step 1: aa is in L Step 2: s(aa)s is also in L, where s belongs to b* Step 3: No strings except those constructed in above, are allowed to be in L

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Lecture 01:

Introduction to Computer Theory, by

Text and Reference Material

2. Introduction to Languages and Theory of Computation, by J. C. Martin, McGraw Hill

What is mathematical about the models?

What does automata mean?

It is the plural of automaton, and it means something that works automatically

This situation also exists with computer languages.

EMPTY STRING or NULL STRING

Introduction to Defining Languages

Concatenation makes new Words?

For any word w in any language, if length(w) = 0 then w = .

But more often, the concatenation is not a word in PALINDROME

How to prove a certain word is in the closure language S*

Kleene Closure of different sets

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