8eadlng for uay 2, 1oplc 2LA 1heorles 1 u.

Malone, MLL WS, 8angkok 2012

!"#$%&#' )*+ ,#'#)%-" $. /#-$*+ 0)*12)1# 3-42&'&5&$*
A sttooq foooJotloo ooJ o qooJ btlJqe!
Susan Malone, SlL lnLernaLlonal (ln
response Lo Lhe quesLlon: WhaL ls needed
for a successful moLher Longue-based
mulLlllngual educaLlon program?")
!"#$%&'(#)%"
lf Lhe foundaLlon of Lhe non-domlnanL language learners' moLher Longue ls noL
sLrong, Lhen any brldge" bullL on lL wlll be ln danger. WlLhouL Lhe good brldge, Lhe
non-domlnanL language learners wlll "%# achleve Lhelr educaLlonal goals.
1he focus of Lhls paper ls oot on Lhe sLrong foundaLlon. 1haL ls assumed Lo be
presenL. 1he purpose ls Lo presenL a summary of Lhe LheoreLlcal ldeas LhaL
conLrlbuLe Lo bulldlng Lhe good brldge. ln order Lo do LhaL ln a condensed way, we
wlll sklm and sklp over an enormous amounL of research and Lheorles.
1heorles, MeLhods, PypoLheses
6%#789
5"

:#*52%;
<)%=; >?99' >?@9'A >?B9' >?C9'A >?D9' >?E9'A >??9' >??9' 7 F%#'#*5
Crammar-
LranslaLlon
Audlollngual,
ulrecL MeLhod
8ehavlorlsL,
S-8-8
unlversal
Crammar, LAu
lnformaLlon
rocesslng
Models
Soclal
lnLeracLlonlsm
8loomflelJ,
ltles
5klooet cbomsky,
ktosbeo
AoJetsoo,
Mclooqbllo
vyqotsky, 5oow

1he dlscusslon LhaL follows ls ln Lwo parLs: (1) represenLaLlve 2LA Lheorles and
(2) represenLaLlve 2LA meLhods.

+,-$,.,"#/#)0, 123 45,%$),. %0,$ #5, 6,/$.
1he followlng Lheorles represenL serlous Lhlnklng over Lhe pasL cenLury abouL
Lhe way a person acqulres or learns a second language. (keep ln mlnd LhaL much
complex Lheorlzlng has been condensed here.)
8ebovlotlsm
ln mld-CenLury behavlorlsL Lheory (as Lyplfled by Lhe work of 8.l. Sklnner)
lmpacLed almosL all areas of sclenLlflc lnvesLlgaLlon. 1he behavlorlsL Lheory
(slmpllfled) predlcLed LhaL any human behavlor could be learned Lhrough a process
of sLlmulus, response, and poslLlve or negaLlve relnforcemenL (someLlme
8eadlng for uay 2, 1oplc 2LA 1heorles 2 u. Malone, MLL WS, 8angkok 2012

abbrevlaLed as S-8-8).
1
1he ob[ecL was Lo make Lhe deslred behavlor become a
hablL, performed sponLaneously. Accordlng Lo behavlorlsLs Lhls process applles Lo
Lhe way people learn language as well as oLher human behavlor.
looqooqe Acpolsltloo uevlce (lAu)
LlngulsL noam Chomsky Lheorlzed LhaL Lhe observable daLa for language
acqulslLlon dld noL favor a behavlorlsL approach. Chlldren ln every language and
culLural communlLy learn Lo undersLand and speak aL a remarkably early age. 1hey
are able Lo produce proper and unlque/novel language even ln lnfancy buL Lhey are
noL merely mlmlcklng language paLLerns Lhey hear. 1hey are creaLlng language
Lhemselves. CuL of Lhe mouLh of babes ofL Llmes come gems!" ls an anclenL
proverb, now wlLh a modern LheoreLlcal base (as lf lL needed one).
Chomsky called Lhls lnnaLe ablllLy Lo acqulre and use language a Language
AcqulslLlon uevlce (LAu). Pe argued LhaL Lhe sLages of developmenL LhaL are
requlred for chlldren Lo develop Lhelr cognlLlve ablllLles ln oLher areas do noL apply
Lo learnlng language. 1hey are uslng language - arguably Lhe mosL absLracL symbollc
sysLem Lhey wlll encounLer ln Lhelr llves - approprlaLely and expresslvely, lf noL
maLurely, by Lhe age of 3. Chomsky's tbeoty led Lo an enLlrely new approach ln Lhe
fleld of llngulsLlcs: generaLlve phonology and LransformaLlonal grammar. 1hls new
approach Lo llngulsLlc analysls focused almosL enLlrely on Lhe absLracL deep
sLrucLure" of lndlvlduals' naLlve language. Chomsky was noL as concerned wlLh Lhe
acLual language belng spoken as wlLh Lhe unspoken buL undersLood rules LhaL made
Lhe uLLerances approprlaLe, correcL Lo naLlve speakers. nor dld Chomsky sLudy how
people acqulre a second language. Powever, oLher llngulsLs applled hls Lheorles Lo
2LA lssues (e.g., krashen's MonlLor Model below).

lofotmotloo ltocessloq
CLher cognlLlve sclenLlsLs dlsagreed wlLh Chomsky's LAu hypoLhesls. 1hey
consldered Lhe human belng's ablllLy Lo acqulre language as merely a componenL of
hlghly complex cognlLlve sLrucLures. 8. C. Anderson (1983) developed Lhe AdapLlve
ConLrol of 1houghL (AC1) model LhaL has been lnfluenLlal ln sLudles of cognlLlve
developmenL and 2LA. ln Anderson's Lheory, lnLelllgence ls slmply Lhe gaLherlng
LogeLher and flne-Lunlng of many small unlLs of knowledge LhaL ln LoLal produce
complex Lhlnklng. 1he whole of language learnlng ablllLy ls noL more Lhan Lhe sum
of lLs parLs, buL lL has a loL of parLs!"
2


1
lor a brlef explanaLlon of behavlorlsm and 2LA, see Lhe owerolnL presenLaLlon:
www.bu.edu/llngulsLlcs/uC/course/lx400/.../lx400-2a-hlsLory.pdf
2
CuoLed ln ?aLes, kenneLh A. (2007). 1owards a Laxonomy of cognlLlve Lask analysls meLhods: A search
for cognlLlon and Lask analysls lnLeracLlons. unpubllshed uocLoral ulsserLaLlon, unlverslLy of SouLhern
Callfornla, Los Angeles.
8eadlng for uay 2, 1oplc 2LA 1heorles 3 u. Malone, MLL WS, 8angkok 2012

1hls Lheory ls based on Lhe hypoLhesls LhaL all human knowledge can be dlvlded
lnLo Lwo lrreduclble klnds of represenLaLlons: Jeclototlve koowleJqe and ptoceJotol
koowleJqe. ln brlef, declaraLlve knowledge ls learned rapldly and ls sLored ln long-
Lerm memory Lhrough lmoqes and scbemos.
3
rocedural knowledge ls more
compllcaLed and refers Lo Lhe gradual process by whlch a person learns how Lo do
someLhlng successfully. ln summary:
1be Ac1 moJel ls eootmoosly complex. . lt ls oot posslble to Jo jostlce to
tbls complexlty bete. 1be ceottol polots to qtosp ote tbe tbeotetlcol clolm
tbot leotoloq beqlos wltb Jeclototlve koowleJqe wblcb slowly becomes
ptoceJotollzeJ, ooJ tbot tbe mecboolsm by wblcb tbls tokes ploce ls
ptoctlce. Lllls (1994) p. 389.

5oclol lotetoctloo ooJ 5oclocoltotol 1beotles
Where Chomsky declded Lo focus on Lhe deep sLrucLure and absLracLlons of
language acqulslLlon, anoLher group of llngulsLs declded Lo focus on how Lhe role of
language as lL ls acLually spoken conLrlbuLes Lo 2LA. Also, where krashen argued
LhaL comprehenslble lnpuL" ls Lhe necessary and sufflclenL source of successful 2LA,
oLher llngulsLs argued LhaL comprehenslble lnpuL may be necessary buL noL
sufflclenL.
Soclal lnLeracLlonlsLs, llke Cass (2002), focused on Lhe language learnlng conLexL
and how learners use Lhelr llngulsLlc envlronmenL (ln parLlcular, conversaLlonal
lnLeracLlons) Lo bulld Lhelr knowledge of Lhe second language" (p. 17).
vygoLsky emphaslzed Lhe role of Lhe soclal envlronmenL (LhaL ls, Lhe oLher
people who lnLeracL wlLh Lhe chlld) on chlldren's learnlng. lf, as vygoLsky argues,
everyLhlng ls flrsL learned soclally (LhaL ls, from someone else), Lhen whaL ls Lhe role
of soclal lnLeracLlon ln Lhe language acqulslLlon process? uoes Lhe 2LA program
allow ample opporLunlLles for Lhe learners Lo lnLeracL wlLh oLhers uslng Lhe L2?
Swaln (1990) argues LhaL comprehenslble ouLpuL" ln meanlngful conversaLlons
ls also necessary for successful 2LA. When learners Lalk ln Lhe L2 Lhey noLlce a
gap," a dlfference, beLween Lhelr knowledge of Lhe L2 and whaL Lhey wanL Lo/need
Lo say. Pavlng noLlced Lhe gap, Lhey are now predlsposed Lo modlfy Lhelr L2 speech,
Lo pay aLLenLlon Lo Lhe L2 sLrucLure or grammar. AL LhaL polnL Lhey can begln Lo
Lhlnk abouL Lhe language - a meLallngulsLlc
4
acLlvlLy - and begln Lo lnLernallze Lhe
way Lhe L2 works.

3
1he Lerm schemas" refers Lo Anderson's conLrlbuLlon Lo Schema 1heory as an explanaLlon of cognlLlve
developmenL and learnlng happen.
4
MeLallngulsLlc refers Lo Lhlnklng abouL language" ln a slmllar sense LhaL meLacognlLlon refers Lo
Lhlnklng abouL Lhlnklng."
8eadlng for uay 2, 1oplc 2LA 1heorles 4 u. Malone, MLL WS, 8angkok 2012

Per research has provlded ample evldence for Lhe noLlon LhaL second language
learners learn Lhe L2 from each oLher and from Lhe Leacher ln acLual lnLeracLlons ln
Lhe L2 as Lhey recelve feedback from Lhelr parLners.
3


+,-$,.,"#/#)0, 123 7,#5%&.
8ockqtoooJ
ln WesLern counLrles, ln Lhe 19
Lh
CenLury, Lhe prlmary purpose of learnlng a
second language ln school was ln order Lo read Lhe classlcal llLeraLure of LhaL
language. 1he meLhod for dolng LhaL was called grammar-LranslaLlon." 1he
meLhod for learnlng lncluded Lhe use of Lhe learners' moLher Longue. vocabulary,
grammaLlcal sLrucLures, and whole LexLs from Lhe LargeL language were presenLed Lo
Lhe learners, explalned ln Lhelr moLher Longue, memorlzed and Lhen LranslaLed from
Lhe L2 Lo Lhe L1.
noL surprlslngly, Lhls meLhod was dlfflculL Lo lmplemenL ln a meanlngful and
lnLeresLlng way for Lhe learners. 1he meLhods below are, ln parL, an efforL Lo
overcome LhaL approach Lo learnlng a second language.
Surprlslngly, perhaps, grammar-LranslaLlon meLhods were used ln lndla aL leasL
unLll Lhe 1960s and ln Chlna up Lo Lhe presenL
6


3'&)%8)"9'/8 3--$%/(5
LlngulsLs ln norLh Amerlca developed Lhe audlollngual approach ln Lhe early 20
Lh

CenLury as parL of Lhelr pro[ecL Lo record and documenL all of Lhe naLlve Amerlcan
languages sLlll ln use. 8ecause Lhe naLlve Amerlcan culLures were prlmarlly oral
culLures, Lhe llngulsLs' language learnlng emphasls naLurally shlfLed from Lhe wrlLLen
Lo Lhe spoken word. And slnce moLher Longue speakers of Lhese languages rarely lf
ever galned Lhe llngulsLlc educaLlon needed Lo wrlLe up formal llngulsLlc analyses of
Lhelr language, Lhe ouLslde llngulsL hlmself/herself had Lo devlse a meLhod for
learnlng and recordlng Lhe language.
7

AL Lhe same Llme, behavlorlsL Lheory began Lo lmpacL almosL all areas of
sclenLlflc lnvesLlgaLlon. 1he behavlorlsL Lheory -slmpllfled - predlcLs LhaL any human

3
See hLLp://www.celea.org.cn/2007/keynoLe/ppL/Merrlll Swaln.pdf for an excellenL presenLaLlon of her
ouLpuL hypoLhesls" and lLs relaLlon Lo socloculLural learnlng Lheory. lL ls only moderaLely Lechnlcal. See
also, Parley, Allen, Cummlns and Swaln (1990) for an academlc paper on Lhe sub[ecL.
6
8ao (1996) dlscusses Lhe deep culLural and pedagoglcal adherence Chlnese learners have Lo Leacher-
cenLered, LexL-cenLered language educaLlon based ln Confuclan phllosophy. As a resulL, Lngllsh-as-
lorelgn-Language Leachers ln Chlna run lnLo dlfflculLles Lrylng Lo Lraln Leachers ln purely communlcaLlve,
learner-cenLered, small group orlenLed 2LA lessons. Pe suggesLs a way of comblnlng CommunlcaLlve
Language 1eachlng wlLh grammar-LranslaLlon.
7
Audlollngual ls probably Lhe meLhod by whlch mosL SlL language sLaff learned lndlgenous languages
prlor Lo Lhe 1980s.
8eadlng for uay 2, 1oplc 2LA 1heorles 3 u. Malone, MLL WS, 8angkok 2012

behavlor can be learned and performed Lhrough a process of sLlmulus, response,
and relnforcemenL (someLlme abbrevlaLed as S-8-8).
8

1he S-8-8 approach prescrlbed a 2LA meLhod LhaL lnvolved a loL of repeLlLlon of
Lhe L2 grammaLlcal forms, especlally Lhose LhaL dlffered from Lhe L1. lL was assumed
LhaL Lhe forms LhaL dlffered would be Lhe mosL llkely source of errors for Lhe L2
learner. 1hls hypoLhesls was laLer dlscredlLed.
ln sum, Lhe L2 ls learned by many repeLlLlons of Lhe L2 grammaLlcal paLLerns
wlLh poslLlve relnforcemenL provlded when reproduced correcLly and negaLlve
relnforcemenL when reproduced lncorrecLly. lnLerference by Lhe learners' L1 was
consldered Lo be Lhe maln source of L2 error. 1herefore, lLs use ln L2 learnlng was
avolded as much as posslble.

45, :/#'$/8 3--$%/(5
SLeven krashen developed Lhe MonlLor Model of 2LA ln Lhe 1970s uslng ldeas
developed by Chomsky. 8rlefly, hls Lheory was bullL on flve hypoLheses:
1. 1here ls a naLural order" for learnlng Lhe sLrucLure of an L2.
2. 1here ls a dlsLlncLlon beLween language acqulslLlon and language
learnlng.
3. 1here ls a funcLlon for a monlLor" (or edlLor") ln Lhe producLlon of Lhe
L2. 1haL ls, ln language acqulslLlon, Lhe learner acqulres fluenL, correcL
speech ln a naLural way and applles lL Lo speech unconsclously. When
cerLaln grammar or spelllng rules are consclously learned, Lhen a
monlLor" or edlLor" appears (flguraLlvely) and correcLs speech LhaL ls
noL approprlaLe ln L2 (as far as Lhe learner knows).
4. 1he necessary and sufflclenL cause of 2LA ls comprehenslble lnpuL." 1haL
ls, noL only ls meanlngful lnpuL needed ln 2LA, lL ls oll LhaL ls needed. lf
you consLanLly recelve comprehenslble lnpuL you wlll learn Lo undersLand
and speak Lhe L2.
3. An affecLlve fllLer" plays a crlLlcal role ln how well and how fasL an L2 ls
acqulred. 1hls refers Lo Lhe emoLlons/feellngs of Lhe learner ln Lhe 2LA
process. lf Lhe process causes anxleLy and fear, Lhen less - lf any - L2 wlll
be acqulred/learned.
krashen also predlcLed LhaL naLural 2LA would lnclude a sllenL phase" when Lhe
language learner ls recelvlng comprehenslble lnpuL and beglnnlng Lo undersLand
how Lhe language buL noL yeL confldenL enough Lo speak. 1hls phase mlghL be
shorLer or longer dependlng on Lhe lndlvldual learner.
!lm Cummlns' work supporLs krashen's hypoLheses ln several areas. Cummlns
proposes LhaL L2 language learners have access Lo a common underlylng proflclency

8
lor a brlef explanaLlon of behavlorlsm and 2LA, see www.bu.edu/llngulsLlcs/uC/course/lx400/.../lx400-
2a-hlsLory.pdf
8eadlng for uay 2, 1oplc 2LA 1heorles 6 u. Malone, MLL WS, 8angkok 2012

(Cu) wlLh respecL Lo language learnlng. 1hls ldea bullds on Chomsky's noLlon of a
LAu avallable Lo chlldren learnlng Lhelr L1. lL means LhaL Lhe learners possess a
bullL-ln ablllLy Lo acqulre a second language uslng Lhe same language learnlng
apLlLude Lhey dlsplay ln acqulrlng Lhelr baslc masLery L1 ln 3 years or less. ln shorL,
Lhe surface feaLures of Lhe L2 may dlffer from Lhe learners' L1, buL Lhe underlylng,
subconsclous knowledge of how language works ls avallable for Lhe learners' use.
Cummlns also hypoLheslzed Lwo domalns of language: baslc lnLerpersonal
communlcaLlon sklll (8lCS) and cognlLlve-academlc language proflclency, each
requlrlng a dlfferenL acqulslLlon Llmeframe: 8lCS, 1-2 years, CAL 3-7 years.
Cummlns also predlcLed LhaL amounL of conLexL provlded ln Lhe learnlng slLuaLlon
and Lhe degree of dlfflculLy of Lhe learnlng Lask comblne Lo decrease or lncrease Lhe
ease wlLh whlch Lhe concepL, sklll or aLLlLude can be learned. Pe lllusLraLed Lhls ln
Lhe followlng flgure:
0$G :$1*&5&H# I#J)*+
Plgh ConLexL
Low CognlLlve uemand
[LASlLS1]
Low ConLexL
Low CognlLlve uemand
[PA8uL8]
K&1" :$*5#L5 MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM 0$G :$*5#L5
Plgh ConLexL
Plgh CognlLlve uemand
[PA8uL8]
Low ConLexL
Plgh CognlLlve uemand
[PA8uLS1]
K&1" :$1*&5&H# I#J)*+
1he klnd of language ablllLles needed for developlng 8lCS would be found
prlmarlly ln quadranL 1, wlLh some lnsLances ln quadranLs 2 and 3. CuadranL 4, Lhe
low conLexL/hlgh cognlLlve demand level, ls Lhe domaln of language ablllLy needed
for CAL.
8oLh ln krashen's and ln Cummlns' (2000) approaches, Lhe learners' moLher
Longue plays a crlLlcal role. A well-developed L1 ln all communlcaLlve domalns -
llsLenlng, speaklng, readlng and wrlLlng - lays Lhe foundaLlon for Lransfer of Lhese
skllls Lo Lhe L2. LonglLudlnal research of over 42,000 sLudenLs ln blllngual programs
by 1homas and Colller (1997, 2002) conflrmed LhaL predlcLlon. 1helr prlmary flndlngs
lncluded Lhls: LhaL Lhe mosL accuraLe predlcLor of success ln end-of hlgh school
exams ln Lhe L2 [Lngllsh] by Lngllsh language learners was Lhe number of years Lhey
had of educaLlon ln Lhelr L1.

45, ;%<<'")(/#)0, 3--$%/(5
1hls approach grew ouL of Lheorles LhaL Lhe klnd of second language Lhe learners
need Lo learn ls Lhe klnd Lhey wlll need for real-world, real-llfe slLuaLlons. More a
8eadlng for uay 2, 1oplc 2LA 1heorles 7 u. Malone, MLL WS, 8angkok 2012

way of Leachlng Lhan a speclflc 2LA meLhod, CommunlcaLlve Language 1eachlng
(CL1) ls deslgned around a seL of classroom prlnclples.
Ao empbosls oo leotoloq to commoolcote tbtooqb lotetoctloo lo tbe
totqet looqooqe.
1be lottoJoctloo of ootbeotlc texts loto tbe leotoloq sltootloo.
Ao eoboocemeot of tbe leotoets owo petsoool expetleoces os
lmpottoot coottlbotloq elemeots to closstoom leotoloq.
Ao ottempt to llok closstoom looqooqe leotoloq wltb looqooqe
octlvltles ootslJe tbe closstoom.
9

1he LheoreLlcal framework for CL1 comes ln parL from Soclal lnLeracLlonlsL
Lheory LhaL vlews Lhe learners' use of Lhe L2 as Lhe besL source for learnlng Lhe L2.
ln oLher words, as Lhe learners speak Lhe L2, Lhey recelve feedback and LhaL process
helps Lhem learn Lhe language. ulfferenL approaches have spun off from Lhls
perspecLlve, e.g., 1ask-8ased Language 1eachlng (18L1) and ConLenL- 8ased
lnsLrucLlon (C8l).
An obvlous concern for pracLlLloners ln M18 MLL ls Lhe emphasls LhaL CL1 makes
on preparlng Lhe learners for Lhe L2 Lhey wlll meeL ouLslde of Lhe classroom. 1hls
presupposes LhaL Lhe learners llve ln an L2-domlnanL envlronmenL wlLh ample
opporLunlLles Lo engage ln real-llfe L2 conversaLlons and oLher language-relaLed
acLlvlLles. 1hls ls deflnlLely oot Lhe case ln many of Lhe slLuaLlons where M18 MLL
pracLlLloners work. L2 learners ln Lhese conLexLs do noL encounLer Lhe L2
meanlngfully ln Lhe communlLles ln whlch Lhey llve. lor Lhem, Lhe L2 ls acLually a
forelgn language (e.g., Lngllsh ln LLhlopla) or vlrLually a forelgn language (e.g.,
SLandard 1hal ln many mlnorlLy language areas ln 1halland). ln Lhose conLexLs, Lhe
L2 ls noL llkely Lo be used aL all ln real-llfe lnLeracLlons ln Lhe learners' communlLles.

=&'(/#)%"/8 >$/(#)(, ?%$ @$)&9)"9 ?$%< 2A #% 21
1he above Lheorles and hypoLheses abouL 2LA do noL all focus on Lhe process of
bulldlng a good brldge from Lhe chlld's moLher Longue (L1) Lo Lhe school educaLlonal
language (L2) ln M18 MLL programs. 1hls ls Lrue especlally ln places where Lhe L2 ls
vlrLually a forelgn language Lo Lhe learners, where Lhelr classrooms are ln under-
resourced educaLlonal sysLems, and where Lhe classroom Leachers recelve mlnlmal,
ln any, Lralnlng ln Leachlng Lhe L2 as a second or forelgn language.
M18 MLL pracLlLloners need Lo adapL meLhods of 2LA and lorelgn Language (lL)
sLraLegles Lo Lhelr speclflc slLuaLlons, especlally when Lhe L2 and/or lL are
lnLroduced ln Lhe early grades. lor example, socloculLural Lheory supporLs Lhe klnd
of peer LuLorlng ln small groups LhaL Swaln (2007) ln her ouLpuL hypoLhesls" and

9
nunan (1991). CommunlcaLlve Lasks and Lhe language currlculum. 15Ol Ooottetly 25(3), 279-293.

8eadlng for uay 2, 1oplc 2LA 1heorles 8 u. Malone, MLL WS, 8angkok 2012

Lhe CL1 approaches use. Powever, LhaL process may noL work ln Crade 1 and Crade
2 classrooms.
llott ooJ 1tooJl (1997) tepott tbot fot some octlvltles, elemeototy
scbool cbllJteo bove ptoblems scoffolJloq
10
tbelt peets becoose,
eveo tbooqb tbey moy tbemselves possess tbe expettlse to cotty
oot o tosk, tbey ote oot seosltlve to tbelt clossmotes 2lu
11
. (p.
107)
Lack of cognlLlve maLurlLy may also be why Lhe use of 2LA Lechnlques llke 18
work beLLer for sLudenLs ln Crades 1 and 2. 18 ls also an lnsLrucLlonal approach
LhaL can be lmplemenLed by Leachers whose own conLrol of Lhe L2 or lL ls noL
fluenL.
12
1eachers are glven faclllLaLlng roles ln CommunlcaLlve Language 1eachlng
lessons, buL cannoL easlly lmplemenL Lhem glven Lhelr low level of masLery of Lhe L2.
Pere are elghL lnsLrucLlonal Lechnlques LhaL have been lncorporaLed lnLo 2LA
classes wlLh good success.
18
CooperaLlve learnlng (small groups, palrs)
Language Lxperlence Approach
ulalogue !ournals
Academlc Language Scaffoldlng
L1 supporL for 2LA
Accesslng learners' prlor knowledge
CulLure sLudles
1C1AL P?SlCAL 8LSCnSL (18). 1hls lnsLrucLlonal Lechnlque allows for Lhe chlldren
Lo recelve comprehenslble second language lnpuL wlLhouL requlrlng Lhem Lo speak.
1hls honors Lhe sllenL perlod" experlenced by L2 learners. lL ls lnLeracLlve and non-
LhreaLenlng.
13
1he form of language ls somewhaL resLrlcLed, lnlLlally uslng only
command paLLerns. Powever, a good deal of varleLy can be lncluded. 1he varleLy ls
necessary because a Leacher may unconsclously repeaL Lhe same paLLern of 18
acLlvlLy LhaL resulLs ln borlng Lhe chlldren.
CCCL8A1lvL LLA8nlnC. 1hls approach ls frequenLly used ln Lask-based language
Leachlng (18L1) and feaLures small group acLlvlLles LhaL promoLe poslLlve lnLeracLlon.
SLudenLs beneflL by seelng Lhe learnlng sLraLegles used by Lhelr classmaLes. ln

10
Scaffoldlng" ls Lhe provlslon of approprlaLe asslsLance Lo sLudenLs ln order LhaL Lhey may achleve
whaL alone would have been Loo dlfflculL for Lhem. ..." hLLp://esl.fls.edu/Leachers/fls/scaffold/page1.hLm
11
Zu = Zone of roxlmal uevelopmenL, vygoLsky's noLlon, closely relaLed Lo scaffoldlng". 1he zone" ls
Lhe polnL ln Llme when helplng a person do someLhlng Lhey cannoL do by Lhemselves wlll llkely enable
Lhem Lo learn Lo do lL.
12
A colleague ln Afrlca relaLed how she vlslLed a secondary school and was lnLroduced Lo Lhe school's
Lngllsh Leacher. Pe was noL able Lo undersLand slmple quesLlons she asked, and when Lhe quesLlons
were LranslaLed lnLo hls moLher Longue, was noL able Lo respond ln Lngllsh.
13
1hls may apply more Lo chlldren Lhan adulLs. A colleague once Lold me LhaL some adulLs learnlng Lngllsh
found Lhls approach LhreaLenlng when Lhey dld noL undersLand Lhe commands glven Lo Lhem Lo perform.
8eadlng for uay 2, 1oplc 2LA 1heorles 9 u. Malone, MLL WS, 8angkok 2012

addlLlon, cooperaLlve learnlng faclllLaLes face-Lo-face meanlngful lnLeracLlons ln Lhe
L2. 1haL ls, Lhe lnLeracLlons are necessary Lo compleLe Lhe asslgned Lask. Meanlngful
Lasks are Lhe basls of Lhls lnLeracLlon.
LAnCuACL LxL8lLnCL A8CACP. 1hls lnsLrucLlonal Lechnlque has llkely been used
durlng Lhe learners' L1 llLeracy acqulslLlon perlod. 1eacher and sLudenLs share an
experlence of some Lype and Lhen dlscuss lL ln Lhe L2. 1he Leacher suggesLs LhaL Lhe
chlldren make up a wrlLLen sLory/LexL of Lhe experlence. 1he Leacher ellclLs a
beglnnlng senLence, and wrlLes lL on Lhe chalkboard. 1hls conLlnues unLll 4-3
senLences have been wrlLLen ln Lhe L2. 1he chlldren are Lhen encouraged Lo read
whaL Lhey have wrlLLen, as a group, ln palrs, lndlvldually. lor L1, Lhls ls a llLeracy
learnlng acLlvlLy. ln L2, Lhls ls an acLlvlLy LhaL promoLes Lhe learners' Lransfer of Lhelr
llLeracy knowledge and sklll Lo Lhe L2 wrlLlng sysLem.
ulALCCuL !Cu8nALS. 1hls acLlvlLy creaLes a wrlLLen conversaLlon" beLween Lhe
learner and Lhe Leacher. 1eacher and sLudenLs declde on Loplcs of personal or group
lnLeresL. SLudenLs wrlLe abouL Lhe Loplc ln Lhe L2 ln Lhelr [ournal" and Lhe Leacher
responds, ln Lhelr [ournal. 1hls provldes Lhe Leacher wlLh an opporLunlLy Lo evaluaLe
whaL Lhe learner has wrlLLen, buL also Lo model correcL language and provlde a non-
LhreaLenlng opporLunlLy for sLudenLs Lo communlcaLe ln wrlLlng wlLh someone more
proflclenL ln Lhe L2.
14

ACAuLMlC LAnCuACL SCAllCLulnC. 1hls lnvolves Lhe process of provldlng Lhe learner
wlLh L2 lnpuL LhaL ls a llLLle blL beyond hls or her currenL level. 1he Leacher or more
advanced classmaLe acL as Lhe supporL" or scaffold
13
" for Lhe learner as she bullds
her L2 vocabulary and fluency, provldlng poslLlve and negaLlve feedback, ofLen ln Lhe
process of compleLlng a shared Lask.
1hls acLlvlLy grows ouL of krashen's ldea of comprehenslble lnpuL, l+1"
16
and
Swaln's emphasls on comprehenslble ouLpuL ln Lhe learner's zone of proxlmal
developmenL." Agaln, Lhls acLlvlLy depends on some degree of proflclency ln Lhe L2
by Lhe Leacher and by classmaLes. Where Lhe L2 ls acLually or vlrLually a forelgn
language, Lhls acLlvlLy may noL be posslble.
L1 SuC81 lC8 L2 LLA8nlnC. Where approaches ln Lhe pasL - Lhe ulrecL MeLhod,
L2 lmmerslon, Audlollngual - banned Lhe learners' L1 from Lhe 2LA classroom, more
recenL research suggesLs LhaL Lhe L1 can be a very useful medlum for L2 learnlng.
8uLzkamm (2007) concludes

14
1hls Lechnlque ls, of course, less useful where Lhe Leachers' L2 proflclency ls Loo llmlLed. Also, ln
crowded classrooms, Lhe Leacher wlll need Lo schedule respondlng Lo 3-6 sLudenL [ournals per day. ln Lhe
course of one monLh Lhe Leacher could wrlLe ln each sLudenL's [ournal perhaps Lwo Llmes.
13
Scaffold" ls a Lerm used for Lhe sLrucLures LhaL provlde ladders and supporLs for workers as Lhey repalr
or consLrucL a bulldlng (ofLen made ouL of bamboo or plpes or Lubes made from sLeel or plasLlc.
16
ln krashen's comprehenslble lnpuL, l+1," Lhe l" lndlcaLes whaL Lhe learner can do/undersLand aL Lhe
presenL and +1" lndlcaLes Lhe nexL sLep up LhaL she can do wlLh help from Lhe Leacher or classmaLe.
8eadlng for uay 2, 1oplc 2LA 1heorles 10 u. Malone, MLL WS, 8angkok 2012

1be motbet tooqoe ls tbetefote tbe qteotest osset people btloq to tbe
tosk of fotelqo looqooqe leotoloq ooJ ptovlJes oo loJlspeosoble
looqooqe Acpolsltloo 5oppott 5ystem.
CuL1u8L S1uulLS. 1hls ls, of course, a loglcal resulL of Lhe paragraph above. 1he
chlldren's prlor knowledge LhaL Lhey brlng Lo Lhe 2LA learnlng experlence ls learned
ln Lhelr L1. 8ulldlng on LhaL knowledge makes sense from a learnlng Lheory
perspecLlve as well as from 2LA Lheory. Also, much of Lhe learners' culLural
knowledge ls embedded
17
ln Lhelr moLher Longue. Second language learnlng also
requlres a Lransfer of L1 culLural knowledge Lo knowledge of Lhe L2 culLure. lor
example, a aLanl Malay chlld learnlng Lo undersLand and speak SLandard 1hal as an
L2 wlll also need Lo undersLand someLhlng of 1hal culLure. Llkewlse, Lhere ls a
culLure LhaL goes along wlLh learnlng Lo speak Lngllsh.
;%"(8'.)%"
AL Lhe end of Lhelr book, 5ecooJ looqooqe leotoloq 1beotles, MlLchell and Myles
(1998) addressed Lhe lssue of Lhe lncrease of Lheorles of second language learnlng
wlLhouL any consensus by applled llngulsLs as Lo how all of Lhese Lheorles flL
LogeLher. ln LruLh, Lhey don'L. 1he auLhors conclude, wlsely l Lhlnk, LhaL lL ls Loo
early Lo Lry Lo dlscover a slngle LheoreLlcal framework LhaL Lakes lnLo conslderaLlon
all of whaL ls currenLly known and Lheorlzed abouL 2LA. ln Lerms of M18 MLL, we
can feel llberaLed, perhaps, Lo lnclude 2LA currlculum and lnsLrucLlon LhaL appears
Lo be worklng well wlLh Lhe eLhnlc mlnorlLy learners and LhaL ls has LheoreLlcal
supporL somewhere. ln Lhe meanLlme, serlous, credlble research and evaluaLlon of
M18 MLL programs and sLudenLs wlll help ln developlng useful 2LA Lheorles.
8ulldlng Lhe good brldge" for M18 MLL ls deflnlLely a work ln progress.

+=B=+=:;=C
Anderson, !. 1983. coqoltlve psycboloqy ooJ lts lmpllcotloos. Second edlLlon. new ?ork:
lreeman.
8uLzkamm, W. 2007. naLlve language skllls as a foundaLlon for forelgn language
learnlng. ln W. klndermann (Ld.), 1toosceoJloq boooJotles. ssoys lo booot of Clselo
netmooo-8teooecke, 71-83. 8erlln: LlL verlag.
Cummlns, !. 2000. looqooqe, powet, ooJ peJoqoqy. 8llloqool cbllJteo lo tbe ctossflte.
Clevedon: MulLlllngual MaLLers.
Lllls, 8. 1994. 1he sLudy of second language acqulslLlon. Cxford: Cxford unlverslLy ress.
Cass, S. 2002. An lnLeracLlonlsL perspecLlve on second language acqulslLlon. ln 8. kaplan
(Ld.), 1be OxfotJ booJbook of opplleJ lloqolstlcs, 170-181. Cxford: Cxford unlverslLy
ress.

17
1he Lerm embedded" refers Lo Lhe close relaLlonshlp LhaL exlsLs beLween a parLlcular culLure and Lhe
language LhaL lLs adherenLs speak.
8eadlng for uay 2, 1oplc 2LA 1heorles 11 u. Malone, MLL WS, 8angkok 2012

Parley, 8, Allen, ., Cummlns, !. and Swaln, M. 1990. 1he developmenL of second
language proflclency. new ?ork: Cambrldge unlverslLy ress.
MlLchell, 8. and Myles, l. 1998. 5ecooJ looqooqe leotoloq tbeotles. London: Arnold.
8CCk 8LvlLW by uennls Malone ln 1be Iootool 1(1), xx-xx, 2003, Salaya, 1halland:
Mahldol unlverslLy-Salaya.
nunan, u. 1991. CommunlcaLlve Lasks and Lhe language currlculum. 15Ol Ooottetly
25(3), 279-293
laLL, L. and 1roudl, S. 1997. Mary and her Leachers: a Crebo-speaklng chlld's place ln
Lhe malnsLream classroom. MoJeto looqooqe Iootool 81, 28-49.
8ao, Z. 1996. 8econclllng communlcaLlve approaches Lo Lhe Leachlng of Lngllsh wlLh
LradlLlonal Chlnese meLhods. keseotcb lo tbe 1eocbloq of oqllsb J0(4), 438-471.
1homas, W. and Colller, v. 1997. 5cbool effectlveoess fot looqooqe mlootlty stoJeots.
WashlngLon, uC: naLlonal Clearlnghouse for 8lllngual LducaLlon.
1homas, W. and Colller, v. 2002. A ootloool stoJy of scbool effectlveoess fot looqooqe
mlootlty stoJeots looq-tetm ocoJemlc ocblevemeot. SanLa Cruz, CA: CenLer for
8esearch and LducaLlon, ulverslLy and Lxcellence.
hLLp://www.crede.ucsc.edu/research/llaa/1.1_flnal.hLml
?aLes, k. A. 2007. 1owards a Laxonomy of cognlLlve Lask analysls meLhods: A search for
cognlLlon and Lask analysls lnLeracLlons. unpubllshed uocLoral ulsserLaLlon,
unlverslLy of SouLhern Callfornla, Los Angeles.