P.F Theory

Basic Insulation & Power Factor Theory
Power Factor Theory --------------------------------------Aradhana Ray Consulting Engineer Doble Engineering, India
The underlying principle of the Doble M4000 Test is to measure the fundamental AC electrical characteristics of insulation.
Basic Insulation & Power Factor Theory
Insulation
IEEE Defines Insulation as:
Changes in the electrical characteristics of insulation can indicate:

- An increased or decreased size of the insulation system, - Presence or absence of an insulation component or the movement of the conductors. -Indicate presence of moisture, insulation deterioration, destructive agents or ionization - These
Material or a combination of suitable nonconducting material that provides electrical isolation of two parts at different voltages.
changes can effect the performance of the insulation system.
Examples of Material With Insulating Properties
Dielectric
implies that the medium or material has specific measurable properties, such as: Dielectric Strength, Dielectric Absorption, Dielectric Constant, Dielectric Loss & Power Factor
Gaseous
High Vacuum Air Sulfur Hexafluoride (SF6)
Liquid
HydrocarbonBased Oil Silicone Oil Distilled Water
Solid
Cellulose Porcelain Phenolics
Insulation
Insulation is basically two plates separated by one or more dielectrics. One plate is at a high potential and the other at a lower or ground potential.
Current generated by polar contaminants in the dielectric insulation dielectric shows up as Watts. Heat/Watts
Fundamental AC Electrical Characteristics
Total Charging Current Capacitance Dielectric-Loss Power Factor Power Factor Tip-up
Typical Insulation System

IT IC IR ~ 0
Total Charging Current
Good Insulation: Has a very low power factor C P

IR<<IC for most insulation systems, IC ~ IT
RP
IT = IC + IR
1.5 1
Voltage and Currents

0.75
0.5
0.79
Voltage IR IC IT
The capacitance current and the resistive current cannot be just arithmetically added together because the quantities vary in time and are not in phase.
Magnitude
0.25
0
0
-0.5
90
180
270
360
450
540
630
-1
-1.5 Angle
Basic Circuit IT
Capacitance
IC
IR
CP
Parallel Circuit
The Perfect Capacitor

The perfect capacitor passes no Direct Current Alternating Current leads the voltage by 90 degrees has a Power Factor of 0% by definition
Perfect Capacitor % PF = 0%
Capacitor Current
1.5 1
0.5 Magnitude Voltage Current
0
-0.5
90
180
270
360
450
540
630
-1
-1.5 Angle
The Capacitor
Capacitor Current Vector Diagram
IC
Plates capacitance current leads the voltage by 90 degrees

Alternating
=90
Dielectric
Two conducting plates with area A separated by a dielectric with a thickness of d and dielectric constant
Capacitance
Dielectric Constant
d
A C= 4 d
C = Capacitance = dielectric constant d = Distance between plates
In 1836, Michael Faraday discovered that when the plates between a capacitor were filled with another insulating material, the capacitance would change. This factor is the dielectric constant By definition the dielectric constant of a Vacuum is 1.0. All other dielectric constants are referenced to this standard.
Oil =2.2 Vacuum
All of these variables are Physical

Parameters
Cvacuum=10 pF Coil = x CVacuum = 22 pF
Typical Insulation System

Various Dielectric Constants
Material Dielectric Constant Vacuum 1.0 Air 1.000549 Mica 5.4 Oil Impregnated Paper 3.7 Porcelain 7 Rubber 2.4 - 3.7 Oil 2.24 Silicone Fluid 2.75 Dielectric Strength (kV/mm) 3 10 16 5.7 12 12 15
Current & Loss Meter Guard Test Mode-GST Ground Test Ground Test-Set Ground Lead High-Voltage Test Cable
Oil = 2.1
Porcelain = 7.0
Paper = 2.0
Measuring the Dielectric Constant of a Material
Example: Oil leaking from an Insulation System

Oil = 2.1 Porcelain = 7.0 Paper = 2.0 Air = 1.0 Given three dielectrics in series the dielectric constant is: 2.1 x 7.0 x 2.0 2.1 + 7.0 + 2.0
IVac Vacuum
IOil
Oil
before =
= 2.65
If the Oil leaks out and is replaced by air...
An alternating current of the same voltage is applied to the capacitor for both tests.
after =
1 x 7.0 x 2.0 1 + 7.0 + 2.0
= 1.4
IOil IVac
= oil = 2.24 =
COil CVac
=>
It
Capacitive current and Capacitance

IC IC = EC
d
Capacitance Change due to Change in Area of Plate (Dielectric constant) & d (Distance between plates) are constant. Area of the plates doubles.
( = 2f)
C=
A 4 d A 4d
Physical
C=
A
d
Considered Constants During Testing 10 kV, 50 Hz
IC = E
A 4 d (2A) 4 d
2C =
}
C C Ic Ic
}
Id
Area of the Capacitor Area Area
Distance Between the Plates d of the Capacitor
E
A 4d
Double the distance
I2d
2d
C=
A C = 2 4(2d)
I2d = E(C/2) = Id/2
Id = EC
Distance Between the Plates d of the Capacitor
d d
C C
Ic Ic
Example of Winding Movement
Insulation System 1995 New 1996 Fault Difference CH pF 2155 2159 0.2% CHL pF 4360 3886 -10.9% CL pF 8291 9339 12.6%
Changes in Current/Capacitance
Summary of Possible Capacitance Changes of a Capacitor
A A d d
C C C C C C
Ic Ic Ic Ic Ic Ic
Significance Indicate a physical change Bushings - shorting of capacitive layers Transformers - movement of core/coils Arresters - broken elements Suggested Limits + 5% - Investigate + 10% - Investigate/remove from service
Basic Power Factor IT=Total Current IC=Capacitive Current E=Applied Voltage IR=Resistive Current =Power Factor Angle IT 0% PF I T I
C
Power Factor
E
IC
IR
CP
RP
O IR
100% PF E
Power = Voltage x Current x Cos() P= E IT Cos()
What Is Power Factor (PF)?

I P.F. = IR T
IT IC
E CP RP
P.F. =
IC
Watts E IT
IT
Watts = E x IR
Watts = E I Cosine
T
IR
PF = Cosine =
EI I = = EI I
R T R
P.F. = cos
O IR E
Watts EI
T
What Is Power Factor (PF)?

Power Factor = W = Real Power IT *E Apparent Power
To express power factor in percent (% PF), multiply by 100:
Limits of % P.F.
% PF =
W X100 mA X103*10 X103

10 kV equivalent values
= W X10 mA
Capacitor PF = 0%
Resistor PF = 100%
Changes In Power Factor

Power Factor Relationships () 90 89.714 89.427 45 30 0 P. F. (%) 0 (Capacitance only) 0.5 1.0 70.7 86.6 100 (Resistance only)
Increase in Losses IC IT IT Added Inductance IT I
C
IT
O O IR E
O O IR IL E
Basic Theory
Power Factor Is Size Independent

IC2 IC1 IT2 IT1
Specimen 1: 5 MVA Transformer Specimen 2: 10MVA Transformer
Capacitors, Resistors, and Inductors
E IC IR IL
IR1
270 360
IR2
90
180
Power Factor is an evaluation of the quality of the insulation and is size independent remains the same regardless of the size of the transformer
Definition of Power Factor
Why Power Factor Instead of Dielectric Loss, Watts?

Dielectric loss is a function of volume. For a larger insulation system, there is more material to dissipate watts due to inherent losses, deterioration, and contamination.
Power factor is a measurement of the efficiency of insulation system.
To analyze losses there is a need to be able to compare the size of the insulation tested, which is difficult to measure physically.
Power Factor
Power Factor Relationships
Provides an index to compare the relative losses of different sizes of insulation systems. The power factor is the ratio of the real power to the apparent power or the resistor current to the total current. PReal /PApparent = IR/IT A lower power factor insulation system will have lower relative losses. Minimizing the power factor will provide an insulation system that is in better condition.
IC IC
IT IT
2IC
2IT
IR I E R
E 2IR
IR/IT = (IR+IR)/(IT+IT) = 2IR/2IT = IR/IT = PF

Time and Angle Relationships
1.5 1
1.5
IC
IT
Magnitude
0.5
0.5 Magnitude
Voltage IR 0 90 180 270 360 450 540 630 IC IT
-0.5
0
-0.5
90
180
270
360
450
540
630
-1
IR
Angle (360 degrees = 1 / 60th second)
-1
-1.5 Angle
-1.5
%PF = 0

1.5 1.5 1 1
0.5 Magnitude
Magnitude
Voltage IR 0 90 180 270 360 450 540 630 IC IT
0.5
Voltage IR 0 90 180 270 360 450 540 630 IC IT
-0.5
-0.5
-1
-1
-1.5 Angle
-1.5 Angle
%PF = 0.5
%PF = 1.0

1.5 1

Power Factor Angle
Magnitude 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 -0.2 -90 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8 -1 -1.2 Angle
-60 -30 0 30
0.5 Magnitude
Voltage IR 0 90 180 270 360 450 540 630 IC IT
Voltage IR IC IT
-0.5
-1
-1.5 Angle
%PF = 50
Dielectric Loss and Power Factor:

The Dielectric Loss and Power Factor are sensitive to soluble polar, ionic or colloidal materials: Moisture (free, in cellulose, with particles in oil) Products of Oxidation or mineral oil Carbon (with moisture) Metal Soaps At Higher voltage: Ionization in solid insulation
Basic Principals of Testing: Always test the smallest piece possible

Power factor testing measure the average condition of an insulation system Contamination would affect the total insulation system, but not to a large degree
Insulation
Test contamination
Always break an insulation system into the Smallest possible part in order to detect insulation faults.
Test
The contamination becomes a bigger piece of the insulation and is easier to see
Is the Doble Test Effective for Detecting Defective Insulation?

PF = .5 PF = .5 PF = .5 PF = .5
Is the Doble Test Effective for Detecting Defective Insulation?

(continued)
1)
2 pF 2 pF 2 pF 2 pF
2)
PF = .5
PF = .5
PF = .5
PF =
.5 + .5 + .5 + .5 = .5 4
2 pF
2 pF
2 pF
1 1 1 1 1 = + + + = 2 c 2 2 2 2
c =
PF =2.5
1 pF 2
PF = .5
PF = .5
PF = .5
PF =
.5+.5+.5 =.5 3
2 pF
2 pF
2 pF
2 pF
1 1 1 1 = + + = 15 . c 2 2 2
PF =
.5 x 3 + 2 .5 = 1.0 4
c=
1 pF 2
c =.667
Analysis of Percent Power Factor
Power Factor vs. Dissipation Factor

IC IT
Power Factor = COS =
Compare to limits published by Doble Compare to previous results Compare among similar or sister units Examine the trend Do not use PF if current is less than 300A
IR
E
I I
Dissipation Factor = TAN =
I I
90 89.71 84.26 0
% PF (% COS ) 0 .500 10.00 100.00
0 .29 5.74 90
% DF (% TAN ) 0 .500 10.05 INFINITY
Power Factor Vs. Dissipation Factor

IC IT
Comparison of Percent Power Factor With Percent Dissipation Factor for Various Phase Angles of and
I I
R T
IR 90 89.71 84.26 0
E
Power Factor = cos =
Dissipation Factor = tan =
I I
% PF (%COS ) 0 .500 10.00 100.00
0 .29 5.74 90
% DF (% TAN ) 0 .500 10.05 INFINITY
90 89.71 87.13 84.26 81.37 53.13 45.00 0
% PF (% cos) 0 .50 5.00 10.00 15.00 60.00 70.71 100
0 .29 2.87 5.74 8.63 36.87 45.00 90
% DF (% tan) 0 .50 5.00 10.05 15.18 75.00 100.00 infinity
Voids and the Power Factor Tip-Up Test

When we closely examine insulation, very small gaps or voids exist. These voids develop an electrostatic potential on their surfaces. These small gaps become ionized: Partial Discharge/Corona.
Power Factor Tip-Up
Voids
Partial Discharge (Corona)

The phenomenon of an electrical discharge that does not completely bridge the insulation between electrodes or conductors. Corona -- accompanied by a faint glow Partial Discharge -- may not be luminous (preferred term) Partial discharge occurs in: A void within an insulation system where the voltage gradient is sufficiently high -- has a damaging effect on surrounding materials.
Power Factor Vs. Test Voltage

As test voltage is increased, the power factor will increase depending on the void density. Tip-Up = Power Factor at Line-to-ground voltage Power Factor at 25% Line-to-ground voltage
%PF
%PF @ L-G %PF @ 25% L-G
E
25% L-G L-G
Tip-up occurs in dry-type insulation specimens such as Dry Type Transformer, generators, etc..
Thank You. Any questions?
aray@doble.com

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Basic Insulation & Power Factor Theory

Basic Insulation & Power Factor Theory

Changes in the electrical characteristics of insulation can indicate:

changes can effect the performance of the insulation system.

Examples of Material With Insulating Properties

Fundamental AC Electrical Characteristics

Typical Insulation System

Total Charging Current

Good Insulation: Has a very low power factor C P

Voltage and Currents

The Perfect Capacitor

0.5 Magnitude Voltage Current

Plates capacitance current leads the voltage by 90 degrees

Oil =2.2 Vacuum

All of these variables are Physical

Typical Insulation System

Measuring the Dielectric Constant of a Material

Example: Oil leaking from an Insulation System

If the Oil leaks out and is replaced by air...

1 x 7.0 x 2.0 1 + 7.0 + 2.0

Capacitive current and Capacitance

Considered Constants During Testing 10 kV, 50 Hz

Area of the Capacitor Area Area

Distance Between the Plates d of the Capacitor

Double the distance

Distance Between the Plates d of the Capacitor

Example of Winding Movement

Power = Voltage x Current x Cos() P= E IT Cos()

What Is Power Factor (PF)?

What Is Power Factor (PF)?

W X100 mA X103*10 X103

Changes In Power Factor

Power Factor Is Size Independent

Capacitors, Resistors, and Inductors

Definition of Power Factor

Why Power Factor Instead of Dielectric Loss, Watts?

Power factor is a measurement of the efficiency of insulation system.

Power Factor Relationships

IR/IT = (IR+IR)/(IT+IT) = 2IR/2IT = IR/IT = PF

Voltage and Currents

Voltage IR 0 90 180 270 360 450 540 630 IC IT

Voltage and Currents

Voltage and Currents

Voltage IR 0 90 180 270 360 450 540 630 IC IT

Voltage IR 0 90 180 270 360 450 540 630 IC IT

Voltage and Currents

Voltage and Currents

Voltage IR 0 90 180 270 360 450 540 630 IC IT

Dielectric Loss and Power Factor:

Basic Principals of Testing: Always test the smallest piece possible

Is the Doble Test Effective for Detecting Defective Insulation?

Is the Doble Test Effective for Detecting Defective Insulation?

Analysis of Percent Power Factor

Power Factor vs. Dissipation Factor

Power Factor = COS =

Dissipation Factor = TAN =

% PF (% COS ) 0 .500 10.00 100.00

% DF (% TAN ) 0 .500 10.05 INFINITY

Power Factor Vs. Dissipation Factor