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6.002 Circuits and Electronics, Spring 2007

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6.002 Circuits and Electronics, Spring 2007
Transcript Lecture 15a

All right. Good morning, all. So we take another big step forward today
and get onto a new plane of understanding, if you will. In the last
week and a half, our focus was on the storage element or storage
elements called inductors and capacitors.

And capacitors stored change and inductors essentially stored energy
in the field, the magnetic flux. And the state variable for an inductor
was the current while that for a capacitor was the capacitor voltage.

We also looked at circuits containing a single storage element, we
looked at RC circuits and we also looked at circuits containing a single
inductor. And this was a single inductor with a resistor and a current
source or a voltage source and so on.

What we are going to do today is do what are called "second-order
systems". So they are on the next plane now. And with this second-
order of systems, they are characterized by circuits containing two
independent storage elements.

They could be an inductor and a capacitor or two independent
capacitors. And you will see towards the end what I mean by two
independent capacitors. If I have two capacitors in parallel, they can
be represented as a single equivalent capacitor so that doesn't count.

It has to be two independent energy storage elements and resistors
and voltage sources and so on. And what we end up getting is what is
called "second-order dynamics". And much as first order circuits were
represented using first order differential equations, this kind you end
up getting second-order differential equations.

Before we go into this, I would like to start motivating this and give
you one example of why this is important to study. There are many,
many examples but I will give you one. What I would like to do is draw
your attention to our good old inverter driving a second inverter.

The same circuit that we used to motivate RC studies, one inverter
driving another. So let me draw the circuit. Here is one inverter. This
is, let's say, 5 volts and this is, let's say, 2 kilo ohms.

And I connect the output of this inverter to a second inverter. And
what we saw in the last few lectures was that in this specific example
there was a parasitic capacitor or a capacitor associated with the gate
of this MOSFET.

And that could be modeled by sticking a capacitor CGS between the
gate of the MOSFET and ground. And we saw that the waveforms here,
if I had some kind of step here. Let's say, for example, a step that
went from high to low.

Then out here I would have a transition that instead of going up
rapidly like this would transition a little bit more slowly. And this
transition was characterized by an RC time constant. And this is what
gave rise to a delay in the eventual output.

So that is what we saw previously, single energy storage element.
Today what we are going to do is we are going to look at the same
circuit, the exact same circuit, and have some fun with it. What we are
going to say is look, this thing is pretty slow, so what I would like to
do is -- why don't we go ahead and put that up.

What we are going to see is that the yellow waveform is the waveform
at the input here. And the green waveform here is the waveform at
this intermediate node. And notice that this waveform here is
characterized by the slowly rising characteristics that are typical of an
RC circuit.

There are some other weirdnesses and so on going on here like a little
bump and stuff like that. You can ignore all of that for now. It happens
because of certain other very subtle circuit effects that you won't be
dealing with, called Miller effects and so on that you won't be dealing
with in 6.002.

So focus then on this part here. It is pretty slow. And because of that
slow rising, I get a very slow transition and I get some delay in my
inverter. So you say ah-ha, we learned about this in 6.002, I can make
it go faster.

How can you make the circuit go faster? What could you do? This is
rising very slowly. How can you make it go faster? Anybody? You have
multiple choices, actually. What are your choices here? Pardon.

Decrease the time constant. And how would you decrease the time
constant? The capacitance is connected to this MOSFET gate here. I
didn't want it in the first place but it is there, I cannot help it, so I can
decrease the resistance.

Good. Let me go ahead and do that. What I will do is I am going to
knock this sucker out and stick in a new resistance that is say 50
ohms, a much smaller resistance. That should speed things up, right?
That should make things go much faster because this is a smaller time
constant because R is smaller, correct? OK, let's go do it.

And let's see if we get what we expect. I have a little switch here. And
using that switch, I am going to switch in this little resistance. Whoa,
what on earth is happening out there? This is so much fun.

What I did is I switched in a small resister here to decrease the time
constant, but it looks like I got a whole bunch of crapola that I did not
bargain for. This is certainly very fast, it goes up really fast, but I am
not sure where it is going, though.

Let's stare at that a little while longer. Let me expand the time scale
for you. Look at this. Instead of a nice little smooth thing going up. I
get something that looks like this. It looks something like a sinusoid.

It looks sinusoidal, but then it is a sinusoid that kind of gives up and
kind of gets tired and kind of goes away. Right? It kind of dies out. So
nothing that you have learned so far has prepared you for this.

And, trust me, when I first did some circuit designs myself a long, long
time ago I got nailed by that. I looked at my circuit, and what ended
up happening was I was noticing these sharp lines at all my
transitions.

When I looked at my scope, I expected to see nice little square waves
but I saw these little nasty spikes sitting out there. And then when I
stared at it more carefully, those spikes were really sinusoids that
seemed to kind of get tired and kind of go away.

So those are nasty, those are real and they happen all the time. And
what we will do today is try to get into that and understand why that is
the case. We will understand how to design that away. And that is a
real problem, by the way.

And the reason that is a real problem is the following. Look at this.
Look down here. Because this intermediate voltage is meandering all
over the countryside here, at this particular point the intermediate
voltage dips quite low.

And because it dips quite low look at the output. The output has a
bump here. And it is quite possible for this output bump to now go into
the forbidden region. Or worse. If this swing here was higher, this
could have actually gone onto a one, so I would have gotten a false
one pulse here.

Instead of having a nice one to zero transition, I would have gotten a
one to zero, oh, back to one, oh, back to zero and then back down to
zero. So this is nasty stuff, really, really nasty stuff.

What we will do is understand why that is the case today and see if we
can explain it. What is going on here? What is really going on here is
take a look at this circuit here. I will take a look at this path here.

So this is your VS voltage source. Path kind of goes like this and
around. It turns out that this circuit is a loop here. And when there is
current flow, going down to basic physics you remember that I also
enclose some amount.

So there is a current flowing in a loop. And because of that there is an
effective inductance here. And, in fact, any current flowing through a
wire above a ground plane, for that matter, can be characterized by
the inductance.

So I can model that by sticking a little inductor here. So my real circuit
is not exactly a resistor and a capacitor, but my real circuit is an
inductor as well that comes into play because of this wire.

Every wire, when there is a current flow, has an inductance associated
with it. And because of that the real circuit is resistor, inductor and
capacitor. So I end up with two storage elements now, and the
dynamics of that are very different from that with a single storage
element.

That is just a bit of motivation for why our study of inductors is
important. And I can draw a quick circuit here. If you look at the
circuit, start from ground, the voltage VS and there is a resistor here.

And then I have an inductor and then I have a capacitor. So it is a
voltage source, resistor, inductor and capacitor. For this whole week
we will be looking at circuits like this. Today what I would like to do is
start very simple, start with the simplest possible form of this so that
you can begin building up your insight and then go into more
complicated cases.

Today what I will do is simply begin with a case where I don't have a
resistor here and simply study a voltage source, an inductor and a
capacitor and understand what the voltage looks like out here.

So we look at the dynamics of a little system like this. Before we go
on, I want to caution you about something. It is just happenstance
that I have introduced for you capacitors based on the parasitic
capacitance here and inductance based on parasitic inductance.

I would hate to leave you with the impression that inductors and
capacitors are "bad". Because when you think of a parasitic, you know,
parasites. These are parasitic. You didn't expect them there, didn't
expect this here and we got the weird behavior.

So parasitics have a bad connotation to them. I do not want to leave
you with a bad taste in your mouth about capacitors and inductors that
these are just bad things. We just have to deal with them and deal
with second-order differential equations and all that stuff because
they're just bad stuff and we just have to deal with them.

I don't want you to end up going through life hating capacitors and
inductors. Just because of my choice of examples, it just happened to
be introducing them as capacitors. I want to point out that these are
fundamental lumped elements in their own right.

They are very, incredibly important and useful circuits where we
designed capacitors and inductors because we want to have them in
there. There are many circuits that we will look at where we really
want the inductor in there.

We will design an inductor by wrapping wire around in a coil and get
bigger inductances and so. Just remember that this can be parasitic in
some cases, but in many cases it's good, inductors are good, so just
stick with that thought.

These are mostly good so don't go around hating them. All right. Let's
go on and analyze a basic circuit like this. And what I would like to
cover in the next hour are the foundations of something like that.

I will take you through the foundations so you understand how it
works. And, as always, what I am going to end up with is build up the
foundations, help you understand why we got where we were and then
help you build intuition.

And then show you a really, really simple intuitive way of doing things
in terms of how experts do it. And the real cool thing about EECS is
that the way experts do things, things are really, really very simple in
the end.

But you need to build up some intuition to get there. So our circuit
looks like this in terms of my two storage elements. I have a voltage
vI, inductor L, capacitor C and I am going to look at the voltage across
the capacitor and my current through the capacitor.

So v(t) is the voltage across the capacitor and my current is the
current through this loop here, which is the same as the current
through the capacitor or the current through the inductor. And we are
going to proceed in exactly the same manner as we did for first order
differential equations, write the equations down and just boom, boom,
boom, boom, go down the same sets of steps but just get to some
place different.

We are going to start by writing a node equation for this node here.
That's the only node for which I have an unknown voltage. The node
here is vI, so I need to find this, there's just one unknown node
voltage.

And I am going to need some element laws. For the capacitor I know
the iV relation is given by the i for the capacitor is Cdv/dt. And just to
show the capacitor I am just calling it dvc/dt. Similarly, for an
inductor, L, the voltage across the inductor is given by Ldi/dt.

So this is the vI relation for the capacitor, the vI relation for an
inductor. It also suits us to write this in an integral form. So if I
integrate both sides of this equation and I bring L down to this side, I
end up getting something like this, 1/L minus infinity to t, VLdt, and
that is simply iL.

I am just simply replacing this with an integral form. So this is a VI
relationship for the inductor and this is for the capacitor. So let me
now go ahead and apply the node method for my circuit here.

Here, for the node method, I have to equate the currents coming into
the node or sum the currents coming into the node and equate that to
zero. And while I do that I simply replace the currents by the
corresponding voltages using the element laws.

So what do I get? I get the current going in here to the inductor is
equal to the current going through the capacitor. What is the current
going the capacitor? In terms of its v relationship it is Cdv/dt.

And the current going to the inductor is given by this relation here,
which is simply 1/L minus infinity to t. The voltage across the capacitor
is simply (vI-v)dt. I have just written down the node quotation for this
node here.

Now I will just apply a bit of math and simplify it and get the resulting
equation. What I can do is simply differentiate with respect to t here.
And get this to be Cd^2v/dt^2, the second derivative of v.

And here what I end up getting is 1/L(vI-v). So I just differentiated
the whole thing by d/dt here. And then I just move L up here. I bring
d^2v/dt^2 out here. And then I get a minus v here, and that will be
equal to, oh, I'm sorry.

Let me leave this here. Bring the minus v to this side so it becomes a
plus and leave vI on this side. So I end up getting LCd^2v/dt^2. I
bring L up here. And then I take v to the other side. Plus v and leave
vI here so I get vI.

That is second order differential equation that governs the
characteristics of the voltage, v. So much as the voltage across the
capacitor was a state variable in our RC circuits or the current through
the inductor was a state variable in our RL circuits, out here both the
current through the inductor and the voltage across the capacitor are
my two state variables.

And so here I have a second-order equation in my voltage, v. Again,
going through the foundations here, I am now going to go through a
bunch of math. Up to here it was circuit analysis, and now I am just
going to do math.

For the next three or four blackboards just math. You can solve this
second-order differential equation any which way you want. But just to
keep things as simple as possible, in 6.002 I solve all the differential
equations, it turns out we are fortunate enough we can do that, using
the exact same method again and again and again, the same thing can
be applied.

And the method that we use to solve it is the method of homogenous
and particular solutions. So the first step we are going to find the
particular solution, vP. Second step we find the homogenous solution,
vH.

And the third step we are going to find the total solution as the sum
of, v is simply the particular plus the homogenous solution and then
solve for constants based on the initial conditions and the applied
voltage.

So let's write down initial conditions. Let's assume, for simplicity, that
my initial conditions are simply the voltage across the capacitor is zero
to begin and the current through my inductor is also zero as I begin
life.

Now, this is what is called "zero state". v and i are both zero, and so
the response of my circuit for some input is going to be called ZSR.
You've probably heard this term in one of your recitations.

So zero state response simply says I start with my circuit at rest and
looks at how it behaves for some given input. That is a little term you
may end up using. My input next. I am going to use the following
input.

vI of t is going to be a step, is going to look like this. My input is at
t=0 v is going from zero to some voltage VI and then stay at that
voltage. It is going to be a step. Kaboom. And you can see why I am
going with this set of variables, because I want make this situation as
close as possible to the funny behavior we observed there.

Remember we had a step, and because of the step we had some
behavior at that node? So I will try to bring you as close to that. In
tomorrow's lecture, I am going to close the loop around that and
derive for you exactly the behavior we saw on the scope.

And to get there I am going to be try to be as close as possible to the
constants and other parameters in the demo. So VI is a step and zero
state. Just in terms of notation, this kind of a step input occurs pretty
frequently.

And we just have a special notation for it. We simply call it VI is the
final value here. And we call it u(t). So VIu(t), u(t) simply represents a
step at time t=0, steps from zero volts to VI. That is just a little more
notation that will come in handy at some point.

More math now. Three steps, particular solution, homogenous
solution, total solution/constants. This is almost like a mantra here,
like a chorus. Homogenous solution we compute using a four-step
method.

And four-step method for homogenous solutions, it turns out that it
happens to be that way for all the equations we will see in our course.
The first step would be assume a solution of the form Ae^st.

Exactly as with RCs. If you close your eyes and do exactly what you
did for RCs you will get to where you want to be. You assume a
solution of the form Ae^st. Substitute that into your homogenous
equation.

Obtain the characteristic equation. Solve for the roots. And then write
down your homogenous solution. Same sort of steps again and again
and again until you get bored to tears. Particular solution.

For the particular solution, I simply need to find a solution, any
solution, if not the most general one but any solution that satisfies the
particular equation which satisfies that equation.
LCd^2vP/dt^2+vP=VI.

My input is a step and I am going to look for the solution for time t
greater than zero. Notice that for time t less than or equal to zero, v is
going to be zero. So I am looking for a solution greater than t=0.

Here, if I substitute vP=VI, that is a particular solution. Because if I
substitute VI here this goes to zero and then I get VI=VI, so this
works. I promised you this was going to be simple. You cannot get any
simpler than that.

I have done my first step. I found the particular solution. And VI is a
good enough particular solution so I will use it, I will take it. As my
second step I am going to find vH or the solution to the homogenous
equation.

And the homogenous equation is simply that equation with drive set to
zero. What I get here is LCd^2vH/dt^2+vH=0. That is my
homogenous equation. I simply set the drive to be zero. And to find
the solution here, I go through my four-step method.

Again, in 6.002 following the kind of Occam's principle, we just show
you the absolute minimum necessary to get to where you want. The
absolute minimum necessary is it turns out that we can solve all our
differential equations that we use here by using the methods of
homogenous and particular solutions.

And every homogenous solution can be solved by a four-step method.
That is about as minimal as it can get. So no extraneous stuff there.
The four-step method, four steps. The first step is assume a solution of
the form vH=Ae^st.

What I have noticed is that students starting out are usually scared of
differential equations. I know I was when I was a student. And the
trick with differential equations is that it is all a matter of psych.

Just because you see some squigglies and squagglies and a bunch of
math and so on you say oh, that must be hard. But differential
equations are actually the simplest thing there is because in a large
majority of cases the way you solve them is you assume you know the
answer, someone tells you the answer.

And then all you are left to do is shove the answer into the equation
and find out the constants that makes it the answer. Just a matter of
psych. Psych yourselves that this stuff is easy, because I am telling
you what the solution is.

All you have to do is substitute and verify. If you think about
differential equations that way or a large majority of them, it really is
very simple if you can just get past the squigglies here. Just get past
the squigglies and then just simply stick in some simple stuff and it
works.

I mean it just cannot get any easier. I cannot think of any other field
where the way you find a solution is assume you know the solution
and stick it in. It has never made any sense to me but that is how it is.

So we assume the solution to the form Ae^st, you stick it in there, and
you have to find out the A and s that make it so. It cannot get any
simpler than that. Let's stick the sucker in here and see what we can
get.

Substitute Ae^st here I get LCA, and second derivative, so it's s^2
e^st. And Ae^st on this one here. And that equals zero. And then let
me just solve for whatever I can find. Assuming I don't take the trivial
case A=0, I cancel these guys out.

And what I am left with is simply LCs^2+1=0. In other words, what I
end up getting is B, s^2=-1/LC. My first step was, I am giving you
solutions, stick them in there, assume a solution of this form.

Second step is get the characteristic equation. And the way you get
the characteristic equation is that you simply stick this guy in there.
And what you end up getting is some equation in s^2. Do you
remember what you got for first order circuits? What s was? What is s?
For first order circuits, what did you get as a characteristic equation?
s+1/RC=0.

The same thing. Just remember to blindly apply the steps. It will lead
you to the answer. This is called the "characteristic equation". This is
incredibly important. You will see in about a couple weeks from now
that once you write the characteristic equation down for a circuit, it
tells you all there is to know about the circuit.

And often times you can stop solving right here. To experienced circuit
designers this tells me everything there is to know. This is really key.
That's why it's called a characteristic equation. I believe in problem
number three of the homework that will be coming out this week, that
is exactly what you are going to do.

I am going to give you a circuit, ask you to get to the characteristic
equation quickly and then from there intuit the solution. Write the
characteristic equation and then just intuit solution, it's that simple.

So, step A, assume a solution of the form, step B, write the
characteristic equation down. And let me just simplify that a little bit. I
go ahead and find my roots. And my roots here, remember that j is
the square root of minus one.

And so what I end up getting is, my two roots here are, plus j square
root of 1/LC and minus j square root of 1/LC. Two roots. And just as a
shorthand notation, much like I had a shorthand notation for RC, what
was my shorthand notation for RC? Tau.

Just as tau was big in first order, we have a corresponding thing that is
big in second order and that is omega nought. Omega nought is simply
square root 1/LC. Just as tau was RC, omega nought is a shorthand
here.

And so s is simply plus or minus j omega nought. Notice that in this
equation here, if you take the square root of LC there that has units of
time, so one divided by that has units of frequency. Notice that this
guy is a frequency in radians.

I end up getting my roots of the homogenous equation, and that is my
third step. And as my fourth step, I simply write down the
homogenous solution as substituting s with its roots and writing the
most general possible form of the solution, and that would be A1e^(j
omega nought t)+A2e^(-j omega nought t).

Done. Some constant times this solution plus some other constant
times, the other solution. Plus zero omega nought. Remember it
comes from here, Ae^st. I assume the solution of this form, so my
solution in this most general case would be s being j omega nought in
one case, minus j omega nought in the other case, and I sum the two
to get the most general solution.

So blasting ahead. I now have my homogenous solution. And as my
third step of solution to differential equations I write down the total
solution, v=vP+vH, particular plus the homogenous solutions.

And v=VI, was my particular solution, +A1e^(j omega nought
t)+A2e^(-j omega nought t) is my complete solution. The final step,
write down the total solution and find the constants from the initial
conditions.

To find the constants from the initial conditions, let's start with, the
voltage is zero to begin with. This equation governs the characteristics
of v, so I need to find the initial conditions. First of all, I know that
know that v(0)=0.

From there I substitute t=0. And so this goes to one, this goes to one,
and I end up getting 0=VI+A1+A2. That is my first expression. And
then I am also given that i(0)=0. And so I can get that as well.

How do I get i? This is v. I know that i=Cdv/dt, so I can get i by simply
multiplying by C and differentiating this with respect to t. I get C, this
guy vanishes so I get d/dt of this. So it is CA1(j omega nought) e^(j
omega nought t)+CA2(-j omega nought)e^(-j omega nought t).

From here I am given that that is zero, and so therefore this guy
becomes a one, this guy becomes a one, j omega nought, j omega
nought cancel out. What I end up getting is A1=A2. From the second
initial condition I get A1=A2.

From these two, if I substitute here for A2, I get VI + 2A1 = 0, or
A1=-VI/2. That is also equal to A2. Therefore, my total solution now
can be written in terms of the actual values of the constants I have
obtained.

I get VI-VI/2. So A1 and A2 are equal. I just pull them outside. I pull
VI-2 outside and I stick these two guys in parenthesis in. Again, I
promised you no more circuits from here on until the very last board
or something like that.

It is all math, so not much else happening there. More math. If you
would like, I could skip all the way to the end and show you the
answer. But I just love to write equations on the board so let me just
go through that.

I am going to simplify this a little further here. And we should
remember this form by the Euler relation, ejx=cos x+j sin x. And by
the same token, (e^jx + e^-jx)/2=cos x. You all should know this
from the Euler relation.

So were are using this guy here, ej^x + e^-jx=2cos x. And so this one
is 2 cosine of omega nought t, 2 and 2 cancel out, and what I am left
with is v(t)=VI-VI cos( omega nought t). And the current is Cdv/dt,
which is simply CVI sin( omega nought t).

Just remember that omega nought is the square root of 1/LC. We are
done. In fact, I did not give that answer the importance that was due
so let me just draw. There. That is better. Enough math. In a nutshell,
what did we do.

We wrote the node method, it's a very simple circuit, to write down
the equation governing that circuit. And then we grunged through a
bunch of math. Not a whole lot here. It is pretty simple. And ended up
with a relation that says the voltage across the capacitor for a step
input, assuming zero state, is a constant VI-VI cos omega t.

Notice that even though I have a step input, the circuit dynamics are
such that I get a cosine in there. You can begin to see where these
cosines are coming from now. They come in here. And if you recall the
example I showed you earlier of the inverter circuit, remember there
was a cosine that decayed, that was sort of losing energy and kind of
dying out? So you can see where the cosines are coming from.

And just to draw you a little sketch here. Let me draw v and i for you
and let me plot omega t, pi/2, pi and so on. Let me plot VI. When time
t=0, VI=0, cosine omega t is one, and so VI-VI=0. That is simply a
cosine that starts out at zero here, and at pi I get cosine omega t is
minus one, so I get plus VI on the other side.

So I end up at +2VI. At this point the voltage is here. And notice that
this guy looks like this. It is a cosine that is translated up so that its
mean value is not zero but VI. It is just a translation up of a cosine.

Similarly, in this case for the current it is a sinusoidal characteristic.
And it looks something like this where the peak is given by CVI, oh, I
messed up. When I differentiated this is missed the omega nought out
there.

What I would like to do now -- This is the form of the output for a step
input. What I would like to do next is show you a demo. But before I
show you a demo, I always found it strange that I have a step input
and then I have two little elements, how can I get a sine coming out of
the output? I would like to get some intuition as to why things behave
the way they are.

I could go and pray to find out, but let me just give you some very
basic insight as to why this behaves the way it does. Let me draw the
circuit for you here. And this is my inductor L and capacitance C.

Remember this is v. Let me just walk you through what is happening
there and get you to understand this. Now, you have seen sines occur
before. If you go and write down the equation of motion of a
pendulum, you know, you have a pendulum, you move it to one side,
let go.

It is also governed by sinusoidal characteristics. And you will find that
the equation governing its motion is very much of the same form, and
you get the sinusoid where you have energy that is sloshing back and
forth between maximum potential energy to maximum kinetic energy
and zero potential energy back to maximum potential energy, zero
kinetic.

So it is energy sloshing back and forth. The same way here. Capacitors
and inductors store energy. Let's walk through and see what happens.
I start off with both of them having the stage zero, zero current, zero
voltage.

I apply a step here. Boom, the step comes instanteously to VI. I notice
that the capacitor voltage cannot change instantly unless there is an
infinite pulse of a sort, so this guy cannot change instantly.

And so its voltage starts off being zero. So the entire voltage here,
KVL must be true no matter what. They are absolutely fundamental
principles from Maxwell's equations. KVL must hold, which means that
the entire voltage VI must appear across the inductor.

I put a big voltage across the inductor and its current begins to build
up. There you go. A voltage across the inductor, its current begins to
build up. As its current begins to build up that current must flow
through the capacitor, too.

And as current flows through a capacitor it is depositing charge into
the capacitor. As the capacitor begins to get charge deposited on it, its
voltage begins to rise. Let's see what happens here. Its voltage keeps
rising.

At some point, the voltage across the capacitor is equal to VI. But then
VI equals this VI here. So when the two become VI, the inductor has
zero volts across it. So there is no longer a potential difference that is
increasing the current in that direction.

At that point, at pi divided by 2, I have some current going into the
inductor so there is no longer a pressure that is forcing more current
through the inductor because this voltage reaches VI. But remember
capacitors like to sit around holding voltages.

Just remember that demo. That rinky-dink capacitor sat there
stubbornly holding its voltage. And it had a huge spark towards the
end. It just sat there holding its voltage. In the same manner,
inductors love to sit around holding a current.

They will do whatever they can to keep the current going through
them. It has got the current going through. And few forces on earth
can change that. And so therefore, even though the capacitor voltage
is VI and the voltage drop across the inductor is zero, it still keeps
supplying a current.

It has got the current. It's got inertia. It keeps going. It is like a
runaway train. You may not be pushing the train from the back, but
once it is running it has got kinetic energy and is going to run no
matter what for a least some more time, even if you take away the
force on the train.

So I have taken away the force on the punching more current through,
but it has kinetic energy. It has current flowing through it so it
continues to supply a current. Because it continues to supply the
current the capacitor voltage keeps increasing.

This is a subtle insight which is absolutely spectacular that with zero
volts across it, it still keeps pumping that current. Capacitor voltage
has gone up. And guess what? The voltage on this side is higher now
but this guy is still pumping a current.

Man, I have been born to do this, you know, I shall pump a current.
However, because the voltage has now gone up here gradually the
current begins to diminish. So the capacitor is concerned. You pump a
current into me, my voltage goes up.

At some point, like a runaway train, it comes to a halt. The current
through the capacitor drains and now goes to zero and the capacitor
voltage reaches 2VI. So this is at 2VI now and this is at VI.

Now the situation is not in equilibrium. At this point there is zero
current through it, but guess what? I have a VI pumping in this
direction now. I have the same VI punching in this direction. So guess
what? Its current must now build up in this direction and its current
begins to build up in that direction.

That begins to discharge the capacitor and the capacitor then goes on
to a negative, or the current goes down to a maximum negative
current, and this process continues. What you are seeing here is
energy.

It is sloshing back and forth between the two, and that is kind of a
key. I will just quickly put up a demo that you can watch as you are
walking out. With a step input, notice the green is the voltage across
the capacitor and the orange is the current through the capacitor.