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HANDBOUND
AT
THE
UNIVERSITY
OF
W\533*
\y
THE
AMERICAN INDIAN
(
UH-XISH-IK-XA-BA).
The Whole Subject Complete in One Volume
Illustrated with Numerous Appropriate Engravings.
By ELIJAH M. HAINES.
CHICAGO:
THE MAS-SIX-XA'-GAX COMPANY,
1888.
509630
ZS.7.
60
V
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1888,
By ELIJAH M. HAINES, .
In the Ofl&ce of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C.
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.
Type Composition by
Electrotyping by
Bradbury Brothers,
Chicago Electrotype & Stereotype Co.,
76-82 Fifth Avenue.
196-198 Clark Street.
Printing and Binding by
Illinois Printing & Binding Co.,
226-230 Lake Street.
\)ll
PREFACE.
The subject of the American Indian has ever been one of pecu-
liar interest to the ethnologist and student of history ; but at no time
since the discovery of America has it attracted so much attention as is
being given to it at the present day. Volumes upon volumes have
been written concerning it in its varied relations, but still it is not
exhausted; and indeed the changing circumstances of the American
race present at this day a phase of this subject, calling for its renewed
presentation in more complete and comprehensive form.
Amidst the vast number of books published concerning this
mysterious people since the discovery of America, there seems to be
none now in print presenting their history in a succinct classified
form, at the same time reaching out and taking in every phase of the
Indian subject, to the satisfaction of the general reader.
This book has therefore been prepared with reference to this long
felt want, and is such a work as the public mind and student of history
now seem to demand. As the title indicates, it comprises the whole
Indian subject in complete and comprehensive form. In other words,
it is a sort of cyclopaedia on the subject of the American Indian in all
its phases and bearings as shown by the table of contents following;
grouping together in condensed form, and within such limited space
as the subject will admit of, the varied information comprised in that
vast field of research in American history, not to be found in any
single Avork of this kind heretofore published, containing many special
features, which are highly interesting and valuable to the general
reader.
Amongst other special features added, is that of Indian local
names in the United States, with their definitions, such as names of
states, rivers, cities, towns, mountains and the like, borrowed from the
(vii)
viii
PREFACE.
various Indain languages and dialects of the continent, the signifi-
cation of wJiich has at this day become a matter of interesting
inquiry. This is the first attempt ever made to give to the public the
signification of Indian geographical names throughout the United
States. This feature alone renders it one of the most valuable works
ever published in connection with the Indian subject.
The practice of borrowing geographical names, or those designa-
ting localities, from other countries, is becoming stale in the truly
American mind, and there is a growing inclination in the selection of
such names to resort more to our own American nomenclature. This
is giving increased interest to the subject of the Indian languages,
and a more general desire among intelligent people to learn the defini-
tions of the multitude of Indian names, which are applied to localities
throughout our vast country.
Reference is made in this work to an order or secret society now
becoming numerous in the United States and called the Order of
Bed Men ; and a chapter is added, devoted to a brief history of this
society, being the oldest of all the American secret societies, and which
is rapidly increasing in numbers and popularity. Whilst it is a society
organized upon the plan of mutual benefits and protection to its mem-
bers, it is eventually to become the repository of Indian history and
traditions. The organization, ritual and procedure of this society are
marked by aboriginal terms, traditions and customs, leading to a
study of the true character and tribal relations of the Indians.
The rapid increase of this order is giving a renewed interest and
additional desire for further information concerning this people.
This work is peculiarly adapted to a study of the native Red man
from the standpoint of this truly American fraternal society.
Waukegan, III. THE AUTHOR.
1
Table of Contents.
CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTORY.
"The Proper study of Mankind is Man"First Reliable InformationThe Jesuit
MissionariesLaHontan, Hennepin and OthersNiagara FallsThe Long
RiverCapt. John SmithPocahontasSir Walter RaleighCharacteristics of
the IndianaHistory at FaultTestimonies of Winslow, Trumbull and Others
Later DevelopmentsThe Race Fast Fading AwayThe Indian Mentally

The Indian and His CountryOccupation of Same by the WhitesWhat the
Indian Might Have BeenHis Natural AbilitiesProgressProspects.
23
CHAPTER IL
ORIGIN.
Speculation of EthnologistsLost Tribes of IsraelResemblance Between the
ludians and People of AsiaLanguage of Northeastern Asia Similar to American
LanguagesComparison of Words in Indian and Asiatic LanguagesWreck of
Japanese Junk on Northwest Coast
Conclusions TherefromSimilar Customs

with the Ancient JewsThe Bow and ArrowLike those Found in Asia- The
Indian has in all Ages Reproduced HimselfAncient RuinsAncient Mounds
Ancient Pottery Same Made by Modern TribesIndian Languages Reveal

HistoryTestimony of HumboltCapt. Jonathan CarverSpanish Authorities-
Tradition of the MexicansFormer Spanish OccupationOpinions of Numerous
AuthorsUniform Characteristics among the Indian TribesIntelligence of the
Native IndianA Descendant of the Most Ancient PopulationHis Primitive
Condition not Evidence to the Contrary. 58
CHAPTER IIL
INDIAN TRADITIONS.
Oral TraditionsPreserving History by HieroglyphicsBelts of WampumMode of
Transmitting Historical EventsHad their Homers and their ÊsopsTraditions
yague and ShadowyServe, however, Some PurposeTraditions of a Deluge
Traditions of the Origin of their RaceThe MandansTraditions of a Flood
Representation of the ArkCeremonies Commemorating the FloodPottawat-

tamie TraditionCreek IndiansTradition of Their OriginTradition of the
OjibwaysOf Their OriginNanahbozhooMysterious PowerOrigin of Indian
CJ)
10
THE AMERICAN INDIAN.
SummerShawnee TraditionForeign OriginMontezumaCortezNew En-
gland IndiansTraditionSauk Indian TraditionTradition of the Chicka-
Baws Tradition of the Osages- Tradition of the Senecas
-
Great Hill People
Iroquois NationHiawathaMysterious PowerHis Miraculous Disappear-

anceTradition of the ArrapahoesTradition of the BlackfeetThe Bonacks
Their Tradition. 76
CHAPTER IV.
AFFINITY WITH THE JEWS.
Opinionof James Adair--The Indians Descended from the People of Israel-He Assigns
Twenty-three Arguments for this OpinionSimilarity Between the Languages
Comparison of Words and SentencesOpinion of Rev. Jedidiah MorseSimi-

larity of Religious CustomsDr. Boudinot Favors this TheoryRev. Ethan
SmithEvidence in Favor of this TheoryThe Indians Acknowledge but One
Great Spirit like the JewsFather Charlevoix Presents Evidence in Support of
this TheoryIndians Were Never Known to Worship ImagesEvidence of
William PennFeatures of the Face like the HebrewsAnd so with Dress,
Trinkets and OrnamentsTheir Fasts and Feasts, like the JewsThey Reckon
by Moons and Count Time like the HebrewsHave their ProphetsAbstain from
Unclean ThingsSalute the Dawn of Morning by Devotional CeremonyIn
their Lodge Tales and Traditions Twelve Brothers are Spoken ofCustom in
Mourning for the Dead, like the JewsHave a Custom of Burnt OfferingsHad
a Pustom like the Jews of Annointiug the HeadThe Indian Medicine Lodge
Corresponded to the Jewish SynagogueHad a Secret Order Resembling that of
the JewsTheir Medicine Man Corresponded to the "Wise Men," Matthew
II,
1
The Bow and Arrow was Common to the JewsThe Indian Tent was like
that of the JewsLived in Tribes like the Jews. 98
CHAPTER V.
LINGUISTIC GKOUPS.
Classification of Groups and TribesGroups Were the Subject of Division into
TribesHad a LocationClassified According to LanguageGroups Designated
by this ModeNumber of these GroupsExcluding the Esquimaux Stock
Names of GroupsAlgonquins, Iroquois, Appalachian, Dakota and Shoshonee
Algonquins Most NumerousGroups Composed of Tribes of Same Language
Location of Each GroupDefinitions and Names of Groups. 116

CHAPTER VL
INDIAN TRIBES.
Names of Tribes, how Acquired
Signification of Names of Various Tribes
Location of TribesChanging LocationExtinct TribesMigrationIndian

Tribes are Great FamiliesConfederacies for Purposes of GovernmentUnion
for Purposes of DefenseNames of Various Tribes Inhabiting the Original
Country of the United States.
121
CHAPTER VIL
TOTEMS.
Signification of Word Totem
A Symbolic DesignationOrigin of TotemDistin-
.
guishes the Band
A
Kind of Coat of ArmsExplanationUniversal among
the IndiansUnlawful to Marry in the Same TotemSimilar Custom in the
Old World.
172
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
11
CHAPTER VIII.
GOVERNMENT.
Erroneous Opinion of the American Indian as to his GovernmentSame kind of
Government Prevailed amonj]: All the Tribes Not a Government of ForceOne
of AcquiescenceGeneral UniformityUnion of TribesLeague of the Iro-
quoisPrinciples on which a Chief GovernsAccording to Will of the Tribe
CouncilsOrganizing and ConductingChiefs RankSuccessionEquality
Criminal CodeOpinion of Dr. FranklinCaleb Atwater's Description of an

Indian CouncilAuthority of Chiefs. 177
CHAPTER IX.
INDIAN LANGUAGES.
Each Group had a Different LanguageEach Tribe Spoke the Language of the
GroupVarying in Dialect among ThemselvesIndian Languages not a
Jargon Rich in Verbs and Grammatical FormsMarked for Method and Regu-
larity
Uniformity in Construction over the ContinentLanguage of the

AlgonquinsThe Prevailing LanguageWord BuildingGrammatical Con-
structionExamplesDakotasIroquoisCherokeeChinook. 184
CHAPTER X.
INDIAN SIGN LANGUAGE.
Sign Language among all the American TribesOne System UniversalMost Tribes
Understood Each OtherPractical Instance CitedManner of Alluding to the
Great SpiritPractical IllustrationsUse of Sign LanguageInterpretation of
SentencesDefinition of Various SignsSignalsFireSmokeUse of Pony
BlanketIllustration.

213
CHAPTER XL
INDIAN CHARACTER.
V Type of CharacterNative CharacteristicsÂttachment to his TribeIntegrity and
FidelityPeaceable, Sociable, Obliging and Hospitable among Themselves
Opinion of ColumbusLove their Neighbors as ThemselvesDue Respect to

the Rights of OthersVices Acquired from the White ManHonorable Char-
acter of the IroquoisOpinion of the Novelist CooperOpinions of Indian
TradersThe Crow IndiansOpinion of Mr. CatlinTestimony of Captain
CarverTreatment of Captives. 223
CHAPTER XIL
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS.
Argument for Race UnityUniformity in Physical CharacteristicsInfluenced by
Climate and SurroundingsCranial StructureGeneral DescriptionCom-
plexionStatureMuscular StrengthFacial OutlineEyesTeethBeard,
Disputed PointMixed BloodUtesChoctawsShawneesKawasCalifornia
IndiansShoshoneesHair of the North American Indian. 231
CHAPTER XIIL
MANNERS AND CUSTOMS.
General Uniformity in Primitive ConditionBest Sources of InformationTestimony
of Mary Jemison, "White Woman of the Genesee"Testimony of John Brick-
ell, a CaptiveExemplary Character in their Home Intercourse- Precegt and
12
Example Honesty, Bravery and Hospitality
- Eelation Between the Sexes
Strict ConductNear Jewish Rites in Traditional RulesMedicine Lodge
Tabernacle of the JewsCustom of Indian WomenPoliteness in Conversation

Hospitality to StrangersRetentive MemoryCrime of MurderDeath
PenaltyNo Titled PersonagesDressing and PaintingHabits -No Idlers
among WomenTraining Boys as HuntersMaking PresentsShaving the
HeadScalp LockCultivation of the HairNative IngenuityTreatment of
PrisonersBurning at the Stake.
238
CHAPTER XIV.
DANCES.
The Institution of DancesThanksgiving CeremonialAcceptable to the Great
SpiritTaught to Consider it a Divine ArtDesigned by the Great Spirit for their
Pleasure and His WorshipA Mode of Social IntercourseArousing Patriotic
ExcitementStrengthens Popular EnthusiasmInspires Indian YouthThe
Iroquois had Thirty-two Distinct DancesDifferent Kinds of Dances among
Different Nations and TribesSun Dance of the SiouxDeclared by Indian
Agents Barbarous and ForbiddenComparison with the White Man's Pugilistic
ExhibitionsOther Barbarous Practices of the White Man. 250
CHAPTER XV.
AMUSEMENTS AND GAMES OF CHANCE.
Indians are Fond of AmusementDelight in Games of ChanceBall Playing
Game of La CrosseAddicted to Practical JokingVarious Modes of Gambling

Various Devices for AmusementGame of the Plum StoneCard playing.
261
CHAPTER XVL
FOOD AND SUBSISTENCE.
Legend of Indian CornFacts Concerning SameÛses of CornMeat and Other
ArticlesNo Regular Time for MealsEat when they are HungryMode of
CookingWomen do the Work of CookingMode of Preserving MeatThe Zea
MaizeMode, Use and Manner of CookingWild RiceVegetables and Fruits
Fondness for SugarSugar MakingA Grand Indian CarnivalMode of
Proceeding in Making SugarMokuks, or Birch Bark Boxes. 271
CHAPTER XVII.
MARRIAGE AND DOMESTIC AFFAIRS.
Marriage InstitutionSimplicity of the Marriage CeremonyObservations of Rev.
Isaac McCoy and OthersPleasure TripsThe Mother had Custody of Children
Rights of PropertyMarriage and DivorceWife's Attention to the Husband
on Return from HuntingTestimony of Mary JemisonHer Experience as an
Indian WifeHer Labor not SevereContinued Sameness in Domestic Duties
Her Task not Harder than White Women who are Brought up to Work
Polygamy ToleratedNot much Practiced. 284

CHAPTER XVIIL
PARENTAL AND FILIAD AFFECTION.
Unfounded Prejudices against the IndianRedeeming Characteristics in his Parental
and Filial AffectionStriking Incidents RelatedA Daughter's Attachment to
her Aged FatherPathetic AnecdoteA Father's Affection Manifested for his
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
13
SonRemarkable InstanceA Father's Cheerful Death to Follow the Spirit of
his Child to the Laud of SoulsRespect for Old AgeFond ol their Children
A Mother's Attention. 292
CHAPTER XIX.
INDIAN HABITATIONS.
Simplicity of the Indian Habitation or WigwamTerm Wigwam, from whence
DerivedMode of Constructing Habitations among Different NationsAmong
the Algonquin TribesAmong Tribes of the Sioux StockAmong the
MandansAmong the Indians of the Plains in GeneralAmong the Ti^bes of
the Shoshonee StockAmong the NootkansAmong the Tribes of the Iroquois
StockInside Arrangement and Construction. 297
CHAPTER XX.
THE INDIAN CANOE.
The Word CanoeFrom whence DerivedAmong what People First Seen by
Europeans How MadeBecame a Universal Word among the WhitesIndis-
pensable to the IndianUsed by War PartiesDifferent Styles of Canoes
Among Different Tribes and NationsCanoe of the Mandans and Western

TribesCanoes of the CaribbeesBark CanoesCanoes of Light Material for
Convenience of PortageMode of Constructing CanoesVarious Sizes
Selecting Trees for a CanoeTime of Stripping Bark for Canoe
Quotation
from Longfellow. 305
CHAPTER XXI.
WEAPONS AND UTENSILS.
Weapons of the Primitive IndianThe Bow and ArrowWar ClubSpearHatchet
Flint Arrow HeadsStone HatchetsUtensils for Various PurposesFlint
KnivesGraining ToolsAwlsFish SpearsNetsImplements for Producing
FireUtensils for CookingClay Pots. 313
CHAPTER XXIL
NAMES OF PERSONS.
Application of Names to Designate PersonsImitation of Jewish CustomNames
have SignificationMale and Female NamesNo SurnamesDuplicate Names
From whence Names of Persons are DerivedBaby NamesNaming Children
"There is Something in a Name"Custom of the DakotasCustom in

Changing NameNicknamesObjection to Speaking their Own NameHusband
and Wife do not Mention Each Other's NamesExamples of Indian Names. 320
CJHAPTER XXin.
INDIAN LOCAL NAMES.
Indian Names Applied to LocalitiesPopular Idea SignificationClassification of
Groups in Determining NamesTracing Origin of NamesAlgonquin Names
PrevailPhrases Reduced to One WordContraction of WordsIgnorance of
Origin and MeaningIndian Names of States and TerritoriesNames Coming
from the French and Other LanguagesSame Word in Different Languages
and Dialects, Differing in MeaningNames Coming Through Illiterate Persons
The Word PenobscotRendered by the French in Sixty Different WaysThe
Word CalumetNot an Indian Word as SupposedWords of French Orthog-
raphyCorruption of Indian NamesExamples of Corruption of Indian Words
Inappropriate Signification of Words. .329
14
CHAPTER XXIV.
DRESS.
Simplicity in StyleSuggestive of ConvenienceGeneral Uniformity among the
TribesDifferent StylesDress According to Weather and SeasonDescription
of the Indian DressMaterialSkins of AnimalsMoccasins for the Feet
Dress of the Indian WomanIts Convenience- According to Notions of Strict

ProprietyIndians of the Pacific CoastCriticism of the White Man on Fantas-
tic Indian DressThe White Woman's Fantastic Dress ComparedThe Indian
Paints his Face, so Does the White WomanThe Indian War BonnetNot a
Fantastic Display, but a Superstitious NotionBuffalo Horns as a Badge of
BraveryThe Indian Dress is Symbolic, rather than one of Fantastic Display
The Indian DudeIndian Dress of the Mountains and the Plains.

337
CHAPTER XXV.
EELIGION.
Man Naturally a Religious BeingA Characteristic Prominent among the Indians
,
Religion Similar to the JewsBelief in One Great SpiritBelief in a Bad
SpiritSubordinate Good SpiritsLike the Jews they had Fasts and Feasts
--
Observed with Religious DevotionTraditions of the FloodHouses of Worship
of Civilized PeopleIndian Medicine LodgeAbiding Faith in a Future Exist-
enceLand of the Blessed or Country of SoulsThe Passage of the Soul to the
Everlasting AbodeBelief in Difficulties on the WayBelief that the Soul
Tarries a Time Near the BodyPassage Over a Stream on the Way to the Land
of SoulsLike the River Styx of the GreeksPerils in Passing Over this Myth-
ical RiverDescription of the Land of the BlessedIndian Religion a Subject
of CriticismWhat the Indian Thinks of the Religion of the White ManThe
Indian PriestThe Indian Highly DevotionalSmoking, a Devotional Act
Believed in Souls of AnimalsBelief of the Iroquois.

345
CHAPTER XXVL
INDIAN SUPERSTITION.
Multitude of SpiritsManifested in Mysterious WaysOmens among the Stars and
CloudsFlight of BirdsSuperstition about the RobinThunder God of the
OjibwaysSuperstition of the OjibwaysCreek Indians had Sacred Plants
Buffalo BloodMagic PropertiesSuperstitions of the War BonnetLarge

Animals Objects of SuperstitionWhite Animals Objects of WorshipLarge
Animals Believed to Possess Powerful SpiritsSpiritualism an Old Story among
the DakotasTendency to Believe Everything is Inhabited by SpiritsLegend
of a Mythical Bird Singing at EveningsSacred Character of FireDreams
Believed inSuperstitions of the Indian and the White Man do not Essentially
Differ. 355
CHAPTER XXVII.
WITCHCRAFT.
Pagan Character of the Indian Marked by His Belief in WitchcraftThe Civilized
White Man and Pagan Indian Compared in this RegardThe Indian's Fear of
f^'-upernatural AgenciesBelief in Witchcraft was UniversalEffect upon their
Prosperity and PopulationAmong the Iroquois LeagueWizards, a Secret
AssociationMeeting at NightTradition among the Onondagas-Indian Pow-
wows-Conjurers and Medicine MenWitches -WizardsTheir Powers and
CharacteristicsWitches in the Shape of AnimalsThe Puritan Idea of Witches
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 15
Ignorance Charged upon the Indian for his Belief in WitchesReference to the
Learned Sir Mathew HaleWho Tried and Convicted Two Old Women for the
Crime of Being Witches.
3G2
CHAPTER XXVIII.
FASTS AND FEASTS.
The American Tribes had a Custom of Fasts and FeastsCustom of Fasts Not
FrequentCustom of Feasts Quite FrequentFeasts a Favorite Source of Ex-
citementDifferent Kinds of Feasts among Different NationsFeasts of the
White Dog UniversalGeneral Resemblance of Feasts among AllThe Man
who Gave Many Feasts a Great Favorite with his TribeFeasts among the
OjibwaysMedicine FeastFeasts for DreamsFeast of Giving NamesWar
FeastThe Great FeastWabeno FeastFeast for the DeadFeast for His
MedicineBoys' FeastRegular Feasts of the IroquoisMaple FeastPlanting
FestivalStrawberry FestivalGreen Corn FestivalHarvest FestivalNew
Year's FestivalFasts Strictly a Religious Custom. 367
CHAPTER XXIX.
DEATH AND ITS INCIDENTS.
Coincidences with Nations of the Old WorldNo Fear of DeathCeremonies Much
Like the JewsRelatives of the Deceased put on Coarse GarmentsWomen as
"
Hired Mourners."Offering Made During Time of MourningOjibways
CustomAttended with Much InterestOffering Food to the DeadCremation
among Some TribesInstance RelatedMourning Cradle of ChildCustom
Never to Mention Name of the DeceasedBury Body East and WestReasons
ThereforNo Enduring Monuments. 377
CHAPTER XXX.
MEDICINE MEN.
Term MedicineThree Distinct ProfessionsThe Doctor of MedicineThe
MagicianThe ProphetPopular Idea DressMedicine BagIts Contents
Its ConstructionClaims of Supernatural InfluenceAnimal Magnetism
Trials of PowerA Remarkable InstanceProphetic GiftsMental Telegraphy

Holy GarmentsRobes of MysteryRobes of StateJudicial Ermine Obser-
vances in Regard to Medicine MenIn Regard to SmokingTetotalism and
Chastity of Women.

386
CHAPTER XXXL
INDIAN PROPHECIES.
The Indian ProphetAn Important FunctionaryAs with the Ancient JewsWas the
Oracle of
"
All Mystery"False ProphetsChiefs had Their ProphetsFore-
telling EventsRemarkable Instance RelatedCapt. Carver Relates an Instance
Account from an Indian CaptiveSingular Instance of Foretelling the Future
Fulfilled in the Escape of Three CaptivesFather Charlevoix's Experience
Peter Jones Gives Instance of Indian Prophecy. 395

CHAPTER XXXII.
ANATOMY AND MEDICAL, KNOWLEDGE.
Knowledge, how AcquiredComparison of the Indian and the White ManKnowl-
edge of the Functional Organs of the BodyWhich Their Language Indicates-
16
Their Knowledge
ComparativePathologyWant of Knowledge through
Scientific ExperimentsLimited Knowledge of Circulation of the BloodKnowl-
edge Derived from the WhitesIncantations
By
Sacrificial RitesPretentions
of Indian Knowledge Compared with the Pretentions of the Medical White Man
Originally, Indians had but Few Diseases- Causes of DiseasesSimplicity of
DietAdminister Simple RemediesSacrifices to Propitiate SpiritsA Practice
Like the JewsFracture or Breaking of a BoneUnderstand Nature of Poison"
ous PlantsKnew Nothing of ParalysisIdeas of Blood Letting. 408
CHAPTER XXXIII.
DISEASES AND TREATMENT OF THE SICK.
Originally but Two Fatal Diseases among ThemConsumption Destroyed Many in
Later Times
" The Indian Student's Lament "^Diseases among the Ojibways
What La Hontan Says of Diseases among the IndiansSmall-pox Very Fatal^

Indian Ideas of Sickness^Fear Pain and Long Duration of Illness More than
DeathPhysician or Doctor of MedicineVarious RemediesSweat Lodge^
Manner of ConstructingVapor Baths not a Matter of LuxuryChickasaws
Doctor Attending the Sick. 413
CHAPTER XXXIV.
ASTRONOMICAIj and GEOGRAPHICAIi KNOWLEDGE.
Knowledge from ObservationNorth StarStar that Never MovesGuides Them
by Night
^Solar Walk or Milky WayIndian OpinionCoincidence with An-

cient Belief of the White ManHave Names for Particular StarsSeven Stars
The Great BearPleiades^Do not Pretend to More Knowledge than They

PossessStars for Which They Have NamesCometsSuperstitious Belief
EclipsesIndian TheoryEarthquakesMoving of a Great TortoiseKnowl-

edge of GeographyDraw Maps CorrectlyCourse of Streams. 419
CHAPTER XXXV.
MODE OF COMPUTING TIME.
Intuitive Mode of Reckoning TimeCardinal DivisionsDays and MonthsReckon
Days by SunsMonths by MoonsFour Fixed Points in the DayRising and
Setting of the SunNoon and NightSome Idea of a Solar YearSpring
SummerAutumnWinterYear Begins With SpringPutting Out of the

Leaves
Planting SeasonReckon Ages by Winters^Commemorate Events
No Division of Days into HoursRecall Time of Year by Past EventsHow

Mothers Keep Ages of ChildrenTook no Note of TimeNames for Different
MoonsNames of the Four SeasonsLost MoonExamples of Names of Moons
among Different Tribes.
423
CHAPTER XXXVL
NUMERALS AND USE OF NUMBERS.
Perfect System of CountingUniform Decimal System Why Decimal System was
AdoptedUse of Sticks and Other Objects in CountingExplanation of Mode
of CountingMode among Different TribesList of Indian Numerals among
Various Tribes.
433
CHAPTER XXXVII.
HUNTING AND FISHING.
North American Indians Excel in HuntingSuperstitionUse of CharmsDili-
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 17
ênceSnow Shoe RegionThanks to the Great SpiritThe BuffaloThe
BeaverHabits of the BeaverBeaver DamsBeaver HousesMode of Taking
BeaversHunting the BearSingular CustomLongfellow's DescriptionThe
DogHis FaithfulnessThe HorseOrigin among the Indians -Comanches
Excel in HorsemanshipMode of Capturmg the Wild HorseGeneral Hunt^
Hunting DeerTrapsPrairie FiresSeasons for HuntingAssistance of the
WomenIroquoisDakotasFishingMode of Taking FishIroquois are
Expert Fishermen. 452
CHAPTER XXXVIII.
THE INDIAN AND THE BUFFALO.
Range of the Buffalo The Word BuffaloWhence DerivedFormidable Object of
Hunter ProwessDescription of the Buft'aloMode of Taking the Buffalo
DescribedInteresting Description by Mr. CatlinInformation on this Point
From Gov. SibleyAn Interesting AccountIndian Buffalo ChaseMr. Catlin's
Thrilling DescriptionHis Eloquent Reflection on the Disappearance of the
Indian and the BuffaloThe National ParkFirst Suggested.
-167
CHAPTER XXXIX.
PICTUKE WKITING.
Original Mode of Suggesting Thought Picture Writing among the American
TribesIn Practice as among Ancient People of the Old WorldMaterial Used
for Picture WritingCharacters Engraved on Rocks and StonesThe Piasa
Man Devouring BirdDescription by MarquetteDescriptioa by Prof. John

RussellPicture Writing on RobesPipe Stone QuarryInstance Noted by
Jonathan CarverIllustration from La HontanSystem of Picture Writing
The Primitive MindAnecdote of President Lincoln's FatherDescription

Quoted From LongfellowDighton RockRocks at Kelley's IslandCaricatures
Indian IdeaAnecdote of the Shawnee Indian and White Man. 477
CHAPTER XL.
THE PIPE OF PEACE.
Generally Called CalumetNot an Indian WordNot Strictly an Appropriate Term
A Norman French WordIts SignificationDescription of the Pipe of Peace
Its Sacred CharacterOther Classes of PipesMode of UseNotices by the

Early FrenchSecured Them a Friendly Reception^Custom of Smoking
Mysterious Seal of ReligionCustom the Same among all the TribesCere-

monies of SmokingMode of Making PeaceA Symbol in Ratification of
TreatiesTobacco a Gift of the Great SpiritFrom Stone of the Pipe Stone
QuarryLegend of this Mysterious QuarryDescription from Longfellow. 486
CHAPTER XLL
WAMPUM.
Meaning of Word Wampum
Massachusetts DialectAs Described by Palfrey-
Kinds of WampumDescription of MakingNot Originally Used in C(Mumercial
TransactionsWhen First Used as SuchValueWorn as an OrnamentAs a
Symbol in Preserving Memory of EventsAs a Ratification of TreatiesPledge
of FriendshipNot Common among Some Tribes.
^93
18
CHAPTEE XLII.
INDIAN ELOQUENCE.
Indian Eloquence a Native TalentNot Acquired by Book EducationKetort of Eed
Jacket
"I was Born an Orator"Power of Indian EloquenceIndian Elo-

quence Superior to the White ManSimiles and Metaphors Drawn from Nature
Speech of the Indian Chief LoganElements of Indian EloquenceIndian
Ideas Gathered from SurroundingsThe TempestsThe WoodsThe Water-
fallsThe SkyInjustice to the Indian LanguagesAdapted to Eloquent
ExpressionsEnthusiastic Description by Caleb AtwaterHis Experience
Indian Eloquence in CouncilNo Violent GesticulationsNo Overwrought

EnthusiasmThe Voice is Loud, Clear, Distinct and CommandingExalted
Opinion from a Public JournalistSome of the Great Indian Orators Enum-
erated -Speech of Capt. Pipe, a Delaware Chief, at Detroit, in 1801
Speech of
Grangula, the Iroquois ChiefAs Keported by La HontanExamples of Indian
Eloquence.
498
CHAPTER XLIIL
INDIAN METAPHOKS.
tndians are Fond of MetaphorsWere Like Ornaments to their PersonPowerful
Similes Drawn from NatureAdded a Charm to their SpeechesAppropriated
by English WritersMetaphorical Expressions in Common Use Borrowed from
the Indians -"Rivers Run With Blood""To Bury the Hatchet "" Tou Keep
Me in the Dark
""
Singing Birds
""
I Will Place You Under My Wings
"
"Suffer no Grass to Grow on the War Path"Are of Indian OriginExamples
of Indian Metaphorical Expressions. 518
CHAPTER XLIV.
INDIAN MUSIC AND POETKY.
Origin of MusicVocal and InstrumentalIndians are Naturally Musicians-^Sing
on Devotional OccasionsLike the White ManSongs of Praise to Diety Like
the JewsSongs Consisted of Few WordsShort PhrasesMany Times
RepeatedLanguage of ExcitementExpression of CompassionAbsence of
Measure or RhymeVoices Often FineWords Preserved by Picture Writing
Indian Music Noted for its SimplicityScale of Music LimitedThe Chorus in

High Strain of VoiceHave Various Instruments of MusicSome Instruments
Like those of the White ManThe DrumGourd ShellRattling Sounds
Description of Indian Implements of MusicLongfellow's Hiawatha an Imita-

tion of Indian PoetryWhite Man's Old Fashioned SongsRobert Kidd
Coincidence with Indian SongsSamples of Indian MusicDog Dance of the

Dakotas and others. 526
CHAPTER XLV.
SECRET SOCIETIES.
Two Institutions among the North American IndiansFrom the Atlantic to the*
PacificFrom the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic OceanMedawinJeesukawin
Art of Medical MagicMysteryProphecyAncient OriginThe Term Meda
Necromantic InfluencesExerted in SecretMedawininne, a MagicianMeda-
win, the Art of MagicFormed into Societies or AssociationsAdmitting Candi-
datesWho May be AdmittedCeremony of AdmissionArt of Prophecy-
Ceremonies of the WabenoMedawin, Definition. 535
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
19
CHAPTER XLVI.
INDIAN TREATIES.
Popular Idea of an Indian TreatyThe Notion of the Spanish InvadersThe
English IdeaThe PuritansTreaty with MassasoitWilliam PennTreaties
of United StatesAt Fort PittGreenvilleChicagoPrairie du Chien
Broken CovenantsProverbial DeceptionBlack Hawk War. 543

CHAPTER XLVII.
STATUS OF THE INDIAN.
The Position the Indian OccupiesThe Object of the SpaniardsRight of Dis-
coveryEarly ColonistsIdea of EliotRecognition by United States Govern-
mentChief Justice Taney's View
" State of Pupilage

"
Winnebago Indians
Ponca IndiansThe Negro Race as Compared with the IndianThe Conclusion.

562
CHAPTER XLVIII.
INDIAN BIOGRAPHY.
How Indians Attained Prominence among their PeopleCivil and Military Affairs
in Separate DepartmentsIllustrious MenRoad to Fame Open to AllThe
Word SachemProminent Indians Since the Settlement of the ContinentBrief
Biography of Noted Chiefs. 570
CHAPTER XLIX.
ELIOT's INDIA.N BIBLE.
Remarkable Literary ProductionConsisted of the Old and New TestamentTrans-
lated into the New Englaud DialectsIndians under Religious Instructions at
Martha's Vineyard
-"
Praying Indians
"
NumberCurious Circumstances Lead-
ing to Conversion of Indians
Questions Asked by Indians Concerning Eliot's

Religious TeachingsDifficulties He Encountered in TranslatingDeath of
Eliot. 598
CHAPTER L.
INDIAN CIVILlZA-nON.
Reduced PossessionsInsignificant ProportionsThe Indian QuestionPreliminary
Agencies to CivilizationExtinction, or CivilizationWhat is Civilization
A
Matter of OpinionVarious Forms of Civilization-The European Form
^ Which
-
the Indian is Expected to AdoptWork of the PuritansRev. John Eliot in
New England^Missionary WorkCivilizing Influence of WhiskeyDiscordant
Examples of PuritansDistrust of the White Man's ReligionExtermination of
the New England TribesExample of the BrothertownsThe Iroquois Six
NationsTheir Progress in Our CivilizationInfluence of William PennGood
Work of QuakersAgricultural InstructionThe Five Civilized Tribes of the
Indian TerritoryTo Become Civilized the Indian Must Become a White Man
The Indian Disappearing by AmalgamationReports of Indian Agents to that

EffectThe Indian ProblemThe White Man Problem. 604
CHAPTER LL
INDIAN POPULATION.
Population OverratedExaggerations of the Early ExplorersReport of the Com-
missioner of Indian AffairsNumber of Indians in the United States at the Pres-
/,
20 THE AMERICAN INDIAN.
ent TimeEfPect of Contagious DiseasesDestruction of GameSemi-State
of StarvationGradual DecreaseCause of Decrease Becoming RemovedHow
Indian Population Became OverestimatedExaggeration of Poimlation in New
EnglandThe Iroquois NationExaggeration of NumbersThe West Indies
Numbers OverestimatedAnd so in VirginiaHow a Small Number of Indians

Appear LargeIndians of KentuckyNo Permanent Indians there. 611
CHAPTER LII.
INDIAN ANECDOTES.
Anecdotes Illustrating Indian Character-Lost ConfidenceThe Good Man, and the
Bad ManHonor among Indians Illustration The Indian's View of the
TrinityMore RoomIndian MendacityIndian Gratitude and WitHead
WorkIndian FidelityIndian Chief PontiacSelling Lands to the Whites-
Example of NatureGiving the Missionary a Cold ShoulderIndian Opinion of
the White ManA Singnlar Instance of a Thing FoundIndian Incredulity
Sample of Indian JusticeAn Indian's Reply to a Challenge. 618

CHAPTER LIIL
WAKS AND MASSACKES.
Prejudice of White ManWant of Correct InformationHistory Misunderstood
and ExaggeratedMethods of Declaring WarOn the Warpath Their En-
campmentsEngagementsPrisonersRunning the GauntletAdoption of
PrisonersSpanish Invaders Committed First MurderOutrages by DeSoto
and D'AllyonIndians RetaliateAttack and Bloodshed in New England by
the WhitesFear and Suspicion Aroused among the IndiansIndian Attach-
ment to Their LandsTheir Efforts to Retain ThemIndians Aroused by the
British Against the ColonistsIndian Massacres Stimulated and Led on by the
WhitesOne Faction against the OtherThe So-Called Wyoming Massacre
True History of the SameBurning of Joan of ArcOther Instances of Man's

Inhumanity to ManHistory Misunderstood. 636
CHAPTER LIV.
THE ORDEK OF RED MEN.
Society Formed at PhiladelphiaBefore the American RevolutionAdmirers of
Indian CharacterAdopting the Examples of Tammanend, a Delaware Chief
Sometimes Called TammanyCharacter of this Chief as Described by Hecke-

welderAccount of Preparation for MeetingMay 4, 1772, Old StyleAccount
of Meeting, Monday, May 11,
1772Toasts Drank at this MeetingPatriotic
Spirit of the SocietyYearly FestivalsFirst of May, Old Style, now May 12th
Members Marched in Procession Through the StreetsHats Adorned with
Buck's TailsThis Association the Origin of the Later Order of Red Men
Other Societies FormedIn New York under the Name of Tammany
^^Place of
Meeting called WigwamOpject of Order of Red MenSocial, Fraternal and
BenevolentFounded on Customs, Traditions and History of the Aborigines-
Three Phases of this OrganizationFirst, Prior to RevolutionSecond, from the
Time of Peace to War of 1812 -Third, from 1813 at Fort Mifflin to the Present
TimeName Improved Order of Red Men Adopted March 4, 1835Charter of
Great Council Granted by MarylandGreat Council of the United States
Organized March, 1847.
657
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
21
CHAPTER LV.
VOCABULARIES.
Indian DialectsOjibwayDakota
Comanche
MiamiMenomineeShawnee-
Oneida OnondagaBlackfeet
Tuscarora
Mohawk
Cayuga
Muscogee
-
ZuniDelawareMandauArapahoeSheyenneOsageNootkianCompari-
son of DialectsComparison of PronounsWoyds and PhrasesCatalogue of
Trees and PlantsCatalogue of Animals.
668
CHAPTER LVl.
INDIAN GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES.
Definition of Indian Local NamesNames of StatesCountiesCitiesTowns
RiversStreamsLakesMountsinsRanges.
704
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
Page.
Indian Head
23
Falls of Niagara 32
Map of Long River 33
Captain John Smith 37
Pocahontas 41
Perils of the Missionary 50
Christopher Columbus 58
Ruins of Chichen 66
Ruins of Uxmal 66
Falls of Minnehaha 76
Jewish Priest in his Robes 98
Tents of Ancient Israelites 115
Group of Indians 116
Fort Winnebago in 1831 121
Scene in Country of the Arapahoes. 135
Yellowstone Park, Country of the
Crows 142
Scene in Pennsylvania, Home of the
Delawares 144
Scene in Western Montana, Home of
theFlatheads 146
Scene on the St. Lawrence, Border-
ing on Country of Hurons 148
Northern Wisconsin, Country of the
Menominees . 152
Northern Minnesota, Country of the
Ojibways 155
Scene in Northern Michigan, Country
of the Ottawas 157
Scene on Fox Lake, Illinois, Country
of the Pottawattamies 159
Maiden's Rock, Upper Mississippi,
Country of the Sioux - 163
Page.
Scene in Alaska, Home of the Sitka
Tribes
165
Country of the Shoshonees, Moun-
tain Trail 168
Among the Rockies, Country of the
Utes ----.... 170
Mount Joliet, Country of the Illi-
niwug _ 171
The Beaver 172
Totems 173
Eagle's Nest 177
Collection of Flowers 184
Signal of Peace 213
"Who Are You?" 215
Smoke Signal.. 218
Blanket Signal.. _ 220
Sign Illustrations 221
Sign Illustrations 222
Indian Character 223
Indian with Bow and Arrow... 231
A Lesson in Archery 238
Gardeau, Home of the Captive White
Woman 240
First Lesson in Hunting _ 246
Instrument for Making Fire 248
Pleasures and Cares of the White
Man 249
Buffalo Dance 250
War Whoop 253
Scalp Dance 260
Indian Women Plnying at Plum
Stone 261
Indian Game of Ball 264
90
LIST OF rLLUSTRATIONS.
Page.
Amusements 270
Protecting Cornfields 271
Indian Women Gathering Wild Rice 281
Indian Cradles 284:
Modem Marriage Ceremony 291
Parental Affection 292
Ojibway Village 297
Carib House 298
Esquimaux Snow House 299
Iroquois Bark House 300
Movable Wigwams 301
Comanche Wigwam 302
Successor to Indian Habitation 304
Canoe Portage 305
Irr>quois Bark Canoe 308
Indian Head and Implements 313
Weapons and Utensils 317
''Clear Sky" 320
Olnopehelie 329
Ideal Indian Maiden 337
Blackfoot Chief 340
Prince of Wales 340
Seneca Maiden 342
Young Seneca Warrior 343
Dawn of Perpetual Peace 345
"Flight of Birds" 355.
The Great Head 362
White Man's Witch--.. 365
White Man's Witch-Finder 366
Harvest Festival 367
Mandan Cemetery 377
Printed Grave Post 383
Knistenaux Medicine Man 388
Indian Head 386
Warnings of the Great Spirit 395
Indian Doctor 408
Indian Medicine Man 413
"
Wisdom Dwells with Contempla-
tion" _.__ 419
Rising Sun 423
Bundleof Sticks 433
Deer 452
Iroquois Hunters 455
"
Looking Down from a High Place" 458
Catching Wild Horses ._. 460
Hunting in Disguise
462
The Indian's Successor 464
Deer
466
Buffalo
467
Hunting Buffalo in Deep Snow 474
Indian Picture Writing 477
Supposed Form of Piasa Bird 478
Page.
Indian Hieroglyphics 482
Pipe of Peace _ 486
Piece of Wampum 493
Use of Wampum Belt 496
Strings of Wampum 497
Speaking to the Council 498
Singing Birds 518
Black Clouds _. 519
"Under My Wing" 521
Iroquois Drum 525
She-she-quoy 527
The Silent Forest 535
Initiation of Medawin 538
Medicine Ceremonies 540
William Penn's Treaty 543
"Cast Off" 562
Pontiac 570
Black Hawk 574
Corn Planter 577
Ellskwatawa 578
Little Turtle 581
Metea 583
Osceola 585
Red Jacket 590
Shabonee 591
Joseph Brant 595
Eliot Preaching to Indians 598
Remnant of Fort Dearborn 604
"Inevitable Destiny" :_. 611
"Come to Stay" 617
Indian Wigwam 618
Pawnee Warrior 636
On the War Path 641
Cruelties of the Spaniards 646
Burmng of Joan of Arc 653
Fort Dearborn in 1833 656
In Council 657
Indian "Lore 668
Globe , 704
Lake Chautauqua . 716
Chicago in 1820 719
Lake Gogebic. . 730
First State House at Kaskaskia 736
Scene near Merrimac, Wis 749
Scene on Lake Minnetonka 752
Waukegan 796
Waukesha
798
Scene on Lake Winnebago 801
View in Yosemite Valley . 805
Scene on Devil's Lake 811
Scene on Lake Geneva 813
CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTORY.
*'The Proper Study of Mankind is Man"First Reliable InformationThe Jesuit
MissionariesLaHontan, Hennepin and Others Niagara FallsThe Long
RiverCapt. John SmithPocahontasSir Walter RaleighCharacteristics of
the IndiansHistory at FaultTestniionies of Winslow, Trumbull and Others
Later DevelopmentsThe Race Fast Fading AwayThe Indian Mentally
The Indian and His CountryOccupation of Same by the WhitesWhat the

Indian Might Have BeenHis Natural AbilitiesProgressProspects.
'F, as has been said, "the proper study of
mankind is man," then there has been
much neglect on the part of ethnologists
^ and students of history, concerning the
aborigines of America, to whose possessions we
have succeeded. Nearly four centuries have
passed since the white man's first intrusion
upon the native inhabitants of the country,
now comprised within the United States,
whose undisputed possessions of that day,
covering a vast continent, have at length been reduced by the unceasing
march of civilization to the most insignificant proportions, accom-
plished in the main through the deceptive means of civilized diplomacy,
aided by aggressive warfare ; and the average citizen can now scarcely
realize that within the memory of the living, the native red man held
sway over nearly all that vast region of country, extending from the
Pacific Ocean on the west to the Alleo^hanv mountains on the east.
A hundred years ago the study of Indian character and history
was one attracting the attention of historians and philanthropists to a
considerable extent; but after the decline of Indian supremacy in this
country, from the time of the decisive victory of Gen. Wayne over the
allied tribes of the Northwest, less attention for a season was given to
this subject. But in later times, since the complication of what is
(23)
termed the Indian question, under pressure of the avaricious white
man, in his designs upon the last remnant of the Indian domain,
fostered by the exterminating policy of our national government, there
has arisen a new interest in the wards of the nation, so called, and as
if to make amends for the past, philanthropists and historians are
beo-inning again to give attention to the history and character of this
injured and long suffering people ; and quite a general desire is mani-
fest on the part of reading and thinking people, to learn something
more concerning the native red man, than has heretofore been brought
to light.
When America was discovered by Columbus, it was believed by
him and his contemporaries to be a part of that region vaguely termed
India, beyond the Ganges, and the newly discovered lands were styled
Indies, afterwards West Indies, whereby the native inhabitants of this
country became known as Indians, a term by which they have continued
to be known to the present day.
In approaching this subject, we must bear in mind that the
American Indian of to-day, wherever he may be found, or under what-
ever circumstances, is not the Indian as found in his primitive condi-
tion at the time of the discovery of this country ; and in tracing his
character, his manners and customs, it requires no small degree of
discrimination to distinguish the character of the Indian, as it has
become changed under the influence 'of the white man's civilization,
from what it was in his more primitive condition.
The manners and customs of a people denote their character.
Long continued contact of the whites with the Indian has necessarily
had its effect upon his character and in many respects affected his
manners and customs ; so that in the study of the Indian in this regard,
if we would view him correctly, we must rely for sources of information
upon the earliest impartial and most experienced writers; and then,
too, in studying this question properly, we must have in view climate
in connection with the topography of the country ; we must separate
the tribes of the forest, the plains, and the mountains. We must con-
sider that the nomadic tribes of the great western plains, and the arid
regions of the Southwest, became vastly different from force of circum-
stances, in their character, and varied much in their manners and cus-
toms from the Indians of the forest or country where streams and
inland bodies of water abound, and so too of the Indians in the
country bordering upon the Atlantic Ocean. And in estimating Indian
character in later times, we must have in view their contact with the
whites under the varied circumstances naturally following the first
meeting of the races.
INTRODUCTORY. 25
The Spanish invasion of the country was founded upon a thirst of
avarice, and search for precious metals or mines of gold and silver.
De Soto, with his military force, in his wanderings through Florida and
the Mississippi valley, seems to have had in view no other object than
this, which the Spaniards had an idea was to be found in abundance
all over the newly discovered country; and his inhuman treatment
of the natives throughout his wanderings was in consequence of the
belief that they were withholding from him information concerning
the gold and silver mines believed to exist in their country.
Our earliest and most reliable information concerning the Indians
of North America, however, is derived from the French, and this largely
through their Jesuit missionaries. It was natural that this should be
so, from the fact that these devoted people were necessarily required,
in prosecuting their work, to become well informed on this subject.
To accomplish this, they were especially required to study Indian
character, to search out the various tribes, to learn their dialects, and
to study their manners and customs and general mode of life.
As the Spaniards came solely as adventurers, with no fixed design
of remaining in the country, they gave little or no attention to these
various subjects, and hence have left to us scarcely anything of import-
ance in this reoârd. But little more can be said of the Encrlish who
first landed upon the Virginia coast. In their first settlement at
Jamestown they had but little else in view than that which pertained
to themselves and their own welfare, their attention becoming at once
engaged in the direction of defending themselves against the natives,
whose ill-will they early incurred by their imprudent conduct towards
them. The like m.ay be said of the Puritans and other pioneer immi-
grants in New England, and whatever is left to us by those early
immigrants of that locality concerning the primitive Indians comes to
us in the most part as incident to their own general history in the
first settlement of that portion of the country. But in what is recorded,
however, concerning the missionary labors of the Rev. John Eliot,
in the early settlement of New England, we find that which affords
some idea of native Indian character, and their primitive manners and
customs. Much valuable information in this respect is also given us
through Roger Williams, from his experience as a missionary, among
the more southern New England tribes.
The Indians were, at the start, treated by the English colonists
more as a people having no rights which they were bound to respect,
than otherwise. According to the evidence of the noted Cotton
Mather, the Puritans considered the natives as Pagans and outlaws
from human society, hence they could not be expected to become very
2G
zealously engaged in the pursuit of knowledge concerning them, and
it is not surprising that they have preserved to us so little of value
relating to this benighted people, as they considered them.
But the course of the French missionaries towards this people
was far different, being more humane, and more in harmony with the
spirit of the religion which they brought with them, and sought to
impart. They treated the aborigines more as human beings, wanting
only, in their opinion, that light which the Christian religion afforded
to make them equals in their society.
Father LeClercq, speaking of the great work of the early French
missionaries, (borrowing from a learned author) eulogizing the
religious state, says: "There was nothing greater or more glorious
than the conversion of the New World, which, after the grace of the
Lord, must be attributed in all its parts to the Apostolic labors of
religious in general, but especially to the untiring zeal of the Order of
St. Francis, who have the honor of having been the pioneers in this
high and glorious enterprise," He further adds that the year 1615
must be acknowledged as the time of the establishment of the faith in
Canada, when, as he says, the hearts of the recollet missionaries, in
their extreme desire of gaining to Christ all the savages of the New
AYorld, became by inclination as great as all of Canada; grace there
producing the same effect as in that of St. Paul, which became by zeal
and charity as great as the universe.
In missionary work in North America, to the French Jesuits is
given the credit of being among the first, commencing in Eastern
Canada, and extending at an early day throughout what afterwards
became known as the Northwest Territory, covering a greater portion
of the country of the tribes of the Algonquin group; but at what date
these devoted missionaries reached the Northwest, so called, is
unknown, and about which there is considerable dispute.
An enthusiastic writer on this subject says, the Jesuit father was,
no doubt, the first white man who paddled his light canoe over those
inland seas, extending from the St. Lawrence to the further limits of
Lake Superior; and long before civilization or empire had extended
their star westward, he had unfurled the banner of the cross on the
shores of Lakes Huron, Michigan and Superior; and the missions of
St. Francois Xavier at Green Bay, of St. Ignace at Mackina, of St.
Mary at the straits, in the latter part of the seventeenth century, show
conclusively with what zeal and ardor these heralds of the cross pushed
their
"tabernacles in the
wilderness," and made known to these wan-
dering Arabs of the prairies the symbol of the Christian's faith and
the mysteries of their holy
religion. But it was not simply as sta-
INTRODUCTORY. 27
tioned preachers, that these good and great men attempted the con-
version of the innumerable multitude who then swarmed the shores of
the lakes, and spread from Lake Erie to the Ohiofrom the Miami to
the Father of Waters. They followed the Indian to his huntiiig-
ground, tlireaded forests, swam rivers, bivouacked with their troupe in
the immense natural meadows which abound in that region ; endured
hunger, thirst, cold, suffering, disease and death.
Not a cape was turned, nor a river entered, but a Jesuit led the
way. From the time when Charles Raymbault and Isaac Jogues ac-
cepted the invitation of the Ojibways to visit them at Sault St. Marie
in 1641, down to the middle of the eighteenth century, there seems to
have been a succession of missions, not only along the borders of the
great lakes, but at St. Joseph, now Vincennes, on the Wabash, among
the tribes of that locality; at Peoria, among the Illinois; at Cahokia,
among the Tamaroas orCahokias; atKaskaskia, and along the shores of
the Mississippi; from the mouth of the Wisconsin to the mouth of the
Ohio; and down the whole valley of the Mississippi to the Arkansas
and the Natchez.
In 1653, twenty years before Marquette and Joliet went on their
voyage to the "River Mechasippi," Father Jean Dequerre, Jesuit, went
from the mission on Lake Superior to the Illinois; and, it is said,
established a mission where Peoria is now situated, visited various
Indian nations in the vicinity of the Mississippi, and was slain in the
midst of his labors in 1661.
In 1657, Father Jean Charles Drocoux, Jesuit, went to the Illinois
and returned to Quebec in the same year. In 1670 Hugues Pinet,
Jesuit, went also to the Illinois, and established a mission among the
Tamaroas or Cahokias, at or near the present village of Cahokia, on
the Mississippi river, where he remained until 1686, and was at that
mission when Marquette and Joliet went down that river. In the
same year M. Bergier, priest of the seminary of Quebec, succeeded
him in his mission aforesaid, where he remained until he died, July
16th, 1704, at the age of 79.
In 1663, Father Claude Jean Allouez was appointed Yicar General
of the North and West, including Illinois. He labored among the
Pottawattamies and Miamis about Green Bay. He returned to Quebec
in 1665, and went to Illinois in 1668, where he visited the missions of
the Mississippi. M. Auûstiiie Meulan de Circe, priest of the semi-
nary of Quebec, went to Illinois in 1670. He left his mission there in
1675, and returned to France.
Thus it Avill appear upon what is considered reliable authority,
that for twenty years, that is from 1653 to 1673, and before the dis-
28
covery of Marquette and Joliet, there was a succession of missions in
the Illinois country and the Northwest. The authorities aforesaid,
from which this information is derived, are principally from the
memorials of these missions, preserved in the seminary at Quebec.
Among the principal books upon which historians, during the
past two hundred years, mainly rely for information in general con-
cernino- the American Indian in his primitive condition, are the works
of Father Louis Hennepin, Baron La Hontan and Father Charlevoix.
Hennepin accompanied La Salle as a sort of chaplain and his-
torian, in his expedition to the country of the Illinois, in the year 1679.
La Hontan was at the head of a military expedition under the French
government in 1687, sent out to visit the various tribes through the
country west of Lake Michigan, called by him the Illinese Lake, and
require of them submission to the French King. The book of
Father Charlevoix is comprised of a series of letters to the Duchess
of Lesdiguieres, giving an account of a voyage to Canada, and travels
through that vast country, and Louisiana, to the Gulf of Mexico,
undertaken by order of the King of France, during the years 1720
and 1721.
The work of Hennepin has been the subject of some unfavorable
criticism from many writers. Indeed, each subsequent writer inclined
to such criticism, noticing his work, seems to strive to outdo the other
in the severity of condemnation and uncomplimentary style of review.
The work of La Hontan has shared the like and even worse fate, and
the untruthfulness of his narrative in some respects, in the absence of
explanation, has been shown up so completely, that his book has
passed into obscurity, and no one has pretended to defend it, on the
points of his alleged fabrications.
As for the work of Hennepin, whilst fabrication has been so
freely charged, as to some portions of his narrative, and a strenuous
attempt has been made to discredit the whole work, but little else, if
anything, has really been accomplished beyond that of throwing a
suspicion upon certain portions of it, as to its correctness.
Among those writers of later times, who have attacked the
veracity of Hennepin, is Mr. Francis Parkman, in his book on La
Salle and the discovery of the Great West, who, not content with
statements and charges to this end in his text, and epithets of a most
damaging import, entirely
uncalled for in the opinion of many, not to
say out of place, displays in the headings to one of the chapters of
his book, the following:
"Hennepin an Imposter."
Let it here be said of this man, out of respect to his calling,
if nothing more, Hennepin was not an imposter; but a bona
fide
man.
INTRODUCTORY.
29
historian and chronicler of events, wlio rendered much valuable
service to succeeding generations.
The principal point made by Mr. Parkman against Hennepin's
narrative is, that Hennepin never went down the Mississippi river
below the mouth of the Illinois, as he claims. Mr, Parkman concedes,
however, that he may have gone up the Mississippi and been captured
by the Dakotas, as he states.
Let it be conceded that Father Hennepin has exaggerated facts,
as Mr. Parkman charges, any intelligent student of history, especially
one having a fair degree of knowledge of the western country over
which Hennepin traveled, can easily discriminate between that which
is correct and that upon which it is claimed he exaggerates. It is
perfectly immaterial for the purposes of history whether he went
down the Mississippi or not ; even if he did, nothing of importance
whatever is alleged to have resulted from that journey, either to the
detriment or advantage of any one. Admitting all that is charged by
Mr. Parkman, that the object of Hennepin's fabrication was "to make
himself, instead of La Salle and his companions, the hero of the
exploit," it was but a harmless ambition on the part of Hennepin,
which in no way affected La Salle in whatever credit he was entitled
to, during his career as an adventurer and explorer in the Mississippi
valley.
That Hennepin made up his narrative, to some extent, from the
journal of Father Zenobe Membre, on his descent of the Mississippi in
1681, in company with La Salle, or from other sources, as claimed by
Mr. Parkman, is no very serious charge against him. A reiteration of
historic facts, originally penned by some other writer, is no great
moral or literary offense. Even Mr. Parkman himself would have
found it very difficult to have completed his valuable history of
La Salle's expedition, without availing himself of what is written by
Father Hennepin concerning it; and it would seem to ill-become him
to call in question the very authority which has been so useful to him
in making up his history. When Mr. Parkman says
"
The records of
literary piracy may be searched in vain for an act of depredation
more recklessly impudent," and adds in the same connection, ''Such
being the case, what faith can we put in the rest of Hennepin's story?"
he in effect charges, not only without proof, but rather against it, as
he tacitly admits, that Hennepin was a man not to be believed under
any circumstances. He charitably further adds, however,
"
Fortunately,
there are tests by which the earlier part of his book can be tried ; and,
on the whole, they square exceedingly well with contemporary records
of undoubted authenticity. Bating his exaggerations respecting the
30
Falls of Niagara, his local description, and even his estimate of
distances are generally accurate," and "till he reaches the Mississippi,
there can be no doubt that in the main he tells the truth. As for his
ascent of that river to the country of the Sioux, the general statement
is fully confirmed by La Salle, Tonty and contemporary writers."
Here Mr. Parkman falls into a very strange inconsistency. He
first condemns the accused as "an imposter," guilty of "literary
piracy," and that having fabricated as to his journey down the Mis-
sissippi, as he alleges, he gives us to understand that in his opinion
no faith can be put "in the rest of Hennepin's story," and yet in the
next breath he declares that with the exception of his exaggerations
respecting the Falls of Niagara, "the rest of Hennepin's story squares
exceedingly well with contemporary records of undoubted authenticity,"
and is "confirmed by La Salle, Tonty and contemporary writers."
Now, if Hennepin is thus well supported by this array of evidence
furnished by the accuser himself, on what rests the evidence for thus
unreservedly branding him "an imposter," and for the innuendo that
no faith can be put in
"
the rest of Hennepin's story?"
Mr. Parkman seems to make a special point of what he calls
"
Hennepin's exaggerations respecting the Falls of Niagara," as if it
were something material as affecting his veracity. But he contents
himself with but a general allegation on this point, giving no particu-
lars or specifications admitting of a traverse of his charge. Let us,
therefore, turn to what Hennepin has said on this subject and see if Ave
can detect these exaggerations complained of. The matter in question
is found in Chapter VII of Hennepin's book, and is in the following
words
:
"
Betwixt the Lakes Ontario and Erie, there is a vast and pro-
digious Cadence of Water which falls down after a surprising and
astonishing manner, insomuch that the Universe does not afford its
Parallel. 'Tis true, Italy and Suedeland boasts of some such Things;
but we may well say they are but Patterns 'when compared to this of
which we now speak. At the foot of this horrible Precipice we meet
with the river Niagara, which is not above half a quarter of a League
broad, but is wonderfully deep in some places. It is so rapid above
this Descent that it violently hurries down, the Wild Beasts while
endeavoring to pass it to feed on the other side ; they not being able to
withstand the force of its Current, which inevitably calls them down
headlong above Six hundred foot.
"This wonderful
Downfall is compounded of two great Cross-
streams of Water, and two Falls, with the Isle sloping along the mid-
dle of it. The Waters which fall from this great height do foam and
INTRODUCTORY.
31
boil after the most hideous manner imaginable, making an outrageous
Noise, more terrible than that of Thunder; for when the Wind ])l()\v8
from off the South, their dismal roaring may be heard above fifteen
Leaofues off."
It is submitted whether this is not a fair description of this wonder-
ful, cataract, as it would appear to an observer in this wild, unknown
country of that day. What fancy the mind might take on in viewing
this
"
vast and prodigious Cadence of Water," under the circum-
stances, no one who has not had experience in wild scenery of this
kind is prepared to imagine. Hennepin's statement of distances and
measurements were at best mere guess work, nor does he pretend to
anything more accurate. It would be the height of unfairness to call
in question as an exaggeration that which a man attempts to give as
his supposition under casual circumstances, which is all that Hennepin
seems here to have attempted or pretended. As well might Mr.
Parkman call in question the veracity of all the early explorers who
in good faith have given us those hideous maps of the early Northwest,
such as those by Marquette, Franquelin and others.
If Hennepin's narrative contained exaggerations or errors, either
from design or misconception, they certainly are of that character that
they harm no one, and in no event do they call for the unfavorable
criticisms in which Mr. Parkman has, for some cause, seen fit to
indulge. The work of Hennepin is valuable, amongst other things,
for the information it gives us concerning the various Indian tribes he
visited, and his account of their manners, customs^ and general charac-
teristics, which is regarded as reliable as that of any of the early
writers, and we are greatly indebted to him for his valuable contribu-
tion to history in this regard.
Since Mr. Parkman has set out in his book the map of Franquelin-,
showing the colony of La Salle, mostly comprised of what is now the
state of Illinois, and gives it his endorsement as correct, or at least as
"composed of authentic data," perhaps his own work in regard to
accuracy may be called in question equally with that of Hennepin. The
map which Mr. Parkman calls the great map of La Salle's discoveries,
by . Jean Baptiste Franquelin, finished in 1684, whilst it gives the
general course of the Illinois river quite correctly, it is sadly at fault
inmost other respects. On this map the Desplaines river is repre-
sented as somethinor over five miles wide, whilst the Fox river, or as he
terms it,"i?. Pesfekouy,^^ which is much the most important stream of
the two, is put down as a stream of no great consequence, and is indi-
cated by only a very light mark. The rivers Chckagoii, represented
as entering the Desplaines
river just above the Kankakee and the
32
THE
AMERICAN
INDIAN.
INTRODUCTOIIY. 33
Chassagaach and the river des maingoana, entering the Illinois river
from the west, just below the great Illinois town, opposite Starved
Bock, have no place upon the maps of this day. There is also desig-
nated upon this map by Franquelin, a range of mountains on each side
of the Illinois river, below Peoria Lake or L. de Pimiteau, which
would appear as laid down of equal importance with the Bocky
Mountains, as generally shown upon the maps of the country. These
mountains, as laid down by Franquelin, find no place in fact, nor upon
the maps of the present day, and however authentic some of the data,
from which this map is made, may have been, these two ranges of
mountains, and the other features pointed out, are exaggerations,
which seem to have entirely escaped Mr. Parkman's observations in
giving us his endorsement as to the correctness of the same.
There are various Indian villages or cantonments also indicated
on this map, with the number of warriors belonging to each, the aggre-
gate of which, as Mr. Parkman says, corresponds very nearly with that
of La Salle's report to the minister. From the representations on this
map it would appear that there was at the time referred to, when the
country was first visited by La Salle, within a district of something
like a hundred miles square, an Indian population furnishing "near
3,800 warriors."
These figures were mere conjecture, and as compared with
estimates thereafter made, were an exaggeration of the facts, entirely
unsupported by any subsequent evidence, and, indeed, unsupported in
any respect by anything further than the mere random estimate of
those who may have furnished Franquelin with this information.
There are no evidences which can be afforded us at this day that this
small district of country in Illinois could ever have furnished, among
its population, that number of warriors. This would indicate a popu-
lation of not less than 20,000, which certainly could not have existed
at that or any subsequent perioi within that limited district of country
referred to.
The work of Baron La Hontan, before mentioned, is comprised of
a series of letters written to a friend, and like that of Hennepin is
valuable for the information it contains concerning the native tribes of
that day. His account of the habits, manners and customs of the
Indians, it will be noticed, is generally adopted by later writers as a
source of original information concerning this people in their native
condition, and even among writers of the present day it is regarded as
valuable
authority in referring to that period, notwithstanding the
suspicions which have been cast upon his work in some particulars.
The principal point upon which La Hontan's book has been con-
s
34
demned, is that of giving an account of his journey in going up what
he calls tlie Long river, which he describes as flowing into the Mis-
sissippi from the west, some six or eight days' journey by canoes,
above the mouth of the Wisconsin. The incidents which occurred in
passing up this river, for a distance which he makes out to be several
hundred miles, he describes very minutely, and with so much particu-
larity as to impress the mind with the correctness of his statements
;
but since that day, as the country through which he locates this Long
river has become better known, there is no river found that satisfacto-
rily answers to his description of this Long river; hence his book
has been condemned, and he, like Hennepin, has been branded among
later historians as a falsifier.
The truth of this matter, however, which nobody seems to have
discovered, is simply this : Baron La Hontan, like many other historians
and travelers, gathered a large part of the material for his narrative
from the natives or other travelers, and instead of relating the facts
as to the manner of obtaining this information, he has simply claimed
it as original in his own experience and discovery. The Long river
which he speaks of is simply the Platte river, and which stream he
well describes in some respects. The information concerning it, the
country about, and the natives he claims to have visited, he derived
from the tribes of Indians he visited on the eastward, whoever they
might have been. His map which he presents with his work shows
that he had no knowledge of the Missouri river as being one of any
inportance whatever; and especially had he no knowledge of the fact
that this river came from the north, whereby his Long river would be
intercepted in its course towards the Mississippi. The information
which he derived seems to have led him to the conclusion that this
Long river emptied into the Mississippi, which was then said to
be the great river of the west, as its name indicates.
To La Hontan, although discredited as he is, must be given the
credit of being the first writer to mention the Eocky Mountains, and
the great Salt Lake, the former of which he notes on his map, showing
the locality of his famous Long river.
After La Hontan had gone up this Long river to the highest
point of his journey, designated on his map, as he claims, he says he
proceeded to obtain information of the country beyond that, which he
gives in his narrative, and says it is derived from some slaves found
among the people at that point, and whom he calls the Mozeemleck
Nation. He says:
"The Mozeemleck
Nation is numerous and puissant. The four
Slaves of that country inform'd me that at the distance oi 150 Leagues
VH. l,pJ B.
iccordxna to -ttuIh'ttuîtt^ttttyM.ozscml^ jlaiMj ata> me tawnyârkj fffTrees
Th^W^^C(eU uj'dhylfu, TAHUCL J\Xyj<L trv wvch zoo then may -r^
'U tkty Artfuch ojfmCofy Mo eeMilels, peopU drew t, mc up<mJ3^k)
^ciirJmj to tny convpuâtunt /I^H ^r^ltrvujt be tôfrnt Ivn^f-^m tU pn-ou, to th^ rttrn
FAC-SIMILE OF A CDBIOUS OLD MAP.
From La H an.'in 1G89, in which is sho his famous Long River, the information concerning which he evidently derived from the Indians, and made the mistalie
of having it empty into the Mississippi instead of the Missouri Biver, of whii^h Isner v'-' ' h^-o hod little
.M iK.i I, i:3v. l'l.;i;, Bs is evior -i froin liis niiV-
i
i
INTRODUCTORY. 35
from the Place wliere I tlien was, their principal River empties itself
into a Salt Lake of three hundred Leagues in Circumference, the
mouth of which is about two Leagues broad: Tliat the lower part of
that River is adorned with six noble Cities, surrounded with stone
cemented with fat Earth: That the Houses of these Cities have no
Roofs, but are open like a Platform, as you see 'em in the map: That
besides the above mention'd Cities, there were above an Hundred
Towns, great and small, round that sort of sea, upon which they navi-
gated with such boats as you see drawn in the Map: That the People
of that Country made Stuffs, Copper Axes, and several other Manu-
factures, which the Outagamies and my other Interpr,eters could not
give me to understand, as being altogether unacquainted with such
things: That their Government was despotick, and lodged in the hands
of one great Head, to whom the rest paid a trembling submission:
That the People upon that Lake called themselves Tahuglauk, and are
numerous as the Leaves of Trees (such is the Expression that the
Savages use for an Hyperbole) : That the Mozeemleck People supply
the Cities or Towns of the Tahuglauk with great numbers of Little
Calves, which they take upon the above mentioned Mountains: and,
That the Tahuglauk make use of these Calves for several ends, for
they not only eat their Flesh, but bring 'em up to Labour, and make
Cloathes, Boots, &c., of their skins. They added. That 'twas their
Misfortune to be took Prisoners by the Gnacsitares in the War which
had lasted for eighteen Years ; but, that they hoped a Peace would be
speedily concluded, upon which the Prisoners would be exchang'd,
pursuant to the usual custom. They glor'd in the possession of a
greater measure of Reason than the Gnacsitares could pretend to, to
whom they allow no more tliam the Figure of a Man ; for they look
upon 'em as Beasts otherwise. To my mind, their Notion upon this
Head is not so very extravagant ; for I observ'd so much Honor and
Politeness in the Conversation of these four Slaves, that I thought I
had to do with Europeans: But, after all, I must confess that the
Gnacsitares are the most tractable Nation I met with among all the
Savages. One of the four Mozeemleck Slaves had a reddish sort of a
Copper-Medal hanging upon his Neck, the figure of which is repre-
sented in the Map. I had it melted by Mr. do Pontis, Gunsmith, who
understood something of Mettals, but it became thereupon heavier
and deeper colour'd, and withal somewhat tractable. I desired tlie
Slaves to, give me a circumstantial Account of these Medals; and
accordingly they gave me to understand, that they are made by
the Tahuglauk, who are excellent Artisans, and put a great value upon
Buch Medals. I could pump nothing farther out of 'era, with relation
36
to the Country, Commerce, and Customs of that remote Nation. All
they could say was, that the great River of that Nation runs all along
Westward, and that the Salt Lake into which it falls is three hundred
Leagues in circumference, and thirty in breadth, its Mouth stretching
a great way to the Southward. I would fain have satisfied my curiosity
in being an eye-witness of the Manners and Customs of the Tahuglauk
;
but that being impracticable, I was forc'd to be instructed at second
hand by these Mozeemleck Slaves: who assur'd me, upon the faith of
a Savage that the Tahuglauk wear their Beards two Fingers breadth
long: That their garments reach down to their Knees; that they cover
their head with a sharp pointed Cap; that they always wear a long
stick or cane in their hands which is tipp'd not unlike what we use in
Europe ; that they wear a sort of Boots upon their Legs, which reach
to the Knee; that their Women never show themselves, which perhaps
proceeds from the same Principle that prevails in Italy and Spain;
and, in fine, that this People are always at war with the puissant
Nations that are seated in the neighborhood of the Lake; but, withal,
that they never disquiet the strowling Nations that fall in their way,
by reason of their Weakness: An admirable Lesson for some Princes
in the World, who are so much intent upon the making use of the
strongest hand."
The foregoing reference to the distant country spoken of very
well describes the country of Utah and New Mexico in many respects,
and the whole goes to strengthen the theory that La Hontan's whole
story in regard to the Long river and country beyond, and not a part
of it, as he says, was gathered from natives coming from the distant
West, and instead of being discredited should rather be accepted, and
credit given to him therefor, for what it is worth, upon this theory.
The work of Charlevoix has been universally accepted as a
faithful narrative of his travels, and a correct description of every-
thing coming to his knowledge and observation. It is very full and
satisfactory on the subject of the Indian tribes he visited or obtained
knowledge of, their habits, manners and customs, and general char-
acteristics, to which later travelers and observers have been unable
to add anything new. This work may therefore be received as
standard authority upon the native American Indian in respect
aforesaid.
But Hennepin and La Hontan are not the only travelers and
adventurers who have been charged with exaggerations in the contri-
butions they have given to early American history. The truthfulness
of the writings of Capt. John Smith, of early Virginia fame, has in
later times been called in question in some material respects. Indeed,
INTllODUCTOKY. 37
CAPT. JOHN SMITH.
it is now quite freely admitted that the stories of Smith concerning
his experience as a captain among the Indians of Virginia, contain
exaggerations or departures from the truth, carrying, upon close
examination, evidences that the description of the natives, and
especially their manners and customs, which he gives, are borrowed
from the Turks, and impressed upon his mind during his captivity
and experience among that people.
He speaks of the great chief Pow-
hatan as dwelling in state at numerous
residences among his people; that he
was ordinarily attended by a body
guard of about forty or fifty of the
tallest men of his countrv, and a strict
military discipline environed his dwell-
ing place with guards day and night,
who regularly relieved each other, and
whose neglect of duty, or in case of
slumber while on duty, on their
watches, were at the peril of a basti-
nado, "not unlike that of the Turkish
in its severity.''
The American Indians in their primitive condition had no such
custom as here related; especially that of the bastinado. This is
purely an Oriental custom, evidently impressed upon Smith's mind by
his experience among the Turks. He had had long experience among
Turks and Tartars of that day, and their manners, customs and traits
of character were necessarily strongly impressed upon his mind. On
coming to America these impressions remained, and in referring to
the Indians of Virginia, wherein their manners, customs and traits of
character were brought in question, (with which he could not have
been very familiar, from his limited experience among them) it is
very natural that he should draw much from the Asiatic character-
istics, which, from the force of circumstances, had become impressed
upon his mind.
The first thing that attracts our attention in Smith's narrative,
leading us to doubt its accuracy, after the mention of his being taken
captive by the Virginia Indians, is his mention of a handsome young
woman, "the Queen of Appamatucks," whom he states is commanded
to bring him water in which to wash his hands, while another stands
bv with a bunch of feathers as a substitute for a towel, with which he
dries his hands. This is, more properly also, an Oriental custom.
The American Indian had no such custom us would admit of a pro-
88
ceeding of this kind. The Indians were hospitable to strangers, but
the act of compelling a stranger to wash his hands was not within
their acts of hospitality. The Indians are not in the habit of washing
even their own hands. It is true they were friendly to water, but
whenever they had recourse to that element it was for the purpose of
bathing the whole body, in which they indulged quite frequently.
Insignificant as this single instance might appear, it is a straw
showing that the story of Smith, in regard to his experience among
the Indians on the occasion of his captivity, is to be taken with many
grains of allowance.
His story of rescue by the ideal Indian maiden, Pocahontas, has
been entirely exploded by writers of later times, among whom is Dr.
W. F. Poole, who lately reviewed this part of Smith's story in a com-
munication to the Dial^ a literary journal published by A. C. McClurg
& Co., of Chicago, Vol. 5, No. 60.
Smith arrived in Virginia in 1607, and in the latter part of that
year was, as generally conceded, taken a prisoner by the Indians of
that country, but was released, so that his detention was merely tem-
porary. In 1608 he wrote his first book called *'True Eelation,"
which was published the same year in London. In it he told the story
of his capture and detention among the Indians, and related the
various incidents attending, which were then fresh in his mind; how
he was cordially received by the natives, and in a most fiiendly manner
sent back to Jamestown with four guides; but in which no mention is
made of his miraculous escape from death by the timely interference
of Pocahontas. He mentions her in the same book as "a child tenne
yeares old," who was sent to Jamestown by Powhatan in May, 1608, to
make inquiry why certain Indians were detained as prisoners. Dr.
Poole, in his article aforesaid, says:
"Smith's first account of his capture and release was, doubtless,
the true one. In October, 1609, he returned to England and never
went back to Virginia. He kept on, however, writing books about
Virginia. In 1612 appeared his 'Map of Virginia;' in 1616 his
'Description of New England;' in 1620 his 'New England Trials,' a
second part of which appeared in 1622. In these books he told his
old stories over again, and there was a good deal of repetition ; but the
Pocahontas story had not yet appeared. In 1624 his 'General His-
torie ' was published, which was a summary of his earlier books, with
some additions, among which was the Pocahontas story."
The following is the Pocahontas story of 1624 as stated in the
aforesaid "General Historie:"
"Having feasted him after the best barbarous manner they could,
INTRODUCTOIIY.
39
a long consultation was held, but the conclusion was, two great stones
were brought before Powhatan; then as many as could laid hands on
him, dragged him to them, and thereon laid his head, and being ready
with their clubs to beat out his brains, Pocahontas, the King's dearest
daughter, when no entreaty could prevail, got his head in her arms,
and laid her own upon his to save him from death ; whereat the
Emperor was contented that he should live to make him hatchets, and
her bells, beads and copper; for they thought him as well of all occu-
pations as themselves."
"Thereupon," as Dr. Poole remarks, "Smith made hatchets, bells,
beads and copper for the space of two days, and then was sent back to
Jamestown with an escort of twelve guides. Smith's
'
True Relation
'
of 1608 had none of this tragic, sentimental fiction."
Smith, in his first published book, speaking of the occasion of his
captivity, says of Powhatan: "He kindly welcomed me with good
wordes, and great platters of sundrie victuals, assuring me of his
friendship, and my libertie within foure days." And he says that
Powhatan having, with all kindness he could devise, sought to content
him, sent him home with four men, two of whom were loaded with
bread.
During the time from 1608 to 1610, various persons wrote on the
subject of Yirginia, giving the progress of the colony at that time, and
various incidents occurring, in which no mention is made whatever of
the alleged remarkable occurrence of saving the life of Smith at the
interference of Pocahontas.
Dr. Poole, in reviewing this subject, in conclusion says:
"The weak spot in Smith's character was his personal vanity and
boastfulness. He invented the Pocahontas story sixteen years after he
alleged it to have occurred, in order to gratify his love of notoriety.
Since he had left Virginia Pocahontas had married John Eolfe, an
Englishman. In 1616 she had visited England, and had been received
at court and in society as a royal princess. In the next book he wrote
on Virginia, Smith could not resist the temptation to connect her name
with his, and he would do it in a manner creditable to both. How
could it better be done than by her saving his life in 1608 ? She was
dead and could not deny it. Other witnesses who might be questioned
were dead or were inaccessible. The only trouble was that he had
never told the storv before. But this could be arran^êd. He would
write a letter of similar import to Queen Anne (who was also dead),
giving the date of 1616, and would print it with the story itself. The
scheme was a success, for it has given the legend plausibility."
But the story of Smith, relating to his sentence of death and
40
rescue by the chiefs daughter Pocahontas, carries upon its face its
own evidence of untruthfulness. The saying that
''
liars should have
good memories" suggests further to those who would exaggerate upon
facts or contemporaneous events, that their statements are open to the
review and criticisms of a long continued future ; like the case of La
Hontan, in so accurately mapping out his Long river, entering the
Mississippi, as he describes it, from the west. He seems to have had
no idea that future explorers would discover the fact that his account
of this river was a fabrication. So when John Smith describes so
minutely the manner of his contemplated execution of the death
sentence which had been pronounced on him, he did not seem to un-
derstand the fact that the Indians who were thus dealing with him, as
he alleges, had no such custom among them as putting a prisoner to
death in the mode he describes; that their custom of executing the
death sentence of prisoners was by burning at the stake. No such
custom of putting a prisoner to death as he describes was practiced by
the Indians whom he had fallen amongst. Decapitation, which he
seems to have had in view, was an Oriental custom, which was im-
pressed upon his mind by his experience among the Turks and Tartars,
and he simply transferred this custom to the people he had fallen
amongst in the New World, with no knowledge whatever of what the
Indian custom was in such cases ; and even in England at that day the
death sentence was executed, in tire case of persons of rank, by decapi-
tation, and it was about this time that Sir Walter Raleigh was be-
headed in England upon a trumped up charge by James I.
If Smith had been taken captive among the Indians, as he relates,
and had been condemned to death, the sentence would have been that
he be burned at the stake, and in giving an account of it he could not
truthfully have described the mode of execution otherwise; but the
mode of proposed execution as he describes was doubtless an inven-
tion of his own. He seems to attempt to describe the mode of the
proposed execution according to the custom in countries with which he
was familiar. The Indians having no sharp-edged . implement with
which to sever the head from the body, they were driven to the ex-
pedient of substituting their war clubs. About just the effect these
clubs were expected to have, or precisely how death was intended to be
produced by the use of them, we are left somewhat in doubt. Whilst
an Indian might slay an enemy in battle and leave his mutilated body
on the field, he had no such custom of putting a prisoner to death as
would leave on his hands a mangled corpse. Their manner of putting
prisoners to death was by such mode as would leave no trace of the
body behind. The fate of prisoners decreed to be put to death, says
INTRODUCTORY. 41
POCAHONTAS,
DAUGHTER OF POWHATAN.
(From an old Engraving, after a Painting taken from Life.)
Charlevoix, "is always to be burned;" such also is the testimony of
Hennepin, and, indeed, all other authorities. This was especially true
in regard to the custom of the Indians of the Algonquin stock, which
comprised the tribes of Virginia, whom Smith had fallen amongst.
In what is here said concerning the story of Capt. Smith, there is
no disposition to call in question that portion of his narrative which
bears upon its face the semblance of truth. Like many other early
adventurers in the New World, he was liable to be mistaken in many
things ; but that he has exaggerated and colored the truth in some
respects cannot be denied, the same as many others of the early ad-
venturers in this country have done; but, as Poole remarks, his exag-
gerations or coloring of facts are in the main harmless, and arose from
no evil intention, but rather from a desire to make himself appear as
a hero of occasions to which he refers.
He published the account of his first voyages to Virginia, and
his own adventures, which is almost the only authority we have to
resort to for the early history of that country, and for which he is
entitled to all due credit. He died in London in 1631, in the 52nd
year of his age.
The history of the noted Pocahontas, daughter of Powhatan, as
it comes to us from Smith and other historians, is no doubt in the
main correct, with the exception of the fact of saving the life of
Smith in the manner which he relates. This was added by Smith for
a purpose of his ow^n, contributing to his personal glory as a hero
during his adventures in America; and had he stated all of these re-
markable instances so as to coincide with Indian customs and surround-
ing circumstances, his exaggerations or coloring of facts might not
have been called in question. That Pocahoiitas wâs a remarkable
young woman, and rendered valuable services to the English, there is
no dispute. Her conversion to the Christian faith, and the readiness
with which she adopted the habits of white civilization, mark the
general character of her race, and show how easily this people may be
led to conform to oar mode and habits of life.
Whilst this work will doubtless be looked upon as a defense of the
Indian, as he stands before the world in his history as written by the
white man, such is not the primary intention of the writer. The design
here is to present the true character and correct history of the Indian
;
to present his character as it is, and his history, especially that part
which relates to his contact with the invading race, precisely as facts
and events have occurred, gathered from authentic sources. When
this is done faithfully and properly, it will amount to a defense of
the Indian against the prejudices and false charges which have from
INTRODUCTORY.
43
the earliest time became engendered or brought against him ; and tlie
object in the course of this work is to correct the errors of history
which have occurred either by design or inadvertence, that, so far
as the efforts of the writer of this book is concerned, the excuse for
our false prejudices may no longer exist towards this fading race.
The popular idea is that the Indian is born a vaga]x)nd, a
wanderer upon the face of the earth, with no definite occupation
or fixed abiding place, acquiring his means of subsistence by hunting
and fishing, which he engages in, however, rather as an indolent
pastime than otherwise; that he is warlike in his instincts and unlike
people of the white race, and destructive in his nature. As Mr.
McCoy, a devoted missionary among the Northwestern tribes in
the early part of the present century, before referred to in the forepart
of this chapter, well remarks: "A greater mistake than this could
hardly be conceived. Fearless of successful contradiction we aver,
that the supposition is unphilosophical, and at variance with facts."
Indian youths, he says, it is true, receive impressions which
incline them to the pursuits of the chase; but these impressions are
made by the hunting habits of the people with whom they mingle,
and are not innate. To illustrate, he says, the son of a blacksmith on
becoming able to lift a hammer, might choose to use it because it was
the business of his father, and one the operation of which he had
witnessed from his first recollection ; but who ever heard of a race of
men who came into the world, with so strong a propensity to work in
iron that it was almost or quite impracticable to follow other trades?
And he brands as an absurdity the supposition that an Indian
child was born with an inveterate predisposition to hunting or war.
This is proven by the fa3t that Indian children when taken into
our schools before they have received impressions from the habits of
their kindred, manifest no more fondness for the bow than white
children with whom they mingle. They adopt the same amusements
with equal facility; and so also white youths, taken captive by the
Indians, easily adopt the habits of their captors and become
assimilated to them; all admitting the fact that there is naturally no
difference between the propensities of the white and the red man.
Both are more or less creatures of circumstances in re^rard to their
conduct, propensities and mode of life. More will be found on this
subject in the chapter of this woi*k relating to
"
Wars and Massacres."
How few there are among our race who in their denunciation of
the Indian for his outrages upcm the whites, since their landing upon
the shores of the continent, who stop to consider the circumstances
leading to such conduct, and as to whether some course could not have
44
been adopted by which these outrages of which we complain could
have been prevented, at least averted, to a greater or less extent.
The outrages committed by De Soto in the country of the Appa-
lachians so embittered the people in that portion of the continent,
that their hostility to the white race never thereafter ceased. But
little else can be said concerning the conduct of the first settlers of
Virginia. But the most forcible examples, or incidents of Indian
outrages upon the whites, are afforded us in the history of New
England, which seems to lie at the foundation of our prejudices
against the Indian, and in which our blindness to the truth of history
seems to be the most extreme. All authorities concur that the
Puritans and other early settlers of New England were received
hospitably, and in a spirit of kindness, by the Indians of that
country. Edward Winslow says:
"We have found the Indians very faithful in their covenant of
peace with us. We often go to them, and they come to us. Some of
us have been fifty miles by land in the country with them. Yea, it
hath pleased God so to possess the Indians with the fear of us, and
love unto us, that not only the greatest King amongst them, called
Massasoit, but also the princes and people round about us, have either
made suit unto us, or been glad of any occasion to make peace with
us ; so that seven of them, at once, have sent their messengers unto
us to that end. Yea, an isle of the sea, which we never saw, hath
also, together with the former
(?),
yielded willingly to be under
protection and subject to our Sovereign Lord, King James, so that
there is now great peace among the Indians themselves, which was
not formerly, neither would have been but for us; and we, for our
parts, walk as peaceably and safely in the wood as in the highway in
England. We entertain them familiarly in our houses, and they are
friendly in bestowing their venison upon us. They are a people
without any religion, yet very trusty, quick of apprehension, ripe-
witted, just."
Another early writer says the Indians
"
were never known to in-
jure an Englishman, either in person or property." Trumbull, the
historian of Connecticut, says:
"
When the English or their children
were lost in the woods, and were in danger of perishing with cold or
hunger, they conducted them to their wigwams, fed them and restored
them to their family and parents. By selling them corn when pinched
with famine, they relieved their distresses and prevented them from
perishing in a strange land, and uncultivated wilderness." A writer
referring to this subject remarks,
that when we consider the weakness
of the first settlements in New
England, and observe that they were
INTRODUCTORY. 45
on several occasions almost perished by famine and sickness, it is evi-
dence that the Indian must have been peaceably disposed towards the
inhabitants, as there were several periods during which they could
with ease have exterminated all the Colonists, and adds, if ever
kindness, honesty and forbearance were practiced with scrupulous
fidelity in the face of strong temptation inciting to an opposite course
of conduct, these virtues were displayed by the Indians on this
occasion.
But how poorly were these unsuspecting natives repaid for their
generous hospitality to the Puritans! Their numbers constantly in-
creased, and their intrusion upon the country of the natives con-
tinued, pressing them step by step farther into the interior, commit-
ting various acts of cruelty upon individual Indians who violated their
laws, or dared to come upon the ground which the Puritans themselves
had acquired by acts of trespass upon the natives, in which the
Pequots were driven to rebellion; and within two years after the
famine before alluded to, we are informed by Trumbull that a party
under Captain Stoughton surrounded a body of Pequots in a swamp.
*'They took eighty captives. Thirty were men, the rest were women
and children. The Sachems promised to conduct the English to
Sassacus, and for that purpose were spared for the present."
The reader will doubtless feel some curiosity to know what was
done with the women and children who were saved by those who had
massacred in cold blood thirty men, save two taken prisoners in battle.
The same historian thus details the sequel: "The Pequot women and
children who had been captured were divided among the troops. Some
were carried to Connecticut, others to Massachusetts. The people of
Massachusetts sent a number of the women and boys to the West
Indies, and sold them as slaves. It is supposed that -about seven
^
hundred Pequots were destroyed."
The Puritan historian, alluding to the rebellion of the natives,
which wâs thus terminated, says:
"
This happy event gave great joy to
the Colonists, a day of public thanksgiving was appointed, and in all the
churches of New England devout and animated praises were addressed
to Him who giveth His people the victory and causeth them to dwell
in safety. But the Puritans, it seems, were not satisfied with the fate
of the rebellious natives, but seemed to glory in their acts of barbar-
isma remorseless spirit not credible to a people professing so much
Godliness and Christian devotion."
In Gookin's history of the praying Indians, the author consoles

himself on account of the atrocities practiced against the Indians, by
the comforting reflection that
"
doubtless one great end God aimed at
40
was the punishment and destruction of many of the wicked heathens,
whose iniquities were now full."
One of the most reliable sources of information we have ever had
concerning Indian character is that which comes to us through white
captives, or persons taken captive from our frontier settlements by the
Indians. The narratives of these captives, which are numerous in our
literature, quite generally concur on the principal points of Indian
life and character, and all go to prove that whilst the Indian does not
differ essentially from the white man in his natural instincts, and
whilst it may be true, as generally alleged, that the Indian is revenge-
ful and unrelenting in retaliating upon an enemy in return for in-
juries, he is faithful and reliable to the last in his friendships, and
that in his general character, uncontaminated by the vices of civiliza-
tion, and virtues, he is far above the average of mankind.
The truth of what is here claimed for the native Indian is proven
by the fact that among the large number of captives which have been
taken and detained among the Indians since the first settlement of our
country, especially when captured young, in general they have left
their Indian friends, when released from captivity by treaty or other-
wise, with great reluctance, and many of them refusing to leave them,
as in the case of Mary Jemison, the noted white woman of the Gene-
see. Also in the case of Francis Slocum, or the white woman of the
Wabash, taken when about seven years old, who spent her life among
the Miamis of that country, when discovered in her Indian life by
her relatives, no persuasion could induce her to leave her Indian sur-
roundings.
In many instances where captives have returned to their friends
in civilized life, they have found it difficult to reconcile themselves to,
or be contented in that condition of life, but have returned again to
their Indian friends, showing that primitive life, such as that
which the Indian lived, natur^ly possesses a charm in the human
mind.
A noted instance in the history of Indian captives is that of
John Brickell, who was taken prisoner in Western Pennsylvania in
early days by a party of Delaware Indians. When about ten years
old he was taken to Ohio, where he was detained among that people
in the vicinity of the Maumee river for about four years, when he was
released and returned to his friends in Pennsylvania. He says that
while living among the Indians he had every opportunity of observing
their manners and customs and religion, as well as of becoming an
expert hunter. He says: "I lived as comfortably with them as the
circumstances of the nation would admit ; they treated me very kindly,
INTRODUCTORY. 47
and in every way as one of themselves." He yives an account of tlie
scene on taking leave of his Indian father, who had adopted him into
his family as his son, which is truly affecting. His Indian father
informed him of the making of the treaty with General Wayne,
whereby he was at liberty to return to his white friends, in which,
however, he expresses the hope that he may remain with him and his
adopted Indian friends. He notes how the Indian children hung
around him, crying and imploring him not to leave them. His Indian
father said to him: "Now reflect on it and take your choice and tell
me as soon as you make up your mind."
"
I was silent a few minutes,
in which time it seemed as if I thought of almost everything. I
thought of the children I had just left crying; I thought of the
Indians I was attached to, and I thought of my people which I
remembered ; and this latter thought predominated, and I said :
'
I
will go with my kin.' The old man then said: 'I have raised you; I
have learned you to hunt. You are a good hunter
;
you have been
better to me than my own sons. I am now getting old and I can not
hunt. I thought you would be a support to my age. I leaned on you
as on a staff. Now it is broken. You are going to leave me and I
have no right to say a word, but I am ruined.' He then sank back in
tears to his seat. I heartily joined him in his tears, parted with him,
and have never seen or heard of him since."
Mr. Brickell was adopted into the tribe as an Indian through an
established custom called running the gauntlet, the ceremony of which
he thus describes: "The ceremony commenced with a great whoop
or yell. AVe were then met by all sorts of Indians from the town, old
and young, men and women. We there called a halt, and they formed
two lines about twelve feet apart, in the direction of the river. They
made sigrns to me to run between the lines towards the river. I knew
nothing of what they wanted, and started ; but I had no chance, for
they fell to beating me so that I was knocked down, and everything
that could get at me beat me, until I was bruised from head to foot.
At this juncture a very big Indian came up, and threw the company
off me, and took me by the arm, and led me along thnnigh the lines
with such rapidity that I scarcely touched the ground, and was not
once struck after he took me until I got to the river. Then the very
ones who beat me the worst were now the most kind and officious in
washing me off, feeding me, etc.,' and did their utmost to cure me. I
was nearly killed, and did not get over it for two months."
Among the later noted cases of Indian captivity is that of Mrs.
Fanny Kelly, who was captured by a band of the Sioux Indians of the
upper Missouri country, whilst journeying with her husband and a
small train of emigrants to Montana in 18G4:, and among whom she
was detained six months. Her captivity was short, and her trials
necessarily, under the circumstances, rather severe ; bat she says that
during all of the time she was treated in every way with the utmost
respect and kindness by the Indians. She says: "True, during the
last few weeks of my captivity the Indians had done all in their power
for meall their circumstances and conditions would allow, and the
women wêre very kind; but their people were not my people, and
I was detained a captive far from home and friends and civilization."
The wild Indian is already a being of the past. When another
generation shall have gone, the whole Indian population of the
United States will have adopted the ways of our own civilization or
mode of life, and it is but a question of time when the race wdll
become extinct by assimilation or amalgamation with our own.
There is now in Wisconsin a people called Brothertown Indians
(of which more will be said in a subsequent chapter) who are the
descendants of several New England tribes, who have adopted the
ways of our civilization, have become citizens of that state, and who
are speaking the English language solely, having abandoned their
own dialects over fifty years ago. They are essentially white men in
all respects. They are but an example of what the whole Indian race
of this country will soon become within a short space of time, and this
will be accomplished more rapidly if the Indians are left to themselves,
than if effort is put forth by the white man to the end of hurrying on
that condition of things.
In this regard the Cherokee nation affords a striking illustration.
This people who, at the beginning of the present century, ranked
among the savage wild tribes, and who soon thereafter were abandoned
by the United States authorities to the then wild Indian territory of
the West, have come out of their primitive condition by their own
efforts, not only unaided, but rather having had obstacles constantly
thrown in the way of their progress, and may now justly claim to be
as enlightened, or at least will show as good a condition of society, as
the white people in the neighboring states around them. An instance
of native talent has been developed among them, which may be taken
as an indication of the genius which it is fair to presume rests in
every native tribe, wanting only in opportunity for like development.
This example shows that the native Indian possesses a talent which
circumstances may at any time unfold, even unaided by extraneous
influences, in like manner as development of talent or genius may
have occurred among our own race. Evidences in this respect con-
stantly occurring, show that the American Indian race is not an
INTRODUCTORY. V.)
inferior
one by any means; but that the Indian is susceptible of self-
development, as circumstances may arise. The example here referred
to is that of a Cherokee Indian, whose Indian name was Sequoyah,
called by the whites Guess.
The first school among these Indians, for purposes of instruction,
was established by the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign
Missions in 1817. Sequoyah, then a youth, received instructions for
a short time at this school. The English alphabet was found ill-
adapted to the Cherokee language, in that it failed to properly convey
to the mind the sounds in this language, and this attracted the atten-
tion of this Indian youth. After making limited progress in his
studies, it was noticed that he had absented himself from further
attendance, and it was further noticed by his mother that he was away,
spending much of his time alone. After a time he presented the work
in which he had been engaged, that of making an alphabet adapted to
the Cherokee language. His work was announced and came to the
attention of the missionaries about 1824, by whom it was examined
and found to be a syllabical system and pronounced well adapted to the
Cherokee language; whereupon it was immediately adopted, and has
since been taught to all classes conjointly with the English.
The Indian mind, which among all nations had been trained to
the expression of ideas by their rude picture writing, it would seem
was well adapted to conceive and understand an invention of this kind,
and it can readily be understood how the Indian genius conceived this
plan for an alphabet. Nearly all the words of the vocabulary end in
a vowel; each vowel is preceded by thirteen combinations of the con-
sonant, making sixty-four syllables, and to this scheme there are
added twelve characters to represent- double consonants. Mr. School-
craft avers that no other American language, with which he is
acquainted, could be written by such a simple scheme. He says it
can not be applied in the dialect of the Algonquin, the Iroquois, the
Dakota, the Appalachian or the Shoshonee, and consequently its appli-
cation is limited. It provides for the expression only of such sounds
as occur in the Cherokee language, and still its utility in that language
has been highly appreciated, and remains as a striking phenomenon in
the history of American philology. Examples of the Cherokee alpha-
bet will be found in Chapter IX of this work, relating to Indian
lancruatjes.
The proportion of readers who have investigated the Indian
subject, with reference to determining the truth and justice of his
cause, is very small ; but the proportion who are ready to jump at con-
clusions, and unhesitatingly declare against him, is exceedingly large.
4
50
PEEILS OF THE MISSIONARY.
INTRODUCTORY.
51
This, however, does not arise altogether from a spirit of injustice, but
rather from inattention from minds not given to reflection, following
or imitating inconsiderate examj)le8 of others.
It is impossible, in the nature of things, that the Indian can be
chargeable with everything bad that the public mind has continually
heaped upon him. The country of which our race found him in
possession belonged to him, and of it we were invaders. In the light
of justice he is not guilty of all the calamities which befell us from
his resistance to our invasion. We can not say, in this connection,
that we procured his consent to the occupation of his country by
treaty, for there is no history of treaty transactions extant but what
reveals the fact that all such treaties were made under some kind of
compulsion. There is no instance on record where an Indian, or any
nation of Indians, voluntarily appealed to the white man, and offered
to surrender to him his country. Individual transactions, for the
conveyance of particular parcels of land, were unknown in Indian
custom. Commercial transactions among them were confined exclu-
sively to personal property. Moreover, the Indian population of the
whole North American continent scarcely exceeded, if it even reached,
that of a million inhabitants. Certainly this limited population,
scattered as it was over a vast continent, was not capable of committing
outrages, to any very great extent, upon the large population of whites
which, even in the first few years of the invasion, were found upon this
continent; so that our inquiry, with reference to the wrongs of the
parties, should rather be directed towards consideration for the Indian
than that of the white man, who entered upon the Indian's country
on no other principle than that of conquest ; and it certainly does not
lie with him to charge upon the conquered party that he has been
wronged by his retreating adversary.
The first vigorous presentation of the wrongs of the Indian, at the
hands of the white man in this country, is in a book lately published,
entitled ^'A century of dishonor," being a sketch of the United States
Government dealings with some of the Indian tribes, by Helen Hunt
Jackson, an authoress of distinction, and since deceased, which has
produced a marked effect upon the public mind, and which lias
probably caused more reflection in the minds of intelligent people,
upon the Indian subject, than any work written before concerning it
It is true that it has been set up in our defense, for our course in
pursuing and dispossessing the Indian of his country, that he was not
using it to the best advantage, arrogating to ourselves the position that
we were the superior race, skilled in the arts and sciences, and that as
a consequence "the earth and the fullness thereof" of right belonged
52
to US. This argument simply goes upon the theory that "might makes
right." There is no disposition to take issue with those who thus
summarily dispose of the Indian question; it simply presents no
argument upon a basis of justice, nor scarcely a plausible one upon
the face of the facts. The American Indian was mentally and
physically the equal of the race who have succeeded him. He culti-
vated the soil ; he maintained a system of society and civil government,
which challenged the admiration of the philanthropist, and he had
made such progress in the arts as the simplicity of his life
demanded.
This subject has been forcibly called to our attention by Mr.
Lewis H. Morgan, in an article on Indian migration, published in the
North American Eeview some twenty years ago, in which he notes the
fact that at the period of the discovery of America, whilst the Indians
were ignorant of the use of iron, and consequently of the arts which
required this metal, they had undoubtedly made great progress, as
compared with their primitive state, and he classifies them as existing
at that time in two dissimilar conditions. First, are the roving Indians,
depending for subsistence upon fish and game ; second, the village In-
dians, depending chiefly upon agriculture ; and between these two, and
connecting the extremes, as he styles them, by accessible gradation,
he derives what may be called a third condition in a class, which he
designates partially roving and partially village Indians.
The first class had developed many useful arts. They possessed
the art of striking fire, making a bow^ with a string of sinew, and the
arrowhead pointed with flint and bone ; making vessels and utensils of
pottery ; curing and tanning skins ; making moccasins for the feet, and
wearing apparel in general; together with various implements and
utensils of stone, wood and bone; of rope and net making from
filaments of bark; finger weaving with warp and woof, or working the
same material into sashes, burden straps, and other useful fabrics;
basket making with osier, cane and splints ; making canoes from the
skins of animals, birch bark and the trunks of trees, by digging out
with their rude implements, assisted by boring with fire ; constructing
timber frame lodges, and tents covered with skins, bark or matting
;
shaping stone malls, hammers and utensils; and of making fish-spears,
nets and bone hooks, implements for athletic games, musical instru-
ments, such as the flute and drum, weapons and personal ornaments of
shell, bone and stone.
They had also invented the art of picture waiting, and had like-
wise developed a language of signs, which became a medium of com-
munication between nations speaking different languages. They pos-
INTRODUCTORY. 53
sessed a form of government, and clearly defined domestic institutions,
which served to regulate their domestic and political affairs.
But whilst Mr. Morgan has thus classified the aborigines in ref-
erence to the extent of their development in the useful arts, he con-
cedes, in conclusion, that the difference between those of his two classi-
fications will be found much less in degree than would naturally be
supposed. The fact is that the classification which Mr. Morgan makes,
so far as development in the arts is concerned, will scarcely admit of
a distinction in this regard which he attempts to establish ; for all
classes, whether they were roving Indians, depending for subsistence
upon fish and game, or whether living in a more settled state, had
arrived at about the same point in their development and progress in
the useful arts.
There were scarcely any tribes of Indians, although they may
have been called roving Indians, but that had their villages, to which
they resorted at certain seasons of the year ; and there were none who
might be styled village Indians but that were given to this same spirit
of roving to a greater or less degree, or possessed a spirit of adventure,
the same as that which, to a certain extent, characterizes the white
race.
In speaking of the progress which had been made by the aborig-
ines in the arts at the time of the discovery, we rather assume that
they had advanced from a more primitive condition ; and in discussing
this subject most writers further assume that the American Indian,
in his occupation of this country, was preceded by a race who were
much in advance of them in civilization, and who belonged to an
entirely different stock from the aborigines of later times. This
ancient people, by some, were styled the Mound-builders; to whom
were attributed the erection of the numerous mounds or tumuli, which
are found scattered over the continent, largely within the limits of
what is styled the Mississippi Valley, many of which are found by
enthusiasts on this subject to be in the form of fortifications for pur-
poses of defense.
Conceding all that is claimed for these mounds, and the people
who constructed them, thev fail to mark a knowledge of the arts of a
very extraordinary or superior character; no matter for what purpose
they may have been made, there is nothing about them in respect to
art to disprove, what may be a very-reasonable presumption, that they
were the same stock of people, and but the ancestors of those whom
we call the aborisfines or American Indians. That these mounds or
tumuli may have been erected for various purposes would seem to be
true, but the evidences afforded us show that they were generally
54
erected for purposes of burial. On opening them the remains of hu-
man bodies are found, deposited with utensils and implements, in con-
nection with the body, in imitation of the same custom which pre-
vailed among the more modern aborigines.
That class of mounds found so numerous in Wisconsin, called
totem mounds, carry their own evidence of the modern Indian idea,
that of totems or symbols designating a band or tribe.
Many who have written on this subject, in their enthusiasm to
work out the chosen theory that they were the work of a superior and
very ancient race, have seized upon very uncertain evidences in sup-
port of this theory, and have been led to contend that many of these
mounds were artificial, which, upon further examination, have been
proven to be merely natural tumuli, as in the case of Mount Joliet,
so called, a mound situat3d near the Desplaines River, some ten miles
above its confluence with the Kankakee, in Illinois. This, upon its
first discovery, and for one hundred and fifty years thereafter, was an
object of attraction to all travelers, from its regular formation, pre-
senting all the appearance of artificial work; but later investigation
shows it to be a natural mound, and not the work of human hands.
Mr. Drake, who seems to have given this subject much attention in his
history of the North American Indian, reaches about the same con-
clusion in regard to these mounds.
Rev. Isaac McCoy, who gave much attention to this subject,
emphatically disputes the fact that these mounds afford any evidence
of their being constructed by a people advanced in civilization -and the
arts, and reminds us that we never heard of a skeleton being found in
one of these ancient mounds with which was connected any marks of
civilized man, and adds:
"
Ancient mounds, fortifications and other indications of the resi-
dence of human beings, made probably centuries before the sprouting
of our oldest oaks, show that they were made by savage, and not by civil-
ized men. Hewn stones are not found ; but stone, when used, is as it
was taken from the brook or loose quarry. In their construction there
is not a nearer approximation to order in arrangement than would sug-
gest itself to a savage mind. Indians erect their huts in their villages
without regard to the order which would produce streets. They are
placed promiscuously, as leaves fall from the trees, and they never
plant their corn or other vegetables in rows. Similar indication of in-
difference to order characterize the ancient works to which we have
alluded. All which prove that our modern Indians are really the
aboriginal race, and that they never had been more civilized than they
were when we first became acquainted with them."
INTRODUCTORY. 55
And to the like effect is the conclusion of Dr. Peck. Beferring
to this subject in his gazetteer of Illinois, he says: "Of one thing
the writer is satisfied, that very imperfect and incorrect data have been
relied upon, and very erroneous conclusions drawn upon Western
antiquities. Whoever has time and patience, and is in other respects
qualified to explore this field of science, and will use his spade and
eyes together, and restrain his imagination from running riot amongst
mounds, fortifications, horse-shoes, medals, and whole cabinets of relics
of the 'olden time,' will find very little more than the indications of
rude savages, the ancestors of the present race of Indians."
We have taken occasion in another part of this work incidentally
to remark that the Indian has never yet written his own history.
From the force of circumstances the field of Indian history became
early monopolized by the white man, and although some faint attempts
have been made within a few years past on the part of the native
Indian to bring into our literature, for the information of later genera-
tions, something concerning this mysterious people from their own
native standpoint, yet, comparatively speaking, the Indian has never
obtained a hearing in the white man's court of general public opinion.
Some seven or eight years ago, a small work of some two hundred
pages was published, entitled "The legends, traditions, and laws of the
Iroquois or Six Nations," by Elias Johnson, a native Tuscarora chief,
evidently a man of good English education. In the introductory
chapter of his book he puts forth a brief but spirited defense of Indian
character, and arraigns the white man in words of stirring eloquence
for his acts of barbarism committed upon the Indian race. Addressing
his language to the white man, he says:
"If individuals should have come among you to expose the bar-
barities of savage white men the deeds they relate would quite equal
anything known of Indian cruelty. The picture an Indian gives of
civilized barbarism leaves the revolting custom of the wilderness quite
in the background. You experienced their revenge when you had put
their souls and bodies at a stake, with vour fire-water that maddened
their brains. There was a pure and beautiful spirituality in their
fate, and their conduct was much more influenced by it, as are any
people. Christian or Pagan."
In citing instances of barbarism on the part of white men towards
the Indians, in the earlv history of the continent, Mr. Johnson thus
refers to the destruction of the Pequots by the pious Puritans of New
England:
"Is there anything more barbaric in the annals of Indian warfare
than the narrative of the Pequotl Indians? In one place we read of
5i3 THE AMERICAN INDIAN.
the surprise of an Indian fort by night, when the inmates were slum-
bering, unconscious of any danger. When they awoke they were
wrapped in flames, and when they attempted to flee, were shot down
like beasts. From village to village, from wigwam to wigwam, the
murderers proceeded, 'being resolved,' as your historian piously
remarks, 'by God's assistance, to make a final destruction of them,'
until finally a small but gallant band took refuge in a swamp.
Burning with indignation, and made sullen by despair, with hearts
bursting with grief at the destruction of their nation, and spirits
galled and sore at the fancied ignominy of their defeat, they refused
to ask life at the hands of an insulting foe, and preferred death to sub-
mission. As the night drew on, they were surrounded in their dismal
retreat, volleys of musketry poured into their midst, until nearly all
were killed or buried in the mire.
"
There is nothing in the character of Alexander of Macedon, who
'
conquered the world and wept that he had no more to conquer,' to
compare with the noble qualities of King Philip of Mt. Hope, and
among his warriors are a long list of brave men unrivalled in deeds of
heroism by any of ancient or modern story. But in what country, and
by whom were they hunted, tortured, and slain, and who was it that
met together to rejoice and give thanks at every species of cruelty
inflicted upon those who were fighting for their wives, their children,
their homes, their altars, and their God? When it is recorded that
'men, women and children, indiscriminately, were hewn down and lay
in heaps upon the snow,' it is spoken of as doing God's service,
because they were nominally heathen.
'
Before the fight was finished
the wigwams were set on fire, and into those hundreds of innocent
women and children had crowded themselves, and perished in the
general conflagration.' And for those thanksgivings were sent up to
heaven, the head of Philip is strung upon a pole and exposed to the
public. But this was not done by savage warriors, and the crowd that
huzzaed at the revolting spectacle assembled on the Sabbath day, in a
Puritan church, to listen to the Gospel that proclaims peace and love
to all men. His body was literally cut in slices to be distributed
among the conquerors, and a Christian city rings with acclamation."
Continuing this subject, Mr. Johnson further reminds us of a
special instance of barbarism which peculiarly attracts our attention,
"
where, by the Governor of Jamestown, a hand was severed from the
arm of a peaceful, unoffending Indian, that he might be sent back a
terror to his people." And, Mr. Johnson observes, it was through the
magnanimity of a daughter and King of that same people that the
English colony at Jamestown was saved from destruction, and that it
)
INTRODUCTORY. 57
was through their love and trust alone that Powhatan and Pocahontas
lost their forest dominions.
In conclusion on this subject, Mr. Johnson says:
'*
I have v.rit-
ten in somewhat of the spirit which wull characterize a history by an
Indian, yet it does not deserve to be called Indian partiality, but only
justice and the spirit of humanity; or, if I may be allowed to say it,
the spirit with Avliich any Christian should be able to consider the
character and deeds of his foe. I would not detract from the virtues
of your forefathers. Thev were at that time unrivalled, but bioôtrv
and superstition of the dark ages still lingered among them, and
their own perils blinded them to the wickedness and cruelty of the
means they took for defense.
"Four, and perhaps two centuries hence, I doubt not some of
your dogmas will seem unchristian, as the Indians seem to you, and I
truly hope, ere then, all wars will seem as barbarous, and the fantastic
dress of the soldier as ridiculous, as you have been in the habit of
representing the wars and the wild drapery of the Indians of the
forest.
"How long were the Saxon and Celt in becoming a civilized and
Christian people? How long since the helmet, the coat of mail and
the battle ax were laid aside?"
And Mr. Johnson might well have observed that whilst the coat of
mail and the battle ax of our ancestors have been laid aside, there has
been substituted in place of the before mentioned implements of war-
fare, through the ingenuity of the refined and civilized white man,
implements and engines of destruction in civilized warfare still more
terrible; and marking more prominently a latent spirit of barbarism
than the battle ax or other primitive implements of sanguinary con-
test of the
acre
to which Mr. Johnson refers, and affordincr a strantje
anamolv in the elements of oui* boasted modern civilization.
But the Indian has contended against fate; his power is broken,
and the charm of his ancient glory is among those things which are
past, and his country, with its limpid streams, enchanting forests and
majestic mountains, inherited from his fathers, shall know him no
more. Pursued in his retreating footsteps by the onward march of
civilized man, to the final extinction of his race, under the crushing
decrees of inevitable destiny. The murmuring streams of the valley,
the requiem winds of the survÂîi^ forests, but tell us of his 'WTongs,
and seemingly unite in tones of mournful concord, in condemnation of
his unjust fate; and how fitting are the sympathizing words of the
poet,
"Lo, the poor Indian."
CHAPTEK II.
ORIGIN.
Speculation of EthnologistsLost Tribes of IsraelResemblance Between the
Indians and People of AsiaLanguage of Northeastern Asia Similar to American
LanguagesComparison of Words in Indian and Asiatic LanguagesWreck of
Japanese Junk on Northwest Coast Conclusions TherefromSimilar Customs
with the Ancient JewsThe Bow and ArrowLike those found in Asia The
Indian has in all Ages Reproduced HimselfAncient RuinsAncient Mounds
Ancient Pottery Same Made by Modern TribesIndian Languages Reveal

HistoryTestimony of HumboldtCapt. Jonathan CarverSpanish Authorities
Tradition of the MexicansFormer Spanish Occupation Opinions of Numerous

AuthorsUniform Characteristics among the Indian TribesIntelligence of the
Native IndianA Descendant of the Most Ancient PopulationHis Primitive
Condition not Evidence to the Contrary.
^PHEEE has been much specu-
lation among ethnologists
concerning the origin of the
^"^
people, or aboriginal inhab-
itants,
found upon the continent of
the Western Hemisphere, now called
North and South America, at the
time of the discovery by Europeans
;
and as time rolls on there seems to
be an increasing interest manifest
among us, concerning this people,
and especially as to the subject of
their origin.
Some have endeavored to derive
their origin from the Mongols, others
from the Malays ; whilst those who
rely upon the account coming to us from the Jews, as to the beginning
and progress of the world and
remarkable events in its history, are
inclined to adopt the theory that the aboriginal inhabitants of this
country are descendants from what is known as the Lost Tribes of
Israel, or those ten tribes spoken of in Jewish history, concerning
whose descendants no account is given us.
It is not the object here to combat any theory that may have been
advanced upon this subject, for, so far as the means of proof can be
(58J
CHRISTOPHER
COLUMBUS.
(From an old Painting
)
ORIGIN. 59
attained, all must remain equally unsupported by anything like satis-
factory evidence ; but in passing over this question, it may be suggested
that, when we have examined all theories, and exhausted all research
in this regard, we have but to content ourselves with accepting things
as we find them.
Inquiry into the origin of the aboriginal inhabitants of this
country, and their past history, is as unsatisfactory and mysterious to
us as the inquiry concerning the origin of matter itself, and as to
everything having a material existence. We simply know that the
land portion of the earth's surface, including the islands of the sea, are
alike inhabited by the race of mankind, with such physical structures
and characteristics of conduct as demonstrate the fact of their coming
originally from one common source.
The fact that portions of the human family are found inhabiting
remote islands of the sea, it would seem, can be accounted for in uo
other way than that, at some very distant period in the world's history,
the earth was traversed and the waters navigated to the extent and
with the like facility of the present day, from which the inhabitants of
the earth became scattered over its surface as we now find them ; and
that at some time the art of navigation was lost or fell into disuse,
whereby this communication was interrupted and ceased longer to
exist, until restored in modern times ; and, for aught we know, the in-
habitants of the earth may at some time have navigated the air with
complete success, as is being attempted in modern times.
If we accept as true the Jewish account of the flood, or general
inundation of the earth's surface, whereby the race of mankind was
totally destroyed, with the exception of those who were gathered into
the Ark of Noah, and that upon the disappearance of the waters this
ark rested upon Mount Ararat, and from those who were saved therein
sprang or descended all the present inhabitants of the earth, then we
may accept as rational the theory that the original inhabitants of this
country, found here at the discovery by Europeans, came from Asia
across that narrow strait on the northwest coast, as has been very
generally contended for.
Whoever has given this subject any considerable attention has
not failed to find a marked resemblance between the aborigines of
America and the people of Asia. But discarding the Jewish account
of the flood, it would be just as correct and equally as consistent for us
to suppose that the people of Asia are descendants from the aboriginal
people of the American continent, as to suppose that the people of the
latter are descendants from the people of the former continent.
Among those who have given the result of their investigation
concerning the origin of the American Indian, Mr. Jefferson, in his
"
Notes on Virginia," presents a very consistent and plausible theory.
He says, "that if the two continents of Asia and America be separated
at all, it is only by a narrow strait ; so that from this side also inhab-
itants may have passed into America, and the resemblance between
the Indians of America and the eastern inhabitants of Asia would
induce us to conjecture that the former were the descendants of the
latter, or the latter of the former, excepting, indeed, the Esquimeaux,
who from the same circumstance of resemblance, and from identity of
language, must be derived from the Greenlanders, and these probably
from some of the northern parts of the old continent." Mr. Jefferson,
also, like many others, puts great reliance in the test of language a&
indicating sources of origin.
In the theory of Mr. Jefferson, the Esquimaux, it will be seen,
who inhabit the frozen regions, are not included in the common stock
of the American race, but are of European descent, coming through
the Greenlanders from some of the northern parts of the old continent.
Concerning the origin of the American Indians, Mr. John Mcin-
tosh, in his comprehensive work on the North American Indian, in
giving his conclusions as to the result of his investigation, advances
the opinion that the aborigines of North America, found here at the
time of the discovery, with the exception of the Esquimaux, came
from northeastern Asia. The Esquimaux, he concludes, were a stock
which came from northwestern Europe, thus pursuing the theory ad-
vanced by Mr. Jefferson. Mr. Mcintosh says: "Asia, no doubt; con-
tributed, at different periods, to the peopling of America with tribes of
a different degree of civilization. The Tartars, Siberians and
Kamschadales are, of all the Asiatic nations with whom travelers are
acquainted, those who bear the greatest resemblance to the North
American Indians, not only in their manners and customs, but also in
their features and complexions. The Tartars have always been known
as a race whose disposition led them to rove and wander in quest of
conquest and plunder.
"Whilst the present Indians can be identified as the descendants
of the Tartars or Siberians, and when it can be proved beyond a doubt
that America was inhabited by a more civilized people than the present,
it may fairly be conjectured that the original or more civilized inhabit-
ants were exterminated by some great revolution, which had probably
been affected by a Tartar invasion similar to that which, under Genghis
Khan, devastated the Chinese empire, and to that also which over-
whelmed the Roman empire."
The writer then proceeds to show how far the persons, features
ORIGIN.
61
and complexions of some of tlie Asiatic tribes coincide with tliose of
the North American Indians. *'We are assured," says Mr. Mcintosh,
"by all those travelers who made any inquiries after the nature and
construction of the languages or dialects spoken in the northeast of
Asia, that they partake in an eminent degree of the idioms of the
American languages." Mr. Mcintosh then proceeds to make a critical
comparison between the North American Indians and the tribes of
northeastern Asia, and proves to his own satisfaction that they are
identically the same stock, with the exception of the Esquimaux.
In further establishing his theory he says: "By the discoveries of
Capt. Cook in his last voyage, it has been established without a doubt,
that at Kamschatka, in latitude GO deg. north, the continents of Asia
and America are separated by a strait only eighteen miles wide, and
that the inhabitants on each continent are similar, and frequently pass
and repass in their canoes from one continent to the other. It is also
certain that, during the winter season, Behring's strait is frozen from
one side to the other. Capt. Williamson, who was lieutenant to Cook
in those voyages, has also asserted that from the middle of the channel
between Kamschatka and America, he discovered land on either side.
This short distance, therefore, he says, should account for the peopling
of America from the northeast parts of Asia. The same author further
asserts that there is a cluster of islands interspersed between the two
continents, and that he frequently saw canoes passing from one island
to the other. From these circumstances we may fairly conclude that
America was peopled from the northeast parts of Asia, and during our
inquiry wê shall endeavor to point out facts which tend to prove the
particular tribe in Asia from whom the North American Indians are
directly descended. The Esquimaux, on the east of Labrador, are
evidently a separate species of men, distinct from all the nations of the
American continent in language, disposition, and habits of life, and in
all these respects they bear a near resemblance to the Northern Euro-
peans. Their beards are so thick and large that it is with difficulty
the features of their face can be discovered, while all the other tribes
of America are particularly distinguished for the want of beards."
Whilst the language of a people may be adopted as a test of
common origin to a certain extent, yet it must be conceded that this is
not in all respects the most reliable proof that may be adduced to this
end. The manners and customs of a people are stronger evidence in
establishing race unity. These are more fixed and aiford stronger in-
dications of character than mere language employed in communication
between individuals.
But whilst words in a language may become so far changed that
the original is succeeded by other and entirely different words, yet the
general construction of a language may remain the same, and in this
respect language may be regarded as furnishing evidence of as endur-
ing A nature as manners and customs ; and it is noted that the Ameri-
can languages throughout both North and South America are marked
by the same peculiar construction, and it is likewise noticed that the
manners and customs of the aborigines, especially of North America,
are in most respects essentially the same from the Atlantic to the Pa-
cific, and from the frozen North to the Gulf of Mexico. These relate
to their religion, their fasts, their feasts, their mode of traveling, their
domestic relations, and their mode of life in general.
Among other things Mr. Mcintosh makes a comparison of lan-
guages, showing a similarity between the languages of the American
Indian and some of the Asiatic communities, from which some examples
are here subjoined:
INDIAN.
Lenni Lenape
Kiifichimanitto.
AFoquois
Nioh.
Kikkapoos
Kishek.
'NaTTaganeettsKeeshuk.
Chippewas
Noosach, noosah.
Darien Indians
Tautoh.
PoconchisTat.
Caribbees
Baba.
Pottawatamies
Nanna.
Darien Indians iVanwa/i,
Pottawatamies
Neowah.
GOD.
ASIATIC.
Kotcham and Kitchi

Indians of Penobscot and St. Johns-
Keetoji.
Kamschadales
Manoa.
Semoyads
Noob and Niob.

TartarsJtoefc.
Semoyads
Koosoek.
Kamschadales
Noeseck.
Olonetza or Fins
Tauto.
Wallachians
Tat.
Tartars on tlie Jenisea
Baba.
MOTHER.
Tartars of Orenburg
Anna.
Tooshetti
Nanna.
WIFE.
Semoyads
Neoo.
NOSE.
Tongusi
Kaitan.
EYES.
Chileses
Ne.
Indians of Pennsylvania
Hakalu.
Chippewas
Lissis, Lissey.
Pottawatamies
Indown.
Lenni Lenape
Nahk.
Chippewas
Weas.
Chippewas
Mickewah.
Chippewas
Kesis, Kischis.
Mackicanni
Keesogh.
TcherkessiA'e.
FOREHEAD.
Tooshetti
Haka.
HAIR.
Koriaks
Lisseh.
MOUTH.
Koriaks
Andoon.
HAND.
Akashini
Nak.
FLESH.
KoriaksWeosi.
HEART.
Tongusi
Michewan.
SUN.
Koriaks
Keeaschis.
Kamschadales
Keosan.
I
ORIGIN.
03
INDIAN.
ASIATIC.
MOON.
Miamis
Kelson. KamschaJales
Koolsowah.
D'dkotasOweeh. TartarsOce, Ae<\
STAR.
Sbawnees
Alaqua. Kamschadales
Laivkivah.
WOOD.
ChippewasMittie. Seraoyads
Meete.
Cherokees^^fo/i. Tartars
Otook.
FIRE.
Lenni Lenape
Tiindew. Semoyads
Tun.
DOG.
Cherokees
Keera. Tcbiocbouski
Koera.
Darien Indians
Tsi. Piimyocolli
Tzce.
THERE.
Lenni Lenape
Icka. Kartalini -Ecka, Eck.

Chippewas
Woity. Koriaks
Wooateh.
THE FIRST PERSONAL PRONOUN I (Ego in Latin).
ChippewasiVee. Kamschadales
Nieah.
Miamis
Nee. Koriaks
Neah.
Wyandots
Dee. Lesghis
Dee.
Mr. Nathaniel J. Wyeth, who spent a number of years in the
adventurous Indian trade west of the Rocky Mountains, and who be-
tween 1832 and 1836 was an agent or factor of the Hudson Bay Com-
pany, was led to consider the subject of the origin of the American
Indian. He says in the winter of 1833 he saw tAvo Japanese who had
been wrecked in a junk near the entrance to the straits of Fuca, and
that if they had been dressed in the same manner and placed with the
Chinook slaves, whose heads are not flattened, he could not have dis-
covered the difference between the two. This instance is but one in
the long chain of proof which has been brought forward from numer-
ous sources, leading to the irresistible conclusion that the American
Indian is of Mongolian or Asiatic stock.
Peter Jones, an educated Indian of the Ojibway nation, wlio ap-
pears to have been a man of remarkable intelligence, and who gave
much attention to the history and traditions of his race, says:
"
I am inclined to the opinion that the aborigines of America
came originally from the northern parts of Asia, and that they crossed
over at Behring's straits. I think this supposition may account for
the prevailing opinion among almost all the tribes, tliat their fore-
fathers were first placed somewhere in tlie West, whence they took
their journey toward the sun-rising. The notion they entertain of
the souls of the dead returning to a good country toward the sun-set-
ting, may be derived from a faint remembrance of their having come
from that direction, and the love they still feel for the better land they
left behind.''
64
Many writers and ethnologists have found in the native tribes of
America various traits and customs like those of the Jews, some of
which are identically the same, presenting coincidences in this regard
which it would seem could not exist, except upon the theory that they
sprang from, or were at some time connected with, the latter people.
And so in regard to implements in use by the natives of North America
at the time of the discovery, which were identical in many respects
with those in use bv the inhabitants of Asia. The bow and arrow
found in use by the natives of North America were essentially the
same implements used by the Tartars and other inhabitants of the
Asiatic continent, including the ancient Jews. The stone ax in use
by the aboriginal inhabitants of North America was, in its form, not
unlike implements of the kind in use by the inhabitants of the Old
World; and many samples of these have been found which are of the
same general pattern as the modern steel ax of the present day.
Among other evidences that go to prove race unity, or that the
American Indians of North and South. America are of one stock, is
that which is called their totems or symbols, which mark the identity
of a tribe, band or family. This characteristic was found among all
the tribes, it would appear, from the Arctic region to Cape Horn.
On the subject of race unity. Dr. Williams, in his history of
Vermont, published many years ago, in referring to the aborigines of
this country, says:
"
They had spread over the whole continent from
the 50th degree of north latitude to the southern extremity of Cape
Horn, and these men everywhere appear to be the same race, and the
same people in every part of the continent. The Indians are marked
with a similarity of color, features and every circumstance of external
appearance. Pedro De Cicca De Leon, one of the conquerors of
Peru, who had traveled through many provinces of America, says of
the Indians :
'
The people, men and women, although there are such
multitude of tribes or nations, in such diversities of climates, appear
nevertheless like the children of one fathe-r and mother.'
"
In all ages of Indian history, from the light afforded us, they
have revealed the same general physical characteristics. They" have
reproduced themselves through succeeding generations without change.
The black straight hair, the black glossy eye, the coffin-shaped face,
produced by prominent cheek bones, the peculiar red color, among
others, have been recognized as peculiar characteristics in the physi-
ology and type of the American Indian. As Mr. Schoolcraft well
remarks, fullness or lankness of muscle, height or shortness of stature,
and weakness or vigor in body, may be considered as the effects of food
or climate, but the traits that preside over and give character to the
ORIGIN. 05
muscular mass show themselves as clearly in the well fed Osage and
Dakota and the stately Algonquin, as in the fish and rabbit fed Gens
de terre (Muskego) on the confines of Canada, or the root-eating
Shoshonee of the Rocky Mountains.
"Thus it is," says Dr. Horton, "the American Indian from the
southern extremity of the continent to the northern limits of his
range, is the same exterior man. With somewhat variable stature and
complexion, his distinctive features, though variously modified, are
never effaced; and he stands isolated from the rest of mankind,
identified at a glance in every locality, and under every variety of
circumstances; and even his desiccated remains, whicJi have withstood
the destroying hand of time, preserve the primeval type of his race,
excepting only when art has interposed to prevent it."
In this connection it is proper to note, that among the primitive
Indians, physical deformity of person was seldom, if ever, known
a
condition of things that would naturally follow from regular habits
and simplicity of life.
In tracing race origin or coincidences among races tending to
show common origin, we are struck with the marked similarity in the
ancient ruins found in some latitudes in both the Old and the New
World, and this more especially in that dry and peculiar climate in
the latitude of Egypt and Central America. The pyramids and
peculiar style of buildings, or other superstructures, hieroglyphics,
and all, might well be taken as evidence that they were the work of a
people at some time having communication with each other, and,
indeed, such is the theory of Mr. Donnelly, advanced in his spirited
and interesting work, entitled "Atlantis."
That there are not more of these ancient ruins found in the more
northern latitudes of this continent, marking a higher civilization at
some earlier period, is no doubt due to the peculiar climate in this
latitude, in which it is found that the most enduring stone dissolves
or decomposes within a limited time. It is not so in Egypt or other
countries of like climate, Avhere these ancient monuments or marks of
civilization are found at this day in a good state of preservation.
There is no doubt whatever, and many evidences have from time
to time been brouirht to li^^ht to show, that the countrv of tlie Western
Hemisphere was, at some time, inhabited by people existing in a
higher state of civilization than ihat of the native population found
here at the time of the discovery. This is especially proven by the
mea^rer ruins which have been discovered in Mexico and Central
America. But notwithstanding
this disadvantage in the want of
physical evidence, there is history in the language, manners and
KUINS OF CHI-CHEN OR CHI-CHENITZA.
An ancient city of Mexico, in the interior of the State, and Peninsula of Yucatan, Central America.
RUIN'S AT rXMAL BY MOON"LIGHT.
These mins stand on a plain in the Peninsula of Yucatan. When first discovered, they were covered
with a thick forest. The most remarkable edifices lie in a eroup, and consist of pyramids, coated with stcne
and nuadraogular stone edifices and terraces. One of these pyramids is ISO feet in height, supporting a
temple on the same. On one of the facades of the temple are four human figures, similiar to Caryatides,
cut in the stone with great exactness and elegance. Their hands are crossed upon the breast, their heads are
enveloi>ed in something like a casque.
ORIGIN. CT
customs of the native jKjpulation here, whicli, if pursued and investi-
gated properly and with diligence, leads to certain results in deter-
mining the past, certainly as unerring as the crumbling monuments
and dim inscriptions remaining to us in portions of the Old World.
In opening tlie numerous mounds found in various localities
throughout the Mississippi valley, ancient pottery of various patterns
and skillful manufacture is found, leading us to conclude that it was
the work of a people in a civilized condition of life, the ai*t of making
whicli was not possessed by the natives who were found here at the
time of the discovery; neither did these natives have any tradition.
it is said, as to the people who were the manufacturers of these
utensils. Their utensils, for the like purpose, what few they had,
were made of bark or wood, or something of the kind: but if we will
take the trouble to inquire into the language of the people found here
at the discovery, especially those of the Algonquin group, we will
find evidence of some connection between these people and those who
were the manufacturers of this ancient potter^', leading us to the con-
clusion that the same is the work of their ancestors, and that the term
prehistoric, as applied to this pottery, is a misnomer.
Two hundred years ago. or at the first appearance of the white
man, if an Ojibway Indian were shown an iron kettle, and whose
utensils for the like purpose were made of bark, and who had never
seen an iron kettle, and he should be asked what he called it, he would
say
'^
A-keek,^^ that is, a thing made of eaiih, in other words earthen
ware, from a-kee, earth, and a-keek. a thing made of earth; which
would appear to be some evidence, from the language of this people,
showing: that they were the descendants of those who manufactured
this pottery ; and that whilst the art is lost to the present descendants
of those who manufactured it. yet the historical fact in question is
preserved in the language of their descendants of the present day.
It seems to be a prevailing feature in the writings of all persons
who have discussed the subject of the origin of the American Indian,
that this people came from some other continent. Tliere are some,
however, like the distinguished ethnologist Morton, and his disciples,
Knott and Glidden, who boldly strike out upon a different theory, and
claim for the American a distinct origin ; one, as they say, as indige-
nous to the continent itself as its fauua and
flora.
The American race, savs Dr. Morton, differs essentially from all
others, not excepting the Mongolians: nor do the feeble analogies of
the language, and the more obvious ones of civil and religious insti-
tutions and arts, denote anything beyond a casual communication
with the Asiatic nation: and even these analogies may perhaps bo
accounted for, as Humboldt lias suggested, in the mere coincidences
arising from the wants and impulses in nations inhabiting similar
latitudes.
Even Prichard, whose views in regard to the human race differ
materially from those of Morton and his school of ethnology,
acknowledges that, comparing the American Indian tribes with each
other, we find reasons to believe that they must at some time have
existed as a separate department of people in the earliest ages of
the world.
Hence, in adopting theories of this class, we can not expect, in
tracing: the relations between the American Indians and the rest of
mankind, to discover proofs of their derivation from any particular
tribe or nation in the old continent.
In the classification by the eminent ethnologist Blumenbach, the
American Indians are treated as a distinct variety of the human race,
whilst in the threefold divisions of mankind, laid down by Dr.
Latham, they all rank among the Mongolaide. Other ethnologists of
acknowledged learning also regard them as a branch of the great
Mongolian family, which at a remote period of the world's history
found their way from Asia to the American continent, and there
remained for thousands of years, separate from the rest of mankind,
passing meanwhile through various alternations of barbarism and
civilization.
It is admitted, however, that among all the various American
tribes, from the Arctic ocean to Cape Horn, there is greater uni-
formity of physical structure and personal characteristics than is seen
in any other quarter of the globe. There are varieties of them, it is
true, and these are sometimes of a very striking kind. The native
tribes of red men in the territory of the country north of the latitude
of the Gulf of Mexico differ in many respects from the native inhab-
itants of South America, but all exhibit evidences of belonofing: to the
same great branch of the human family.
The testimony of Humboldt on this point is^ that the Indians of
New Spain bear a general resemblance to those who inhabit Canada,
Florida, Peru and Brazil; and that from Cape Horn to the river St.
Lawrence and Behring's strait, we are struck at the first glance with
the general resemblance of the features of the aboriginal inhabitants
of the two continents, and perceive them all to be descendants of the
same stock, notwithstanding the great diversity of their languages.
Capt. Jonathan Carver, who, during the middle of the last century,
traveled quite extensively through the country west and northwest of
Lake Michigan, and who afterwards published a book giving an account
OIUGIN.
I ()!)
of his travels and experience among tlie native Indians of the country,
through which he passed, has appended to his journal or narrative
of his travels quite an exhaustive disquisition on the subject of the
origin of the American Indians, in which is collected the views and
speculations of some of tiie most eminent writers and ethnologists,
who have held to the opinion that the natives of North America
originally came from some other continent. From this narrative the
following extracts will be found interesting:
"
Most of the historians or travelers who have treated on the
American aborigines disagree in their sentiments relative to them.
Many of the ancients are supposed to have known that this quarter of
the globe not only existed, but also that it was inhabited. Plato in
his Timaeus has asserted that beyond the Island which he calls
Atalantis, and which, according to his description, was situated in the
Western ocean, there were a great number of other islands, and behind
those a vast continent.
*'
Oviedo, a celebrated Spanish author of a much later date, has
made no scruple to affirm that the Antilles are the famous Hesperides
so often mentioned by the poets; which are at length restored to
the Kings of Spain, the descendants of King Hesperus, who lived
upwards of three thousand years ago, and from whom these islands
received their names.
'Two other Spaniards, the one. Father Gregorio Garcia, a
Dominican, the other. Father Joseph De Acosta, a Jesuit, have written
on the origin of the Americans.
"
The former, who had been employed in the missions of Mexico
and Peru, endeavored to prove from the traditions of the Mexicans,
Peruvians and others, which he received on the spot, and from the
variety of characters, customs, languages, and religion observable in the
different countries of the New World, that different nations had con-
tributed to the peopling of it.
"
The latter. Father De Acosta, in his examination of the means
by which the first Indians of America might have found a passage to
that continent, discredits the conclusions of those who have supposed
it to be by sea, because no ancient author has made mention of the
compass; and concludes that it must be either by the north of Asia
and Europe, which adjoin to each other, or by those regions which
lie to the southward of the Straits of Magellan. He also rejects
the assertion of such as have advanced that it was peopled by the
Hebrews.
"John De Laet, a Flemish
writer, has controverted the opinions
of these Spanish fathers, and of many others who have written on the.
same subject. The hypothesis he endeavors to establish is, that
America was certainly peopled by the Scythians or Tartars; and that
the transmigration of these people happened soon after the dispersion
of Noah's grandsons. He undertakes to show that the most northern
Americans have a greater resemblance, not only in the features of their
countenances, but also in their complexion and manner of living, to
the Scythians, Tartars and Sameoides, than to any other nations.
"
In answer to Grotius, who had asserted that some of the Nor-
wegians passed into America by way of Greenland, and over a vast
continent, he says, that it is well known that Greenland was not
discovered till the year 964; and both Gomera and Herrera inform us
that the Chichimeques were settled on the Lake of Mexico in 721. He
adds, that these savages, according to the uniform tradition of the
Mexicans who dispossessed them, came from the country since called
New Mexico, and from the neighborhood of California ; consequently
North America must have been inhabited many ages before it could
receive any inhabitants from Norway by way of Greenland.
"
It is no less certain, he observes, that the real Mexicans
founded their empire in 902, after having subdued the Chichimeques,
the Otomias and other barbarous nations, who had taken possession of
the country around the Lake of Mexico, and each of whom spoke a
language peculiar to themselves. The real Mexicans are likewise sup-
posed to come from some of the- countries that lie near California, and
that they performed their journey for the most part by land; of course
they could not come from Norway.
"De Laet further adds, that though some of the inhabitants of
North America may have entered it from the northwest, yet, as it is
related by Pliny and some other writers, that on many of the islands
near the western coast of Africa, particularly on the Canaries, some
ancient edifices were seen, it is highly probable from their being now
deserted, that the inhabitants may have passed over to America ; the
passage being neither long nor difficult. . This migration, according to
the calculation of those authors, must have happened more than two
hundred years ago, at a time when the Spaniards were much troubled
by the Carthaginians; from whom, having obtained a knowledge of
navigation and the construction of ships, they might have retired to the
Antilles by the way of the western isles, which were exactly half way
on their voyage.
"He thinks also that Great Britain, Ireland and the Orcades were
extremely proper to admit of a similar conjecture. As a proof he in-
serts the following passage from the history of Wales, written by Dr.
David Powel, in the year 1170:
ORIGIN. 71
''
This historian says that Madoc, one of the sons of Prince Owen
Gwynnith, being disgusted at the civil wars which broke out between
his brothers after the death of their father, fitted out several vessels,
and having provided them with everything necessary for a long voy-
age, went in quest of new lands to the westward of Ireland ; there he
discovered very fertile countries, but destitute of inhalntants. When
landing part of his people he returned to Britain, where he raised new
levies and afterwards transported them to his colony.
"The Flemish author then returns to the Scythians, between whom
and the Americans he draws a parallel. He observes that several
nations of them to the north of the Caspian Sea led a wandering life,
which, as well as many other of their customs and ways of living,
agree in many circumstances with the Indians of America, and though
the resemblances are not absolutely perfect, yet the emigrants, even
before they left their own country, differed from each other, and went
not by the same name. Their change of abode effected what re-
mained.
"
He further says, that a similar likeness exists between several
American nations and the Samoiedes, who are settled, according to the
Russian accounts, on the great river Oby. And it is more natural,
continues he, to suppose that colonies of their nations passed over to
America by crossing the icy sea on their sledges, than for the Nor-
wegians to travel all the way Grotius has marked out for them
"
This writer makes many other remarks that are equally sensi-
ble, and which appear to be just; but he intermixes with these some
that are not so Avell founded.
"Emanuel De Moraez, a Portugese, in his history of Brazil,
asserts that America has been wholly peopled by the Carthaginians
and Israelites. He brings as a proof of this assertion the discoveries
the former are known to have made at a great distance beyond the
coast of Africa. The progress of which, being put a stop to by the
senate of Carthage, those who happened to be then in the newly dis-
covered countries, being: cut off from all communication with their
countrymen, and destitute of many necessaries of life, fell into a state
of barbarism. As to the Israelites, this author thinks that nothing
but circumcision is wanted in order to constitute a perfect resemblance
between them and the Brazilians.
"George De Huron, a learned Dutchman, has likewise written on
the subject. He sets out with declaring that he does not believe it
possible America could have been peopled before the flood, consider-
ing the short space of time which elapsed between the creation of the
world and that memorable event. In the next place he lays it dowii
72
as a principle, that after the deluge men and other terrestrial animals
penetrated into that country both by the sea and by land ; some through
accident and some from a formed design; that birds got thither by
flio-ht; which they were able to do by resting on the rocks and islands
that are scattered about in the ocean.
"
He further observes that wild beasts may have found a free
passage by land ; and that if we do not meet with horses or cattle
(to which he might have added elephants, camels, rhinoceros, and
beasts of many other kinds) it is because those nations that passed
thither were either not acquainted with their use or had no convenience
to support them.
*'
Having totally excluded many nations that others have admitted
as the probable first settlers of America, for which he gives substantial
reasons, he supposes that it began to be peopled by the north ; and
maintains that the primitive colonies spread themselves by the means
of the Isthmus of Panama, through tlie whole extent of the continent,
"
He believes that the first founders of the Indian colonies were
Scythians; that the Phoenicians and Carthaginians afterwards got
footing in America across the Atlantic Ocean, and the Chinese by way of
the Pacific; and that other nations might from time to time have landed
there by one or other of these ways, or might possibly have been
thrown on the coast by tempests, since, through the whole extent of
that continent, both in its northerrn and southern parts, we meet with
undoubted marks of a mixture of the northern nations with those who
have come from other places. And lastly, that some Jews and Chris-
tians might have been carried there by such like events, but that this
must have happened at a time when the whole of the New World was
already peopled. .
"
After all, he acknowledges that great difficulties attend the de-
termination of the question. These, he says, are occasioned in the
first place by the imperfect knowledge we have of the extremities of
the globe towards the north and south poles ; and in the next place to
the havoc which the Spaniards, the first discoverers of the New World,
made among its most ancient monuments ; as witness the great double
road betwixt Quito and Cuzco, an undertaking so stupendous that even
the most magnificent of those executed by the Romans cannot be com-
pared to it.
"He supposes also another migration of the Phoenicians, than
those already mentioned, to have taken place ; and this was during a
three years' voyage made by the Tyrian fleet in the service of King
Solomon. He asserts on the authority of Josephus that the port at
which this embarkation was made lay in the Mediterranean. The
ORIGIN. 73
fleet, he adds, went in quest of elephants' teeth and jKiacocks, to tlie
western coast of Africa, wliich is Tarshish; then to Ophir for gold,
which is Haite, or the Island of the Hispaniola; and in the latter
opinion he is supported by Columbus, who, when he discovered that
island, thought that he could trace the furnaces in which the gold was
refined."
It is difficult to understand how it is that inquiry is so continu-
ously being made into the origin of the American Indian, to the
exclusion of inquiry as to the primitive inhabitants of other portions
of the globe. For some reason, ethnologists seem to have directed
their attention more especially, in this regard, to the American Indian.
If attention should be directed to the primitive natives of other
portions of the globe, with the like force and diligence as to the
American Indian, perhaps we might be aided more in our investigations
concerning the latter people.
If we are to account for the origin of the aborigines of America,
we would be called upon to account for the origin of the people of the
Sandwich Islands and other islands of the sea. All these people may
as well be classed as being as indigenous to the country as are the
inhabitants of Africa, the subject of whose origin seems to have
remained one of passive indifference beyond a kind of general
assumption that they were indigenous to the country wherein they
live, a conclusion which may with equal propriety be acquiesced in
concerning the native inhabitants of America.
In doing this, however, we are compelled to discard the Jewish
account of the flood, or general inundation of the earth's surface, and
the destruction of the race of mankind at that period. As to the
common orig:in of the native inhabitants of both North and South
America, to which reference has heretofore been made, the best
authorities, as already mentioned, concur that the characteristics
and language of this people go to establish this fact.
As to the aboricfinal inhabitants of North America, the evidences
we have, as to a common origin, are apparent to every one who has
given attention to this subject, and are quite conclusive on this point,
even as to those tribes and nations whose languages are radically
different, and in comparison with each other have not the least simi-
larity, at least in words, and are found to possess certain uniform
characteristics, manners and customs, and habits. They all liave the
same, or, essentially the same,
religion; they all have the same mode
of warfare; they all possess the same general character; they all have
tlie like feasts, fasts and dances. The weapon of the bow and arrow
prevailed among all the tribes and nations; the flint arrowhead was
found among all the tribes from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and so
likewise was the stone ax used among them of a uniform pattern.
In their feasts, that of the sacrifice of the white dog was observed
in the same' manner and for the like purpose among all the tribes and
nations. The dance called striking the post, which was a species of
war dance, each pledging to engage in some contemplated invasion or
resistance to an enemy, manifest by striking a post around which the
warriors gathered, and the custom of scalping an enemy slain in battle
were also the same among all the tribes of North America. All of
these manners, customs and traits have been taken as conclusive
evidence of a common origin of all these native inhabitants.
We frequently speak, from conjecture, of a prehistoric race in
America, that is, of a supposed race existing before the native red man,
entirely different from him, and living in a higher state of civilization,
a nation who cultivated the soil, built and lived in permanent dwellings,
and understood the arts and sciences. Whilst this higher state of
civilization spoken of might have existed on the Western Hemisphere
at some period in the earth's existence may not be denied, yet there
is no proof, or even fair presumption, that such a people, if they ever
existed, were not the ancestors of the aborigines found here at the
time of the discovery. The native Indian possessed as high an order
of intellect as the white invaders of his country. The common notion
is, that a high order of intellect a'mong mankind can only exist among
people highly developed in civilization and the arts and sciences.
This popular error has led to many false conclusions. The familiar
saying that nations grow weaker and wiser is a maxim of much force
and truth.
The beginning of civilization is but the beginning of vice and cor-
ruption, and the history of the world goes to prove that it is but a
question of time when vice and corruption will prevail, and when human
society will relapse into its original condition, from the overgrowth of
what we call civilization. The human mind is not necessarily strength-
ened by influences of this kind. This is shown in tracing and com-
paring the character of the American aborigines with that of the first
European invaders. The Spaniards, in point of intellect, were not
superior to the race they subjugated, and this is shown in the marked
character of the people of Mexico, coming down to the present day.
A high order of intellect does not necessarily imply the ingenuity
to construct steamboats, railroads and telegraphs, nor does it imply
the industry and skill necessary to erect lofty edifices and commodious
dwelling houses. This is a mere question of individual skill and
enterprise. There is such a thing as inferiority and superiority of
OIIIGIN.
75
races with reference to the native capacity of mind, wliilst Ixjth may
continue to live in a native condition of society, neitlier rising to what
we term civilization.
The native Indian and the native African, at tlie period of the dis-
covery of America, were both living in the like sim[)licity of life, yet
one race was superior to the other, so that superiority in native capac-
ity does not necessarily imply a condition of civilization, or a want of
it. This is a question of circumstances. We speak of the savage
races (which is understood to imply a condition where the hand of
every man is raised against another with destructive intent, their
whole lives teeming with barbarous acts towards each other), whilst
the truth is that in regard to barbarous deeds among mankind, the
civilized people, or those who have passed for such, frequently far
excel in barbarism those people of the earth whom we have styled
barbarous.
The native condition of society presents an example in general of
the true type of fraternal life, whilst a condition of civilization presents
a condition of inconsistency, strife and destruction. The most inhu-
man wars, the most appalling destructions among mankind, are those
examples afforded us through civilized nations.
CHAPTER III.
INDIAN TRADITIONS.
Oral TraditionsPreserving History by HieroglyphicsBelts of WampumMode of
Transmitting
Historical EventsHad their Homers and their ^sopsTraditions
Vague and ShadowyServe, however, Some PurposeTraditions of a Deluge
Traditions of the Origin of their RaceThe MandansTraditions of a Flood
Representation of the ArkCeremonies Commemorating the FloodPottawat-

tamie TraditionCreek IndiansTradition of Their OriginTradition of the
OjibwaysOf Their OriginNanahbozhooMysterious PowerOrigin of Indian
SummerShawnee TraditionForeign OriginMontezumaCortezNew En-
gland Indians^TraditionSauk Indian TraditionTradition of the Chicka-
eawsTradition of the Osages
-
Tradition of the Senecas
-
Great Hill People
Iroquois NationHiawathaMysterious PowerHis Miraculous Disappear-

anceTradition of the ArrapahoesTradition of the BlackfeetThe Bonacks
Their Tradition.
I
HE American Indian, unlike
the more civilized nations of
the Old World, possessed no
^^
perfected art whereby he
could
perpetuate and transmit his
history downthrough succeeding gen-
erations,
further than by oral tradi-
tions.
His mode of communication
was by
words spoken, using signs in
the manner of deaf mutes, between
persons speaking different languages.
He had,
however, a system of hiero-
glyphics and symbols which he in-
scribed upon the bark of trees,
dressed skins, and other material of
like
perishable nature. He had no
mode of inscription upon prepared
stone or other like enduring material.
Hence, his
meager history, so far as
he has any, has been preserved
through family or tribal traditions,
assisted to some extent by his
art of preserving the recollection of isolated
events through
(76)
FALLS OF MINNEHAH.V.
INDIAN TRADITIONS.
77
belts of wampum, so common among the Indians in primitive life,
as also an article or medium of exchange in commercial transacti(jns.
These belts, which will be further noticed in another part of this work,
were of various classes, one of which was manufactured specially for
use in treaty negotiations between tribes or nations, and were so wrought
as to preserve or serve as a reminder of treaty stipulations.
The Indian mode for preserving their history by oral traditions,
proves that they were a people of method and intelligence. Several
families, and sometimes the families of an entire village, would
assemble together at night in their council house or some caj)acious
wigwam, where some older member of the tribe, which perhaps would
be some noted chief who had become the repository of historic events
of his tribe, would recite to the assembled listeners, young and old, an
account of their history from the earliest times, as preserved in their
traditions from generation to generation, including the time of his own
life. The rule was that all present, and especially the young, should
take note and bear in mind during their lives the information thus im-
parted to them. In this manner every youth was instructed in the
history of his tribe. Their generpl rule was that history could be
preserved with accuracy for the period of seven lives. That which
reached back beyond this period was not relied upon as being accurate
beyond dispute.
J. D. Walker, of Arizona Territory, says that the Pima Indians,
dwelling in that locality, select several promising youths of their tribe
from time to time for repositories of their traditions, and they are care-
fully instructed in the historical legends pertaining to their tribe,
being required to commit them faithfully to memory. They, in turn,
instruct their successors, and thus preserve the traditions in the exact
language recited by their ancestors of many years ago. They have
knowledsre of the tribe that built the old Casa Gi'ande and other vast
buildings, wdiose ruins now excite such curiosity.
The Indians not only had their Homers, but they had their .:Esops.
Some tribes had regular story tellers, men who had devoted a great
deal of time to learning the myths and stories of their people, and who
possessed in addition to a good memory a vivid imagination. The in-
dulo-ent Indian mother would frequently send for one of these, and
having prepared a feast for him she and her children would await the
fairy stories of the dreamer who, after his feast and smoke, would en-
tertain them for hours with his fanciful sketches and mythical visions,
which wêre interesting and beautiful in their rich imagery, and which,
like many similar
productions of the ancient Greeks, have at times
been given erroneous
positions in history and ethnological data. .
Although these Indian traditions at times appear ô be vague and
shadowy, we can scarcely resist the impression in many instances that
they may have sprung originally from substantial sources, or serve as
some slight indication pointing towards real facts. In this connection
it is interesting to note how curiously these traditions bear resemblance
to our own and those of other nations, and many insist that they afford
us some aid in unraveling the mystery which surrounds this people
concerning their origin.
We learn from Mr. Catlin, who, among other tribes, spent some
time among the Choctaws, that they have always had a tradition of a
great deluge, in describing which they say there was total darkness
for a great time over the whole of the earth. The Choctaw doctors,
or mystery men, looked out for daylight for a long time, until they
at last despaired of ever seeing it, and the whole nation wâs very
unhappy. At last a light was discovered in the north, when there
was great rejoicing, until the light was found to be a great moun-
tain of water rolling on, and which destroyed them all except a few
families who had expected it and built a great raft on which they were
saved.
From the same source we are informed that the Choctaws have a
band amongst them called the Crawfish band. They have a tradition
that this band at a very remote period in the past lived under ground.
They were a species of crawfish and used to come up out of the mud,
and wênt on their hands and feet, living in a large cave deep under the
ground, where there Avas no light for several miles. They neither
spoke nor could they understand any language at all. The entrance to
their cave was through the mud. The Choctaws used to lie and wait
for them to come out to the sun, when they would try to talk to them
and cultivate an acquaintance. One day several of them were run
upon so suddenly by the Choctaws that they had no time to go through
the mud back to their caves, but were driven in at another entrance
through the rocks. The Choctaws then tried a long time to smoke
them out, and at last succeeded. They treated them kindly, taught
them the Choctaw language, taught them to walk on two legs, made
them cut off their toe nails, and pluck the hair from their body, after
which they adopted them into their nation, and the remainder of them
are living under the ground to this day.
The Winnebagoes also have traditions of a Hood or general
inundation of the earth's surface, but, says Mr. Fletcher, their govern-
ment agent fifty years ago, it is impossible to determine what was the
character of their traditions of this event, previous to their first
interview with the whites. It is not impossible that the traditions of
INDIAN TllADITIONS.
tH
tbe deluge for this tribe were based in part on the scriptural account
communicated to them by white people.
Humboldt, who visited South America in the forepart of the
present century, found a tradition of the flood among the unreclaimed
tribes of the Cordilleras of the Andes. "Such tradition," says Mr.
Schoolcraft, "in which heroic traits are ascribed to the survivors of a
universal deluge, existed in the wild cosmogonies of the thin tribes
of the prairie and forest groups, of a western origin of the United
States and British America."
Mr. Catlin informs us that the Mandans had a tradition of a
great flood, which at some period visited the earth, which event they
commemorate every year at their annual religious ceremony of four
days. First among the objects of these annual religious occasions is
a celebration of the event of the subsiding of this flood, which they
called Mee-nee-ro-ka-ha-sha, (sinking down or settling of the waters).
In the centre of the Mandan village was an open circular area of
one hundred and fifty feet in diameter, kept always clear as a public
ground; in the middle of which was a curb, somewhat like a large
hogshead, standing on the end, made of planks and bound with hoops,
some eight or nine feet high, which the Mandans religiously preserved
and protected from year to year free from mark or scratch, and which
they called the big canoe. It appears to have been a symbolic re{)re-
sentation of a part of their traditionary history of the flood, which
they had in some way received, and were thus endeavoring to perpetuate
in the minds of the whole nation.
The ceremonies in question are not assigned to any particular
day in the year, as these people do not keep a record of days or weeks
;
but it occurs at a particular season which is designated by the full
expansion of the willow leaves under the bank of the river; for,
according to their tradition, the twig that the bird brought home was
a willow bough and had full grown leaves on it, and the bird to which
they looked was tbe mourning or turtle dove, often seen to be feeding
on the sides of the earth-covered lodges, being, as they call it, a
medicine bird, which is not to be harmed by any one; and even their
dogs are instructed not to do it injury.
The ceremony described by Mr. Catlin commenced in the morning,
when groups of women and children were gathered on the tops of
their earth-covered wigwams. Th-ey then all commenced screaming,
the dogs began to howl, and all eyes were directed to the prairies on
the west, where was beheld, a mile distant, a solitary individual
descending the bluff and making his way towards the village. The
whole community joined in general expression of alarm, as if they
80
were in danger of instant destruction ; bows were strung, their horses
were caught upon the prairie and run into the village, warriors
blackened their faces, and every preparation made as if for instant
combat. The figure discovered on the prairie continued to approach
with dignified step in direct line towards the village. All eyes were
upon him, and he at length came in and proceeded towards the centre
of the villaoê where all the chiefs and braves stood readv, and received
him in a cordial manner, recognizing him as an old acquaintance,
pronouncing his name Nu-mohk-muck-a-nah, (first or only man).
The body of this strange personage, which was nearly naked, was
painted with white clay, so as to resemble at a little distance a white
man. He wore a robe of four white wolves' skins fallinor back over
his shoulders. On his head he had a splendid head-dress, made of
two raven's quills, and in his left hand he carried a large pipe, which
he seemed to watch and guard as something of great importance.
After passing the chiefs and braves he approached the medicine lodge,
which he had the means of opening, and which had been religiously
closed during the year, except through the performance of the religious
rites of that day.
Having entered the lodge, he appointed four men to put it in
readiness for the ceremonies, by sweeping and strewing a profusion of
green willow boughs over the floor, and decorating the sides likewise
with willow boughs. While these preparations were going on, and
during the whole day, this personage went through the village, stopping
in front of every lodge and crying until the owner came out and asked
him who he was and what was the matter. To this he replied by
relating the sad catastrophe which had happened on the earth's surface
by the overflowing of the waters, saying that he was the only person
saved from this unusual calamity ; that he landed his big canoe on the
high mountain in the west, where he then resided; that he had come
to open the medicine lodge, which must needs receive a present of
some edged tool from the owner of the wigwam, that it might be
sacrificed to the water. If this were not done, he assured them there
would be another flood and none of them would be saved, as it was
with such tools that the big canoe was made. This being comj^lied
with, the implements received were deposited in the medicine lodge.
After the last day of the ceremony, in the presence of the whole people
of the village, they were thrown into the river in a deep place, from
whence they can never be recovered, and are thus sacrificed to the
spirit of the waters.
On the second day this mysterious personage continues the
ceremonies of the occasion. Having smoked his medicine pipe, and
INDIAN TRADITIONS.
81
addressed a short speech to the people, stimulating them to put tlieir
trust in the Great Spirit, he calls into the lodge an old medicine or
mystery man, whose body is painted yellow, and whom he appoints
master of ceremonies of the occasion. After this Nu-mohk-muck-a-nah
shakes hands and takes leave of him, by saying that he is going back
to the mountain in the west, from whence he will return in just a year
from that time to open the lodge again ; whereupon he leaves the village
and disappears over the bluffs from whence he came, and no more is
seen of this surprising character during the occasion, as was understood
;
the fact being, however, that he reappeared in another garb, and took
part in the remaining ceremonies with others of the village.
Mr. Catlin further informs us that he learned from a distinguished
Knistenaux on the upper Mississippi, that the aforesaid tribe had a
tradition of a great freshet and flood, which took place many centuries
before and destroyed all the nations of the earth, which event it seems
they connect with the formation of the great Pipe Stone Quarry in
what is now the state of Minnesota. Their tradition is that all the
tribes of the red men assembled on the Coteau du Prairie to get oat
of the way of the waters ; and after they had all gathered here from all
parts, the waters continued to rise until at length it covered them all
in a mass, and tlieir flesh was converted into red pipe stone. This
legend, so firmly believed in by many tribes, is assigned as a reason
why this pipe stone quarry was so generally held among the Indians in
such sacred esteem.
The Mandans say of their origin that they were originally shut
out from the light of heaven, and dwelt together near a subterranean
lake. A grape vine which extended its roots far into the earth to the
place where they were, gave them the first intimation of the light upon
the face of the earth. By means of this vine, one-half of the tribe
climbed up to the surface and were delighted with its light and air,
its wild fruits and game. The other half were left in their dark
prison house, owing to the bulk and weight of an old woman, who by
her corpulency tore down the vine and prevented any more of the tribe
from ascending.
The Navajoes, in regard to their origin, like the Mandans, claim
that they came out of the earth. Tradition would indicate that they
migrated from the northeast.
The Pottawattamies believe in two spirits, symbolizing good and
evil. One they call Kitchemanito (Great Spirit); the other, Matche-
manito (Evil Spirit). They say that when Kitchemanito first made
the world, he filled it with a class of beings who only looked like men,
but who were perverse, ungrateful, wicked dogs, who never raised their
eyes from the ground to thank him for anything. Seeing this, the
Great Spirit plunged them, with the world itself, into a great lake and
drowned them all. He then Avithdrew the earth from the water, and
made a man, a very handsome young man, but he being very lonesome
and sad, Kitchemanito took pity on him and sent him a sister to cheer
him in his loneliness.
After many years the young man had a dream, which he told his
sister. "Five young men," said he,
"
will come to your lodge door
this night to visit you. The Great Spirit forbids you to answer or
even look up and smile at the first four ; but when the fifth comes, you
may speak and laugh and show that you are pleased. She acted
accordingly. The first of the five strangers that called was Usama, or
tobacco, and having been repulsed, he fell down and died. The
second, Wapako, or a pumpkin, shared the same fate; the third,
Eshkossimin, or melon, and the fourth, Kokees, or the bean, met the
same fate. Bnt when Damin or Mondamin, which is maize, presented
himself, she opened the skin tapestry door of her lodge, laughed very
heartily, and gave him a friendly reception. They were immediately
married, and from this union the Indian sprung. Damin forthwith
buried the four unsuccessful suitors, and from their graves there grew
tobacco, melons of all sorts, and beans ; and in this manner the Great
Spirit provided that the race which he had made should have
something to offer him as a gift in their feasts and ceremonies,
and also something to put in their akeeks or kettles along with
their meat.
The Creek Indians have a tradition that they sprung from the
ground between the Catawba and Alabama rivers ; that the Great Spirit
brought them out, and that they were the sole rightful possessors of
the soil. They believe that before the creation there existed a great
body of water upon the earth. Two pigeons were sent forth in search
of land, but found nothing. On going forth the second time, they
procured a blade of grass, after which the waters subsided and the
land appeared. They have no tradition of their people living elsewhere
than in North America, and have no tradition of this country ever
being occupied before them by a more civilized people than them-
selves. They have a vague tradition that the country was occupied
before them by a people of whom they have no definite knowledge.
The name they have for America is the "Land of the Indians," or
"
Land of the Ked People."
According to Peter Jones, the educated Ojibway, the people of
that nation say that there were created by Kitchemanito (Great Spirit),
or Kezhamunedo (Merciful or Benevolent Spirit), and placed on the
INDIAN TKADITIONS.
83
continent of America; that every nation speaking a different lan<2îia<]je
is a separate creation ; that when the Great Spirit gave them their re-
ligion he told them how to act, and they think it would be wrong to
forsake the old ways of their forefathers.
The Ojibways have a tradition that before the general deluge
there lived two enormous creatures, each possessed of vast power.
One was an animal with a great horn on his head, the other was a
huge toad. The latter had the whole management of the waters,
keeping them secure in its own body, and emitting only a certain
quantity for the watering of the earth. Between these two creatures
there arose a quarrel, which terminated in a fight. The toad in vain
tried to swallow its antagonist, but the latter rushed upon it, and with
his horn pierced a hole in its side, out of which the water gushed in
floods, and soon overflowed the face of the earth. At this time Nan-
ahbozhoo was living on the earth, and, observing the water rising
higher and higher, he fled to the loftiest mountain for refuge. Per-
ceiving that even this retreat would soon be inundated, he selected a
large cedar tree on which to ascend if the waters should rise up to
him. Before they reached him he caught a number of animals and
fowls and put them into his bosom. Finally the water covered the
mountain. He then ascended the cedar tree, and as he went up he
plucked its branches and stuck them in the belt around his waist. The
tree grew and kept pace with the water for a long time. At length he
abandoned the idea of remaining any longer on the tree, and took the
branches he had plucked and with them constructed a raft, on which
he placed himself with the animals and fowls. On this raft he floated
about for a long time, till all the mountains were covered and all the
beasts of the earth and fowls of the air perished except those he had
with him.
At length Nanahbozhoo thought of forming a new world, but did
not know how to accomplish it without any materials, until the idea
occurred to him that if he could only obtain some of the earth which
was then under the water, he might succeed. He accordingly employed
the different animals he had with him that were accustomed to diving.
First, he sent the loon down into the water in order to bring up some
of the old earth; but it was not able to reach the bottom, and after
remaining in the water some time came up dead. Nanahbozhoo then
tcok it, blew upon it, and it came .to life again. He next sent the
otter, which also failed to reach the bottom and came up dead, but was
restored to life in the same manner as the loon. He then tried the
skill of the beaver, but without success. These diving animals having
failed, he took the muskrat, who was gone a long time and came up
dead. On taking it up Nanahbozlioo found, to his great joy, that it
had reached the earth, and had retained some of the soil in each of
its paws and mouth. He then blew upon it and brought it to life
again, at the same time pronouncing many blessings upon it, saying
that as long as the world he was about to make should exist, the musk-
rat should never become extinct.
This prediction of Nanahbozhoo is still spoken of by the Indians
when referring to the rapid increase of the muskrat. Nanahbozhoo
then took the earth so brought him, and having rubbed it with his
hands to fine dust, he placed it on the waters and blew upon it, when
it began to grow larger and larger, until it was beyond the reach of
his eye. In order to ascertain the size of the world and the progress
of its growth and expansion, he sent a wolf to run to the end of it,
measuring its extent by the time consumed in the journey. The first
journey he performed in one day, the second took him five days, the
third ten, the fourth a month, then a year, five years, and so on, until
the world was so large that Nanahbozhoo then said that the world was
large enough, and commanded it to cease growing. After this Nanah-
bozhoo took a journey to view the new world he had made ; as he
traveled he created various tribes of Indians and placed them in differ-
ent parts of the earth, giving them various religions, customs and
manners.
This Nanahbozhoo now sits at the north pole, overlooking all the
transactions and affairs of the people he has placed on the earth. The
northern tribes say that Nanahbozhoo always sleeps during the winter,
but previous to his falling asleep fills his great pipe and smokes for
several days, and that it is the smoke arising from the mouth and pipe
of Nanahbozhoo which produced what is called "Indian summer."
This Nanahbozhoo here referred to is the same character the
poet Longfellow adopts in his celebrated poem of Ojibway Indian
legends, which he styles Hiawatha, being the name of a similar
character noted in the traditions of the Iroquois nation, and which
name is a word in the Iroquois language; and the mode of producing
the Indian summer, above alluded to, is referred to by Longfellow in
his poem in the following lines:
*'
From his pipe the smoke descending
Filled the sky with haze and vapor,
Filled the air with dreamy softness,
Gave a twinkle to the water,
Touched the rugged hills with smoothness,
Brought the tender Indian summer."
We are informed by Col. James Smith, for several years between
1755 and 1759 a captive among the Indians of Northern Ohio, that
INDIAN TRADITIONS.
85
the AVyandotfl have a tradition of a remarkable squaw of their tribe,
who was found when an infant in the water, in a canoe made of bull-
rushes. She became a great prophetess and did many wonderful
things. She turned water into dry land, and at length made this
continent, which was at that time only a very small island, and but a
few Indians on it; but even these few had not sufficient room to hunt,
and so this squaw went to the water side and prayed that this island
might be enlarged. The Great Spirit heard her prayer and sent
large numbers of water tortoises and muskrats, who brought with
them mud and other materials for enlarging the island, and by which
means they say it was increased to its present size. Therefore the
white people ought not to encroach upon them, because their great
grandmother made it.
They say about this time the angels, or heavenly inhabitants, as
they called them, frequently visited their forefathers, and instructed
them to offer sacrifice, burn tobacco, butfalo and deer bones, but that
they were not to burn bears or raccoon bones in sacrifice. The
Ottawas, who were a cognate tribe of the Pottawattamies, had the like
tradition of the latter people.
Sir Alexander McKenzie informs us that the Chipeyans, a tribe
of the Athapasca or Athabasca stock, have a tradition that they
originally came from another country, inhabited by a very weak
people, and had traversed a lake which was narrow and shallow, and
where they had suffered great misery, it being always winter with ice
and snow. According to the tradition of the Athapasca family, to
which this tribe belonged, this people came from Siberia, agreeing in
dress and manners with the people now found upon the coast of Asia.
The Shawnees have a tradition that they are of foreign origin ; that
their ancestors came from across the sea, and that they formerly made
yearly sacrifices for their safe arrival in this country.
The following tradition is from the letter book of the United
States, St. Louis Superintendency, Missouri, recorded May 8th, 1812,
as being received from the lips of a Shawnee, named Louis Rogers:
"It is many years ago since the numbers of the Shawnees were
veiy great. They were on an important occasion encamped together
on a prairie. At night one-half of them fell asleep; the others
remained awake. Those who kept awake abandoned the sleepers
before morning, and betook themseh-^s to the course where the sun
rises. The others gradually pursued their route in the direction
where the sun sets. This was the origin of the two nations, the first
of which was called Shawnee, and the other Kickapoo.
"Prior to this separation, these nations were considered one, and
were blessed with the bounties of heaven above any blessings which
are now enjoyed by any description of mankind. And they ascribe
their present depressed condition and the withdrawal of the favors of
Providence, to the anger of the Great Being at their separation.
"Among the many tokens of divine favor, which they formerly
enjoyed, was the art of walking on the surface of the ocean, by which
they crossed from the east to America without vessels; also the art
of restoring life to the dead, by the use of medical arts continued for
the space of six hours. Witchcraft and prophecy were with them at
their highest state, and were practiced without feigning ; and, in fine,
such were the gifts of heaven to them, that nothing fell short of their
inconceivable power to perform. And after the Shawnees have
wandered to the remotest west, and returned eastward to the original
place of separation, the world will have finished its career. It is
believed by the Shawnees, that the consummation of this prophecy is
not far distant, because they have, in fulfillment of the prophecy,
reached the extreme western point, and are now retrograding on
their steps."
Montezuma told Cortez of a foreign connection between the
Aztec race and the natives of the Old World. His words coming to
us through Spanish sources, are to the following effect: His speech is
this
"I would have you to understand before you begin your dis-
course, that we are not ignorant, or stand in need of your persuasions,
to believe that the great prince you obey is descended from our
ancient Quetzalcoatl, Lord of the Seven Caves of the Navatlaques,
and lawful king of those seven nations which gave beginning to our
Mexican empire. By one of his prophecies, which we receive as an
infallible truth, and by a tradition of many ages, preserved in our
annals, we know that he departed from these countries, to conquer
new regions in the East, leaving a promise, that in process of time,
his descendants should return to model our laws and mend our
government."
Cotton Mather, the noted Puritan divine, says of the Massachu-
setts Indians:
"
They believe that their chief god Kamantowit made
a man and woman of stone, which, upon dislike, he broke to pieces,
and made another man and woman of a tree, which were the fountains
of all mankind ; and that we all have in us immortal souls, which, if
we are godly, shall go to a splendid entertainment with Kamantowit,
but, otherwise, must wander about in restless horrors forever."
According to Eev. Jedidiah Morse, in his report to the Secretary
of War on Indian affairs in 1822, the Sauk Indians had a tradition
that the Great Spirit, in the first place, created from the dirt of the
INDIAN TRADITIONS.
87
earth two men; but, finding that tliese alone would not answer his pur-
pose, he took from each man a rib and made two women; from these
four sprung all red men; that they were all one nation until they
behaved so badly the Great Spirit came among them and talked dif-
ferent languages to them, which caused them to separate and form
different nations.
Mr. Fletcher, United States Indian agent for the Winnebagoes
some fifty years ago, gives the following tradition then current among
that people, from Sho-go-nick-kaw (Little Hillj, a chief of that tribe:
*'
The Great Spirit first waked up as from a dream, and found
himself sitting on a chair. On finding himself alone, he took a piece
of his body, near his heart, and a piece of earth, and from them made
a man. He then proceeded to make three other men. After talking
awhile with the men he had created, the Great Spirit made a woman,
who was this earth, and is the grandmother of the Indians. The
four men which were first created are the four winds, east, west, north
and south. The earth, after it was created, rocked about; and the
Great Spirit made four beasts and four snakes, and put them under
the earth to steady and support it. But when the winds blew the
beasts and snakes could not keep the earth steady, and the Great
Spirit made a great buffalo and put him under the earth ; this l)uifalo
is the land which keeps the earth steady. After the earth became
steady, the Great Spirit took a piece of his heart and made a man,
and then took a piece of his flesh and made a wôman. The man knew
a great deal, but the woman knew but little. The Great Spirit then
took some tobacco and tobacco seed and gave them to the man, and
gave to the woman one seed of every kind of grain, and showed her
every herb and root that was good for food.
"
The roots and herbs were made when the earth was made.
When the Great Spirit gave tobacco to the man, he told him that when
he wanted to speak to the winds or the beasts to put tobacco in the
fire and they would hear him, and that the Great Spirit would answer
him. After the Great Spirit gave these things to the man and woman,
he told them to look down; and they looked down, and saw a child
standing between them. The Great Spirit told them that they must
take care of the children. The Great Spirit then created one man
and one woman of every tribe and tongue on the earth, anil told thorn
in Winnebago that they would live on the centre of the earth. The
Great Spirit then made the beasts and birds for the use of man. He
then looked down upon his children and saw that they were happy.
The
Great Spirit made the fire and tobacco for the Winnebagoes, and
all the other Indians got their fire and tobacco from them; and this
88
is the reason why all the other tribes call the Winnebago their dear
brother.
"
After the Great Spirit had made all these things, he did not
look down on the earth again for one hundred and eighteen years. He
then looked down and saw the old men and women coming out of their
wigwams, gray-headed and stooping, and that they fell to pieces. The
Great Spirit then thought that he had made the Indians to live too
long, and that they increased too fast. He then changed his plan, and
sent four thunders down to tell the Indians that they must fight,
and they did fight and kill each other. After that the Indians did not
increase so fast. The Good Spirit took the good Indians who were
killed in battle to himself ; but the bad Indians who were killed went
to the west. After awhile a bad spirit waked up and saw what the
Good Spirit had done, and thought he could do as much ; so he set to
work and tried to make an Indian, and made a negro. He then tried
to make a black bear, and made a grizzly bear. He then made some
snakes, but they were all venomous. The bad spirit made all the
worthless trees, the thistles and useless weeds that grow on the earth.
He also made a fire, but it was not so good as the fire that the Good
Spirit made and gave to the Indian.
"
The bad spirit tempted the Indians to steal, and murder, and
lie ; and when the Indians who committed these crimes died, they went
to the bad spirit. The Good Spirit commanded the Indians to be
good, and they were so until the bad spirit tempted them to do wrong."
The early traditions of all the New England and Atlantic coast
tribes point to a migration from the southwest. Such were the tradi-
tions of the Massachusetts group of small tribes, the Narragansetts or
Wampanoags of the Mohicans, and the maritime tribes. The Lenni
Lenape of Pennsylvania told a tradition to the Moravian missionaries,
detailing the crossing of the Mississippi by that people long after the
passage of the Iroquois and the Allegans.
The southern Indians represent themselves as having come orig-
inally from the west; and, after crossing the Mississippi at higher or
lower points (at eras more or less remote), as having conquered the
original Florida tribes, and taken their places. Like early accounts
of migration are given by the Chickasaws, Choctaws, Creeks and
Cherokees. The Creeks proceeded eastward across Florida to the
Ocmulgee branch of the Altamaha, their oldest town and permanent
resting place. The old tribes against whom they fought were the
Yamacraws, Ogechees, Wapoos, Santees, Uches, Yamasees, Utinas,
Paticas, and Icosans-terms, some of which only linger in their verbal
traditions.
INDIAN TRADITIONS.
89
When the old tribes west of the Mississippi are asked the direction
they came from, they point south. They came up over the fertile, level
plains and hilly uplands of the forbidding and impassable peaks of
the Eocky Mountains. Such is the account of the Quappas
f
Kapahns
of De Soto's day), Cedrons, Kansas, and the generality of the great
prairie or Dakota group west of the Mississippi, and of the lowas,
Sioux, and Winnebagoes who had crossed the stream at and below St.
Anthony's Falls, and above the junction of the Missouri.
Mr. Heckewelder says the Indians consider the earth as their
universal mother. Their traditions teach them that they were created
within its bosom, where for a long time they had their abode, before
they came to live on its surface ; that the Great Spirit undoubtedly
intended at a proper time to put them in the enjoyment of the good
things he had prepared on earth, but ordained that their first stage of
existence should be within it. Mr. Heckewelder remarks that,
"
this
fabulous account of the creation of man coincides remarkably with the
ancient Egyptians and the Brahmins of India."
The traditions of the Chickasaws say that the white people were
the favorites of the Great Spirit; that he taught them to communicate
with each other without talking; that no matter how far they are put
apart, they can make each other understand; and that he also taught
the white people to live without hunting, and instructed them to make
anything that they want; but he only taught the Indians how to
hunt, and that they had to get their living by hunting or perish, and
the white people have no right to hunt. They say they got the first
corn just after the flood, from a raven which flew over them and
dropped a part of an ear ; they were told by the Great Spirit to plant
it, and it grew up ; that they worked in the soil around it with their
fingers. They never had any kind of tools; but when they wanted
logs or poles a certain length they had to burn them ; and that they
made heads for their arrows out of a white kind of flint rock.
The Chickasaws, by their traditions, say that they came from the
west, and part of their tribe remained there. When about to start
eastward, they were provided with a large dog as a guard, and a pole
as a guide. The dog would give them notice whenever an enemy was
near at hand, and thus enable them to prepare for defense. The pole
they would plant in the ground every night, and the next morning
they would look at it and go in the direction it leaned. They continued
their journey in this way until they crossed the great Mississippi river,
and proceeded to the Alabama river in the country where Huntsville
in that state now is. There the pole was unsettled for several days,
but finally it settled and pointed in a southwest direction. They then
started on that course, planting the pole every night until they got to
what is called the Chickasaw Old Fields, where the pole stood perfectly
erect. All then came to the conclusion that this was the promised
land, and there the main body of them accordingly remained
until they migrated west of the state of Arkansas, in the years
1837 and
'38.
The Pot-to-yan-te tribe, of the regions of California, understood
to be one of the tribes or bands of the Bonaks or Koot Diggers, have
the following tradition concerning their origin and existence, as given
by an Indian chief of that tribe:
"
The first Indians that lived were Coyotes. When one of their
number died, the body became full of little animals, or spirits, as he
thought them. After crawling over the body for a time, they took all
manner of shapes; some that of the deer, others that of the elk, the
antelope, etc. It was discovered, however, that great numbers were
taking wings, and for a while they sailed about in the air; but
eventually they would fly off to the moon. The old Coyotes (or
Indians) fearing that the earth might become depopulated in this
way, concluded to stop it at once; and ordered that when any of their
people died, the body must be burnt. Ever after they continued to
burn the body of deceased persons. Then the Indians began to
assume the shape of a man; but at first they were very imperfect in
all their parts. At first they wal'ked on all fours, then they began to
have some members of the human frameone finger, one toe, one eye,
one ear, etc. After a time they had two fingers, two toes, two eyes,
two ears, etc. In all their limbs and joints they were yet very imper-
fect, but progressed from period to period, until they became perfect
men and women. In the course of their transition from the Coyote to
human beings, they got in the habit of sitting upright, and lost their
tails. This is with many of them a source of regret to this day, as
they consider a tail quite an ornament; and in decorating themselves
for a dance or other festive occasions,- a portion of them always
decorate themselves with tails."
The following tradition is taken from the official records of the St.
Louis Indian Superintendency:
"
The Osages believe that the first man of their nation came out
of a shell, and that this man when walking on earth met with the
Great Spirit, who asked him where he resided and what he ate. The
Osage answered that he had no place of residence, and that he ate
nothing. The Great Spirit gave him a bow and arrow and told him to
go a hunting. So soon as the Great Spirit left him he killed a deer.
The Great Spirit gave him fire and told him to cook his meat, and to
INDIAN TRADITIONS.
91
eat. He also told him to take the Bkin and cover himself with it, and
also the skins of other animals that he would kill.
"
One day, as the Osage was hunting, he came to a small river to
drink. He saw in the river a beaver hut, on which was sitting the
chief of the family. He asked the Osage what he was looking for, so
near his lodge. The Osage answered that being thirsty he was forced
to come and drink at that place. The beaver then asked him who he
was and from whence he came. The Osage answered that he had
come from hunting, and that he had no place of residence.
'
Well,
then.' said the beaver, 'you appear to be a reasonable man. I wish
you to come and live with me. I have a large family, consisting of
many daughters, and if any of them should be agreeable to you, you
may marry.' The Osage accepted the offer, and some time after mar-
ried one of the beaver's daughters, with whom he had many children.
Those children have formed the Osage people. This marriage of the
Osage with the beaver has been the cause that the Osages do not kill
the beaver. They always supposed that by killing the beaver they
were killino: the Osaoês."
The tradition of the Senecas in regard to their origin is that they
broke out of the earth from a large mountain at the head of Canan-
daigua lake, which mountain they still venerate as the place of their
birth, which they call Genundewah, or great hill, and from which this
people are known among themselves and cognate tribes as Ga-nun-do-o-
no, "The Great Hill People." The Senecas, they say, were in a fort
on the top of this hill, which became surrounded by a monstrous ser-
pent, whose head and tail came together. It lay there a long time,
confounding the people wuth its breath. At length they attempted to
make their escape, but in marching out of the fort they walked down
the throat of the serpent.
Two orphan children, who had escaped this general destruction
by being left on this side of the fort, were informed by an oracle of
the means by which they could get rid of their formidable enemy by
taking a small bow and a poisoned arrow, made of a kind of willow,
and with that shooting the serpent under its scales. This they did, and
the arrow proved effectual, for, on its penetrating the skin the serpent
became sick, and extending itself rolled down the hill, destroying all
the timber that was in its way, in the meantime disgorging. At every
motion a human head was discharged and rolled down the hill into th*
lake, where they all remained in a petrified state, having the hardness
and appearance of stones.
Down to late date the Indians were accustomed to visit that sacr^d
place to mourn the fate of their people and celebrate some peculinr
rites. To the knowledge of white people there has been no timber on
the great hill since it was first discovered by them, though it lay ap-
parently in a state of nature for a great number of years without culti-
vation. It is asserted that stones in the shape of Indians' heads may
be seen lying in the lake in great plenty in the vicinity of the great
hill, which, tradition says, are the same that were deposited there at
the death of the serpent.
The Senecas have also a tradition, that previous to, and for some
time after, their origin at Genundewah, the country, especially about
the lakes, was thickly inhabited by a race of civil, enterprising and in-
dustrious people, who were totally destroyed by the great serpent that
afterwards surrounded the great hill fort, with the assistance of others
of the same species, and that the Senecas went into possession of the
improvements that were left.
The Senecas say that in those days the Indians throughout the
whole country spoke one language; but the great serpent, by an un-
known influence, confounded their languages so that they could not
understand each other, and this was the cause of their division into
nations. At that time, however, the Senecas retained the original
language and continued to occupy their mother hill, on which they
fortified themselves against their enemies and lived peaceably until,
having offended the great serpent, they were cut off as before
related.
The Onondagas have a legend that they sprang out of the ground
on the banks of the Oswego river.
The Iroquois nation have a somewhat curious tradition as to the
circumstances through which their national league of the original five
tribes was first formed. This tradition alleges that a remarkable
person grew up among them, originally known as Tarenyawago, who is
represented as a person of great wisdom and who taught this people
arts and knowledge. He possessed supernatural powers and had a
canoe which would move without paddles, being propelled by his will,
in which he ascended the streams and traversed the lakes. He taught
the people how to raise corn and beans, removed obstructions from the
water courses, and made their fishing grounds clear. He helped them
to get the mastery over the great monsters which overran the country,
and thus prepared the forests for their hunters. The people listened
to him with admiration and followed his advice. He excelled in all
things. He excelled their good hunters, brave warriors and eloquent
orators. Having given his people instructions for observing the laws
and maxims of the Great Spirit, he laid aside the high powers of his
public mission to set them an example of how they should live, where-
M
INDIAN TRADITIONS.
<):i
upon he erected a lodge for liis dwelling, planted corn, kept near him
his magic canoe and selected a wife.
In relinquishing his former position as a subordinate to the Great
Spirit, he also dropped his original name, and at the instance of his
people took that of Hiawatha. He chose to become a member of the
Onondaga tribe, and took up his residence in their fruitful valley,
which was the central point of their government. Suddenly there
was an invasion of a ferocious band of warriors coming from the north
of the great lakes. As they advanced there was made an indiscrimi-
nate slaughter of men, women and children, and the public alarm was
extreme. Hiawatha advised his people to call a general council of all
the tribes that could be gathered together from the east to the west,
appointing a meeting to be held at a suitable place indicated, on the
banks of Onondaga Lake. All the chief men accordingly assembled
at this place, as* well as a vast multitude of men, women and children,
in expectation of deliverance.
Hiawatha, for some reason, delayed his attendance; messengers
were sent for him, who found him in a pensive mood, and to whom he
expressed the foreboding that evil might come from his attendance.
But these presentiments wêre overcome by the representations of the
messengers, and thereupon he put his wonderful canoe again into the
watery element and set out for the council, taking with him his only
daughter; proceeding up the current of the Seneca river, he soon
appeared among his people at the great council.
As he walked up the ascent from the lake to the council ground, a
loud sound wâs heard in the air above as if caused by some rushing
current of wind. A spot of matter was discovered descending rapidly,
and every instant enlarging in its size and velocity. Hiawatha, as
soon as he had gained the eminence, stood still, and caused his daugh-
ter to do the same, considering it cowardly to fly and impossible to
avert the designs of the Great Spirit.
The descending object disclosed the shape of a large white bird,
with wîde, extended and pointed wings, coming down upon the ground
swifter and swifter, and with a powerful swoop crushed the daughter
of Hiawâtha to the earth. Not a muscle moved in the face of
Hiawatha. His daughter lay dead before him, but the great and mys-
terious white bird was also killed in the shock. This bird was cov-
ered with beautiful plumes of snow-white shining feathers, one of
which was plucked by each warrior, with which he decorated himself;
and, henCe, it became a custom among this people to assume this kind
of feathers on the w-ar path. Subsequent generations, it is said, sub-
stituted the plumes of the white heron, which led this bird to be
greatly esteemed. But still greater wonder followed, for on removing
the carcass of the bird not a trace of the daughter could be discovered;
she had completely vanished. At this the father was greatly affected
and became disconsolate, but he aroused himself and proceeded to the
head of the council with dignified air, covered with his simple robe of
wolf skin, taking his seat among the chiefs, warriors and counselors
assembled. On the second day of the council Hiawatha arose and
proceeded to give to his people his advice as to how they should best
provide for their future welfare. He said
:
"My friends and brothers: You are members of many tribes,
and have come from a great distance. We have met to promote the
common interest and our mutual safety. How shall it be accomplished?
To oppose these northern hordes in tribes singly, while we are at vari-
ance often with each other, is impossible. By uniting in a common
band of brotherhood we may hope to succeed. Let this be done, and
we shall drive the enemy from our land. Listen to me by tribes.'*
Whereupon he proceeded to assign positions to each one of the five
tribes of the nation their respective position in their newdy constituted
league, addressing each separately. To the Mohawks he assigned the
country on the Mohawk river, next to the Hudson, as the first in the
nation, because they were warlike and mighty. The Oneidas he assigned
next in position on the west, as the second nation, because they always
gave wise counsel. To the Onondagas, whose habitation was at the
foot of the great hill, he assigned the third in the nation, because
they were all greatly gifted in speech. To the Senecas, whose dwell-
ing was in the dark forest, and whose home was everywhere, he assigned
to be the fourth nation, because of their superior cunning in hunting;
and the Cayugas, the people living in the open country, possessing
much wisdom, he assigned as the fifth nation, because they understood
better the art of raising corn and beans and making houses.
On the next day Hiawatha's advice was concurred in by the great
council, and the five tribes were united in a bond of union, since called
the League of the Iroquois. After this Hiawatha took leave of the
council, announcing his withdrawal to the skies, whereupon he went
down to the water, seated himself in his mysterious canoe, when sweet
music was heard in the air above, and his mystical vessel, in which he re-
mained seated, was lifted gently from the surface of the water, ascend-
ing higher and higher till it vanished from sight and disappeared in
the celestial regions of the Owayneo (Great Spirit) and his hosts.
It seems that this mythical personage the poet Longfellow took
and blended into various Ojibway legends, forming that masterly pro-
duction styled the
"
Song of Hiawatha," which added so much to his
^
v;
INDIAN TllADITIONS.
Jj5
literary fame. Whilst the Ojibways had a simihir
supernatural per-
sonage in their traditions called by them Namihbozhoo,
yet he docs
not seem to have served so fully to bring out what the poet desireil to
present in this net-work pf Ojibway legends.
The marvellous power of Hiawatha, given him in the foregoing
Iroquois legend, in propelling and guiding his mystical ])oat, is
carried by the poet Longfellow into his Ojibway legend in the follow-
ing lines:
"
Paddles none bad Hiawatha,
Paddles none he had or needed,
For his thoughts as i)addles served him.
And his wishes served to guide him;
Swift or slow at will he glided.
Veered to right or left at pleasure."
It is observed that this mythical story of Hiawatha, as the ancient
law giver of the Iroquois, and his miraculous disappearance from
among his people, singularly corresponds with that historical occur-
rence, or that given us as such, concerning the ancient Spartan law
giver Lycurgus, who, after preparing a complete code of laws for the
Spartans, and giving them advice as to the future, mysteriously dis-
appeared forever.
It also possessed a similar feature to that given us in the
account of the great law giver of Israel, who, after his mission had
been accomplished, in like manner was not allowed to continue
longer among them, and of whom it is written: "And the Lord
said unto him: This is the land which I sware unto Abraham, unto
Isaac, and unto Jacob, saying, I will give it unto thy seed; I have
caused thee to see it with thine eyes, but thou shalt not go over
thither. So Moses, the servant of the Lord, died there in the land of
Moab, according to the word of the Lord. And he buried him in a
valley in the land of Moab, over against Beth-peor; but no man
knoweth of his sepulchre unto this day."
The Arapahoes had a tradition, that before there were any
animals on earth it was covered with water, except one mountain on
which was seated an Arapahoe crying, and who was poor and in dis-
tress. The gods looked upon him with pity, and created three ducks
and sent them to him. The Arapahoe commanded the ducks to dive
down in the water and bring up some dirt. One of them obeyed.
After a long time he came up, but had failed to find any dirt. The
second duck went down and was gone still longer than the first. He
also
came up without finding dirt. Then the third duck went down
and was gone likewise a long time, but when he arose to the surface
he had a little dirt in his mouth. Directly the waters disappeared,
96
and left the Arapahoe the sole possessor of the land. Thereupon the
Arapahoe made the rivers and the woodland, placing the latter near
the streams. He then created a Spaniard and a beaver, and from
their union came all the people of the eaj-th. The whites he made
beyond the ocean. He then created all the animals that are on earth,
all the birds of the air, fishes of the streams, the grasses and all
things that grow on the earth. He made a pipe and gave it to the
people. He showed them how to make bows and arrows, how to make
fire by rubbing two sticks, how to talk with their hands, and how to
live. He also instructed all the surrounding tribes to live at peace
with the Arapahoes. All these tribes came to the Arapahoes, who
gave them their goods and ponies. The Arapahoes never let their
hearts get tired with giving, and all the tribes loved them.
The Blackfeet have a tradition or myth, that an old man, who
lived far in the north, made the earth and all things upon it ; that
there is a great river in the north where this old man played; that
there are there two huge rocks, which he used to play with as boys
play with pebbles, and that these rocks have worn a deep trail in the
solid rock.
Captain Clark, in his book on Indian sign language, says that a
chief of the Bonack tribe, at the Fort Hall agency, gave him the fol-
lowing tradition in regard to the creation, as told him by his grand-
father: He said that they had a great father who made them. In
what shape this father was at the present day they did not know, but
perhaps in that of a cloud, the snow, or a storm, but it was the Big
Grey Wolf who was the father of the Bonacks, and the Coyote was the
father of the Shoshonees. The Grey Wolf was a God, and when the
Bonacks died they went to where he lived. This wolf formerly lived
in a rock near Win-ne-mucka, in a huge hollow rock. The trail made
by this wolf in going in and out, they say, is still visible, and his foot-
prints are in the solid rocks and can be seen to-day. His grandfather
told him that the earth was once covered with water, except the high-
est peaks, and the wind blew so hard that the water washed out the
deep ravines, which are now seen, but this was before any people were
made. The Shoshonees have a tradition or myth of the creation much
like that of the Bonacks, showing an intimate relation between the two
tribes.
Capt. Clark gives the following tradition among the Crow Indians
as related to him by an old chief: "Long ago there was a great flood,
and only one man was left, whom we call 'The Old Man' because it
happened so long ago, and because we have talked about him so much.
This god saw a duck and said to him,
*
come here, my brother. Go
INDIAN TRADITIONS.
[)1
down and get some dirt and I will see what I can do with it.' The
duck dived and was gone a long time. Coming to the surface, he had a
small bit of mud. The god said he would make something with it, ami
added, 'We are here by ourselves, it is bad!' Holding the mud in his
hand till it dried, then blowing it in different directions, there was dry
land all about. The duck and the god and the ground were all that
existed. He then made the creeks and mountains, and after that they
asked each other to do certain things. The duck asked the god to
make certain things, among the rest, Indians on the prairie. The god
took some dirt in his hand, blew it out, and there stood a man and a
woman. A great many Crows sprang up at once from this dirt, but
they were blind. The first man created pulled open one eye and saw
the streams and mountains, and then the other and cried out that the
country was fine. The first woman created did the same, and they
told the rest to do the same, and to this day the peculiar marks about
the eyes show the manner of opening them. The first two then asked
the god for something to hide their nakedness. The god told the
woman and explained to the man how to perpetuate their species."
From investigation it would appear that nearly every tribe, if not
all of them, without exception, had its legends of origin not unlike
those which are here given. Late explorations and more intimate ac-
quaintance with the Indians of Alaska, to the most northern limit,
shows this same class of legends concerning their origin, all going to
still further strengthen the theory of a common stock among all
American tribes. One of these legends is given by Lieut. C. E. S.
Wood, who visited Alaska in 1877, and styled by him the T'linket
legend of Mount Edgecumbe, and which was given him by Tah-ah-nah-
klick, one of his Indian guides.
CHAPTEE IV.
AFFINITY WITH THE
JEWS.
Opinion of James Adair-The Indians Descended from the People of Israel-He Assigns
Twenty-three Arguments for this OpinionSimilarity Between the Languages
Comparison of Words and SentencesOpinion of Rev. Jedidiah MorseSimi-

larity of Religious CustomsDr. Boudinot Favors this TheoryRev. Ethan
SmithEvidence in Favor of this TheoryThe Indians Acknowledge but One
Great Spirit like the JewsFather Charlevoix Presents Evidence in Support of
this TheoryIndians Were Never Known to Worship ImagesEvidence of
William PennFeatures of the Face like the HebrewsAnd so with Dress
Trinkets and OrnamentsTheir Fasts and Feasts, like the JewsThey Reckon
by Moons and Count Time like the HebrewsHave their ProphetsAbstain from
Unclean ThingsSalute the Dawn of Morning by Devotional CeremonyIn
their Lodge Tales and Traditions Twelve Brothers are Spoken ofCustom in
Mourning for the Dead, like the JewsHave a Custom of Burnt OfferingsHad
a Custom like the Jews of Annointing the HeadThe Indian Medicine Lodge
Corresponded to the Jewish SynagogueHad a Secret Order Resembling that of
the JewsTheir Medicine Man Corresponded to the
"
Wise Men," Matthew
II,
1
The Bow and Arrow was Common to the JewsThe Indian Tent was like
that of the JewsLived in Tribes like the Jews.
JEWISH HIGH PRIEST IN HIS
KOBES.
ANY writers have given special atten-
tion to an inquiry into the subject of
the American aborigines, with refer-
ence to discovering an affinity of this
people with the Jews, or people of Israel.
Among the class of writers aforesaid is Mr.
James Adair, who resided forty years among the
American tribes, and who wrote a book on the
subject, which was published about the year
1775, in which he, without hesitation, declares
that the American aborigines are descendants
from the Israelites, and so complete is his con-
viction on this head, that he declares he finds a
perfect and undisputable similitude in each. He
says: "From the most accurate observations I
could make, in the long time I traded among
the Indians of America, I was forced to believe
them lineally descended from the tribes of
Israel."
v98)
AFFINITY WITH THE JEWS.
[){)
Among the early authorities cited, to show that the American
Indians are descendants from the Israelites, Mr. Adair seems to })e tlie
principal one, and since his time, all writers who have favored his
views, refer with unreserved confidence to the evidence furnished l)y
him to this end.
One of the earnest writers in support of this theory in later times, is
Rev. Ethan Smith, of Poultney, Vt., as shown in his book entitled "View'
of the Hebrew, or tlie Tribes of Israel in America," published in 1825,
wherein he undertakes to prove, citing Mr. Adair and others, that the
American Indians are descendants from the Lost Tribes of Israel.
Mr. Smith sums up the arguments of Mr. Adair that the natives
of this continent are of the ten tribes of Israel, to the following effect:
1. Their division into tribes. 2. Their worship of Jehovah. 3.
Their notions of a theocracy. 4. Their belief in the administration of
angels. 5. Their language and dialects. 6. Their manner of counting
time. 7. Their prophets and 'high priests. 8. Their festivals, fasts
and religious rites. 9. Their daily sacrifice. 10. Their ablutions
and anointings. 11. Their laws of uncleanliness. 12. Their absti-
nence from unclean things. 13. Their marriage, divorces and punish-
ments of adultery. 14. Their several punishments. 15. Their cities
of refuge. 16. Their purifications and preparatory ceremonies. 17.
Their ornaments. 18. Their manner of curing the sick. 19. Their
burial of the dead. 20. Their mourning for the dead. 21. Their
raising seed to a deceased brother. 22. Their change of names adapted
to their circumstances and times. 23. Their own traditions; the
account of English writers; and the testimonies given by Spaniards
and other writers of the primitive inhabitants of Mexico and Peru.
Many of those who contend for Jewish origin of the American
Indian insist that evidence of this fact is found in the languages of
the Indians, which appear clearly to have been derived from the
Hebrew. This is the opinion expressed by Mr. Adair, in which Dr.
Edwards having a good knowledge of some of the Indian languages,
concurs and gives his reasons for believing this people to have been
originally Hebrew.
The langfuasres of the Indians and of the Hebrews, he remarks,
are both found without prepositions, and are formed with prefixes and
suffixes, a thing not common to other languages; and he says that
not only the words, but the construction of phrases in both are
essentially the same. The Indian pronoun, as well as other nouns, he
remarks, are manifestly from the Hebrews. The Indian laconic, bold,
and
commanding figures of speech, Mr. Adair notes as exactly
agreeing
with the genius of the Hebrew language.
Relative to the Hebraism of their figure, Mr. Adair gives the
following instance from an address of a captain to his warriors, on
going to battle: "I know that your guns are burning in your hands;
your tomahawks are thirsting to drink the blood of your enemies;
your trusty arrows are impatient to be upon the wing ; and lest delay
should burn your hearts any longer, I give you the cool refreshing
words: Join the holy ark; and away to cut
off
the devoted enemy.''''
A table of words and phrases is furnished by Dr. Boudinot,
Adair and others, to show the similarity, in some of the Indian lan-
guages, to the Hebrew, and that the former must have been derived
from the latter. The following is an example afforded from the
sources quoted:
WORDS.
HEBREW, OR CHALDAIC.
Jehovah.
Ale, Aleim.
Jah.
Shiloh.
Shemin.
Abba.
Ish.
Ishto.
Eweh, Eve.
Ka.
Lihene.
Huah.
Neheri.
Debonaoim.
Korah.
Canaan.
Phalac.
Na.
Kish.
Jannon.
Phauhe.
Ruach.
Ararat.
Grabit.
Ourni.
Ishda Alloa.
Sagan.
HEBREW.
Hara hara.
Hallelujah.
Natoui bamen.
Bona bouak.
Ye hali ettouboa.
Vongali.
Nance heti.
Rev. Jedidiah Morse, in his tour among the Western Indians, says
of the Indians' language: "It is highly metaphorical; and in this and
other respects they resemble the Hebrew."
"
This resemblance in
their language" he adds, "and the similarity of many of their
ENGLISH. INDIAN.
Jehovah. Yohewah.
God. Ale.
Jah. Yah or Wah.
Shiloh. Shilu.
Heavens. Chemim.
Father. Abba.
Man. Ish, Ishie.
Woman. Ishto.
Wife. Awah.
Thou. Keah.
His wife. Liani.
This man. Uwoh.
Nose. Nichiri.
Eoof of a house. Taubana-ora.
Winter. Kora.
Canaan. Canaai.
To pray. Phale.
Now. Na.
Hind part. Kesh.
Do. Jennais.
To blow. Phaubac.
Kushing wind. Rowah.
Ararat, or high mount. Ararat.
Assembly. Kurbet.
My skin. Nora.
Man of God. Ashto Alio.
Waiter of the high priest. Sagan.
PARTS OF SENTEN(
ENGLISH.
INDIAN.
Very hot.
Heru hara or hala.
Praise to the first cause. Halleluwah.
Give me food.
Natoni boman.
Go thy way.
Bayou boorkaa.
Good be with you. Halea tibou.
My necklace.
Yene kali.
I am sick.
Nane guale.
AFFINITY WITH THE JEWS. 101
religious customs to those of the Hebrews, certainly give phiusilnlity
to the iiififenious theory of Dr. Boudinot, exhibited in liis interestinir
work, iJic Sicir in the West.''''
Dr. Boudinot speaks of some Indians at a place called Cohocks,
who called the high mountain at the west Ararat. He says that the
Penobscot Indians called a high mountain by the same name; that
he himself attended an Indian religious dance, concerning which he
remarks
:
"They dance one round; and then a second, singing hal-hal-hal,
till they finished the round. They then gave us a third round, strik-
ing up the words le-le-le. On the next round it was the words,
lu-lu-lu, dancing with all their might. During the fifth round was
yah-yah-yah. Then all joined in a lively and joyful chorus, and
sung halleluyah ; dwelling on each syllable with a very long breath,
in a most pleasing manner." And he says, "there could be no decep-
tion in all this. Their pronunciation was very gutteral and sonorous,
but distinct and clear."
Rev. Ethan Smith, in his book before mentioned, remarking on
this circumstance, says: "How could it be possible that the wild
native Americans, in different parts of the continent, should be found
singing this phrase of praise to the Great First Cause, or to Jali
exclusively Hebreio, without having brought it down by tradition from

ancient Israel ? The positive testimonies of such men as Boudinot
and Adair are not to be dispensed with nor doubted. They testify
what they have seen and heard. And I can conceive of no rational
way to account for this Indian song, but that they brought it down
from ancient Israel, their ancestors."
Dr. Boudinot further says of the Indians: "Their languages in
their roots, idioms and particular construction, appear to have the
whole genius of the Hebrew; and what is very remarkable have
most of the peculiarities of that language, especially those in which
it differs from most other languages."
It is also insisted by many, as further evidence showing the
Jewish origin of the American Indian, that they have had their
imitation of the ark of the covenant in ancient Israel. Rev. Ethan
Smith says, that different travelers, and from different regior.s, unite
in this, and refers to the fact that Mr. Adair is full in his account of
it. He describes it as a small square box, made convenient to carry
on the back ; that the Indians never set it on the ground, but on rocks
in low ground where stones were not to be had, and on stones where
they are to be found. Mr. Adair, in reference to this matter, says:
"It is worthy of notice that they never })lace the ark on the
ground, nor set it on the bare earth when they are carrying it against
an enemy. On hilly ground, where stones are plenty, they place it on
them. But in level land, upon short logs, always resting themselves
(i. e. the carriers of the ark) on the same materials. They have also
as strong a faith of the power and holiness of their ark as ever the
Israelites retained of theirs. The Indian ark is deemed so sacred
and dangerous to touch, either by their own sanctified warriors, or the
spoiling enemy, that neither of them dare meddle with it on any
account. It is not to be handled by any except the chieftain and his
waiter, under penalty of incurring great evil; nor would the most
inveterate enemy dare to touch it. The leader virtually acts the part
of a priest of war, piô tempore, in imitation of the Israelites fighting
under the divine military banner."
It is said that among all the aboriginal tribes and nations of both
North and South America, whatever may have been said by the Span-
iards to the contrary, they acknowledged one, and only one God, and
this again is taken by the advocates of the Jewish origin of the
American Indians as further proof that this people are descendants of
the Jews. Dr. Boudinot says of the Indians, that they were never
known, whatever mercenary Spaniards may have written to the con-
trary, to pay the least adoration to images or dead persons, to celestial
luminaries, to evil spirits, or to any created beings whatever; in which
Mr. Adair concurs, adding that none of the numerous tribes and na-
tions, from Hudson Bay to the Mississippi, have ever been known to
attempt the formation of any image of God. On this subject Rev.
Ethan Smith says:
"
Du Pratz was very intimate with the chief of those Indians
called
'
The Guardians of the Temple,' near the Mississippi. He in-
quired of them the nature of their worship. The chief informed him
that they worshipped the great and most perfect Spirit, and said:
'
He
is so great and powerful, that in comparison with him all others are
as nothing. He made all things that we see, and all things that we
cannot see.' The chief went on to speak of God as having made
little spirits, called
free servants, who always stand before the Great
Spirit, ready to do his will. That
'
the air is filled with spirits, some
good, some bad, and that the bad have a chief who is more
wicked than the rest.' Here, it seems, is their traditional notion of
good and bad angels, and of Beelzebub, the chief of the latter. This
chief, being asked how God made man, replied that
'
God kneaded
some clay, made it into a little man, and, finding it was well formed,
he blew on his work, and the man had life and grew up.' Being
asked of the creation of the woman, he said that
'
their ancient speech
made no mention of any difference, only that the man was made first.
Moses' account of the formation of the woman, it seems, had been lost.'
"
Charlevoix, speaking of the Indian traits and religious customs,
and in reference to their resembling the Jews, says:
"
The greatest Part of their Feasts, their Songs and their Dances,
appear to me to have had their Rise from Religion, and still to pre-
serve some Traces of it; but one must have good eyes, or rather a
very lively imagination, to perceive in them all that some travelers
have pretended to discover. I have met with some who could not
help thinking that our savages were descended from the Jews, and
found in everything some affinity between these barbarians and the
people of God. There is, indeed, a resemblance in some things, as
not to use knives in certain meals, and not to break the bones of the
beast they ate at those times, and the separation of the women during
the time of their usual infirmities. Some persons, they say, have
heard them, or thought they heard them, pronounce the word Hallelu-
jah in their songs. But w4io can believe that when they pierce their
ears and noses they do it in pursuance of the law of circumcision?
On the other hand, don't we know that the custom of circumcision is
more ancient than the law that was given to Abraham and his poster-
ity. The feast they made at the return of the hunters, and of which
they must leave nothing, has also been taken for a kind of burnt offer-
ing, or for a remain of the passover of the Israelites ; and rather, they
say, because when any one cannot compass his portion, he may get the
assistance of his neighbors, as was practiced by the people of God,
when a family was not sufficient to eat the whole Paschal Lamb."
Rev. Ethan Smith, in his book before mentioned, refers to a letter
from Mr. Calvin Cushman, missionary among the Choctaws, to a friend
in Plainfield, Mass., in 1824, in which he says:
"
By information received from Father Hoyt respecting the former
traditions, rites and ceremonies of the Indians of this region, I think
there is much reason to believe they are descendants of Abra-
ham. They have had cities of refuge, feasts of first fruits, sacrifices
of the firstlings of the flock, which had to be perfect, without blemish
or deformity, a bone of which must not be broken. They were never
known to worship images, nor to offer sacrifices to any God made with
hands. They all have some idea and belief of the Great Spirit. Their
feasts, holy days, etc., were regulated by sevens, as to time, i. e., seven
sleeps, seven moons, seven years, etc They had a kind of box contain-
ing some kind of substance which was considered sacred, and kept an
entire secret from the common people. Said box was borne by a num-
ber of men who were considered pure or holy (if I mistake not, such
104
a box was kept by the Cherokees). And whenever they went to war
with another tribe they carried this box; and such was its purity in
their view that nothing would justify its being rested on the ground.
A clean rock or scaffold of timber only was considered sufficiently pure
for a resting place for this sacred coffer. And such was the venera-
tion of all of the tribes for it, that whenever the party retaining it
was defeated and obliged to leave it on the field of battle, the con-
querors would by no means touch it."
The celebrated William Penn, who saw the Indians of the eastern
shore of the continent before they had been affected by the ill-treat-
ment of the white people, in a letter to a friend in England concern-
ing this people, says:
"
I found them with like countenances with the Hebrew race;
and their children of so lively a resemblance to them that a man would
think himself in Duke's place, or Barry street, in London, when he
sees them." Here, without the least previous idea of those natives
being Israelites, that shrewd man was struck with their perfect resem-
blance of them, and with other things which will be noted. He speaks
of their dress and trinkets as notable like those of ancient Israel
;
their earrings, nose jewels, bracelets on their arms and legs (such as
they were), on their fingers, necklaces made of polished shells found
in their rivers and on their coasts, bands, shells and feathers orna-
menting the heads of females, and various strings of beads adorning
several parts of the body.
Mr. Penn further adds that the worship of this people consists
in two parts, sacrifices and cantos (songs). The first is with their
first fruits, and the first buck they kill goes to the fire ; and that all
who go to this feast must take a piece of money, which is made of the
bone of a fish. (" None shall appear before me empty.") He speaks
of the agreement of their rites with those of the Jews, and adds:
"
They reckon by moons ; they offer their first ripe fruits; they
have a kind of feast of tabernacles ; they are said to lay their altars
with twelve stones; they mourn a year; they have their separation of
women; with many other things that do not now occur." Here is a
most artless testimony given by that notable man, drawn from his own
observations and accounts given by him, while the thought of this
people's being actually Hebrew was probably most distant from his
mind.
Mr. Adair says that the southern Indians have a tradition that
their ancestors once had a sanctified rod, which budded in one night's
time, which is held by some to be a tradition of Aaron's rod. Some
tribes of Indians, it is said, had, among their numerous feasts, one
which they called the hunter's feast, answering, it is claimed by some,
to the Pentecost in ancient Israel, and which is described as follows:
"They choose twelve men, who provide twelve deer. Each of the
twelve men cuts a sapling; with these they form a tent, covered with
blankets. They then choose twelve stones for an altar of sacrifice.
Some tribes, he observes, choose but ten men, ten poles, and ten
stones. Here seems an evident allusion to the twelve tribes, and also
to some idea of the ten separate tribes of Israel. Upon the stones of
their altar they suffered no tool to pass. No tool might pass upon a
certain altar in Israel."
In their feasts of first ripe fruits, or green corn, the custom of the
Indians is to eat none of their corn or first fruit till a part is given to
God. In the Indian feasts they had their sacred songs and dances,
singing Hallelujah, Yohewa, in syllables which compose the words, and
it is asked what other nation besides the Hebrews and Indians ever at-
tempted the worship of Jehovah.
Mr. Adair, in further support of his theory, says: "As the nation
had its particular symbol, so each tribe has the badge from which it is
denominated. The sachem of each tribe is a necessary party in con-
veyances and treaties, to which he affixes the mark of his tribe. If
we go from nation to nation among them we shall not find one who
doth not lineally distinguish himself by his respective family. The
genealogical names which they assume are derived either from the
names of those animals whereof the cherubim are said in revelation to
be compounded, or from such creatures as are most familiar to them.
They call some of their tribes by the names of cherubimical figures
that were carried on four principal standards of Israel."
The Indians count time after the manner of the Hebrews. They
divide the year into spring, summer, autumn and winter. They
number their years from any of those four periods, for they have no
name for a year, and they subdivide these and count the year by lunar
months, like the Israelites who counted by moons. They begin a year
at the first appearance of the first new moon of the vernal equinox, ac-
cording to the ecclesiastical year of Moses. Till the so-called captivity
the Israelites had only numeral names for the solar and lunar months
except Abib and Ethamin ; the former signifying a green ear of corn,
and the latter robust or valiant, and by the first of these the Indians
(as an explicative) term their passover, which the trading people call
the green corn dance.
In conformity to, or after the manner of the Jews, the Indians of
America have their prophets, high priests and others of a religious
order.
As the Jews had a sanctum sanctorum (holy of holies), so in
106
general have all the Indian nations. There they deposit their conse-
crated vessels, none of the laity daring to approach that sacred place.
Indian tradition says that their fathers were possessed of an extraordi-
nary divine spirit, by which they foretold future things and controlled
the common course of nature ; and this power they transmitted to their
offspring, provided they obeyed the sacred laws annexed pertaining
thereto.
Mr. Adair, it must be remembered, in referring to words in the
Indian languages, has reference to those tribes which at that day were
living in the southern colonies, classed by ethnologists as the Appa-
lachians, and who were the Choctaws, Chickasaws, Cherokees, Semi-
noles and Muscogees. In speaking with reference to these Indians he
says, Ishtoallo is the name of their priestly order, and their pontifical
office descends by inheritance to the eldest. There are some traces of
agreement, though chiefly lost, in their pontifical dress. Before the
Indian Archimagus officiates in making the supposed holy fire for the
yearly atonement for sin, theSagan (waiter of the high priest) clothed
him with a white ephod, which is a waistcoat without sleeves. In re-
semblance of the Urim and Thummim, the American Archimagus
wears a breast plate made of a white conch shell with two holes bored
in the middle of it, through which he puts the ends of an otter skin
strap and fastens a buck-horn white button to the outside of each, as if
in imitation of the precious stones of the Urim.
In this statement. Rev. Ethan Smith thinks Mr. Adair exhibits
evidence of which he himself seems unconscious, saying that the
general name of all their priestly order is Ishtoallo, and the name of
the high priest waiter is Sagan. It is thought by some that the former
word is a corruption of Ish-da-elvah, a man of God ; see 2 Kings, iv,
21, 22, 25, 27, 40, and other places. That the latter word Sagan is
the very name by which the Hebrews called the deputy of the high
priest, who supplied his office, and performed the functions of it in
the absence of the high priest.
The ceremonies of the Indians, in their religious worship, says
Mr. Adair, were more after the Mosaic institutions than of Pagan
imitation; which could not be if a majority of the old nations were
of heathenish descent. They were utter strangers to all the gestures
practiced by the Pagans in their religious rites.
Mr. Adair further speaks of the sacred adjuration of the Indians
by the great and awful name of God; the question being asked, and
the answer given. Yah, with a profound reverence in a bowing posture
of body immediately before the invocation of Yo-he-wah; this he
considers to be Hebrew, adjuring their witnesses to give true evidence.
f
I
He says it seems exactly to coincide with the conduct of the Hebrew
witnesses even now on like occasions.
Mr. Adair, in likening the Indians to the Jews on account of
their abstinence from unclean things, says that eagles of every kind
are esteemed an unclean food, likewise ravens, crows, bats, buzzards,
swallows and every species of owl. This he considers as precisely
Hebrew, as also their purifications of their priests, and purification
for having touched a dead body or any other unclean thing. He
further says that before going to war, the Indians have many prepar-
atory ceremonies of purification and fasting, like what is recorded of
the Israelites.
Eev. Mr. Chapman, missionary of the United States Foreign
Missionary Society, at the Union Mission, in a letter of March 24th,
1823,
gives an account of some of the manners and customs of the
Osage Indians, which would seem to have some bearing on the question
under consideration. He went with a large company of these Indians,
whose object was to form a treaty of peace with the Cherokees, to
Fort Smith. The evening before they arrived on a hill, the chiefs
announced that in the morning they must make their customary peace
medicine (a religious ceremony previous to a treaty) for the purpose
of cleansing their hearts and securing their sincerity of thinking and
acting. Ten of the principal warriors, including the priest of the
Atmosphere, (a name of one of their clans) were selected and sent
beneath a ledge, to dream or learn whether any error had been com-
mitted thus far, or (as they express it) to "watch the back track."
In proceeding to describe their ceremonies, prayers, sacred painting,
annointings, etc
,
Mr. Chapman says: "About two feet in advance, and
in a line with our path, were three bunches of grass, which had been
cut and piled about three feet apart, as an emblem of him whom they
worshipped.
"Here the priest stood with his attendants, and prayed at great
length. Having finished his prayer, he again ordered the march on
foot. The Indians from the right and left entered the path with great
regularity, and, on wheeling forward, every individual was compelled
to step upon each bunch of the grass. The company proceeded about
forty rods, then halted and formed as before. The priest now ordered
his senior attendant to form a circle of grass about four feet in diameter,
and to fix a handsome pile in the centre. By this he made another
long
prayer. Then stepping on the circle, and followed in this by his
attendants, they passed on."
Mr. Chapman further says: "It is a universal practice of these
Indians to salute the dawn every morning with their devotion." This
108
custom, it may be remarked, seems to be universal among all the
American tribes. In regard to the ceremonies which Mr. Chapman
describes, he adds: "Perhaps the curious may imagine that some
faint allusion to the lost ten tribes of Israel may be discovered in the
select number of dreamers (they being ten), to the Trinity in Unity
in the bunches (and the circle) of grass, to the Jewish annointings and
purifications in their repeated paintings, to the sacred rite of the
sanctuary in their secret consultations, and to the prophetic office in
the office of their dreamers."
A religious custom is related by Maj. Long, which some think
goes to prove that the Omaha Indians are of Israel. He relates that
from the age of between five or ten years their little sons are obliged
to ascend a hill fasting once or twice a week, during the months of
March and April, to pray aloud to Wahconda. When this season of
the year arrives, the mother informs the little son that the "ice is
breaking up in the river, the ducks and geese are migrating, and it is
time for you to prepare to go in clay." The little worshipper then
rubs himself over with whitish clay, and at sunrise sets off for the top
of a hill, instructed by the mother what to say to the Master of Life.
From his elevated position he cried aloud to Wahconda, humming a
melancholy tune, and calling on him to have pity on him and make
him a great hunter, warrior, etc.
This, it is urged by some, has more the appearance of descending
from Hebrew tradition than from any other nation in the earth;
teaching their children to fast in clay as "in dust and ashes," and to
cry to Jah for pity and protection.
In part second of Mr. Schoolcraft's general work on the Indian
tribes of the United States,
p.
135, is an article written by Mr. Wm.
W. Warren, on the oral traditions respecting the history of the Ojib-
way nation. Mr. Warren, as Mr. Schoolcraft remarks, was a descendant,
on his mother's side, of one of the most respectable Indian families
at the ancient capital of this nation.
In this communication, Mr. Warren is inclined to the opinion,
from the information derived from the manners and customs of the
Ojibways, that the red race of America are descendants of the lost
tribes of Israel, and he asserts that this is the belief of some eminent
men and writers, and mentions this beHef to say that he has noted
much in the course of his inquiries tha\< would induce him to fall into
the same belief, besides the general reasons that are adduced to prove
the fact. Referring to the Ojibways, he says:
"I have noticed that in all their principal and oldest traditions
and lodge tales, twelve
brothers are spoken of that are the sons of
Getube, a name nearly similar to Jacob. The oldest of these brothers
is called Mudjekeewis, and the youngest Wa-jeeg-e-wa-kon-ay, the
name for his coat of fishers' skins, with which he resisted the machina-
tions of evil spirits. He was the beloved of his father and the Great
Spirit; the wisest and most powerful of his twelve brothers."
The tradition in which also originated Ke-na-big-wusk, or snake-
root, which forms one of the four main branches of the Me-da-win, is
similar in character to the brazen serpent of Moses that saved the
lives of the afflicted Israelites. In the Indian tradition, the serpent is
made to show to man a root which saved the lives of the people of a
great town, which was being depopulated by pestilence. Not only in
these instances is the similitude of the Ojibway oral traditions and
the written history of the Hebrews evident and most striking, but in
part first of Mr. Schoolcraft's work aforesaid, page 259, is some in-
formation by Mr. Thomas Fitzpatrick, a government agent of the
higher Platte and Arkansas. In this, reference is made to the fact of
a resemblance in the manners, customs and habits of the Indians with
that of the Jews or Israelites, in which he says: "In regard to the
manners, customs, habits, etc., of the wild tribes of the western terri-
tory, a true and more correct type than any I have ever seen may be
found in the ancient history of the Jews or Israelites after their
liberation from Egyptian bondage. The medicine lodge of the Indian
may be compared to the place of worship or tabernacle of the Jews,
and the sacrifices, offerings, purifications and annointings may be all
found amongst and practiced by those people."
It is to be noted, however, that Mr. FitzpatricK is not inclined to
adopt these evidences as proof that the Indians are descended from
the Jews, but considers them as mere coincidences, liable to occur
among the natives of any portion of the globe.
In an interview which the writer had several years ago with Rev.
John Johnston, a native educated Ottawa Indian, and a minister of the
gospel of the Episcopal Church among the Ojibways at White Earth
Agency, Minn., he expressed his belief quite firmly that the aborigines
were
descendants from the Jews, and cited instances of their manners,
customs and habits in support of this opinion.
There is a marked similarity between the customs of the Indians
and the Jews in their mourning for the dead. Like the Jews, the
Indians
had a time or season for mourning for the dead. A custom
among the Jews of loud lamentation over the dead was also a peculiar
custom
of the American tribes. In Gen. xxxii,
34, it is said that
**
Jacob rent his clothes, and put sackcloth upon his loins, and mourned
lor his son many days." This is suggestive of a like custom among
110
the American Indians. Among the Indians the friends of the deceased
visited the graves of their departed relatives and there resumed their
custom of weeping and shrieking. This was also a prominent custom
among the Jews, as noticed in John xi, 31: "She goeth out to the
grave to weep there." The custom of engaging women to mourn over
the bodies of the dead, which prevailed among the American tribes,
was also a custom among the Jews, as mentioned in Jer. ix, 17: "Thus
saith the Lord of Hosts, consider ye, and call for the mourning women
that they may come."
Among the Indians it was a custom for the bridegroom to make
presents to the father or parents of the bîde as a consideration in the
transaction. This custom also prevailed among the Jews; Jacob
gave a term of service as a consideration for Rachel. Gen. xxix, 20.
Among the Jews, parents negotiated marriage between sons and
daughters. Hagar chose a wife for Ishmael. Gen. xxi, 21. Judah
selected a wife for Er. Gen. xxxviii, 6. The like custom prevailed
among the American Indians.
The marriage ceremony among the American tribes was much the
same as with the Jews. In Gen. xxiv,
67, it is said "Isaac brought
her into his mother Sarah's tent, and took Rebekah, and she became
his wife." Rev. James Freeman, in his book entitled
"
Manners and
Customs," says there is no evidence of any special religious forms in
these primitive marriages. The marriage ceremony consisted of the
removal of the bride from the father's house to that of the bridegroom,
or that of his father. The marriage ceremony among the American
tribes was of like simplicity, and very much the same.
The Indians, like the Jews, had a custom of burnt offerings, as
that of the burning of tobacco, as an offering to the Great Spirit.
They had also a custom like that of the meat offering of the Jews.
See Lev. vi, 14. They also, like the Jews, had a sacrifice of animals.
Num. xix, 2. Instead of the red heifer without a spot, as with the
Jews, it was a white dog without a spot or blemish.
Like the Jews, they had their feasts for various occasions.
Amongst others was a feast of first fruits, such as the strawberry feast
of the Iroquois. The harvest feast was universal with all tribes who
raised the Indian corn or zea maize. This corresponded to the like cus-
tom among the Jews. Ex. xxiii, 16.
Dancing on various occasions was a custom practiced among the
American Indians as with the Jews, although not precisely in the same
form. Dancing was performed at first among the Jews on sacred oc-
casions only. Among the Hebrews it was joined with sacred songs
and was usually participated in by the women only. When the men
AFFINITY WITH THE JEWS. Ill
danced it was in company separate from the women. When Jeptha
returned from his conquest over the Ammonites, his daughter came
out to meet him with timbrels and with dances. When the men of
Benjamin surprised the daughters of Shiloh, the latter were dancing
at a feast of the Lord. Judges, xxi, 19-21. A corresponding custom
of dances among the Hebrews, as given in scripture, is found among
all the American tribes, the occasion for many of which is precisely
the same.
The Israelites used the mortar for beating their manna. Num.
xi, 8. It was by this means that the Indians of America from time
immemorial beat their corn and thus prepared it for use.
The custom prevailing among the Jews of annointing the head,
and in using oils on other parts of the body, also prevailed among the
American tribes.
Sign language, so common among the American tribes, is also
marked as a mode of communication among the Jews. In Proverbs, vi,
13, it is said "Hespeaketh with his feet; he teacheth with his fingers."
The Indians, at the close of their speeches in council, used a word
of like signification as the word Amen, common among the Jews as
stated in 1 Chronicles, xvi, 36. "All the people said Amen, and
praised the Lord." Amen literally means firm, from Aman, to prop,
to support. Its figurative meaning is faithful; its use is designated as
affirmatory response, and the custom is very ancient among the Jews.
See Num. v, 22, Deut. xxvii, 15-16. The Iroquois, in closing their
speeches, used the word Hiro, of the like import of the Jewish word
Amen. The Pottawattamies, a tribe of the Algonquin group, used the
word Hoa.
The Indian medicine lodge or council-house corresponds mucii to
the ancient Jewish synagogues, which were originally places of in-
struction rather than of worship, and wherein, it is said, the Jews read
and expounded the law. We find Christ publicly speaking in the syn-
agogues, and so also the Apostles in their missionary travels address-
ing the people in the synagogues.
The secret order of medicine men and prophets of the Indians had
a corresponding institution among the Jews called "sons of the
prophets," forming a peculiar order, whose mission seems to have been
to assist the prophets in their duties, and in time to succeed them.
2 Kings, ii, 3-12; vi, L
A personage corresponding to the Indian medicine man is found
in the "wise men" or Magi of the Jews, spoken of in Mathew, ii, 1.
We find in the Old Testament several references to the Magi. In Jer.
xxxix,
3, 13, Nergal-sharezer is said to have been the Eab-mag, that is,
112
the chief of the Magi. In Daniel's time the Magi were very promi-
nent in Babylon. In Dan. ii, 2,
"magicians," "astrologers," "sorcer-
ers," and "Chaldeans" are mentioned, while in the twenty-seventh
verse of the chapter "soothsayers" are named.
Some tribes of Indians had a custom of making images or a kind
of idols, not as an object of worship, but to imitate or personate some
particular spirit or god, to whom they paid some kind of adoration. A
like custom seems to have prevailed among the Jews, mentioned in
1 Samuel, vi, 5.
A custom prevailed among western Indian tribes, who lived in vil-
lages of dirt houses, of assembling on the tops of their dwellings on
festive or public occasions; this was likewise a custom among the
Jews. See Judges, xvi, 27, wherein it is said, "there were upon the
roof about three thousand men and women, that beheld while Samson
made sport."
The Indians felt that menial service was degrading. Service of
this kind among them was performed by the women. The same idea
prevailed among the Jews, who considered it a degradation to be
hewers of wood and drawers of water. Josh, ix, 21.
The bow and arrow, the common and efficient weapon with the
primitive American Indian, was also in common use among the ancient
Jews. See 2 Kings, xiii, 15.
The ancient Israelites lived in tents in the style of the most of the
American tribes.
In notions of dress there was a striking similarity between the
American Indians and the Jews, especially In regard to the outer gar-
ment thrown over the shoulders or wrapped around the body. The
Indian medicine man or prominent chief possessed a peculiar vanity in
regard to their dress, which was frequently gaudy and fantastic, and so
with the high priests among the Jews where display in dress was a
peculiar feature in Jewish custom among those high in authority. It
was a custom among the Jews to sleep in their garments, Deut. xxiv,
12-13, and so with the American Indians.
The name Dorcas, Acts, ix, 36, it is said, means antelope or gazelle.
According to some writers the Jews had a custom of giving to their
daughters poetic names, or names significant of beauty or beautiful
objects. This was a marked custom with the American Indians.
According to Mr. Freeman, it was an ancient custom among the
Jews to give names to families from animals. This found a corre-
sponding custom among the Indians, in adopting their totems to mark
their families, as the bear, the deer, the elk, and the like. The
custom is continued among the Israelites down to the present time,
i
as found in the name of Wolf, Bear, Lion and other names from
animals.
It was a custom among the Jews to give names to persons that
have some special signification, as Reuben,
"
See a Son." This cus-
tom likewise prevailed among other eastern nations. This was a
universal custom among the American Indians, as Sheeshebanee
(Ojibway), "little duck."
The change of names of persons in after life on particular
occasions was a custom of the Jews. 2 Chron. xxxvi, 4; Gen. xxxii,
28; XXXV, 10. It was also a custom among the American Indians.
By an ancient mode of declaring war, practiced amongst the Jews,
a herald came to the confines of the enemy's territory, and, after ob-
serving certain solemnities, cried with a loud voice,
"
I wage war
against you," at the same time giving reasons therefor. He then shot
an arrow or threw a spear into the enemy's country, which was signifi-
cant of warlike intentions. The custom among the Indians, in de-
claring war, was to send a bundle of arrows to some representative
chief of the enemv.
The Indian practice of lying in ambush to surprise an enemy, it
seems, was also a practice to some extent among the Jews. In Judges,
V, 11, is the following: "They that are delivered from the noise of
archers in the places of drawing water, there shall they rehearse the
righteous acts of the Lord." This, it is said, refers to the practice of
lying in ambush near wells and springs for the purpose of seizing
flocks and herds when brought thither for water.
When a war party of Indians returned to their villages after the
victory, it was customary for the women and children, with the old
men remaining behind, to assemble and express their great joy by
singing, shouting and other demonstrations. This was likewise a cus-
tom among the Jews, as appears 1st Sam. xviii, 6: "It came to pass
as they came, when David was returned from the slaughter of the
Philistine, that the women came out of all the cities of Israel, singing
and dancing, to meet King Saul with tabrets, with joy, and with
instruments of music." See also Ex. xv, 20. Judges, xi, 34.
The war club and other weapons of the Indians were like those of
the Jews. Jer. li, 20. With the Jews, the same as with the Indians,
these weapons were buried with the dead. Ezek. xxxii, 27.
The custom of wearing buffalo horns by distinguished warriors,
attached to their head dress, seems to have existed also among the
Jews. In 1st Kings, xxii, 11, it is said
"
the false prophet Zedekiah
made him horns of iron," and in Ps. Ixxv, 5:
"
Lift not your horns on
high; speak not with a stiff neck."
114
Eev. Peter Jones, an educated Ojibway Indian,' in the appendix ta
his book, entitled "History of the Ojibway Indians," quotes approv-
ingly the following from a recent publication which he considers good
authority, and wherein is summed up in general terms the most striking
analoofies between the American tribes and the ancient Israelites:
"They (the Indians) are living in tribes, with heads of tribes;
they all have a family likeness, though covering thousands of leagues
of land, and have a tradition prevailing universally that they connect
that country at the northwest corner. They are a very religious peo-
ple, and yet have entirely escaped the idolatry of the Old World. They
acknowledge one God, the Great Spirit, who created all things seen
and unseen. The name by which this being is known to them is Ale,
the old Hebrew name of God ; he is also called Yehowah, sometimes
Yah, and also Abba ; for this great being they possess a high rever-
ence, calling him the head of their community, and themselves his
favorite people. They believe that he was more favorable to them in
old times than he is now; that their fathers were in covenant with
him, that he talked with them, and favored them. They are distinctly
heard to sing, with their religious dances. Hallelujah and praise to
Yah; other remarkable sounds go out of their mouth as shilu yo, shilu
he ale yo he-wah, yohewah, but they profess not to know the meaning
of these words, only that they learned to use them on sacred occasions.
They acknowledge the government of a Providence overruling all
things, and express a willing submission to whatever takes place.
They keep annual feasts, which resemble those of the Mosaic ritual
;
a feast of first fruits, which they do not permit themselves to taste
until they have made an offering of them to God; also an evening
festival, in which no bone of the animal that is eaten may be broken
;
and if one family be not large enough to consume the whole of it, a
neighboring family is called in to assist ; the whole of it is consumed,
and the relics of it are burned before the rising of the next day's sun.
There is one part of the animal which they never eat, the hollow of
the thigh. They eat bitter vegetables, and observe severe feasts, for
the purpose of cleansing themselves from sin; they also have a feast
of harvest, when their fruits are gathering in ; a daily sacrifice and a
feast of love. Their forefathers practiced the rites of circumcision,
but not knowing why so strange a practice was continued, and not ap-
proving of it, they gave it up. There is a sort of jubilee kept by
some of them. They have cities of refuge, to which a guilty man, and
even a murderer, may fly and be safe."
Eev. Jabez B. Hyde, a minister of the gospel, of prominence in
Western New York, and of considerable experience among the Seneca
Indians, writing in 1825 concerning his information derived from the
aforesaid people on the subject of their manners and customs, says
that of the meaning of words they used in their dances and divine
songs, they were wholly ignorant. They used the words Y-0-He-Wah
and Hal-le-lu-yah as represented of other Indians. Speaking further
in regard to their apparent affinity with the Jews, he says: "In all
their rites which I have learned from them, there is certainly a most
striking similitude to the Mosaic rituals; their feast of first fruits;
feasts of ingathering; day of atonement; peace offerings; sacrifices.
They build an altar of stones before a tent covered with blankets;
within the tent they burn tobacco for incense, with fire taken from the
altar of burnt offering." Mr. Hyde further remarks that these In-
dians had formerly places like cities of refuge existing among them,
and that an old chief had shown him the boundaries of one of them.
On tliis subject the testimony of Mr. George Catlin may be con-
sidered as important, he having spent eight years amongst the wildest
and most remarkable tribes then existing in North America, commencing
in the year 1832, as an artist and student of Indian history and manners
and customs. He describes at length and in detail the manners and
customs of these tribes, in concluding which, he says:
"Amongst the list of their customs, however, we meet a number
which had their origin, it would seem, in the Jewish ceremonial code,
and which are so very peculiar in their forms, that it would seem quite
improbable, and almost impossible, that two different people should
ever have hit upon them alike, without some knowledge of each other.
These I consider go farther than anything else as evidence, and carry
in mind conclusive proof that these people are tinctured with Jewish
blood."
TENTS OF THE ANCIENT ISRAELITES.
CHAPTEE V.
LINGUISTIC GROUPS.
Classification of Groups and TribesGroups were the Subject of Division into
TribesHad a LocationClassified According to LanguageGroups Designated
by this ModeNumber of these GroupsExcluding the Esquimaux Stock
Names of GroupsAlgonquins, Iroquois, Appalachian, Dakota and Shoshonee
Algonquins Most NumerousGroups Composed of Tribes of Same Language
Location of Each GroupDefinitions and Names of Groups.

:HILST all evidences lead-
ing to the origin of the
^^
American Indian and all
satisfactory proof concern-
ing his connection with other races
of the earth are lost in obscurity,
there is a vast amount of information
relating to this people, we can ac-
quire from evidences at hand through
the slightest attention to the subject.
That which is most important
in setting out upon an inquiry into
this interesting subject, and which
seems to be the least understood,
is the classification of the various
nations, groups and tribes who
originally inhabited the North Amer-
ican continent, or more especially
that portion comprised within the
United States. This, to the general
observer, is a subject exceedingly
confused, and to most people remains
a sort of sealed book which few have
attempted to open, and of which a
less number still seem inclined to the undertaking. First of all, it
must be understood that the Indian in his general characteristics does
not differ essentially from the race of mankind in general.
(116)
LINGUISTIC GROUPS. 117
As a people, the aborigines of this country were the subject of
division into nations, tribes and linguistic groups, the same as people
inhabiting what is known as the Old World, and these in general had
a location or distinct country which they inhabited, that became en-
larged, contracted or abandoned for some other locality, according to
inclination or the fate of wars.
Ethnologists who have given this subject attention have classified,
or attempted to classify, the Indian tribes of North America into groups,
according to the languages and dialects spoken by each, taking this as
a basis of ethnological designation. But this attempt of classification
for this purpose has been far from satisfactory. It has been found
that these languages and dialects have become so radically changed
under varied circumstances, as to become very misleading in reaching
correct conclusions. There have been found instances where one
whole tribe of an ethnological group would pass over to a tribe of
another group and adopt their language and completely abandon their
own. Therefore the most that can be said in this respect is, that
whilst languaoê is some ethnolooîcal indication in the classification of
these groups, it is far from being conclusive ; so that no very accurate
or satisfactory classification can be made of the North American tribes
into linguistic groups.
The most rational classification marks this people by about five
groups of this kind, from which is excluded the people of the Exquimau
stock of the frozen regions, who, it is generally considered, are more
intimately connected with the people of northern Europe, whilst
all others may be traced to the Asiatic race. These five linguistic
groups are the Algonquins, Iroquois, Appalachians, Dakotas and
Shoshonees.
The most numerous of these groups was that composed of the
people who became known as the Algonquins, whose country extended
from the Roanoke river on the south to Hudson's Bay on the north,
and westward from the Atlantic coast to the Mississippi river, with the
exception of a limited portion of country on the north and south of
Lake Ontario, which was inhabited by a people who became known as
the Iroquois, known also as the Five Nations, and after the addition of
the Tuscaroras, as the Six Nations.
On the south of the Algonquins, and east of the Mississippi river,
was a people which have been called the Appalachians. On the west
of the Algonquins were the Dakotas, or the great Sioux nation, so
called
by the French. To the westward of them were a stock of people
covering
a wide extent of country, classed, according to Mr. Schoolcraft,
as the
Shoshonee group.
These are the five linguistic or generic groups who were found,
at the invasion of the white man, inhabiting what is now comprised
within the territorv of the United States. Some have extended the
classification of these groups to seven in number, some contend for a
still larger number, whilst others insist that the classification may
properly be comprised in three generic, linguistic groups, the Algon-
quin?, the Iroquois and the Dakotas. In this last threefold classifi-
cation, the Appalachians would be assigned to the Iroquois, and the
Shoshonees to the Dakotas.
Each group was comprised of various tribes, all speaking a
common language of the group to which they belonged, varying more
or less in dialect. The Algonquins, although not as powerful in war
as the Iroquois, for want of skill and natural sagacity in the concentra-
tion of their forces, yet in numbers and intelligence were considered
the ruling people of the continent. Their language, to a greater or less
extent, was adopted as the court language of the surrounding nations,
and there is some evidence extant that theirs was at some time the
universal language of the continent; and it is from this, among other
evidences, that ethnologists contend for a common origin of the
aborigines of America.
The Algonquins were the people encountered by the adventurer,
Capt. John Smith, at the first settlement of Virginia, and who hailed
the first vessel sent out by Sir Walter Raleigh in 1585. It was the
same people who received the Pilgrims on the coast of New England,
and who were found by the French, in 1608, scattered along the St.
Lawrence from the site of Quebec westward, and who were found at
successive periods at Lake Nepissing on the head waters of the Ottawa
river, and dwelling around the basins of Lakes Superior, Huron,
Michigan and a part of Erie, and it was the same people who welcomed
Marquette to the valley of the Des Moines and accepted his religious
teachings in the country of the Illinois.
Algonquin, a word in the language of that group, is a contraction
of the term Algomeequin, signifying "people of the opposite shore,"
or "people who live across the water."
This was a name at first given by tribes on the north to a single
tribe living on the south of the St. Lawrence river, who spoke the
same language as themselves. At the coming of the French, the
Algonquins, then so called, appear to have been a numerous tribe, and
their language was among the first of the native languages to which
the French gave attention. From this circumstance the term Algonquin
was given by them to all the tribes wherever found, speaking the same
language.
LINGUISTIC GROUPS. 119
Marquette acquired a knowledge of this language before leaving
Montreal on his western exploring expedition, and thereby communi-
cated with all the tribes on his route to the valley of the Des Moines.
The tribes properly classed in the Algonquin group will hereafter
appear in Chapter VI, entitled, "Indian Tribes."
In 1G06, when Hendrick Hudson ascended the river which now
bears his name, the Iroquois, inhabiting the country on the west, were
becoming, in war, a powerful people. They were then a confederation
comprised of five tribes, located upon the south of Lake Ontario, to
which was afterwards added another tribe, called the Tuscaroras. The
original five tribes were the Mohawks, Oneidas, Onondagas, Cayugas,
and the Senecas. The Hurons on the north of Lake Ontario were a
tribe speaking a dialect of the same language, and classed in the same
linguistic group, but were not a part of the Iroquois confederation,
and it is a singular fact not accounted for, the Hurons and the confed-
erated tribes of the Iroquois were not on terms of friendship, but
were generally at war with each other.
The French gave to the Five Nations and Hurons the name
*'Hiro-quais," from kiro, a word used in closing their speeches, like
the dixi of the Latin ; and koiii^ a cry of warning or alarm, peculiar
to this people when guarding their councils from intrusion, or other
like occasions.
The Appalachians were the people encountered by De Soto in
his march to the Mississippi river. They were the Choctaws, Chicka-
saws, Muscogees and Seminoles, including some minor tribes now
extinct, and to which, by some, the Cherokees are likewise assigned.
But the indications of language would assign the Cherokees to the
Iroquois group. The Delawares called this people Mengwe, from
which comes the word Mingo. In later times, however, the word
Mingo became applied more particularly to the Cayugas. The cele-
brated Indian chief, Logan, who was of the Cayuga tribe, was famil-
iarly known as the Mingo chief. The Mohegans, dwelling on the
east of the Hudson river, called the Iroquois nation, Maqua, (Bear).
The tribes of this group were in general further advanced in agricul-
tural pursuits, and depended less upon hunting and fishing for
subsistence than other nations of the continent.
The Dakotas or Sioux, whose country extended over the great
American plains west of the Mississippi river, were a nomadic people,
made so from the nature of the country which they inhabited, depending
almost
exclusively upon the chase for subsistence.
The word Sioux is a name given to the Dakota tribes by the
French.
It is derived from the terminal sound in the word Nauda-
wissou, an Algonquin word signifying "enemy," a name given by the
Ojibways and other tribes of the Algonquin group on the east, to the
people of the Dakota stock. The French adopted this word to
designate the Dakotas by giving only the terminal sound Sioux, so
that the word Sioux or Sou by itself signifies nothing. The word
Dakota was that by which this people designated themselves, and
signifies "leagued" or "united people."
The Dakotas sometimes speak of themselves as the Oceti sakowin,
meaning seven council
fires.
This nation being composed of seven
principal bands as follows:
1. The MdewakantonwansVillage of the Spirit Lake.
The WahpekutesLeaf Shooters.
The WahpetonwansVillage in the Leaves.
The SisitonwansVillasfe of the Marsh.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
The IhanktonwannaOne of the End Village Bands.
The IhanktonwansVillage at the End.
The TitonwansVillage of the Prairie.
The Dakota group, as indicated by language, embraced the
following detached tribes: The Quappas, Kansas, lowas, Osages,
Pawnees, Otoes, Missourias, Omahaws, Aurickarees, Minnitares,
Mandaus, Winnebagoes, and many others formerly occupying the
wide space of country between the foot of the Rocky Mountains and
the Mississippi.
The Shoshonees, the fifth group, dwelt in the country of the Rocky
Mountains, extending to the Pacific coast. As a means of subsistence
they depended upon hunting, fishing and root digging. They were of
a lower order of character than the Dakotas, both of which were in
some respects inferior to either of the three great groups on the east
of the Mississippi.
There is a separate tribe of Indians known as the Shoshonees,
which will be noticed in that chapter of this work relating to Indian
tribes, from whom this linguistic group derived its name in like manner
as the Algonquin group have derived their name, from that tribe
originally known as the Algonquins. The meaning of the word
Shoshonee, it is said, is "inland Indians," having reference to people
who lived inland or away from the sea coast. The tribes properly
classed in this group will be noted in the list of tribes hereafter given
in Chapter VI.
CHAPTEE VI.
FORT WINNEBAGO 1831.
(Country of the Winnebagoes).
INDIAN TRIBES.
Names of Tribes, how
Acquired
Signification of Names of Various Tribes
Location of
TribesChanging LocationExtinct TribesMigrationIndian
Tribes are Great
FamiliesConfederacies for Purposes of GovernmentUnion
for
Purposes of DefenseNames of Various Tribes Inhabiting the Original
Country of the United States.
^NDIAN tribes were simply
great families, much like the
tribes of the ancient Jews,
"^
and this again is urged as
showing that the aborigines of
America sprung from that peo-
ple. There were, also, subdivis-
ions of tribes, called bands or
gens, characterized by some par-
ticular totem or symbolic designation, represented by some animal.
Whilst each band had a totem by which it was distinguished, so
each tribe had a name by which it was known ; but it is a singular fact
that there are few, if any, tribes who are known to us by their original
names, that is, the names by which they designated themselves, or
adopted as their correct names. In general, the names by which they
have become known to us, and by which they have been compelled to
enter into negotiations with the United States government, were names
given them by other tribes, or by the whites, and often in derision,
growing out of some attendant circumstances.
The tribe first known to the French as the Algonquins, was called
by the MohaAvks, Adirondacks, meaning "bark eaters," from the cir-
cumstance, it is said, of their eating the bark of trees,
supposed to be
the bark of the slippery elm.
The Mohegans, an Algonquin word, pronounced
also Mohicans
and Mohiugans, meaning "wolves," was a name given them, it is sup-
posed, by some other tribe of the Algonquin
stock, as descriptive of
their savage nature.
(121)
J^22
Ojibway or Chippeway, as commonly spoken, was a name given
this people by some
neighboring tribe, meaning "puckered shoes," or
"people who wear puckered shoes or moccasins gathered about the
instep."
Ottawa is a name given by some other tribe, signifying "traders."
Menominee, also a tribe of the Algonquin group, and a name
o-iven by some
neighboring tribe, signifies "people who eat wild rice."
Winnebao"o or Winnebeego, the name of a tribe of the Dakota
stock, is a word in the Algonquin language, given by some neighbor-
ing tribe, signifying "people of the dirty waters."
An Indian tribe was, in the nature of its existence, what we would
call under our customs a kind of corporation, having a sort of political
existence, with certain implied functions. A band or gens was a sub-
division or separate division of a tribe. There was another rank of
Indian families of this kind, sometimes called sub-tribes, which were
those living in a more independent manner than a mere band of a
tribe, and who took upon themselves or acquired a name and a place
independent from the name of the tribe, as in the case of the Kicka-
poos, who were originally a band of the Shawnees, but who after a
time became recognized as a distinct tribe.
All these customs have tended to considerable confusion in desig-
nating the Indian tribes of the continent, which has added to the dif-
ficulty of deriving a correct knowledge of the Indians in their early
history after the arrival of Europeans, and has withheld from us much
important information as to the real facts of Indian tribes upon the
continent at the time of the discovery. Much of our history of this
people in this regard is, at most, but mere conjecture. The country
where this difficulty and want of correct information has mostly arisen
is along the Atlantic coast, among the tribes of the Algonquin stock,
from North Carolina to Labrador, also on the Pacific coast, from the
Gulf of California to Alaska. In other portions of the continent cir-
cumstances have been more favorable towards deriving correct infor-
mation concerning the aboriginal tribes.
There were no well defined boundaries marking the limits of the
country inhabited by these tribes, nor the groups or leagues to which
they may have belonged. Their possessions were more or less in dis-
pute, and their territory was continually being invaded by each other
to a greater or less extent, which, as with civilized nations, became an
object of contention, and, as with us, led to hostilities, aggression and
wars.
Rev. Jedidiah Morse
says that in 1708 there lived in North Caro-
lina, near the settlements,
the following Indian tribes, of which he
INDIAN TRIBES.

123
gives the number of warriors in each, and from which he estimates the
whole number of the same as follows
:
Tuscarora warriors, in fifteen towns, 1,200; Waccon, in two towns,
120; Maramiskeet, 30; Bear Kiver, 60;
Hatteras, 16; Neus, in two
towns, 15; Pamlico, 15; Meherring, 50; Chowan, 15; Pasquotank,
10;
Poteskeet (Currituck), 30; Nottaway, 30; Connamox, two towns,
25;
Jaupin, 2;
total warriors, 1,608. Admit that there are five persons for
each warrior, the whole number of souls would be 8,040.
Mr. Jefferson, in his
"
Notes on Virginia," gives the following in-
formation concerning the Indian tribes of that state when they first
became known to the whites:
"
AVhen the first effectual settlement of
our colony was made, which was in 1607, the country from the sea coast
to the mountains, and from the Potomac to the most southern waters
of James river was occupied by upwards of forty different tribes of
Indians. Of those, the Powhatans, the Mannahoacs and Monacans
were the most powerful. Those between the sea coast and falls of the
river were in amity with one another, and attached to the Powhatans
as their link of union. Those between the falls of the rivers and the
mountains were divided into two confederacies; the tribes inhabiting
the head waters of Potomac and Rappahannock being attached to the
Mannahoacs; and those on the upper parts of James river to the
Monacans. But the Monacans and their friends were in amity with
the Mannahoacs and their friends, and waged joint and perpetual war
against the Powhatans. We are told that the Powhatans, Mannahoacs
and Monacans spoke languages so radically different, that interpreters
were necessary when they transacted business. Hence, we conjecture,
that this was not the case between all the tribes, and probably that
each spoke the language of the nation to which it was attached, which
we know to have been the case in many particular instances. Very
possibly there may have been anciently three different stocks, each of
which, multiplying in a long course of time, had separated into so
many little societies. This practice results from the circumstance of
their having never submitted themselves to any laws, any coercive
power, any shadow of government. Their only controls are their
manners and that moral sense of right and wrong which, like the
senses of tasting and feeling in every man, make a part of his nature.
"
An offense against these is punished by contempt, by exclusion
from society, or, where the case is serious, as that of murder, by the
individual whom it concerns. Imperfect as this species of coercion
may seem, crimes are very rare among them, insomuch that were it
made a question, whether no law, as among the savage Americans, or
too much law as among the civilized Europeans, submits man to the
124
greatest evil, one who lias seen both conditions of existence would
pronounce it to be the last; and that the sheep are happier of them-
selves than under the care of the wolves. It will be said that great
societies cannot exist without government. The savages, therefore,
break them into small ones.
"
The territories of the Powhatan confederacy south of the Poto-
mac comprehended about eight thousand square miles, thirty tribes
and two thousand four hundred warriors. Captain Smith tells us that
within sixty miles of Jamestown were five thousand people, of whom
one thousand five hundred were warriors. From this we find the pro-
portion of their warriors to their whole inhabitants was as three to ten.
The Powhatan confederacy, then, would consist of about eight thou-
sand inhabitants, which was one for every square mile, being about the
twentieth part of our present population in the same territory, and the
hundredth of that of the British islands.
"Besides these were the Nottoways, living on Nottoway river, the
Meherrins and Tuteloes on Meherrin river, who were connected with
the Indians of Carolina, probably with the Chowanoes."
In connection with the foregoing, Mr. Jefferson adds the accom-
panying table, giving a statement of the tribes of that state, more in
detail according to their confederacies and geographical situation,
with their numbers when the whites first became acquainted with
them, where the same could be ascertained. (See page
125).
How accurate this information may be we have now no means of
determining, or how far the names of tribes which Mr. Jefferson gives
are correct, or how far they have become changed by misunderstanding
or mispronunciation by the whites, is something which we have no
means of learning at this time, or whether all these that he mentions
as tribes ranked as such, or whether they were not mere bands of tribes.
Suffice it to say, that most of the names which he gives as the names
of tribes have long since disappeared in our enumeration of the Indian
tribes of the continent; evidences of the existence of some of them,
however, remain in their names which have been applied to localities,
coming down to the present day; as the Bappahanocs, Pamunkies,
Chickahominies, Powhatans, Appamattocs, Chesapeakes, Accomacks,
and the like.
As for the tribes who inhabited the country of Maryland, we have
little that is definite concerning them. Mention, however, is made at
an early date of the tribe of Susquehannocks or Sassquahannocks as
living in that part of the country. Mr. John Ogilbt, an English writer
on American history, writing about the year 1671, says of the natives
of Maryland: "There are as many distinct nations among them as
INDIAN TRIBES. 125
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there arie Indian towns (which are like country villages in England,
but not so good houses), dispersed throughout the province. Each
town hath its king (by them termed Werwance), and every forty or
fifty miles distance differs much from its neighbors in speech and dis-
position. The Susquehannocks, though but few in number, they much
exceed the rest in valor and fidelity to the English."
The country of Pennsylvania and New Jersey wâs inhabited, it
would seem, at least in the vicinity of the Atlantic coast, by the Lenni
Lenapes, or people afterwards called Delawares.
According to Thatcher: "The clearest, if not the completest,
classification of New England Indians, at the date of the settlement of
Plymouth, includes five principal confederacies, each occupying their
own territory, and governed by their own chiefs. The Pequots in-
habited the eastern part of Connecticut. East of them were the Nar-
ragansetts, within whose limits Rhode Island, and various smaller
islands in the vicinity, were comprised. The Pawtucket tribes were
situated chiefly in the southern section of New Hampshire; the Mas-
sachusetts tribes around the bay of their own name ; and between these
upon the north and the Narragansetts upon the south, the Pokanokets
claimed a tract of what is now Bristol county (Rhode Island), bounded
laterally by Taunton and Pawtucket rivers for some distance, together
with large parts of Plymouth and Barnstable.
"
This confederacy exercised some dominion over the Indians of
Nantucket and Martha's Vineyard, and over several of the nearest
Massachusetts and Nipmuck tribes, the later name designating an
interior territory, now mostly within the boundaries of Worcester
county. Of the Pakanokets, there were nine separate cantons or tribes,
each governed by its own petty sagamore or squaw, but all subject to
one grand-sachem, who was also the particular chief of the Wampanoag
canton, living about Montaup.
"This celebrated eminence (frequently called, by corruption of
the Indian name. Mount Hope), is a mile or two east of the village of
Bristol. It is very steep on all sides, and terminates in a large rock,
having the appearance, to a distant spectator, of an immense dome."
The foregoing classification of the New England Indians is
doubtless far from being perfect, as it makes no mention of the tribes
inhabiting Maine, and fails also to include a number of the less
important clans, which were scattered here and there over the other
New England States.
According to other authorities, the natives of New England, at the
time of the settlement of the country, were divided into some twenty
tribes, extending from Maine to New York, ranging under their chiefs
I
INDIAN TRIBES. 127
or sagamores, counting in fighting men from twenty to some hundreds
each. The principal of these were the Taratines about the Kennebec,
the Wampanoags in Massachusetts, the Narragansetts, the Mohegans,
and Pequots on Long Island Sound.
Mr. Drake, in his book of Indian Biography, says: "Some
knowledge of the Indians eastward of the Massachusetts was very early
obtained by Capt. John Smith, which, however, was very general ; as
that they were divided into several tribes, each of which had its own
sachem or, as these more northern Indians pronounced that word,
sachemo, which the English understood as sagamore; and yet all the
sachemos acknowledged subjection to one still greater, which they
called bashaba. Of the dominion of the bashaba, writers differ much
in respect to their extent. Some suppose that this authority did not
extend this side the Piscataqua, but it is evident that it did, from
Captain Smith's account."
Captain Smith, in his aforesaid account, says: "The principal
habitations I saw at northward, were Penobscot, who are in wars with
the Taratines, their next northerly neighbors. Southerly, up the
rivers and along the coast, we found Mecadacut, Segocket, Pemmaquid,
Nusconcus, Sagadahock, Satquin, Anmaugheawgen and Kenabeca. To
those belong the countries and people of Segotago, Pauhunlamuck,
Pocopassum, Taughtanakagnet, Wabigganus, Nassaque, Masheros-
queck, Wawrigwick, Moshoquen, Waccogo, Pasharanack, etc. To those
are allied in confederacy the countries of Ancocisco, Accominticus,
Passataquak, Augawoam and Naemkeck, all these, for anything I
could perceive, differ little in language or anything; though most of
them be sagamos and lords of themselves, yet they hold the bashabes
of Penobscot the chief and greatest amongst them."
The word bashaba, before mentioned as the title of a principal
chief, does not seem to be an Indian word. It is doubtless a word
borrowed by Smith from the title of a high officer among the Turks,
called bashaw, from the Persian basha or pasha, governor of a
province, contraction and corruption of badshah or padshah, sovereign,
king, great lord, from pad, one who preserves, powerful; and shah,
king. A title of honor in the Turkish dominions; appropriately the
title of the prime vizier, but given to viceroys or governors of provinces,
and to generals and other men of distinction. Now usually written
pasha.
The names before given by Captain Smith to Indian tribes in the
locality of which he speaks, have mostly disappeared, indeed, if they
ever in fact existed. But all these various accounts, uncertain and
vague as they necessarily are, from the meager means of information
128
THE AMEIUCAN INDIAN.
at that time, go to confirm the suggestion that all information as to New
England tribes rests upon an uncertain and not very satisfactory basis.
The following is given as the names of tribes of Indians inhabit-
ing what is now the state of Maine, with the probable original
numbers, from the Kev. Jedidiah Morse in his report to the Secretary
of War in 1822:
'^St Johii's Indians. These are the remnants of a tribe of Es-
quimau Indians of mixed blood. They live mingled with about two
hundred French families, in a village of about thirty wigwams, or
lodges, at Meductic Point, on the junction of Mattawascah river with
the St. John's, N. Lat. 47 deg., 15 min., about twenty-five miles west
of the dividing line between Maine and New Brunswick. Of these
Indians we know very little. They have been under the care of the
Catholics, and have seldom been visited by our missionaries.
'^
Passamaquoddies. These Indians, in number three hundred
and seventy-nine souls, including some scattered families,
(250
to 270
dwell together), have about fifty wigwams; have one hundred acres of
excellent land, bordering on the Schodic river, open to the markets of
Eastport, Lubec, and St. Andrews, from four to seven miles from these
places, in a corner of the township of Perry.
^^ Fenobscots. In 1811 the number of their families, by enumera-
tion, was fifty-seven, and of souls two hundred and forty-one.
"After considerable pains and inquiry the best information I can
obtain as to the aborigines in this state (Maine) is concisely this:
Probable original numbers about the year 1616:
.*
1. The Newichwannucks, on the Piscataqua
;
2. The Ossipee tribes, on the river of the same name, emptying
into and forming the Saco; total number, 1,000.
3. The Pigwackets, whose principal town, a resting place, was
the present Frybargh, above the Ossipee; total, 400.
4. The Amariscoggins, at the head of Casco bay. These In-
dians, as far east as the Kennebec, were generally called by the gen-
eric name of
"
Abenaquies
;"
total, 500.
5. The Norridgewock tribe, whose ancient town or headquarters
was the present town of Norridgewock, thirty miles above Hallowell,
on the Kennebec. Of all the tribes above mentioned, a few only, say
twenty souls, of the latter remain; originally, 600.
6. The Pemaquids. This was a powerful tribe, probably at the
head of the Tarranteens till the great and mortal sickness among the
natives along the whole coast from the Penobscot to the Narragansett,
A. D. 1617. The seat of the Pemaquids was at Bristol, in the county
of Lincoln, fifteen miles east of Bath ; total, 600.
I
INDIAN TRIBES. 129
7. The Penobscots number 1,300.
8. The Passamaquoddies number 600.
Total number in tribes aforesaid, 1616, 5,000.
"The probable number of natives in the territory, constituting the
present state of Maine two centuries ago, was 5,000 or 6,000 souls.
The white population in 1760 was estimated at 13,000 souls. It
probably was not half that number in 1712, at the treaty of Utrecht.
The Indians were more than a match for the settlers at that time, even
after the numbers of the natives, during the preceding century, had
been greatly reduced."
The following, from reliable authority, is a list of Indian tribes
originally found in southwestern Texas
:
Comanches, Caddoes, lonies, Ah-nau-dah-kas, Wacos, Towaconies,
Witchetaws, Bolixes, Kechies, and Quapas.
The tribes of the Pacific coast, comparatively speaking, were in-
numerable, that is, counting in those small bands or subdivisions which
generally rank as tribes. Mr. Schoolcraft, some forty years ago, gave
the following list of tribes as existing at that time on the Pacific coast
:
INDIAN TRIBES OF THE PACIFIC COAST.
TKADEES NAMES OF
TEIBES.
Nass Indians. -^
Chimsyans.
INDIANS NAMES OF
TRIBES.
Kit ha teen.
Kit a lion.
Ke toon ok sheik.
Kin a wa lax.
Kis pa cha laidy.
Kit Ian.
Kee ches.
Keen ath toix.
Kit will coits.
Kitch a clalth.
Kel ut sah.
Ken chen Kieg.
Ket an don.
Ket wilk ci pa.
GENERALLY RESIDE
^
Nass river, from
I entrance upwards
I
in the order they
J
are put down.
Chatham's sound
from Portland
canal to Port Es-
sington (into which
Skeena river dis-
charges), both
main Ian d and
neighboring isl-
ands.
Skeena Indians.
Lower part
Skeena river.
\
Kee chum a kar lo.
(
Ket se lai so.
f
Keek heat la_ -Canal de Principe.
Kil ca tah- -Entrance of Gardner's Canal.
Sabassas Indians. -{ Kit ta maat. -North arm of Gardner's Canal.
I
Kit lope- -South arm of Gardner's Canal.
I Nees lous-. Canal d'la Reido.
of
Milbank
Sound,
Indians.
Onie le toch.
Weitle toch.
Kok wai
y
toch.
Ees tey toch.
Kui much qui toch.
Bella hoo la.
Gua shil la.
Nalal se morh.
Wee ke moch.
Milbank Sound.
Cascade Canal.
Deans Canal.
Ent. Solomon river
of Sir A. M'Kenzie.
Rivers Canal.
Smith's Inlet.
Calvert's Island.
LANGUAGE.
Chimsyan.
u
(t
((
((
t(
Ha eelb zuk
or
Baloballa.
((
it
u
ii
9
INDIAN TEIBES OF THE PACIFIC COAST.
traders' names of
TRIBES.
Queen Charlotte
Sound, and
Neighborhood.
INDIANS NAMES OF
TRIBES.
Na wee tee.
Qua colth.
Quee ha Qua colt.
Mar ma lila calla.
Clow et BUS.
Mur til par.
Nim kish.
We wark ka.
We wark kum.
Clal lu e is
Cum que kis.
Laek que lib la.
Cie Huse.
Soi it inu.
Quick sut i nut.
A qua mish.
Cle li Kit te.
Nar kock tau.
Qua i nu.
Exe ni nuth.
Te nuckt tau.
Oi Cle la.
Ne cul ta.
Quie ha Ne cub ta.
Co monx.
Qua ne
Ucle nu.
Quat sinu.
Kuske mu.
GENERAIiliY RESIDE. LANGUAGE.
1
I
About Queen
> Charlotte's
Sound.
Quacolth.
Uiêse
are
All or
tribes
said to speak
> the same
language, or
only a pro-
vincial d i f
-
ference.
Chilcat, several
tribes.
Cross Sound Ind.
Auke.
Chilcat.
Huna cow.
Auke.
Tako, Samdan and ( Tako, Samdan and
Sitka Indians.
(
Hootsinoo.
Hanaga.
Kake.
Stikeen Indians. <
Pt. Stuart Indians.
Tongass Indians.
Cape Fox Indians.
Ky Gargey.
Sitka.
Hootsinoo.
Hanaga.
Kake.
Sick naa hutty.
Ta ee tee tan.
Kaas ka qua tee.
Kook a tee.
Naa nee aa ghee.
Tal qua tee.
Kick sa tee.
Kaadg ett ee.
Ahe alt.
Kee tah hon neet.
Lugh se le.
'
Yon ah noe.
Clict ass.
Qui a han less.
How a guan.
Show a gan.
^
Chat chee nie.
Johnston's Straits.
''
"
Ent.
"
"
south.
Cape Scott.
Scott's Island.
South of Cape Scott.
OutsideVancouvers Is.
Lynn's Canal.
Cross Sound.
N. of Ent. Tako river.
Tako and Sitka rivers
and S. of it on main land.
Hood's Bay.
Klen ee kate.
u
> Stikeen river.
Port Stuart.
S. Ent. Clarence
straits.
Cape Fox.
S. side of Prince
of Wales
Archipelago.
Hai dai..
INDIAN TRIBES. 131
INDIAN TRIBES OF THE PACIFIC COAST.
TRADERS NAMES OF
TRIBES.
Queen Charlotte's
Islands Indians.
i
INDIANS NAMES OF
TRIBES.
Lu Ian na.
Nigh tan.
Massetta.
Ne coon.
A se guang.
Skitt de gates.
Cum sha was.
Skee dans.
Quee ah.
Cloo.
Kish a win.
Kow welth.
Too.
GENERALLY RESIDE. LANGUAGE.
y
Queen Charlotte's
Islands, beginning
at North Island,
north end, and
passing round by
the eastward.
Hai dai.
To the foregoing, Mr. Schoolcraft adds the following list of
tribes of Oregon and Washington Territories:
TRIBES OF OREGON TERRITORY.
TRIBES. POSITION.
Chinooks.
Clatsops. Near Mouth of Columbia.
Tillamooks.
Clackamas. Clackamas River.
Callipooyas. Willemette Valley.
Mollalles.
a a
Umpquas. Umpqua River, W. Valley.
Tototins of Port Orfoid District, viz:
Nasomah. Pacific Shore.
Chocreleatou.
(( 4(
Quatomah.
(. a
Cosutheutum.
(( a
Euquachee.
<<
Yahshute.
(( ((
Chetlessentun.
((
'
((
Wishtenatin.
((
Cheattee.
u n
Tototin.
(t ((
Mackanotin.
(( ((
Shistacoostee.

Rogue River Indians, Rogue River Valley.
Klamaths. Klamath Lake and vicinity.
Wascopams.
Des Chutes. Falls River.
Cascades.
Wascos. Mission Indians.
Utillas.
Utilla River.
Cayuses.
John Day's River.
Walla-wallas. Walla-walla River.
Saaptins, or Nez Perces. Salmon and Clearwater Rivers
Shoshones, viz:
Lewis River Snakes.
Bonacks.
Lewis River, etc.
Root Diggers.
132
TRIBES OF WASHINGTON TER., WEST OF THE CASCADE MOUNTAINS.
NAMES OF TRIBES AND BANDS.
Upper Cliinooks, five bands, not includ-
ing the Cascade band.
Lower Chinooks
'hinook band.
Four others, (estimate).
Chihalis.
do.
Cowlitz and Upper Chihalis.
Tai-tin-a-pam.
Quin-aitle, etc.
Makahs.
S'Klallams.
Kahtai.
Ka-quaith.
Stehl-lum.
All others.
Chima-kum
To-an-hooch.
Sho-ko-mish.
Quak-s'n-a-mish.
8'Hotle-ma-mish.
Sa-heh-wa-raish.
Sa-wa-mish.
Squai-aitl.
Steh-cha-sa-mish.
Noo-seh-chatl.
Squalli-ah-mish, 6 bands.
Steila-coom-a-raish.
Payallup-a-mish.
T'qua-qua-mifh.
Su-qua-mish.
S'Ho-ma-mish.
Dwa-mish.
Sa-ma-mish.
S'ke-tehl-mish.
Smel-ka-mish.
Skope-ah-mish.
St-ka-mish.
Sin-a-ho-mish.
N'quntl-ma-mish.
Sky-wha-mish.
Sk-tah-le-jum.
Sno-qnal-mook.
Sto-luch-wa-mish.
Kikiallis.
Skaf,at.
N'qua-cha-mish.
8raa-leh-hn.
Mis-kai-whu.
Sa-kii-me-hu.
Sqni-na-misli.
Swo-da-misb.
Sin-a-ah-mish.
Samish.
Nook-saak.
Lunimi.
IShiin-i-ah-moo.
WHERE LOCATED.
Columbia River, above the Cowlitz.
Col iimbia River, below the Cowlitz.
Shoalwater Bay.
Gray's Harbor, and Lower Chihalis River.
Northern Forks of Chihalis River.
On Cowlitz River and the Chihalis, above
Base of Mts. on
(
'owlitz, etc. [the Satsop.
Coast from Gray's Harbor northward.
Cape Flattery and vicinity.
Straits of Fuca.
Port Townsend.
Port Discovery.
New Dungeness.
False Dungeness, etc., westward.
Port Townsend.
Hood's ( anal.
Hood's Canal, upper end.
Case's Inlet, etc.
Carr's Inlet, etc.
Hammersly's Inlet, etc.
Totten's Inlet, etc.
Eld's Inlet, etc.
Budd's Inlet, etc.
South Bay.
Nisqually River and vicinity.
Steil-a-coom Creek and vicinity.
Mouth of Puyallop River, etc.
Heads of Puyallop River, etc.
Peninsula between Hood's Canal and Ad-
Vashon's Island. [miralty Inlet.
Lake Fork, Dwamish River.
Dwaniish Lake, etc.
Head of White River.
Head of Green River.
Main White River.
South end Whitby's I'd., Sin-a-homish R.
Upper branches, north side "
"
(( ((
South Fork Sin-a-homish River.
Stoluchwamish River, etc.
Kikiallis River and Whitby's Island.
Skagit River and Penn's Cove.
Branches of Skagit River.
North End Whitby's Island, canoe pas-
sage, and Siu-a-mish River.
Samish River and Bellingham Bay.
South Fork Lummi River.
Lurami River and Peninsula.
Between Lummi Point and Frazier's
Riv.
INDIAN TRIBES. 133
TRIBES OF WASHINGTON TER., EAST OF THE CASCADE MOUNTAINS.
NAMES OF TRIBES.
Flatheads.
(
'ootenays and Flatboys.
Peud d'Oreilles of Upper Lake.
Pend d'Oreilles of Lower Lake.
('(Bur d'Alenes.
Spokanes.
Nez Perces.
Pelouses.
Cayuses.
Walla-wallas.
Dalles Bands.
Cascades.
Klikatats.
Yakamas.
Pisquouse and Okinakanes.
Schwo-Yelpi or Colville.
OBSERVATIONS.
Undoubtedly, a large majority of the
Nez Perces are in Washington Territory,
but the major part of the Cayuses, Wal-
la-wallas and the Dalles Indians are in
Oregon.
TRIBES OF WASHINGTON TERRITORY AROUND PUGET SOUND.
NAMES OF TRIBES.
LOCATED.
Between Olympia and Na-wau-kum
River.
Stak-ta-mish.
Squak-s'na-mish.
Se-heh-wa-mish.
Squalli a-mish.
Pu-yal-lup-a-mish.
S'ho-ma-mish.
Su-qua-mish.
Sin-a-ho-mish.
Sno-qual-mook.
Sina-ah-mish.
Nook-lum-mi.
General list of Indian tribes in North America from the most
authentic sources that can be obtained, in addition to those hereto-
fore specially mentioned
:
Abekas, probably Muskogees, under French at Tombeckbee, 1750.
Abenaki, Wapanachki, Eastern Indians. A generic term first
given by Europeans to the Indians of New England, Eastern Canada
aiid Nova Scotia, understood to include the following tribes : Micmacs,
Souriquois, x\meriscoggins, Etchimins and Penobscots. The Abenakis
proper lived on the Kennebec river; their principal place was Nan-
rantsouak (Norridgewock). Numbered in 1699 about 200, in 1780
about
150. Algonquin stock. See Delawares.
Absoroka, or Crow Indians, upper Missouri river. See Crows.
Accokesaw, west side of the Colorado, in 1805. (Drake).
Accomacs, Acomacks, on eastern shore of Virginia. Alg. stock.
Adirondacks, on St. Lawrence, in 1786 about 100. Alg. stock.
Affagoula, small clan in 1783 on lower Mississippi. (Drake),
Agawam
(Wampanoags), at Sandwich, Mass.; others at Ipswich
ill
1620.
Algonquin stock. (Drake).
Aglemutes,
Agolegmutes. In Russian America, at the mouth of
the rivers Naschagak and Naknek. They belong to the Esquimaux
(Tchouktchi Americans of Balbi). (Trubner).
Ahwahaway (Minetare), southwest Missouri 1820, above the
Maudans; 200 in 1805. (Drake).
Ajoues, see lowas. Dakota stock.
Alansar (Fall), head branches south fork Saskashawan. (Drake.)
Aleutans, in islands between Alaska and Kamschatka.
Aliatan, three tribes in 1805 on heads Platte. (Drake).
Aliche, near Nacogdoches in 1805, spoke Caddo. (Drake).
Algonquins. Once a powerful tribe of the northern shores of the
lakes and the St. Law^rence. This became a generic term applied gen-
erally to all the tribes of the continent as a linquistic group of the
same stock. The word comes to us from the missionaries and historical
writers of New France, and meant originally
"
people of the other
side," in contradistinction to the Iroquois tribes; name invented by
the French from Indian roots for the wide-spreading stock of Indian
tribes, whose migration extended over so long a line of the continent,
referred to by early French writers as Montagues.
Allakaweah, heads Big Horn river; 2,300 in 1805. (Drake).
Alleghans, known also as Allegewi and Talligewi, originally AUi
or Alley, lived in the Ohio valley, along its confluent streams. Now
extinct, or lost by amalgamation with other tribes. Algonquin stock.
Allibama (Creek), removed to Red river 1764. (Drake).
Amalistes, formerly on the St. Lawrence ; about 500 in 1760.
Anasaguntakook, sources Androscoggin till 1750. Algonquin
stock. (Drake).
Andastes, once on south shore Lake Erie. (Drake).
Apaches. They roamed over the triangular space included be-
tween the pueblos of New Mexico, the river Colorado and the Gila;
they extend also into the state of Chihuhua, and even farther south.
They are related to the great Athapascan family. The Navajos and
Tinalenos belong to this stock. They originated, it is said, about two
or three hundred years ago, from the outcasts of other tribes, from the
Navajos, the Moques and Umas. In addition to this, they have an
admixture of the blood of Mexican renegades. There are several
branches of the Apaches. The Mescallaros, who derive their name
from mescal, a plant from which an intoxicant is made by the Mexi-
cans; the other tribes are the Coyeteros (foxes), which is the largest;
the Tontos (fools) and the Gilas, who are named from their proximity
to the Gila river.
Appalachicolas, on the river of that name in Florida; in 1835
about 340. Removed to Red river in 1764.
II
INDIAN TKIBES. 135
Appalousa, aboriginal in country of their name. (Drake).
Acquanuschioni, name the Iroquois called themselves. (Drake).
Arivapais, Indians of Arizona, resided at Grant reservation.
Armouchiquois, New Brunswick. Alg. stock. (Drake).
Arapahoes. Arrapahas,
Arrapahays. The word is
said to mean "tattooed peo-
ple." The northern Arapa-
hoes call themselves bv a
ft'
word which thev claim means
"good," or "strong heart."
The southern bands claim the
word simply means "man"
or "men," or "the people."
Tradition locates this tribe,
several hundred years ago, in
Western Minnesota. Their
lanofuaoê is said to be en-
tirely different from any
other, having a rich voca-
bulary. They are a part of
the Atsina or Fall Indians of
the Blackfoot stock; they
occupied the country about
the sources of the Platte and
Arkansas rivers. Their num-
ber was estimated by Mr.
Morse in 1820 at 10.000;
twentv-five vears later it was
estimated at 14,000.
Arrenamuse, on St. Antonio river, in Texas; 120 in 1818. (Drake).
Arricaree, Arricaras, Eiccaras. The indications are that these
Indians are an offshoot from the Foxes, from whom thev have been
separated longer ago than tradition reaches. Their old villages were
on the Missouri river, about half wav between the Great Bend and the
Mandan villaore, from which thev removed some distance west towards
Cannon Ball river. Their number is given by Mr. Morse in 1820 at
3,500.
Assinaboines, Assinipoils, Assinibules, Stone Indians. A word, it
is said, signifying "stone roasters," from the mode of cooking their
meat on heated flat stones, or boiling it in water, heated by means of
hot
stones thrown in. Other authorities sav it sisfnifies
"
Stone
4. O
SCENE IX THE COUNTRY OF THE ARA-
PAHOESCOLORADO.
136
Sioux," perhaps Kocky Mountain Sioux. Their country was nortu
of the British line, between Red river and Lake Superior. There are
two divisions of the tribe, one of which is of the Sioux stock, and the
other Algonquin. They are said to be a separate tribe of the Sioux.
Formerly they were called Issati. See Stone Indians.
Atenas, with Faculli in 1836, west of Rocky Mts. (Drake)
Athapasca, Athabasca, Tinne, Dtinne. A generic term, in which is
comprised several tribes, the Chepewyans (having no relation to the
term Ojibway or Chipeway), Talikals, Kutchin, Susse, Dogrib, Tlat-
skanas, and Umpquas. The Navajas and Ticorillas seem to belong to
the same stock, to which the Kenaize are nearly related. They are
frequently spoken of as the great Athapascan family, and occupied
the most northerly portion of North America, before reaching the
country of the Esquimaux. Their number is said to be about 13,000.
Atnah, or Kinn Indians Chin Indians (Shoushwap, Flatheads),
on the Caledonia river, west of the Rocky Mountains.
Attakapas, Otakapa, Indians of Louisiana.
Attapulgas (Syminoles), Oloklikana river; 220 in 1820. (Drake.)
Attikamegues, in north Canada ; destroyed by disease in 1670.
Aucocisco (Abenaki), Saco river, in 1630. Alg. stock. (Drake).
Aughquagas, east branch Susquehanna river; 150 in 1768.
Ayutans, south of Missouri, near Rocky Mts. ; 8,000 in 1820.
Bannacks. They occupied a part of the territory of Utah.
Shoshonee stock, and usually speak that language. They claim that
this word came from Pan-ah-ki, a name given them by Shoshonees.
The manufacture of the bow and arrow was the only thing of art
found among them. They seem to have depended mostly upon roots
and other natural products of the earth for subsistence.
Batem-da-kai-ee Indians, of the northwestern part of California.
Bayagoula, west bank of Mississippi, important in 1699. (Drake).
Beaver Indians, in the Hudson Bay territory.
Bethuck, ancient tribe of Indians, Alg. stock. Northeast coast.
Bedies, mentioned in the history of the Caddoes, forrnerly on
,
Trinity river, in Louisiana, about sixty miles south of Nacogdoches;
numbered 100 souls in 1805. They speak the mother Caddo language.
Belantse-Eteas. A name for the Minnetaries of the Upper Mis-
souri. They are also called Gros Ventres by the French. They
belong apparently to the Upsaroka (Crow) family; roughly estimated
in the forepart of the present century at 2,500.
Big Devil Indians, Yanktons of the Plains, on the head waters of
the Red River of the North, estimated in the forepart of the present
century at 2,500.
INDIAN TRIBES. 137
Blackfeet, Satsikaa, Pieds noirs, Blood or Paegan Indians. Some
words in their dialect indicate that they are of the Algonquin stock.
On the sources of the Missouri river they are divided into : 1. Satiskan,
or Blackfeet proper. 2. Kahna, or Blood Indians, "Indians du
Sang." 3. Piekans, Paegans, Picaneux. 4. Small Robes. Esti-
mated in 1834 at 30,000.
Blanche Indians. A term bestowed in the earliest period of the
history of New France on a tribe living on one of the south branches
of the Missouri. Hence, the apocryphal story of White Indians.
Estimated in 1760 at 1,500.
Blood Indians, bands of the Blackfeet Indians, living about the
falls of Saskatchewine river, Hudson's Bay. (See Blackfeet).
Blue Mud, west and near Bocky Mountains, in 1820. (Drake).
Bolixics, Biloxis, a tribe who, in 1669, and during the first settle-
ment of that province, lived on the bay of Bolixi, on the Gulf of
Mexico ; believed to have been of the Choctaw stock. In 1804, a few
were still living on Red river, whither they had migrated.
Bow Wood Indians (Arkansaw), from Arc, French, and Kansaiu^
a tribe. A part of the Kansas appear to have been so designated in
the early days of western history. They lived on the Arkansas river,
and are believed to have given its present name to that stream.
Boukfuka, in Choctaw history, a tribe or band of Indians formerly
living on the waters of the Pearl river, Louisiana.
Brothertons, or Brothertowns. A tribe or band formed by the
consolidation of the remnants of the Mohegans, Nanticokes, Pequots,
and other New England tribes, in the latter part of the last century,
Algonquin stock. The Oneidas granted them a township of land south
of Utica, to which they migrated, where they settled and assumed the
habits of civilization, from whence they removed about 1830 to Wis-
consin and settled on the east side of Winnebago lake, where they still
remain. They abandoned the use of their several dialects, and
assumed the English language alone. For over fifty years past they
have spoken and known no other language but the English. They were
admitted to citizenship in 1836, and live in the same manner as other
civilized people, numbering about 350 persons.
Brule, a band of the Sioux Indians, at Rose Bud agency and at
Lower Brule; the latter on the Missouri river about fourteen miles
from Fort Hall, Dakota Territory.
Caddoes, Cadodaquious ; in 1770 a powerful nation on the Red
River of the South. Captain Marcey, in his report of his exploration
of this river in 1852, says the Caddoes are considered as the mother
nation of the country, and have a general superintendence over all the
tribes in their vicinity, except the Choctaws, between whom and the
Caddoes there is great jealousy. Captain Clark, in his Sign Language,
referring to the Caddoes, says they are the same as the Nez Perces;
number about 550.
Cadodache, (Nacogdochet), on Angelina river; 60 in 1820.
Cahokia, Cohakies, one of the Illinois tribes, on the east side of
the Mississippi. Mostly destroyed by the Sacs and Foxes in the time
of Pontiac. Algonquin stock.
Cahuillos, Ca-wi-os. California Indians, residing near the Pacific.
Caiwas, near the head of the Arkansas.
Calapooians, Callapuyans, Indians of Oregon.
Calasthocle, on the Pacific, in Oregon; 200 in 1820. (Drake).
Callimix, on the Pacific, in Oregon; 1,200 in 1820. (Drake).
Canarsee, on Long Island, in 1610. (Drake).
Canibas, (Abenaki), numerous in 1607, on Kennebec river.
Carankoua, on peninsula on Bay of St Barnard; 1,500 in 1805.
Carantonanais, a tribe on the Susquehanna, allies of the Hurons.
Caree, between Nuances and Bio del Norte; 2,600 in 1817.
Carriers, (Nateotetains), in Caledonia, British America. (Drake).
Castahana, sources of Padouca fork; 5,000 in 1805. (Drake).
Cataka, on Chien river; about 3,000 in 1804. (Drake).
Catahba-Nutahka, Catawba river; had 150 warriors in 1764.
Cathlacumups, Columbia river; 450 in 1820. (Drake).
Cathlakahikit, rapids of the Columbia; 900 in 1820. (Drake).
Cathlakamaps, on Columbia river; 700 in 1820. (Drake).
Cathlamat, on the Pacific, south of Columbia river; 600 in 1820.
Cathlanamenamen, mouth of Wallaumet river; 400 in 1820.
Cathlanaquiah (Wappatoo), Wappatoo Island; 400 in 1820.
Cathlapootle, on Columbia river; 1,100 in 1820, (Drake).
Cathlapooya, on the Wallaumet river; 500 in 1820. (Drake).
Cathlascons, on the Columbia river ; related to Chinooks.
Cathlath, on the Wallaumet river; 500 in 1820. (Drake).
Cathlathla, on Columbia river; 900 in 1820. (Drake).
Cattanahaw, between Saskaohawan and Missouri rivers in 1805.
Caughnewagas, a band of the Mohawks, on St. Lawrence river.
Cayas, found by De Soto east of Mississippi, same as Kansas.
Cayugas, Gogoyans, Queugues, Gwe-u-gweh, "at the mucky land,"
or Gwe-u-gweh-o-no,
"
people at the mucky land," tribe of Iroquois,
one of original five nations.
Chactoo, on Red river, indigenous; in 1805 but 100. (Drake).
Chaouanons, see Shawnees.
Chehaws, small tribe on Flint river, destroyed in 1817. (Drake).
INDIAN TRIBES.
'
139
Chemehnevis, a band of Pali-utahs. Slioslionee family.
Cherokee, Chilake, at the beginning of this century still lived
south of the Ohio river, in sixty-four towns or villages, divided into
Ottare (Mountain Cherokees), and Ayrate (Cherokees of the Valley).
They are now west of Arkansas, in the Indian territory, have adopted
civilization and are called one of the civilized tribes. A large band of
the Cherokees still remain in North Carolina. Appear to be of the
Iroquois stock.
Chepeyan, claim from Lat. sixty to sixty-five degrees, Lon. 100
to 110 degrees: 7,500 in 1812. (Drake).
Cheskitalowa (Seminoles), west side Chattahoochee ; 580 in 1820.
Chetimacha, Indians of Louisiana.
Cheyennes, Chiens or Chawas, once lived on a tributary of the
Hed River of the North, from whence they crossed the Missouri to
the head waters of the Nebraska. They speak an entirely different
dialect from the nations surrounding them; estimated in 1820 at 3,250.
Chickamaugas, a band who broke from the Cherokees in Ten-
nessee, in the forepart of the present century, under the chief Drago-
mono.
Chickasaws, Chickassas, Chikacsas, formerly in Alabama, on the
Mobile river, now in the Indian Territory, and are called one of the
civilized tribes of that territorv.
Chicoreans, appear to have been the ancient Uchees, who are now
merged as an inconsiderable element in the great Muscogee family,
but who still preserve proud notions of their ancient courage, fame
and glory.
Chiheeleesh, north of Columbia river; 1,400 in 1820. (Drake).
Chickahominies, on the Metapony river, in Virginia in 1661.
Chillates, on the Pacific, north of Columbia river; 150 in 1820.
Chillukittequaus, at Narrows of the Columbia; 1,400 in 1837.
Chiltz, on Columbia river; next north of the Killaxth ocies.
Chimehuevas, Indians of Arizona, on the Colorado river.
Chinnapum, on Lewis river, north of the Columbia; 1,800 in 1827.
Chinook, Chinuk, Indians of Oregon, on the right bank of the
Columbia river; 400 in 28 lodges, in 1837.
Chippeway, properly Ojibway, a numerous tribe of the Algonquin
group, extending from the Red River of the North, along the southern
shore of Lake Superior to Quebec-, the most powerful of all Algonquin
tribes, wêre many bands, passing under various names.
Chippewyans, Chippeyans, inhabiting country north of Lake
Superior. Mr. Gallatin and others rank them among the Athapascan
family of languages. Many confound this name, and the people bear-
140
ing it, with Chippeway, which is erroneous, as they are an entirely dif-
ferent stock; moreover, the word Chippeway is a corruption from
Ojibway, which is the correct name of the latter tribe.
Chitimicha, on the west bank Mississippi river, in 1722. (Drake).
Choctaw, Chahtah, Chacta, a numerous tribe, formerly living in
the country between Alabama and the Mississippi rivers, estimated, in
1812, at 5,000;
now living in the Indian Territory, having adopted
the habits of civilization, and are called one of the five civilized tribes
of that territory. Jedidiah Morse, in 1820, classed among this nation
the following: Apalaches, Alibamas, Abecas, Cawittaws, Coushacks,
Coosas, Chacsihoomas, Natchez, Oakmulgees, Oconees, Okohoys, Paka-
nas, Taensas, Tallepoosas, Weektumkas, and estimates the population
of the whole, in 1786, at 17,280. Mr. Mcintosh says they were also
called Flatheads, from a custom of flattening the head of the males in
childhood.
Chopunnishes, on Kooshooskee, on Lewis and Columbia rivers;
2,300 in 1806.
Choweshak, Northwestern California, head of Eel river.
Chowans, in N. Carolina; 60 joined the Tuscaroras in 1720.
Clahelellah, on Columbia river; 700 in 1820. (Drake).
Clakstars, beyond Rocky Mountains ; 1,200 in twenty-eight lodges
Clamoctomich, on the Pacific, N. of the Chiltz; 260 in 1820
Clanimatas, W. side of Wappatoo Island; 200 in 1820. (Drake)
Clannarminimuns, S. W. side of Wappatoo Island; 280 in 1820
Clarkames, on a river of that name, flowing into the Wallaumut;
1,800 in 1820. (Drake).
Clatsops, below mouth of Columbia river; 200 in 14 lodges.
Cneis, on river flowing into Sabine Lake, 1690; the Coenis of
Hennepin, probably.
Cocomaricopas, Indians of Sonora, near river Gila.
Cochimi, Indians of Upper California, near the Mission St.
Xaverio. Related to the Laymons. (Trubner).
Colapissas, on E. bank of Mississippi in 1720, opposite head of
Lake Ponchartrain. (Drake).
Comanches,
Comanche, Indians of Texas, belonging to the
great Shoshonee family. They ranged frona the sources of the
Brazos and Colorado rivers of Texas, over the great prairies of
that country, to the waters of the Arkansas, and the mountains
of Rio Grande. They are also called Hietans, Jetans and Paducas.
Mr. Fitzpatrick, an agent of this tribe in 1874, says they are
divided into three different and distinct bands, all speaking the
Shoshonee language, of which were the Yampatickara, Cools-on-tick-
INDIAN TIUBES. 141
ara, Penoi-in-tickara ; all of which are Shoshonee words, and being
translated into English, mean Boot-eaters, Buffalo-eaters, Sugar or
Honey-eaters. Mr. Burnett, of Texas, writing concerning these
same Indians at a later day, says they are divided into three
principal bands, to-wit: the Comanche, the Yamparack and the
Tenawa.
Conchattas, came to Appalousas in 1794, from east the Missouri
;
in 1801 on the Sabine. (Drake).
Congarees, on the Congaree river in South Carolina.
Conoies, Conoys, Conois, Canais, Canaways, Canavese, Kanhewoys,
near the south branch of the Susquehanna; about forty in 1780.
The prober name is said to be Canai.
Cookkoo-oose, on coast of Pacific, south of the Columbia; 1,500
in 1806. (Drake). -,
Coopspeller, on branch of Columbia; 1,600 in 1806. (Drake).
Coosadas (Creeks), once resided near river Tallapoosie. (Drake).
Copeh. Indians of Northwestern California. (Trubner).
Copper Indians, about Coppermine river. (Am. Pioneer).
Cora. Indians of New Mexico, near the Missions of Najarit.
Their language resembles very much the Mexican. (Trubner).
Corees, a tribe of North Carolina. (Am. Pioneer).
Coronkawa, on St. Jacintho river; 350 in 1820. (Drake).
Costanos. California Indians on the Bay of San Francisco, and
formerly under the Mission Dolores. .There were five tribes: Ah-wash-
tes, 01-hones (called by the Spaniards Costanos, or Indians of the
coast), Al-tah-mos, Bo-mo-nans and Tu-lo-mos. A few other small
tribes around the bay speak the same language. (Trubner).
Cowlitsick, on the Columbia; 2,400 in 1820. (Drake).
Creeks. See Muscogee.
Crees, north of the Missouri, and west of the Mississippi. See
Knistenaux. Algonquin stock.
Crows, Up-sa-ro-ka, Corneilles. Indians of the Upper Mississippi,
extending into Oregon. They are divided into three different bands,
speaking different dialects, viz. : 1. Kikatsa, or Crow proper, on the
banks of the Yellowstone. 2. Ahnahaways, or Ahwahaways
(Black-
shoes, or
"
Souliers noirs,") between the Mandans and Minetarees,
and 3. Allakaweah, or Paunch Indians ("Indiens ventrus," on the
Snake river).
;
Cu^hina. A California tribe on the mountains of the South Yuba.
Their language is common to most of the tribes inhabiting the upper
portion of the Sacramento valley.
Cutsahnin, on Columbia river; 1,200 in 1820. (Drake).
142
THE
AMERICAN
INDIAN.
YELLOWSTONE FABKCOUNTRY OF THE CROWS.
INDIAN TKIBES. 143
Dahkotah, Dakota, Sioux, Nadowessies. A numerous nation
between the Missouri and Mississippi. Heckewelder thinks they are
Iroquois, but Cass claims them as a separate nation. This word, it is
said, means "leagued" or "allied." They sometimes speak of them-
selves as the Oceti sokowin, "seven council fires," referring to the
seven principal bands which compose this nation, viz. : 1. The Mde-
wakantonwans, village of the spirit lake. 2. The Wahpekutes, leaf
shooters. 3. The Wahpetonwans, village in the leaves; probably
obtained their name from the fact that formerly they lived only in the
woods. 4. The Sisitonwans, village of the marsh. 5. The Ihankton-
wanna, one of the end village bands. The Ihanktonwanna^re divided
into the Hunkpatidans, the Panaske, cut-heads; the Wazikute, pine-
shooters; and the Kiyucka, dividers or breakers of law. 6. The
Ihanktonwans, village at the end. 7. The Titonwans, village of the
prairie. The Titonwans are divided into seven bands or clans, viz.
:
The Sicangu, Burnt-Thighs, the Oohenunpa, Two-boilings, and the
Oglala and Hunkpapa.
Delaware, Lenape, Lenni-Lenape. Algonquin stock. The fol-
lowing are mentioned as the three original tribes: 1. The Unami, or
Wanami (turtle tribe). 2. The Unalachtgo, (turkey tribe). 3.
Minsi, Ministi, or Munseyi, (wolf tribe). They formerly lived on the
Delaware river, and were the tribe who made the famous treaty with
William Penn in 1682. The Iroquois called this people Sag-a-na-ga.
Dinondadies, tribe of the Iroquois, same as the Tsononthouans of
the French Senecas.
Doegs, small tribe on south side Potomac, in 1675. (Drake).
Dogs, the Chiens of the French. (See Chien). (Drake).
Dogribs. Indians of the northern part of North America, be-
tween Martin's Lake and the Coppermine river. They called themselves
Thing-e-ha-dtinne, and belong to the Dtinne or Athapaskan stock.
The "Mausais Monde" and Slave Indians are tribes belonging to them,
Dotame, about the head of Chien river; 120 in 1805. (Drake).
Echemins, (Canoe-Men), on a river of that name flowing into St
Lawrence on east side.
Edistoes, in South Carolina in 1670. (Drake).
Emusas, (Seminoles), W. side of the Chattahoochee: 20 in 1820.
Eneshures, at Great Narrows of the Columbia;
1,200 in 1835.
Eries, on the east side of the lake of that name, exterminated by
the Iroquois. Usually referred to as the ancient Eries or Cats, which
this word is supposed to mean.
Esaws, on river Pedee, S. C, in 1701
;
probably Catawbas. (Drake).
Eskelen, Eslenes. California Indians, east of Monterey. The
144
THE
AMERICAN
INDIAN.
SCENE IN
PENNSYLVANIA-HOME
OF THE
DELAWARES.
INDIAN TRIBES.
145
Ekklemaches are said to be a tribe of the Eskelen, and to speak the
richest idiom of all the Californian Indians.
Eskimo, Esquimaux. North of 60 deg. northern latitude. The
three principal dialects of the Eskimo are those of: 1. The Karalis,
Greenlanders. 2. The Eskimo proper, on the shores of Labrador.
3. The Western Eskimos.
Euchees, a branch of the Creek or Muscogee Indians.
Etohussewakkes, (Sem.), on Chattahoochee; 100inl820. (Drake).
Facullies, on Stuart's Lake, W. Kocky Mts. ; 100 in 1820. (Drake).
Falls, so called from their residence at the falls of the Koosh-
kooshkee. (See Alansars). (Drake).
Five Nations, Mohawks, Senecas, Cayugas, Onondagas, and
Oneidas. (Drake).
Flatheads, Selish. (Atnah, Shouschwap). Indians of the Eocky
Mountains ; divided into many tribes, of which the Salish, Ponderays,
and Spokein or Spokane Indians are the most important.
Folles Avoines, the French so called the Menomonies.
Fon du Lac. Eoam from Snake river to the Sandy lakes. (Drake).
Fowl-Towns, (Sem.), E. of Fort Scott; 300 in 1820. (Drake).
Foxes, Ottagamies, Otagamies, Mispuakies (Bed Earth), formerly
lived on the Fox river in îsconsin, afterwards united with the Sacs.
Algonquin stock, and speak the Sac dialect ; 300 in 1870. The Fox
tribe is called by the Chip-pe-was, Ot-tah-gah-mie ; by the Sacs, Mus-
buah-kie ; by the Sioux, Mich-en-dick-er ; by the Winnebagoes, 0-sher-
a-ca, and by the French, Kenard.
Fox Island, Russian America; continuation of the Aleutans.
Fuca Straits, between Washington Ter. and south part of Van-
couver's Island.
Ganawese, on the heads of Potomac river; probably Kanhaways.
Gay Head Indians, on Martha's Vineyard; probably Wampano-
ags; 200 in 1800. Algonquin stock. (Drake).
Grand River, north side Lake Ontario, remnant of Iroquois.
Gros Ventres, upper Missouri valley, west of the Dakotas.
Haeeltzuk, Hailtsa. Naas Indians of the northwest coast, from
50J
degrees to 53|^ degrees, northern latitude. Dialects of the lan-
guage are spoken by the Billechoola, andthe inhabitants of Macken-
zie's Friendly Village.
Haidah. Indians of Queen Charlotte's Island. A branch of this
tribe, the Kyganies (Kigarnies), live in the southern part of the
Archipel of the Prince of Wales, northwest coast.
Hare-Foot, next south of Esquimaux, always in war with them,
. Hallibees, a tribe of the Creeks, destroyed in 1813.
10
146
SCENE IN WESTERN MONTANAHOME OF THE FLATHEADS.
INDIAN TRIBES. 147
Hannakallas, on the Columbia, next to Luckkarso; 600 in 1820.
Hassanamesits, tribe of Nipmuks, embraced Christianity in 1600.
Herring Pond Indians, Wampanoags, Mass. ; about 40. (Drake).
Hietans, see Comanches.
Hini (Cadodache), on Angelina river; 200 in 1820. (Drake).
Hitchittees, a branch of the Creeks, on Chattahoochee and Flint.
Hochelaya. An extinct tribe of Canada, speaking the dialect of
the Mohawks. Montreal is situated on the place where this tribe
formerly resided. (Trubner).
Hohilpos (Tushepahas), on Clark's river; 300 in 1820. (Drake).
Hoopah. Indian tribe of the lower part of Trinity river, in
Northwestern California. (Trubner).
Humas (Oumas), "Red Nation," in Louisiana in 1805.
Hurons, Wyandots, Gayandot, a numerous and formidable tribe
of the Iroquois, formerly on the great lake of that name, consisting
of four bauds, the Attignawantan, the Attignee-nonguac-hac, the
Arendahronons and the Scanonaerat. In Yol. 1 of Le Clerq's first
establishment of the faith in New France, by Shea,
p. 66, note, is a
mention of the Ochat-e-guins, a name given for the Hurons. See
AVyandots.
lakon, Lower Killamuks. Indians of Oregon, north of the
Umpqua river.
Illinois, mini, plural Illiniwug. Algonquin stock. There were
several tribes in what became known as the Illinois country, mostly on
the east side of the Mississippi river, extending over on the west side
in the vicinity of the Des Moines river, which became known as the
Illinois tribes. They were the Cahokias, Kaskaskias and Peorias;
there were two other branches of these Indians, the Tamaroas and
Michigamies, which some insist were separate tribes, but better
authority assigns them as branches merely from the other three tribes,
the Tamaroas being considered a part of the Cahokias and the Michi-
gamies as belonging to the Peorias.
Inies, or Tachies ( Texas
)
, on a branch of the Sabine ; eighty men
in 1806; speak Caddo. (Drake).
Inkuluchluate, Kangjulit, in Russian America.
lowas, Ajoues, Dakota stock, affiliated with the Otoes, Missourias,
Winnebagoes, Kansas, Osages, Quapaws, Omahas and Poncas. They
formerly lived in the country comprising the state of that name ; now
scattered among other tribes of the west; number 1,100 in 1835.
Isatis, Isati, Isanti, sometimes the name of the Sioux before 1755.
Ithkyemamits, north side Columbia; 600 in 1820. (Drake).
Jelan, one of the tribes of Comanches, Brazos, Del Norte.
148
Jicarilla, branch of the great Apache nation in the southwest.
Kadapaus, a tribe in North Carolina in 1707. (Drake).
Kahunkles, 400 in 1820, W. Eocky Mountains, abode
unknown.
Kaloosas, a tribe found early in Florida, extinct. (Drake).
Kanenavish, one of the Padoucas Platte; 400 in 1805. (Drake).
SCENE ON THE ST. LAWKENCEBOEDERING ON THE COUNTRY OF THE HURONS.
Kanhawas,
Ganawese or Canhaways, on Kanhawa, formerly.
Kaninavisches,
Kaninavish, wanderers in the Yellowstone country.
Kansas,
Konza,
Kanze,
Cances, a tribe of the Dakota stock, on the
northern
banks of the Kansas river. Mr. Catlin says this tribe has
undoubtedly
sprung
from the Osages, as their personal appearance,
language
and
tradition
clearly prove. Eev. Isaac McCoy gives the
INDIAN TRIIiES.
149
word Kansas as Kauzau. The Kansas tribe are frequently called Kaws
or Kauz, which would indicate an abbreviation of the word as given by
Mr. McCoy.
Kaskaskias, lUini; 250 in 1797. (Drake).
Kaskayas, Kaskias or Bad Hearts, around the head waters of Platte
river, beyond the Kites. Col. Long speaks of seeing them upon a
tributary of the Red River of the South.
Kapahas, formerly lived on the Mississippi about the St Francis,
encountered by De Soto under that name; said to be identical with
Quappas.
Katteka (Padoucas), not located. See Padoucas. (Drake).
Kawitschen, north of Fraser's river, on the northwest coast, and
on the opposite shores of Vancouver's Island. Their language bears
affinity to that of the Haeeltzuk.
Keekatsa (Crows), both sides Yellowstone; 3,500 in 1805.
Keyche, E. branch Trinity river in 1806; 260 in 1820. (Drake).
Kiawas, on Padouca river; 1,000 in 1806. (Drake).
Kichais, Keechies, Keyes, Indians of the Great Prairies, related
to the Pawnees, on the Canadian river. (Trubner).
Kigenes, coast of Pacific, under Skittegates in 1821.
Kikapoos, Kikkapu, Ukahipu, a branch of the Shawanoe or
Shawnee tribe, now west of the Mississippi. Algonquin stock.
Killamuks, branch of Clatsops, coast of Pacific; about 1,000.
Killawats, in a large town southeast of the Luktons.
Killaxthocles, mouth of Columbia river, N. side; 100 in 1820.
Kimoenims, band of Chopunnish, on Lewis river ; 800, in 33 clans.
Kinai, Kenai, Kenaize, Ttynai, Indians of Russian America, at
Cook's inlet and the Lakes of Iliamna and Kisshick. Their language
belongs to the great Athapascan (or Tinne) family. They call them-
selves "Tnaina" men. Sagoskin distinguishes four dialects of the
Kinai language, among which are the Inkilik, Inkalit and Ingelmut.
Kiowas, Kiawas, Kioways, roving Indians of Texas.
Kiskakons, of Michilimakinak in 1680; a Huron tribe. (Drake).
Kites. See Staitans.
Knistenaux, Kristenaux, abbreviated by the French Chris,
(Cree) ; called also Killisteno, northernmost tribe of the Algonquin
stock, between the Rocky Mountains and Hudson's Bay. Kindred
dialects are spoken by the Nehethawa, Monsonik, Nenawehk, Abbitibbe,
and were' spoken by the Attikameg, who have entirely disappeared.
Their name is derived from the Algonquin adverb, Kenisa, or verb,
Nisau,
"
to kill." 3,000 in 1834.
Koltsclianes, Galzanes, Russian America, north of the river Atna.
150
Kolusches, in Russian America, at Sitka Bay and Norfolk Sound.
Konages, Konagens, inhabitants of the Island of Kadjak, in Rus-
sian America. They belong to the Esquimaux stock, and speak a
language similar to that of the Tschugazzi.
Kookkoo-oose, on coast of Pacific; about 1,500. (Drake).
Koutenay, now located on the Flat Head reservation in Montana.
They migrated from north of the British line, and made peace with
the Flatheads about eighty years since.
Kula-Napo, one of Clear Lake bands in northwestern California.
Kuskurawaoks, east shore of Chesapeake in 1607. (Tuscaroras).
Kushkokwimes, Tehwagmjutes, Kuskutschewak, or Kushkukch-
wakmutes, tribe of Russian America, between the rivers Nushagak,
Ilgajak, Chulitna and Kuskokwina, on the sea shore.
Kutnae, Kutani, Kitunaha, or Kutneha, Coutanies, Flatbows, In-
dian tribes near the sources of Mary river, west of Rocky Mountains.
Kutchin, Loucheux Indians of northwestern America, on the
banks of the Yukon or Kutchi-Kutchi. They belong to the Athapascan
family.
Lahaona, on the Columbia, above Clark's river; 2,000 in 1820.
Lapanne. See Apache. (Drake).
Lartielo, at falls of Lastau river; 600 in 1820. (Drake).
Laymons, of California, near Loretto, related to Cotchimi.
Leech River Indians, near Sandy Lake ; about 300 in 1820.
Lenape, or Lenni Lenape, former name of the Delawares, which
see. The Lenni Lenape or Delawares were called by some other In-
dians Wapanachki, which the European corrupted into Apenaki,
Openagi, Abenaquis and Abenakis, which means people at the rising
of the sun, or, more briefly, Eastlanders. They were acknowledged
by about forty tribes as being their grandfathers. All these nations
derived from the same stock recognized each other as Wapanachki,
which among them was a generic term.
Lipanis, Rio Grande to interior of Texas; light hair; 800 in 1816.
Loucheux. See Kutchin.
Lukawis, on the coast of the Pacific; 800 in 1820.
Lukkarso, coast of Pacific, south of the Columbia; 1,200 in 1820.
Luktons, on coast of Pacific; twenty in 1820.
Lutuami, Clamets, also Tlamatl, Indians of southwestern Oregon.
Machapungas, in North Carolina in 1700;
practiced circumcision.
Maha-Omaha, on the junction of the Platte and Omaha rivers
and the Missouri. They belong to the Sioux-Osage family. The
Ponchas (Poncars, Puncaws), speak a kindred dialect. Now on the
Elkhorn, near Council BlufPs.
INDIAN TRIBES. 151
Manalioaks, formerly a great nation of Virginia, now extinct.
Mandans, Walitani Indians of Upper Missouri, nearly extinct.
Manhattan, settlements mixed with Moheagans. Algonquin stock.
Maquas, said to be an extinct tribe of the Iroquois. (Drake).
The better authority is that this is the name by which the Moheagans
called the Iroquois.
Marachites. See Armouchiquois.
Marsapeagues, once on Long Island, now extinct. (Drake).
Marshpees, mixed remnant of Wampanoags, in Massachusetts.
In 1832 numbered 315.
Mascoutins. The early French travelers and missionaries men-
tion a tribe of Indians called the Mascoutins, as located at various
points in Michigan, Wisconsin, Illinois and Indiana, but concerning
which they seem to have little or no information. They are generally
spoken of as being at a distance, and seldom, if ever, visited. A people
which seem, in their mention of them, to be always on the move, and
seldom, if ever, overtaken. The better opinion is that there never was,
in fact, any such distinct tribe of Indians. Muscoda, Mascoda, Mus-
cooda, Muscatine, Mascoutah, are words in various dialects of the Al-
gonquin group, meaning prairie, or meadow country. So that when
Indians, of whatever tribe, migrated from the prairie or meadow
country, further north, they were spoken of as Mascoutins, or people
from the prairies, which conveyed to the mind of travelers, for want of
complete information, the idea that this was their tribal name, the
same as that tribe now known as Shawnees or Shawanoes, meaning
"southerners," or "people from the south," which was finally adopted
as their real name. But not so with the Mascoutins. It would seem
that no particular tribe was ever found upon which this name had
become fixed as their recognized tribal name.
Massachusetts Indians, (Natick). Algonquin stockwere form-
erly very numerous, but now much reduced. The Montaguards and
Skoffi, west of Hudson's Bay, are said to be related to them.
Massawomies, according to tradition, was a warlike band some-
where on the borders of what is now New Mexico.
Mathlanobs, on an island at mouth of the Walnut river; 500 in
1820. (Drake).
Mayes, St. Gabriel's creek, Louisiana; 600 in 1805. (Drake).
Menomonees, Algonquin stock, north of Green Bay, Wisconsin.
Drake
says once on Illinois river.
Messassagnes. (See Mississauga).
Miami, formerly in Ohio and Indiana.
Michigamies, an Indian term applied by the French to several
152
THE
AMERICAN
INDIAN.
NORT.IERN WISCONSIN
COUNTRY
OF THE
MENOMINEES.
INDIAN TRIBES. 153
tribes and bands of Indians of the Algonquin lineage, who clustered
around the borders of Lake Michigan, signifying great water.
Mikasaukies, (Seminoles), very warlike; about 1,000 in 1821.
Mikmacs, MicmacsFrench name for the inhabitants of Acadia,
Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Maine. Algonquin stock. The fol-
lowing: are considered dialects of the Mikmak: 1. Nova Scotia. 2.
Terre neuve island. 3. The Miramichi of New Brunswick. They are
closely related to the Etchemins and Souriquois. Drake says the
Suriquois of the French.
Miksuksealton, (Tushepaha), Clark's river; 300 in 1820.
Milicite, Indians of New Brunswick, of the Huron stock.
Minetares, on Knife river. Their language has three dialects,
viz.: 1. The Minetare proper, called also *'Grosventre," Bigbellies,
Ehatsar. 2. The Alasar, or Fall Indians. 3. The Kattanahaws; a
type of the Crow Indians.
Mindawarcarton, in 1805, on both sides Mississippi, from St.
Peter's upwards. (Drake).
Mingoes. The Cayugas residing upon the Sciota were so called.
Minsi, Munsee, tribe of the Delaware or Lenni Lenape.
Mississauga, or Messasagnes,
"
people of the wide mouth stream,"
a branch of the Ojibways, on the east of Lake Huron; 2,000 in 1764.
Missouries, once on that river just below Grand river, in 1820.
Mobilian, inhabited Florida, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi and
Louisiana. This nation includes various tribes.
Mohavi, Moyave. Indian tribe, occupying the country on both
sides of the river Mohave, in southeastern California.
.
Mohawk, a tribe of the Iroquois, now in Canada. The Cochne-
wagoes, or Cochnawaga, a smaller tribe, belonged to them.
Mohawks. They call themselves Gah-ne-a-ga, "possessors of the
flint," or Ga-ne-o-ga-o-no, "people possessors of the flint." They
were usually called by the French, Agniers. By some early writers
the name of this tribe is given as Ka-jin-ga-ha-ga, Gan-nie-ge-ha-ga,
Ga-nin-ge-ha-ga. This last termination was sometimes changed to
ronon, and the tribe was called Gan-nie-ge-ro-non. The Algonquins
understood that the name by which this tribe called themselves meant
hear, so they translanted it into their dialects, Maqwaas, Maquoa,
Mahakwa, from which the Dutch and English wrote it Ifohaivk, which
is said to be the origin of this word, and a name by which this tribe
became universally called.
Moheakunnuks, formerly between the Hudson and Delware rivers.
Same as Moheagans.
Moheagans were also called Mahicani, by the Dutch, Mahikanders,
by the French, Morigans and Mahingans, by the English, Mohiccans,
Mohnecans, Moheagans, Muhheekanew; also Shatikooks (Eiver In-
dians). Algonquin stock, on the Hudson river, from Esopus to
Albany. They were divided into Muchquanh (Bear tribe), Mech-
cliaooh (Wolf tribe) and Toon-paooh (Turtle).
Monacans, located above the falls of the leading Virginia river,
were called Tuscaroras in the early period of Virginia. Mr. Jefferson
reveals the fact that the Eries, called by him Erigas, who had
formerly occupied the Ohio valley, and Avere then by inference in
Virginia and North Carolina, east of the Rocky Mountains, were also
of kindred language, and had belonged to the stock of the Five Na-
tions, or, as the Five Nations were called by the Virginia Indians, Mas-
sawamack.
Mongoulatches, on west side of the Mississippi. See Bayagoulas,
Montagnass or Mountaineer. This people occupied the country
on the head waters of the river Saguenay, on the north shore of the St.
Lawrence, below Quebec, reaching to the Labrador coast. Alg. stock.
Montauks, formerly on Long Island; head of thirteen tribes of
that island. Algonquin stock. (Drake).
Moratoks, in Lancaster and Richmond counties, Virginia; eighty
in 1607; forty in 1669. (Drake).
Multnomahs, (Wappatoo), Multnomah river; 800 in 1820.
Muskogee (Creek). The most numerous tribe of the Creek con-
federation, in the northern parts of Florida. Now west of the Mis-
sissippi, in the Indian Territory.
Naass, Indians of English, Northwestern America, on and above
Millbank Sound. They comprise the following tribes, viz. : the Hailtsa,
Haeeltzuk, Billechoola and Chimmesyan.
Nabadaches (Caddo), on branch of Sabine; 400 in 1805. (Drake).
Nandakoes, on the Sabine (Caddo) ; 120 in 1805. (Drake).
Nanticokes, Nantico, tribe of the Algonquin stock, formerly on the
Susquehannah.
Narcotah, name by which the Sioux know themselves. .
(Drake).
Narraganset, New England Indians, Wampanoags. The Pequods,
Kavasumsenk and Quintikuk belong to this stock.
Nashuays (Nipmuks), in Massachusetts. Algonquin stock.
Natches, Lower Mississippi, nearly extinct; first known in 1701.
Natchitoches, once at that place, now upon Red river; 100 in 1804.
Natiks
(Nipmuks), in Massachusetts. See Massachusetts.
Navajos,
Navahoes, a powerful tribe of the Apache family, related
to the great Athapascan
stock, residing on the tributaries of the river
San Juan, west of the Rio Grande and east of the Colorado, in New
INDIAN TRIBES. 155
Mexico, between the thirty-fifth and thirty-seventh parallel of northern
latitude. The Spaniards call them Apaches de Nabajoa. (Trubner).
Nechacoke )Wappatoo), south side Columbia; 100 in 1820.
Neckeetoo, on the Pacific; 790 in 1820. (Drake).
Nemalquinner (Wappatoo), Wallaumet river; 200 in 1820.
Newfoundland. Island on the coast of Labrador, Its inhabitants
belong to the Eastern Algonquins. The Milicite and Mikmaks are a
part of them. The Bethuck are extinct. (Trubner).
Nez-Perces, Sah-Aptin. They possessed the country on the Lewis
or Snake river, from the Petoose to Wapticaciaes, about 100 miles
;
they resemble in many points the Missouri Indians. They are con-
sidered superior in intellect to the other Oregon tribes.
Niantiks, a tribe of the Narragansetts. Algonquin stock.
Nicariagas, about Michilimakinak
;
joined the Iroquois in 1723.
Nipissing. Algonquin stock. Lake of the Two Mountains, near
Montreal. About 400 in 1764.
Nipmuchks, interior of Massachusetts, extinct. Alg. stock.
Norridgewoks (Abenakies), on Penobscot river. Alg. stock.
Nottoways ( Cherohakah
)
, Iroquois tribe of Virginia, nearly
extinct.
Nusdalum, the northwêst coast Hood's Channel. (Trubner).
Nutka (Nootka), Wakash Indians of Vancouver's Island. (Their
proper name is Yucuatl). (Trubner).
Nyacks (Mohicans), or Manhattans, New York.
Ockmulgess (Muscogee), east of Flint river; 200 in 1834.
Ocameches, in Virginia in 1607. (Drake).*
Ochee. See Uchees; perhaps Ochesos; 200 in Florida in 1826.
Oconas (Creeks). (Drake).
Ogalla, or Ogallalla, band of the Sioux. There are several stories
told of the manner in which this powerful branch of the Sioux family
received its name. The most reliable is that two chiefs disagreed on
some subject under discussion, when one told the other that if he per-
sisted he would throw some dirt or ashes in his face. Holding to and
still expressing his views, the dirt or ashes wêre thrown, and his fol-
lowers were ever after called
"
those w^ho had dirt or ashes thrown in
their faces," frequently simply,
"
bad faces." The word means throw-
ing at or into.
Ojibways (Chippewas), about the great lakes and north of them;
30,000 in 1836. Algonquin stock. See Chippeway. (Drake).
Okatiokinans (Seminoles), near Fort Gaines; 580 in 1820.
Oneida, 0-na-yote-ka, "granite," or 0-no-yote-ka-o-no, "granite
people," one of the Iroquois nation ; chief seat near Oneida Lake.
-INDIAN TRIBES. 157
Onondaga, 0-nun-dah-ga, "on the hill;" or 0-non-dah-ga-o-no,
"people on the hills;" a nation of the Iroquois, formerly in New
York; 300 in 1840.
Ootlashoots, tribe of the Tuskepas, on Clark's river, west of the
Rocky Mountains.
Osage, Dakota stock, called also Wawah, Huzzaw, Osawses,
Washas or Ous ; about Arkansas and Osage rivers. They are divided
into the Chamers (Arkansas, Clermont), Great and Little Osages.
This term is of French origin, and probably derived from the
'i^.
SCENE IN NORTHEEN MICHIGANCOUNTRY OF THE OTTAWAS.
Algonquin,
Assigunaigs or Bone Indians. The tribe called themselves
Wabasha, and attribute their origin to an allegorical tale of a snail on
a beaver.
Otagamies, near Lake of the Woods, Algonquin stock; 300 in 1780.
Oto, called also Otoes, Othouez, Oktolaktos, Wahtohtana, Wahtok-
tak,
on the left banks of the Platte river; confederated with the
Missourias.
Ottawas, Algonquin stock, in Michigan and Ohio.
Ouiatanons, formerly on the Wabash.
58
Oumas, E. bank of Mississippi river in 1722, in two villages.
Owassissas
(Seminoles), on St. Mark's river; 100 in 1820.
Ozas, about Bed river; about 2,000 in 1750.
Ozimies, E. shore of Maryland and Virginia in 1607. (Drake).
Pacanas, on
Qaelquechose river, La.; 30 men in 1805. (Drake;.
Padoucas, south of the Missouri and west of the Mississippi.
Padowagas, Senecas were so called; uncertain. (Drake).
Pailsh, on the Pacific, N. of Columbia; 200 in 1820. (Drake).
Palaches, a tribe found early in Florida ; extinct. (Drake).
Palaihni, Palaiks. Oregon, on northern frontier, California.
Pamlico, about Pamlico Sound; extinct; but fifteen in 1708.
Pampticough, tribe of North Carolina, now extinct.
Pancas. See Poncas.
Panis, Panneis (Tonicas), 40 villages in 1750, S. branch Missouri;
70 villages on Red river, 1755. (Drake).
Panneh. See Allakaweah ; 2,300 in 1805, on heads Big Horn river.
Pascataways, a tribe on Maryland side of Potomac river. (Drake).
Pascagoulas, on Red r. ; from Florida; 25 men in 1805. (Drake).
Passamaquoddies, Tarratines, on Schoodic river, about 379.
Pawistucienemuk, small tribe in Missouri; 500 in 1820. (Drake).
Pawnee, Panis, Pani, on the banks of the river Platte and Kansas;
also on Red river. Mr. John B. Dunbar, in the Magazine of Ameri-
can History for April, 1880, says that the Pawnees, in history and
language, seem to constitute a distinct group. The members of the
family are the Pawnees, Arihcaras, the Tawaconies, and the Pawnee
Picts or Witchitas. The last five may be designated as the Southern
or Red river branches.
Pawtuckets, a confederacy of Indian tribes in the early history
of New England, under their grand sachem Passaconaway. Algon-
quin stock.
Peagans. See Blackfeet.
Pelloatpallah (Chopunnish), on Kooshkooshkee ; 1,600 in 1820.
Penacook, Pennacooks or Pawtuckets, New Hampshire. ,
Pen d' Oreille, Washington Territory. Band of Flatheads.
Penobscot, Abenaki, in Maine, on Penobscot river. Alg. stock.
Pennakeeks (Nipmuks), along Merrimac river. Algonquin stock.
Peorias, on Current river; 97 in 1820. Alg. stock. (Drake).
Pequakets (Abenakies), Saco river; destroyed by English in 1725.
Pequots, of Connecticut. Algonquin stock. The Nipmuks were
tributary to them. Algonquin stock. Nearly destroyed by the New
England colonists.
Phillimees (Seminoles), near Suanee river, Florida, in 1817.
INDIAN TRIBES. 159
Piankeshaws, on Wabash river. Algonquin stock ; in 1780 but 950.
Piankatank, in Virginia when first settled. (Drake).
Pima, Indian nation of New Mexico, where the country inhab-
ited by them is called Pimeiia, and divided into Alta and Baja.
Pinalenos, also called Pinon, Lanos, Pinoles, Pinal Leno, Apache
tribe, ranging over an extensive circuit between the Sierre Pinal and
the Sierra Blanca, near the Upper San Francisco river, north of the
Gila, in New Mexico.
Pineshow (Sioux), on the St. Peter's; 150 in 1820. (Drake).
Piro, Indians of New Mexico, near El Paso.
Pishquitpahs, Muscleshell rapids ; about 2,600 in 1815. (Drake).
SCENE ON FOX LAKE, NORTHERN ILLINOIS COUNTRY OF THE POTTAWATTAMIES.
Pokaiiokets, formerly dwelt about Mount Hope, in Ehode Island,
in Nantucket, Martha's Vineyard, and on Cape Cod. Algonquin stock.
Poncas, Pancas, on the west of the Missouri river, formerly
about the mouth of Quiccoane (pronounced Ke-koi-no, running river),
a southwestern branch of the Missouri. The Poncas claim that the
Omahas, Osages, Kaws, and two or three other tribes, a long time ago,
lived with them and spoke the same vocal language. Sitting Bull, one
of the head men, said his grandfather told him that in olden times,
when the above mentioned tribe were with them, they lived near the
Atlantic ocean, and in their westward migration became separated.
They started on this movement from near Washington, District of
Columbia; the Kaws and Osages coming across the Kansas, and the
Poncas and Omahas going further north, to northeastern Nebraska.
They claim that the Poncas were at one time where the present city of
St. Louis now stands. These several tribes have about the same cus-
toms, manners and habits, and differ but slightly from the Pawnees.
Potoash, Pacific coast, north of the Columbia; 200 in 1820.
Potoyante, a tribe in the region of California, and is understood
to be one of the tribes under the name of Bonak or Root Digferers.
Pottawattamie, Pouteotamies. Algonquin stock ; once on the west,
south and east of Lake Michigan, extending to Detroit river and Lake
Erie; were allies of the Ojibways and Ottawas.
Powhatans, once a powerful nation, which occupied the whole
tract of country now called Virginia, between the sea-shore and the
falls of the rivers ; the nation consisted of thirty tribes, and the chief
sachem was called Powhatan. Algonquin stock.
Puans (Winnebagoes), so-called by the French. Dakota stock.
Pueblo Indians (Zuni, Keres), "Village Indians," of New
Mexico. The tribes living at Santo Domingo and the neighboring
Pueblos are called Keres, or by the Spaniards, Qiieres. All the
Pueblo Indians are called Mexicans, who make the striped blanket.
Quabaogs (Nipmuks), place of that name. Alg. stock. (Drake).
Quapina, said to be identical with the Pawnees.
Quappas, Indians on the banks of the Arkansas river. We
recognize in these the remains of an ancient people, the Kapahas of
De Soto's day. They then lived on the Upper Mississippi, near the
site of the present town of Madrid.
Quathlahpohtles, on the Columbia.
Quatoghies, formerly on the south of Lake Michigan.
Quieetsos, north of Columbia river; 250 in 1820.
Quinnecharts, north of Columbia r. ; about 2,000 in 1820. (Drake).
Quiuiilts, north of Columbia river; 250 in 1820.
Quinnepissa, called Bayagoulas by the Chevalier Tonti. (Drake).
Quoddies. See Passamaquoddies.
Rapids, on prairies, towards sources of Missouri.
Red Grounds (Seminoles), on Chattahoochee river; 100 in 1820.
Red Knife, from their copper knives; near Slave Lake. (Drake).
Red-Stick (Seminoles), the Baton Rouge of the French. (Drake).
Red-Wing (Sioux), Lake Pepin, under chief of that name; 100
in 1820. (Drake).
Riccarees. See Arickaree.
River (Moheagans), on lower Hudson. Algonquin stock. (Drake).
INDIAN TRIBES. 161
Koundheads (Hurons), east side Lake Superior; 2,500 in 1764.
Rumseii (Rumsienes), neighborhood of Monterey, California.
Ryawas, Padouca fork of the Missouri; 900 in 1820. (Drake).
Sachdagughs, perhaps the true name of the Powhatans. (Drake).
Sacramento Indians, the Indians living on the Upper Sacramento
river, in California, were visited by James D. Dana, attached to the
United States exploring expedition; Dana could not, however, learn
the name of the tribe. The Pujuni, Sekumme and Tsamak live on
the western banks.
St. John's Indians, Etchemins. A tribe of the Etchemins, speak-
ing the same language as the Passamaquoddies. Algonquin stock.
Saki, Saukees, Sacs, Sakewi, Sawkis or Saques, merged with the
Onthagamies, Utagami and Foxes. This branch of the Algonquin
family, known as the Sacs and Foxes, formerly occupied the central
and eastern portions of Wisconsin. They are of Algonquin stock.
They were forced to the southwest by their enemies; they occupied
the Rock River valley until 1804, when they ceded that country, it is
claimed, to the United States by treaty, but with the proviso that they
could use it for hunting grounds until it was needed by white settlers.
It was to regain possession of this valley that the Blackhawk war of
1832 was undertaken, the validity of this treaty being disputed by
Blackhawk.
Sankikani, Algonquin stock, once on eastern banks of the Hudson.
Santa Barbara. Indians of California ; Mission of S. Barbara.
Santees, N. Carolina in 1701, on river of that name. (Drake.)
Saponies (Wanamies), Sapona river in
1700; joined Tuscaroras
1720. (Drake).
Sasts, Shasties. Indians of southwest Oregon.
Satanas, a name given the Shawnees by the Iroquoit. (Drake).
Saultenaux, Santenes, a band of the Ojibway tribe, living on the
Sault Ste. Marie, outlet of Lake Superior, meaning "people of the
Sault." Algonquin stock.
Savannahs, on river of that name; perhaps Yamasees. (Drake).
Scattakooks, NewYork ; went from New England 1672. Alg. stock.
Seminoles, or Isty-semole, "wild men," or "wanderers." Tribe
of the Creek confederacy in Florida. Speak the Muskoghee dialect.
The nation, known by the name of Seminoles, is composed of seven
tribes, which bear the names of Latchione, Okleouaha,
Chokechaitta,
Pyaclekaha, Fatehonyaha, Topkelake, and one other. There are,
besides, some remains of ancient tiibes, known by the names of Out-
chis,
Chias, Cana ake, but they consist of only a few straggling fami-
lies.
There was, also, on the frontier of Georgia, another tribe, called
11
102
Lahouita, which raised one hundred or one hundred and fifty warriors,
under Mackintosh.
Senekas, Nun-da-wah, "great hill," or Nun-da-wah-o-no, "great
hill people." Tribe of the Iroquois, formerly in Western New York.
Sepones, in Va., in 1775; a remnant. See Saponies. (Drake).
Serraunes, Serrana, in Carolina, nearly destroyed by the Westoes.
Severnvskia, Severnovzer, or "Northerners." North of Bodega
bay. They call themselves ChicacJiamaja.
Sewees, small tribe in N. C, mentioned by Lawson in 1710.
(Drake).
Shaha_ahs, Shallalah, on Columbia river; 2,800.
Shallattoos, on Columbia river; 100 in 1820. (Drake).
Shanwappone, head of Cataract and Taptul rivers; 400 in 1820.
(Drake).
Shawaneese, Shawanoe, formerly of Pennsylvania, Ohio, and
Kentucky, afterwards in Indiana and Illinois; now west of Missouri.
They were divided into the tribes Piqua, Mequachake, Kiskapocoke,
and Chillicothe. Algonquin stock. They came from West Florida
and the adjacent country. They formerly resided on Suwaney river,
in Florida, near the sea. Their chief. Black Hoof, who was born there,
remembers bathing in the salt water when a boy. "Suwaney" river
was doubtless named after the Shawaneese, "Suwaney" being a cor-
ruption of Shawaneese. The people of this nation have a tradition
that their ancestors crossed the sea. They are the only tribe who refer
to a foreign origin.
Sheastukle, on the Pacific, south of the Columbia; 900 in 1820.
(Drake).
Shinicooks, Montauk. Indians of Long Island, neighbors of the
Unsehagogs and Montauks, who spoke kindred dialects. Algonquin
stock.
Shoshonees, Shoshonese. Also Snake Indians, Serpens. Indians
of the Rocky Mountains, on the sources of the Missouri and Columbia
rivers. They are divided into the Shoshonees proper and the Gens de
Pitie, or Radigeurs, (Root-diggers, by the Spaniards called Maradicos).
It is uncertain why the term Snakes were given to this tribe by the
whites, but probably, it is said, because of their tact of leading pursuit,
by crawling off in the long grass, or diving in the water. This wa&
formerly a very numerous tribe. When speaking of their numbers
they would say that it is the same as the stars in the sky.
^j
Shoto, (Wappatoo), on Columbia river; 460 in 1820. (Drake).
Sicannis, Sikanni, related to the Tacullies, New Caledonia.
Sicaunies, spurs of the Rocky Mountains; 1,000 in 1820.
I
INDIAN TRIBES. 163
Sioux, (see Dalikotah), on St. Peter's, Mississippi and Missouri.
Capt. Clark, in his Sign Language, title "Sioux," says, that according
to some the common stock of the _^=r
^^^
^^^^^^=^^=^
four dialects, Santee, Yankton,
MAiDEN'slo^^roNîÊR'"ms3issip'pi--
Assiniboine and Teton.
country of the sioux.
Sissatones, near L. Winnepeg and St. Peter's, in 1820. (Drake).
Sitimache. See Chitimicha.
Sitka. Sitka proper is bat a name for King George Ill's Archi-
pel, inhabited by Kolusches. In general, the name Sttka is applied to
the language of some ten tribes, who live between the fiftieth and fifty-
fifth degrees of north latitude.
Skaddals, on Cataract river; 200 in 1820. (Drake).
Sketapushoish, Sheshatapoosh. Also Mountaineers (Montag-
nards), or Skoffies (Escopies). Indian tribes west of Labrador^
speaking a language closely related to the Knistenaux. (Trubner).
Skeetsomish, on a river of their name; 2,000 in 1820. (Drake).
Skilloots, on Columbia river ; 2,500 in 1820. (Drake).
Skunnemoke, or Tuckapas, on Vermilion river. La. (Drake).
Smokeshops, on the Columbia; 800 in 1820, in 24 clans. (Drake).
Sokokies, anciently upon Saco river, now extinct.
Sokulks, on the Columbia, above Lewis river; 2,400 in 120 lodges.
Souriquois, Acadians. Algonquin stock; at the Bay of Fundy,
Nova Scotia. They are sometimes called Micmacs. (Trubner).
Souties, the name by which some know the Ottaways ; which see.
Soyennoms, on east fork Lewis river; 400 in 33 villages in 1820.
Squallyamish, Indians at Puget Sound, related to the Haeeltzuk
and the Indians of Nootka Sound.
Staitans, or Kite Indians. These, 500 in number, roved between
the head waters of the Platte river and the Rocky Mountains. (Morse).
Stockbridge, originally from New England, now in Wisconsin,
near Winnebago Lake ; a small remnant. Algonquin stock.
Stone Indians, otherwise called Assineboines, Assinipoils, (see
Assineboine) . A numerous tribe, who inhabited the mid-country from
between the Missouri and Assineboine rivers, from within fifty miles
of
Red river, westward to the sources of Ou'Appelle river, about the
source of the Elbono, or north branch of the Assineboine river, and
164:
from thence to the Ked Deers' river, Saskatchewan. To Swamp
Ground Stone Indians, living close to the Kocky Mountains, near the
source of the Bed Deers' river, Saskatchewan. The Iroquois, Mo-
hawks, and Hurons are mentioned of the same class of languages.
Tlie place of the Stone Indian is more equivocal ; although generally
separated by most authors from the Mohawks (or Iroquois) tongues, it
has, by some, been connected wdtli that group.
Spokane, Spokain, on sources of Lewis river. (Drake).
Squannaroo, on Cataract river; 120 in 1820. (Drake).
Susquehannok, on west shore of that river, in Maryland, in 1607.
Algonquin stock. (Drake).
Sussee, Sursee, on the Saskatchewan ; tribe of the Chippewayans.
Taensa, a tribe spoken of by Le Clerq, who says they dwelt around
a little lake, formed in the land by the river Mississippi, who had
eight villages, apparently in what is now the State of Tennessee.
From this may come the word Tennessee, by adding the word nassee,
"Town," meaning Taensatown.
Tacullies, Carriers, Nagailer. Indians of Nortwestern America,
on the sources of Frazer's river. The Sicauines are related to them.
Mackenzie calls them Nagailer and Carrier Indians.
Tah-le-wah, California tribe, on the Klamath river.
Tahsagroudie, about Detroit in 1723. (Drake).
Talmcana, on river Brazos; 3 tribes; 1,200 in 1820. (Drake).
Talatui, on Kassima river, tributary of Sacramento, in California.
Tallahassee (Seminoles), between Oloklikana and Mikasaukie.
(Drake).
Tallewheana (Seminoles), on east side of Flint river. (Drake).
Tamaroras, a tribe of the Illinois. Algonquin stock. ( Drake
^.
Tamatles (Seminoles), above the Ocheeses; 220 in 1820. (Drake).
Tarratines, east of Pascataqua river. Algonquin stock. (Drake).
Tattowhehallys (Seminoles), 130 in 1820 ; since scattered. (Drake).
Taukaways, sources of Trinity, Brazos and Colorado rs. (Drake).
Tawakenoe, "Three Canes," west side Brazos r., 1804. (Drake).
Tawaws (Hurons), on the Maumee in 1780, near Lake Erie.
(Drake). This must be a mistake; evidently should be Ottawas, who
were not Hurons, but Algonquin.
Tcho-ko-yem, Indian band in northwestern California.
Telmocresse
(Seminoles), Chattahoochee; 100 in 1820. (Drake).
Tenisaw, once on that river; went to Ked river in 1765. (Drake).
Tetons, piratical band of Sioux, between Mississippi and Missouri rs.
Ticorillas. Apache Indians of western New Mexico. Their lan-
guage shows affinity with the great Athapascan stock.
INDIAN
.TRIBES.
165
Tiluex, Teguas, Kiwomi. Pueblo Indians, belong to the Keres
family, residing at the Pueblo of Santo Domingo, in New Mexico.
Timuaca, Timuiquana, Timuicana. Florida Indians, in the neigh-
borhood of South Augustine.
Tionontaties, or Dinondadies, a tribe of Hurons. (Drake).
Tlatskanai, Kwalhioqua. Indians of the Athapascan stock and
the Tacoullie-Umpqua family of northwest America, speaking different
dialects of one language.
Tockwoghs, on the Chesapeake in 1607. (Drake).
Tonicas, on the Mississippi; 20 warriors in 1784. (Drake).
Tonkahans, tribe of Texas, said to be cannibals. (Drake).
Tonkawa, erratic, about Bay St. Bernardo: 700 in 1820. (Drake).
Toteros, on mountains in North Carolina in 1700. (Drake).
Totuskeys. See Moratoks.
ft/
Towacanno, or Towoash, on the Brazos. See Tahuacana. (Drake).
Tschugatschi. They occupy the northwestern part of Bussian
Asia, and the opposte shores of northwest America. A part of them
are settled in Asia, and call themselves Namollo. They are undoubt-
edly Esquimaux. The Wild, or Beindeer, Tchuktchi, call themselves
Tchouktschee, Tchekto, and have been invaders, possibly, of the
Korjake nation. Only the settled Tchuktchi belong to the American
continent.
Tsononthouans, tribe of the Iroquois, so called by the early
French. Hennepin thus named the Senecas. By Cox they are called
Sonnontovans.
Tukabatche, on Tallapoosa river in 1775. (Drake).
Tunghase. Indians of the southeastern part of Prince of Wales
Archipelago. Their language is closely related to that of Sitka.
Tunica (Mobilian), on Bed river; thirty in 1820. (Drake).
Tunxis (Moheagans), once in Farmington, Conn. (Drake).
Tuscarora, Dus-ga-o-weh-o-no,
"
shirt-wearing people," Indians
formerly of North Carolina. They joined afterwards (A. D.
1714)
the Five Nations, or Iroquois, and are now in the State of New York.
Tushepahs, on Clark's river in summer and Missouri in winter ; 430.
Tuteloes, ancient nation between the Chesapeake and Delaware.
Tutseewa, on a branch of the Columbia. (Drake).
Twightwees, the Iroquois name for the Miamis.
Uchee (Creek Indians), east of rivers Coosa and Chattahoochee.
Ufallah, (Seminoles), on Chattahoochee; 670 in 1820. (Drake).
XJgalenzi. Indians of Bussian America, west of Cape St. Elias,
and near the Island of Kadjak. Their language seems to be a dialect
of the Koloschian.
INDIAN TKIBES. 167
UgHljachmutzi, a tribe about Prince William's Sound. (Drake).
Ulscalis, on the coast of the Pacific ocean; about 150 in 1820.
Umpqua. Indians of Oregon, of the Athapascan stock.
Unalachtgo, once belonging to the Lenni Lenape (Drake).
Unamies, the head tribe of the Lenni Lenape. (Drake).
Uncapapa, a band of the Sioux. It appears that this band of the
Teton-Sioux was named from the position they occupied in the camps.
The word, according to the Indians, was derived from, or, more prop-
erly speaking, is a corruption from Hun-ka-pia, which means end or
outlet.
Unchagogs, a tribe anciently on Long Island. (Drake).
Upsaroka (Minetare), commonly called Crows. See Crows.
Ute, Utah. The Ute Indians have, as far back as history and
tradition go, roamed over the mountains and small valleys of the
country between parallels 37th and 41st, north latitude, and the 105th
and 113th meridians. They are of the Shoshonee stock.
Waakicum, Columbia river, 400 in 1836. (Drake).
Wabinga, Wabigna (Iroquois) , between the Delaware and Hudson.
Wacoes, Nuecos, Indians of the Great Prairies, belonging to the
Pawnee stock, residing between the Washita and Red rivers, in about
98 deg. 30 min., W. long. They are closely related to their neigh-
bors, the Witchitas.
Wahowpums, on Columbia river; 700 in 1806. (Drake).
Wahpatone (Sioux), in country N. W. St. Peter's. (Drake).
Wahpacoota (Sioux?), S. W. St. Peter's, in 1805. (Drake).
Waiilatpu, Molele, Indians of western Oregon, south of the Co-
lumbia river. The Waiilatpu proper are called also Willetpoos, Canuse.
Their languages bear some affinity to the Sahaptin or Nez-Perce lan-
guage.
Waikur, Guaicur, Monqui Indians of Lower California. The
Cora and Aripe speak dialects of their own language.
Wamesits (Oipmuks), once on Merrimac river. (Drake).
Wampanoag, perhaps the third nation in importance in New
England, when settled by the English. Algonquin stock. (Drake).
Wanamies, in New Jersey, from the Earitan to the sea.
Wappatoos, 13 tribes, on the Columbia; about 5,000.
Wappings, at and about Esopus in 1758; also across the Hudson
to the Minsi. Algonquin stock. (Drake).
Warananconguins, supposed to be same as Wappings. (Drake).
Washaws, on Barrataria Island in 1680; in 1805 at Bay St. Fosh;
5 only. (Drake).
Watanons, or Weas. See Ouiatanons.
168
THE
AMERICAN
INDIAN.
O
I
i^
o
w
o
H
QQ
M
O
P
o
INDIAN TRIBES. 169
Waterees, once on river of that name; extinct. (Drake).
Watepaneto, fork of Platte; 900 in 1820. (Drake.)
Wawenoks (Abenakies), once in Maine. Alg. stock. (Drake).
Waxsaw, once in S. Carolina. (Drake).
Weas, or Waas (Kikapoos). See Ouiatanons. (Drake).
Wee-yot, Indian band on the mouth of Eel river, and near Hum-
boldt Bay, in northwestern California. (Eel river is called Wee-yot,
by the Indians residing on it).
Weits-Pek, Indians of northwestern California.
Wekisa (Seminoles), Chattahoochee; 250 in 1820. (Drake).
Welsh Indians, on southern branch of the Missouri. (Drake).
Westoes, once powerful tribe in S. C. ; nearly destroyed in 1670.
Wetepahato, with the Kiawas; 70 lodges in 1805. (Drake).
Wheelpo, on Clark's river; 2,500 in 1820. (Drake).
Whirlpools (Chickamaugas), so called from residence. (Drake).
White, W. of the Mississippi; mentioned by travelers. (Drake).
Wighcocomos, one of the six tribes in Va. in 1607. (Drake).
Willewahs, (Chopunnish), on Willewah river; 500 in 1820.
Winnebagoes, Nippegon. Called by the French, Puans or Otch-
agras; by the Omahas, Horoje; and by themselves, Hochungorah.
Indians of the Sioux stock, formerly on Fox and Rock rivers, Wiscon-
sin. (Trubner).
Wish-Osk, Indians of N. W. Cal., on Humboldt Bay and Mad river.
Witchitas, Indians of Northern Texas, near the Red river.
Wokkons, Waccoa, formerly of North Carolina, now extinct.
Their language was related to that of the Catawbas. They wêre
neighbors of the Tuscaroras in North Carolina.
Wolf Indians, tribe of Pawnees, commonly called Pawnee Loups.
Wollawollahs, on the Columbia from above Muscleshell Rapids.
Wyandots, Guyandots, called by the French, Hurons. Their
name for themselves, it is said, was A-hon-an-dote. See Hurons.
Wycomes, a tribe on the Susquehannah, in 1648 ; about 250.
Wyniawaws, a small tribe in N. Carolina in 1701. (Drake).
Yumacraw, near Savannah in 1732; about 140 men. (Drake).
Yamasee, S. border of S. C. ; nearly destroyed in 1715 by English.
Yamkallie, Kallapuiah, Oregon Indians of plains of the Willa-
mette,
speaking a language related to that of Cathlascons and
Haeeltzuk.
(Trubner).
Yamoisees, Yamassee, S. C. ; nearly destroyed by the whites.
Yamperack, (Comanches), about sources Brazos; 1817, 30,000.
Yanktons, Yanktonans or Yanktoanans, Sioux tribe, between the
Red river and the Missouri.
170
AMONG THE
"
ROCKIES
"
COUNTKY OF THE UTES.
INDIAN TRIBES.
171
Yattasies, branch of Red river; 100 in 1812; speak Caddo.
Yazoos, once great tribe of Louisiana, now lost among Chickasaws.
Yeahtentanees, formerly near the mouth of the Wabash.
Yeletpos, on river which falls into Lewis' above Kooskooskee ; 250.
Yonikkones, on the Pacific coast; about 700.
Yo-se-me-ty. A tribe of Indians in California, from whom is
derived the name of a remarkable valley in that state, commonly
written Yosemite.
Youitts, on the coast of the Pacific ocean; about 150.
Yukai Indians, on Russian river in northwestern California.
Yumas Indians, of the southwestern part of California, on the Rio
Colorado, down to its entrance in the Gulf of California. They are
divided into five tribes, of which the Cuchans are the most important.
The others are the Ma-ha-os, Hah-wal-coes, Yam-pai-o and Co-co-pahs.
The Camoyes or Puemaja, are a tribe of the Cuchans.
-^^'t'.'2:5^-t:^&A.-vr^-^-^ _r
- -^=::
MOUNT JOLIETCOUNTRY OF THE ILLINIWUG.
CHAPTEE VII.
TOTEMS.
THE BEAVER.
SicTiificatioD of Word TotemA Symbolic DesignationOrigin of TotemDistin-
guishes the BandA Kind of Coat of ArmsExplanationUniversal among^
the Indians
Unlawful to Morry in the Same TotemSimilar Custom in the
Old World.
;R. WEBSTER defines
the word iotem to be
"
a rude picture, as of
^^'^^^^^^
a bird, beast, or the
like ; used by the North Ameri-
can Indians as a symbolic name
or designation of a family, etc.,"
but he does not give the origin
or etymology of the word in
this form. Peter Jones, the educated Ojibway Indian, gives the word
as toodaim, but the word in general use is iotem.
A totem among the Indians is a symbolic designation in the
image of some animal, used to distinguish or mark a particular tribe
or band, as a subdivision of a tribe. Peter Jones says of the Indians
in relation to this subject, that "their belief concerning their division
into tribes is, that many years ago, the Great Spirit gave his Red
children their toodaims or tribes in order that they might never forget
that they were all related to each other, and that in time of distress
or war they were bound to help each other."
According to general custom among the Indians, the totem was
properly used only to distinguish some particular band, gens or com-
mon family of a tribe. The principal tribe or nation to which these
bands belonged was distinguished by some design of a different class
;
what we would call a coat of arms. Baron LaHontan, in his book of
"Voyages to North America," in connection with the subject of
Indian totems, which he styles Heraldry or Coats
of
Arms, gives
eight crude illustrations of them which are here reproduced, and
which he thus describes:
(172)
TOTEMS.
173
/ lie (inn/ ofc/if Oiitaîtmis raff^
JOXt9
7)tu armt
oft/ie Oufc^}ûnej a/axt
FAC-SIMIIiE FROM LA HONTAN1703.
17-4 THE AMERICAN INDIAN.
"The five Oidaonase Nations have a Slnoplc or Green Field, with
four Elks in Sable Canton'd and looking to the four corners of the
Escutcheon,
there being a heap of sand in the middle.
"The IlUnese bear a Beech leaf with a butterfly argent.
"The Nadouessis or Sioux have a squirrel Gules, gnawing a
citron.
"The Hurons bear a beaver sable, set squat upon a beaver kennel
argent, the midst of a pool or lake.
"The Ontagamies bear a meadow Sinople, crossed by a winding
river pale, with two foxes Gules at the two extremities of the Eiver,
in Chief and Point.
"The Ponieoidamis call'd Puants bear a Dog in argent, sleeping
upon a Mat d' Or. These People observe the Rules of Blazoning less
than the other Nations.
"The Oumamis have a bear sable pulling down with his two paws
a tree Sinople mossy, and laid among the escutcheon."
"The Oucahipoues, call'd Sauteurs, have an Eagle Sable, perching
upon the top of a Bock Argent, and devouring an Owl Gules^
Dr. James, the editor of John Tanner's Narrative, in referring to
the system of totems among the Indians, doubts if the North American
Indians, except those of the Algonquin family, have these peculiar
geneological marks; but more thorough investigation into this subject
shows that he was incorrect in this. The general custom in the use
of symbols of this kind seems to have been a characteristic among all
the primitive American nations from all time. Such is the opinion
expressed by Mr. Schoolcraft, after thorough investigation into the
subject. In this he refers to the totemic traits in the monumental
remains of America, the curious and the hitherto unexplained low and
imitative mounds of Wisconsin, which assume their proper place in
history, and which are but totemic mounds erected to clans or chiefs.
In regard to explorations in Central America, he says
:
"In the sculptures and glyphs of Chichen Itza, as given by Mr.
Stephens, a distinctive portion of each compartment of figures is
clearly made up of the totemic insignia and honors of the respective
chiefs and rulers, under whose sway these now dilapidated structures
may be supposed to have been built. Thy clearly exhibit evidences
of this early pictorial and symbolic art. We observe the same system
on the walls of Palenque." Continuing this subject, Mr. Schoolcraft
further adds: "This tie of ancient family and tribal affinities enters
also largely into their system of inscriptions on scrolls of the western
papyrus, or bark tissue, and is frequently observed in passing through
the Indian country on their blazed trees, bark letters, hieratic tablets,
TOTEMS.
175
and muzzinabiks, or painted rocks. It may be expected to have had
a wider development on the monuments of the south. Manco Capac
and Mong both inscribed a figure of the sun as the evidence of their
family descent. The son of Uncas placed a water-fowl for his signa-
ture. Brant sealed with the triune badge of a bear, turtle and wolf."
This general system of totems among the American tribes is
further cited by many as evidence of race unity, and as pointing to a
common origin. The general custom was that no man was allowed to
change the totem under which he was born, and this distinctive mark
descended to all his children as well as to all prisoners he might take
and adopt. It was synonymous with and existed upon the like princi-
ple of our institution of surnames.
It was considered unlawful for parties of the same totem to inter-
marry, like the prohibition of the ancient Jews as to intermarriage
among relatiAês. The Indians considered it highly criminal for a man
to marry a woman whose totem was the same as his own, and young
men have suffered the penalty of death, at the instance of their rela-
tives, for a violation of this rule.
Their rule also was that those having the same totem were bound,
under whatever circumstances, when they met, even though they should
be of different and hostile bands, to treat each other not only as friends,
but brethren and relatives of the same family. In this regard, the
obligations under this totemic system bears a resemblance to the pres-
ent institution of Freemasonry, claimed to have been originally bor-
rowed from the ancient Jews.
The bands or subdivisions of the Ojibway nation among their
totems had the following: The eagle, reindeer, otter, bear, buffalo,
beaver, catfish and pike. Mr. Morgan, in his "League of the Iroquois,"
says that in each nation of that people there were eight tribes, which
were arranged in two divisions and named as follows: Wolf, Bear,
Beaver, Turtle, Deer, Snipe, Heron, Hawk.
There is a remarkable coincidence in this totemic custom of the
native tribes of America with that among nations of the Old World,
where, throughout the whole, the like custom prevailed, time out of
mind, of blazoning or inscribing in appropriate technical terms, coats
of arms, badges, or other heraldic and armorial insignia. The eagle
was the emblem of Persia and Imperial Borne; the ox of Egypt; the
owl of Athens; and the dragon served as the national symbol of China
and Japan, from the most ancient period.
Mr. Ellis, in his work entitled the "Bed Man and the White
Man," notices the strange and unexplained affinity between these forest
totem
symbols and some of the proud escutcheon-bearings of monarchs
and nobles, states and empires, of the old civilized world, and remarks
that a simple prejudice or habit of association of our own race makes
us ridicule in the savage what awes or flatters us among white men
;
and farther observes that whilst these emblems of the Indian were
rudely sketched and grotesque, the design and purpose of them were
exactly the same as the similar devices among proud Christian nations.
He gives for example England's unicorn and lion, the bear of Russia,
and the double headed eagle of Austria, and says: "If we should
follow the comparisons down through the shields, the armorial bear-
ings, the escutcheons and coats of arms of nobles and private families,
with all their absurd devices and figurings, perhaps Indian pride and
ingenuity might find more countenance."
In concluding this subject, as suggested by Mr. Ellis, it seems
remarkable that ethnologists in tracing evidences of relationship
between the people of the Old World and the New, so little recog-
nition has been given to the affinity between these Indian totems and
the heraldry or coats of arms among the nations of the Old World.
CHAPTER VIII.
GOVERNMENT.
Erroneous Opinion of the American Indian as to his GovernmentSame kind
of
Government Prevailed among All the TribesNot a Government of ForceOne
of AcquiescenceGeneral UniformityUnion of TribesLeague of the Iro-
quoisPrinciples on which a Chief GovernsAccording to Will of the Tribe
CouncilsOrganizing and ConductingChiefs RankSuccessionEquality
Criminal CodeOpinion of Dr. FranklinCaleb Atwater's Description of an

Indian CouncilAuthority of Chiefs.
common idea
among civilized
people has been,
^'^
that the American
Indian is an irresponsible,
wandering vagabond, hav-
ing no aim in life beyond
that of a bare subsistence,
without moral feeling or
rules for the government
of his civil conduct, and
whose condition of society,
if such it may be called,
is chaos and anarchy; which but illustrates our own ignorance of the
true character of the Indian in this regard.
The institution of civil government prevailed among the Ameri-
can tribes throughout the two continents, as perfect and complete in
form and principle, so far as adapted to their wants and conditions in
life, as among the more enlightened nations. But their mode of life
being simple, their wants were few and their plan of government was
adapted to this simple and primitive condition. Their government
was not a government of force. It was not maintained upon princi-
ples of this kind, but was rather one of acquiescence on the part of
the governed. It was, in form, patriarchal, after the manner of the
ancients. They had no such thing as rulers or officers appointed to
enforce laws and oppress individuals ; so that their government was not
(177)
12
178
one of oppressioD, but one in which all felt an equal responsibility,
and cheerfully acquiesced in all measures prescribed or concurred in
for their general good.
A New England historian, on this subject, says their government
was
"
rather a patriarchal state; for the Sachem concluded no import-
ant thingswars, laws or subsidiesto which the people were
decidedly adverse. As murders, robberies, adulteries and such like,
common
'
among the English,' were not common with them, the duties
of the Sachem were light. So that even Indian history shows how
crimes are nearly all offenses against property, and grow out of that
hunger for wealth ; every man wanting to get, or to keep, more than
his share."
There was a general uniformity in the form of government
throughout all the tribes and nations of North America, differing,
however, in details more or less, according to location and circum-
stances. Each tribe was a kind of body politic, for purposes of gov-
ernment and civil polity, and, in general, the powers of government
were exercised by a tribe.
Sometimes several tribes were allied together for certain purposes,
as that of protection against invasion, each tribe still retaining its
sovereignty for purposes of local civil government. Of this kind
were the Dakotas, who, whilst the tribes of this stock were very
numerous, had a union of seven tribes, who were united for purpose&
of defense. In the same manner the Ojibways, Pottawattamies and
Ottawas were united for the like purpose, with an agreement that no
part of the territory they severally occupied should be open to the
occupation of other nations without the consent of all.
The Iroquois were a confederation of several tribes, called the
"
League of the Iroquois," not only for the purpose of defense, but
also for the purpose of civil government, the powers of which were
vested in the league or confederation, each tribe at the same time
having and retaining a separate local government, or government of
its oAvn for local purposes. Each tribe had its chiefs or head men,
among whom there was a ranking or superior chief, who was the prin-
cipal ministerial functionary in their government. Tribes were
generally divided into bands, each band having also its chief or head
man.
The Indian mind is not sensible either of civil or military sub-
ordination. Each entertains a high opinion of his own individual
consequence, and is exceedingly tenacious of his liberty. All indica-
tions that carry with them the appearance of a positive command from
another are rejected with scorn and indignation. Their leaders are
GOVERNMENT. 179
very cautious about giving out orders in peremptory style. A simple
hint from a chief concerning things that in his opinion should be
done, or measures that should be carried out, arouses emulation among
the inferior ranks, and his suggestion is immediately given attention
;
but the Indian independence is such that he acknowledges no superior
in civil government or domestic affairs, and recognizes no one as hav-
ing the right to exercise authority over him. In short, he admits of
no such distinction as magistrate and subject.
The principle upon which a chief governs or regulates the affairs
of his tribe is rather by way of advice than in words of command.
A man rises to the position of chief, or is promoted to hold that station,
from the confidence reposed in him by the tribe. The chief governs
more by persuasion than by coercion. His influence among his tribe
depends upon his established character for wisdom, bravery and hos-
pitality. It is important, if he would be a successful leader and
governor, that he should excel in everything pertaining to the charac-
ter and dignity of the chieftain. Whenever his conduct creates
dissatisfaction among the tribe his power ceases. The chiefs of each
tribe settle all disputes arising among their people, watch over the
territory they occupy, regulate the order of their marches, and appoint
the time for their general rendezvous and movements. They have
no written code of laws, but the people of the tribes are taught by
their chiefs and wise men to observe a certain line of conduct, such
as to be good hunters, brave in Avar, and kind and hospitable to
strangers.
In general, everything is intended to be done in accordance with
the will of the tribe as expressed or implied. The will of the tribe,
concerning measures to be pursued, is ascertained through the action
of a council, which is constituted in different forms, according to cus-
tom. With many, the council is composed of the chiefs and principal
men. If the subject of consideration is one of importance, in which
all the tribe should be consulted, the conclusion arrived at by the
council of the chiefs and principal men is then submitted to the whole
tribe, assembled for that purpose.
In addition to councils of the tribe, there are also general coun-
cils, where it is desired to take into consideration matters which con-
cerned several tribes. The head chief of the tribe, in whose territory
the council is convened, generally takes the lead. The first thing
in order is to kindle the council fire. This is called the uncoverino-
of the slumbering embers of the former council, and the closing of
the council fire is called the covering of the fire. From the fire thus
kindled they light their pipes. The council then proceeds to the
ceremony of smoking the pipe of peace. This they do in token of
friendship and good will to all.
At councils of this latter kind, the leading chiefs of the different
tribes rise in succession and deliver their talk, during which the strict-
est attention is paid by all present, who now and then utter the usual
words of response in case of approval. There is also an appropriate
expression in case of disapproval. These responses for and against
are taken as the sense of the tribe or council, upon propositions
advanced by chiefs in their speeches. In other words, this is the gen-
eral Indian mode of voting in their assemblies.
According to Indian custom in their councils, they have no such
rule as carrying a measure by a majority vote, or majority of the
assembly ; unless carried by unanimous assent, the measure is con
sidered not adopted. This, as we are informed by Mr. Schoolcraft in
his "Notes on the Iroquois," is especially the rule among that people.
In these simple councils of the red man, no speaker is ever inter-
rupted in the midst of his discourse, and there are no questions of
order thrust upon any one, as is so often found to be necessary in the
public assemblages of the white man.
When a measure is found to be unpopular, by expressions from
those present, it is generally dropped; hence, there are seldom any
warm discussions in these native Indian councils. It has been sug-
gested that if the same freedom of speech had been indulged in at
these councils as is often witnessed in the legislative halls of the white
man, the scalping knife and tomahawk would be seen glittering in
true lynch style over the heads of these rude Indian law makers.
The office of chief was, in general, hereditary, the rule of descent
varying according to the custom of the tribe. When the line of suc-
cession failed, the vacancy was filled by nomination of the surviving
chiefs in council, and the question of selecting the person so named
was left to the voice of the whole tribe, called together in council for
that purpose.
There were, in general, war chiefs, aside from civil chiefs. Such
chiefs were not hereditary, but the selection was made by the council
of the tribe, the person being chosen with reference to his acknowl-
edged bravery and wisdom. In such councils, although the ambition
of individuals might be involved, where sharp competition might be
expected, the greatest harmony prevailed, and there was a cheerful
acquiescence in the result. The Indian had not reached that point
attained in the white man's civilization, of ballot-box stuffing and
cheating at the primaries, under the rule that the end justifies the
means.
GOVERNMENT. 181
How vastly different were these peaceful councils of the primitive
red man from those latter compulsory occasions, convened under the
guns of some frontier military post, for the purpose of further extend-
ing the domain of the white man over the Indian possessions, to
appease the avaricious spirit of the civilized speculator!
The principle of equality was carried into these councils, where
all were equal. They had no presiding officer or moderator. Mr.
Caleb Atwater, who wâs a close observer of Indian customs, says that
''like the Court of Mar's Hill, at Athens, the Indian council generally
sits at night, when the nation is asleep."
As the Indian possessed little property, he had little or no idea of
its value ; hence, laws relating to offenses in this regard were not so
necessary. But the crime of murder was prominently noticed in their
criminal code, in the penalty of which they followed the Jewish code,
"blood for blood;" especially if the relatives of the murdered man
required that the life of the murderer should be taken. In general,
the accused was awarded a trial, in which the chiefs and principal men
met in council, at which the parties concerned were present, and if the
guilt of the accused was proved, the head chief pronounced sentence
of death. The executioner was the nearest of kin to the person mur-
dered. The mode of executing the sentence was either by shooting,
tomahawking or stabbing; sometimes the death sentence was com-
muted to some kind of pecuniary consideration, to be given to the next
of kin or relatives of the deceased, as might be adjudged, and con-
sisting of clothing, skins, or other Indian property.
The finest example of Indian government was found among the
Iroquois, first known as the Five Nations, but in later times known as
the Six Nations, originally composed of the Mohawks, Oneidas, Onon-
dagas, Cayugas, and Senecas, to w4iich, in 1712, the Tuscaroras were
added. These several tribes were united for purposes of civil govern-
ment under a compact called "The League of the Iroquois," as before
mentioned.
It is observed by Mr. Morgan, in regard to this people, that the
central government was organized and administered upon the same
principles which regulated that of each nation in its separate capacity,
the nations sustaining nearly the same relation to the league that the
American States bear to the Union. . Indeed, it is a singular coinci-
dence, that the ancient government of the primitive IroquofS people
was founded and rested upon the same principle of the State and Fed-
eral
government of the American Union of this day. The national
eapitol was at Onondaga, where the great council comprised of dele-
gates from the several nations before mentioned was held, and where
9
the national council fire was continually burning, as an emblem marking
the continued existence of their national government.
Dr. Franklin, who, during his life of literary work, gave consider-
able attention to the study of Indian character and history, concerning
Indian government, says that "all their government is by the counsel
or advice of the sages; there is no force; there are no prisoners; no
officers to compel obedience or inilict punishments ; hence, they gen-
erally study oratory, the best speaker having the most influence." He
further adds, that having frequent occasion to hold public councils
they have acquired great order and decency in conducting them. The
old men sit in the foremost ranks, the warriors in the next, and the
women and children, if there are any present, in the rear.
Caleb Atwater, who was one of the commissioners on the part of
the United States government to negotiate a treaty with the Indians at
Prairie du Chien, in 1829, thus describes the council held by the
Indians at that place with the agents of the United States government:
"The commissioners sat on a raised bench, facing the Indian
chiefs; on each side of them stood the officers of the army in full
dress, while the soldiers, in their best attire, appeared in bright array
on the sides of the council shade. The ladies belonging t( the officers'
families, and the best families in the prairie, were seated directly
behind the commissioners; behind the principal Indian chiefs sat the
common people, first the men, then the women and children to the
number of thousands, who listened in breathless and deathlike silence
to every word that was uttered. The spectacle was grand and morally
sublime in the highest degree to the nation of the red men who were
present."
In his early boyhood, in August, 1836, the writer saw the last
Indian council held in Chicago with the agents of the United States
government, and in this the like order and arrangement was observed
as described by Mr. Atwater on the occasion he mentions, and he can
bear witness to the decorum and perfect order which prevailed in the
assembly of several thousand Indians throughout the whole proceeding.
Travelers and writers of later times, in speaking of the Indians of
the plains and along the Pacific coast, refer to their chiefs in some
instances as possessing and exercising quite arbitrary authority. This
must have grown into practice from their association with the whites,
after a long continued period of time, or such custom may have prevailed
among particular tribes to a limited extent, growing out of locality or
peculiar circumstances. Such exercise of authority was certainly not in
accordance with general Indian character.
The early adventurers and explorers in this country, like that of
GOVERNMENT. 183
Capt. John Smith and others, with limited knowledge as to the manners
and customs of the native tribes, have spoken of the head chiefs among
them as kings, emperors, and the like, terms applicable in govern-
ments of enlightened nations; which has given us the erroneous
impression that the Indians had among them rulers of this kind, pos-
sessing arbitrary powers. On the subject of these high functionaries,
Mr. Ellis, in his book, the "Eed Man and the White Man," remarks,
"
these the whites called kings, chieftains, sachems, counselors, while
the others were called subjects;" but it is doubtful, he well says,
whether this had previously been the state of things among the primi-
tive tribes. Peter Jones, referring to this subject, speaking of the
great Ojibway nation, says, "Although the Ojibway nation of Indians
is scattered over a vast section of country, there is no person among
them recognized as king."
"developing the INDIAN COUNTRY."
CHAPTER IX.
INDIAN LANGUAGES.
Each Group had a Different LanguageEach Tribe Spoke the Language of the
GroupVarying in Dialect among ThemselvesIndian Languages not a
JargonRich in Verbs and Grammatical FormsMarked for Method and Regu-
larity
Uniformity in Construction over the ContinentLanguage of the

AlgonquinsThe Prevailing LanguageWord BuildingGrammatical Con-
structionExamplesDakotasIroquoisCherokeeChinook.
HE idea has prevail-
p
ed among people in
general, that each
^'^
tribe of Indians had
a separate language, and
that the number of lan-
guages of the continent was
regulated by the number of
distinct and separate tribes.
This is not in accordance
with the facts. Each lin-
quistic or generic group of
tribes had its common lan-
guage. Each tribe spoke a
dialect of this common lan-
guage, differing more or less, according to circumstances, from that of
the other tribes of the common stock; in like manner as dialects of
the common language are found to exist among communities of the
Old World, as, for instance, in the counties or shires of England.
The dialects of the several nations of the Iroquois did not differ
essentially from each other; and the same may be said of the Dakotas
to a certain extent; but with the tribes of the Algonquin, Appalachian
and Shoshonee stock it was otherwise. Amonor these there would
often occur such a wide difference in dialect, that the aid of inter-
preters was frequently required for purposes of communication,
between tribes of the same stock.
Another popular error has existed much to the prejudice of the
(184)
INDIAN LANGUAGES. 185
aborigines, that their language was of a low order, and far inferior to
our own; hence, should not be countenanced as the medium of com-
munication in our efforts to bring the remnant of this people into our
condition of civilization. As an example in this regard, a prominent
officer of the United States army, stationed in the Indian country
took occasion recently to ventilate his views on the Indian question
through a communication to a leading newspaper of the day, and in
adding some advice, as to the policy in his opinion the government
should pursue towards the Indians in its efforts to reclaim them to
civilization, he says: "The first step should be to abolish, as far as
possible, the Indian jargon, and teach them to read, write and speak
the English language."
Whoever styles the Indian language of the linguistic groups
mentioned a jargon, simply exposes his ignorance on this subject, and
is in no sense prepared to give advice as to the policy which should
be pursued in regard to this people.
Mr. Du Ponceau, an eminent philologist of his time, who gave
much attention to the native languages of America, and took occasion
to investigate them extensively, states and illustrates three general
propositions concerning these languages:
FirstThat the American languages, in general, are rich in
words and grammatical forms, and that in their complicated construc-
tion the greatest order, method and regularity prevails.
SecondThat these complicated forms, which he calls poly-
synthetic, appear to exist in all those languages from Greenland to
Cape Horn,
ThirdThat these forms appear to differ essentially from those
of the ancient and modern languages of the old hemisphere.
Opinions to the same effect have been expressed by numerous
other learned writers, who have had occasion to investigate this
subject.
When we speak of the completeness of the American language,
we do not, in general, include the dialects of those nomadic, degener-
ate tribes of the arid regions, bordering upon the country of Mexico,
which are necessarily impoverished in proportion to their degraded
condition. These are but a people who have degenerated from a
higher condition of native life. They are not at this day a fair
specimen of the native American Indian.
The question arises in this connection, whether it is strictly
correct to style our language the English language. The most we
can say of it is, that it is a language spoken by the English people
and their descendants, the root of which comes from one of the most
186
poverty stricken, ill constructed languages among all the civilized
nations of the earth, augmented by accretions, pilfered indiscrimin-
ately from the languages of nearly every people and nation with
which our restless Saxon spirit has brought us in contact, not except-
in^T that of the poor Indian himself. Perhaps, however, it is not
asking too much of the Indian, that he learn the language we are
speaking as a matter of convenience to himself, in studying the vices
we are teaching him, as a means of harmonizing in his mind the
principle of their existence, under our boasted high order of
civilization.
If we would compel the Indian to abandon his own language, and
learn that which we are speaking, will we at the same time abandon or
give back to him those words we have borrowed from his language, to
designate various animals, plants and vegetables so common with us?
If so, what names will we give in lieu thereof for the present Indian
names for moose, mink, raccoon, opossum, skunk, musk-uks, and the
prefix to musq-rat, which latter the Indian calls musquash? What
names will we give to those forest trees called hackmatack, tamarack,
paw paw and mahogany? And what names will we apply in cookery
to those palatable dishes for the table called samp, succotash and
hominy? And what names will we substitute for tobacco, tomato,
squash, pecan and persimmon?
There might, however, be no objection to giving back to him a
class of outlandish words we are ever prone to catch up from whatever
source, like the Pequot word Skeeziiks, or the Chinook word Hyasic-
cidus, commonly spoken Gyastecutus.
And, in this connection, we may be called upon to disfigure the
map of the country by cancelling upon it all those Indian geographical
names he has left to us, to mark the fact that it was once inhabited by
him as his exclusive domain, the origin and meaning of which is be-
coming a subject of interesting inquiry.
THE ALGONQUIN LANGUAGE.
The language of the Algonquin group was the prevailing tongue,
and by some is believed to have been at some time the current lan-
guage of the continent; the same as all the people of the aboriginal
tribes resemble each other in their physical structure and general
characteristics. From the best authority attainable, the Algonquin
language, as spoken by the Ojibways, has about ten thousand words.
It has been called the court language of the continent, because
it is said it was a general custom of tribes among whom this language
was not spoken, to have some of their number acquire a knowledge of it
for convenience of communication, a custom spoken of by Honnepin,
who says: "They used to send one of their men to each of their allies,
to learn their language and remain with them as their resident, and
take care of their concerns."
Of this language, the dialect as spoken among the Ojibways was
considered the standard. The language of the Algonquins, indeed,
like that of most other Indian languages, was deficient in its phonetic
element ; or perhaps, more properly speaking, the organs of speech of
the Indian race were defective, or so far deficient that thev were unable
to utter many of the sounds which occur in what is adopted as the En-
glish alphabet. For instance, it is said that among all the Algonquin
tribes but four of them, the Delawares or Lenni Lenapes, the Sacs and
Foxes and Shawnees, were able to pronounce the letter
/, but used the
letter n instead.
x\ccording to the learned missionary. Rev. Edward F. Wilson,
who mastered this language as spoken by the Ojibways, the alphabet
necessary in writing this language consists of only nineteen letters,
the sounds not used being expressed in the letters c, f, h,
1, r, v and x.
In this connection Mr. Wilson remarks, that there are a few points
in the character of this language which would seem to indicate a
relationship with the Hebrew. Thus it is a language of verbs,
roots and stems, to which particles are affixed or prefixed, to modify
the meaning of the word, which he illustrates by quite significant
examples.
Some authorities insist that the number of letters in writing
this language is properly reduced to 17, as all that are required to
write correctly and plainly all the words in this language. There are
four vowel sounds, a, e, i, o. It has properly no u. The sound of x
is found in the Delaware dialect, as in the word Shokamoxen, and the
old Mohegan, of the Hudson valley, as in the wôrd Coxackie.
In the aforesaid estimate of primary sounds, the letters c,
q, y,
as representing vowel sounds, are entirely rejected. The soft of c is
s, the hard sound, k. The sound of
g
is always that of k. Therefore,
in determining the source or language from which Indian words, and
especially local names, are derived, a reference to the foregoing rules
will aid in showing from whence any particular word is derived.
Thus, in the word Milwaukee, if it is conceded to be an Indian word
in that form, the letter I would indicate that it did not come from any
of the Algonquin dialects of the tribes, who were originally known to
have inhabited the country in that vicinity; but as no tribe was ever
known to inhabit that country in whose dialect was found the letter
/,
.
ihis sound, in that form, would on general principles be rejected as a
corruption, and the letter substituted in the place of it should properly
be n.
In this, as in other languages, there are nine parts of speech,
article, noun, adjective, pronoun, adverb, proposition, conjunction,
interjection, and verb.
The following points will illustrate some of the peculiarities of
this language: first, it divides all objects into two great classes, animate
and inanimate, and this applies not only to the noun, but also to the
article, adjective, pronoun and verb.
Three iliird persons are distinguished, and distinct endings
employed to designate them. Thus, in the sentence, James sees John's
mother; James is the first, John the second, mother the third person.
Tico
first
persons plural are distinguished; we, excluding the
party addressed, and ice, including the party.
The participle fills an important part, supplying the want of the
relative pronoun, and answering for both noun and adjective.
The objective case
of
the p)ersonal pronoun is expressed by a
change in the verb.
The negative of the verb, in addition to kah or kahween, (not)
prefixed, requires the introduction of a second participle se; besides,
in some of the inflections, a change in the ending of the verb is neces-
sary.
A doubtful sense may be given to one's word by the use of the
duhiiative form of the verb.
The only other peculiarity that will be mentioned here is the use
of the participle bun, which, whether with nouns, adjectives, or verbs,
has generally the signification of gone by, past, deceased, out of
date, etc.
Nouns. Animate nouns not onlv include creatures that have life,
but also other objects, as stone, clay, the sun, the stars, a drum, a pipe,
or watch. So in the inanimate class, besides strictly inanimate things,
are found many of the principal trees, parts of the body, etc. This
distinction between animate and inanimate objects is very important,
for by it are affected the pronoun, adjective and verb, as well as the
number and case of the noun. An animate noun must be used with
an animate verb, and an inanimate noun with an inanimate verb,
thus: I see a man, newahbumah enene; I see a box, neivahbundaim
muhkuk.
In this language the above distinction between animate and inani-
mate objects takes the place of gender. The sexes are thus distin-
guished, nahba or enene, conjoined with the noun for male, and noozha
or equa for female.
Usually, however, in speaking of animals, the
male gender is understood; the designation of the sexes, therefore, is,
in general, necessary only in speaking of the female.
The plural endings of animate nouns are
g,
ug, ig, (or eeg), oog,
wug, yug, jig. The plural endings of inanimate nouns are ?z, un, in, (or
een), oon, tvun. Thus, animate: Enene, a man, pi. enenewug. Ah-
henooje, a child, pi. ahbenoojeeyug. Sheesheeb, a duck, pi. sheesheebug.
Inanimate: Muhkuk, a box, pi. muhJcukoon. Cheemaun, a canoe,
pi. cheemaimun. Sanuhgiik, something difficult, pi. sanuhgukin.
Nouns, properly, have no case in this language.
Of,
with a noun,
is expressed by the use of the possessive pronoun, thus: "The man's
hat," (or "the hat of the man"), enene o-wewuhquaun, literally, "the
man, his hat," o, or od, taking the same place in this language as 's in
English. But here, again, the distinction must be noted between ani-
mate and inanimate nouns. If the second noun be animate, it must
have n, in, un, oon, or nejin affixed as well as o before it, thus, "the
man's pig," owh enene o-kookooshun.
Of,
again in some cases, is
expressed by duhzhe, a participle signifying "the place where," thus:
"A man of Canada," Cana duhzhe enene.
To, from, in, with inanimcde nouns, may be expressed by the affix
-ng, thus: Muhkidc, a box, muhkukoong, in the box; the alteration of
the end syllable being ruled by the plural of the word.
To,
from, in, with animate nouns (or pronouns) can only be
expressed by the verb, thus: omenaun, "he gives it to him," od-ode-
saiin, "he comes to him." Ningemeenik owh John, "John gave it to
me."
The vocative case singular affects only proper names and terms
of relationship. Thus, a woman named Nahivegeezhegookwa, would
be called Nahwegeezhegook. Noos, "my father;" ningwis, "-ny son,"
and a few other such terms take an a in the vocative singular, thus:
Noosa! Ningivissa! In the plural, wedoog is the termination, which
may be more liberally employed, thus : Unishenahhawedoog, "O Indian
!"
Ogemahwedoog, "O chief!" Ahbenoo-jeewedoog, "children!" Pezheke-
wedoog, "O cattle!"
In this language the noun has, properly, no objective case, but a
curious
distinction is observed between the third persons that occur in
a sentence. Thus, in the sentence, "I see a man," man undergoes no
change;
but in "He sees a man," it does, and in the sentence, "He
sees the man's wife," ivife
being the third third person in the sentence,
undergoes a still further change. Thus: "A man," enene. "I see a
man,"
newahbumah enene. "He sees a man," o-wahbumaun enenewun.
"He sees a man's wife," o-wahbumaun eneneivun o-wedegamahgunene.
Another sentence: "Joseph took the young child and his mother,
100
etc.," Joseph ooge-odahpencmn enewh alibenoojeyun kiihya eneivh
egeene. Here there are three third persons,
(1)
Joseph;
(2)
the child,
(-yun);
(3)
the child's mother, {-ene).
For the second third person in a sentence the ending, whether
singular or plural, is n, in, un, oon, nejin, according to the plural
endintj of the word.
Diminuiive Ending. A noun, whether animate or inanimate, is
made diminutive by affixing -ns (pronounced nearly as nee in prince)
thus: sheesheeb, "a duck," sheesheebans, "a little duck or duckling;"
muhkiik,
"
a box," muJikukoojis, a little box. These endings are either
-ns, -ans, -ins, or oons, according to the plural, and their plural is
always -ng, animate, and nn, inanimate.
Derogative Ending. A noun, whether animate or inanimate, may
have a derogative, contemptible sense given to it by affixing sh, thus:
uhnemoosh, "a dog," uhnemooshish, "a bad dog;" wahgahkivud, "an
ax," icahgahkwudoosh, "an old worn-out ax."
These endings are either sh, -ish, -oosh or -wish, according to the
plural, and their plural is always ug, animate, itn, inanimate.
The different sorts of nouns are thus classified:
Simple Nouns are such as enene, man; kookoosh, pig; cheemann,
canoe.
Nouns ending in win usually express a state, condition or action,
and are formed from neuter verbs, by adding icin to those ending in
ah, a, e, o; and ooivin to those ending in um and in, thus: nebahwin,
"sleep," from nebah, "he sleeps;" ekedoowin, "a saying," from ekedo,
"he says;" enandumoonwin, "thought," from enendum, "he thinks;"
tugwishenooivin, "arrival," from tuhgimshin, "he arrives." Among
this class are nouns ending in -aicin, -ooivin, and -deivin; these end-
ings express respectively giving, receiving, and mutual action, thus:
meegewaioin, means a gift given; meenegoowin, a gift received ; meene-
deivin, a mutual gift. Kekenouhmahgawin, instruction given ; kekenou-
mrigowin, instruction received; kekenoumadewin, mutual or general
instruction. Of these nouns, those ending in -aivin are formed from
neuter verbs of the second paradigm by adding icin; those ending in
-oowin, from the first person singular of the passive voice of transi-
tive verbs by adding ivin and dropping the pronominal prefix. Those
ending in -deicin from the reciprocal modification of the transitive
verb, by changing demin into dewin, and dropping the pronominal
prefix, thus: (Ij, shahwanjega, "he is merciful," shahwanjegawin,
"mercy given,"
(2),
ninshahwanemegoo, "I am treated with mercy,"
shahwanemegoowin, "mercy received;"
(3),
keshahwanindemin, "we
treat each other kindly,"
shahwanindewin, "mutual kindness."
Nouns ending in -gun are readily formed from neuter verbs, of
the second paradigm ending in ga. Thus: pemepoojegiin,
"
a plough,"
from pemepoojega, "he ploughs;" pxiushkezhegun, "a gun," from
jmitshkezhega, "he shoots."
Participial Nouns are properly the participles of the verb. They
are either positive or negative, thus: anuhmeaud, "a Christian"
(literally "he who prays"); anookeed, "a worker," (literally "he
who works"); wahdookahgad, "a helper," (literally "he who helps").
Nouns inseparable from the possessive pronoun are terms of
relationship and parts of the body. Thus: my, thy or his father,
noos, koos, osun. My, thy or his son, ningicis, kegicis, ogivissun. My,,
thy or his hand, neninj, keninj^ oninj. My, thy or his foot, nezid,,
kezid, ozid. My, thy or his body, neyoiv, keyoio, iceyoiv. Separate
from the pronoun, these objects have only a generic name, as tceey-
oivemah, "the body."
Nouns that possess composition particles. This is a peculiarity
of the language. Thus: Earth as a separate noun is ulike, but in
composition it is kiimmig, e.
g.
"beneath the earth," uhnaumiih-
kummig; "on the surface of the earth," ogedekummig.
Transformation
of
a noun into a verb. Every noun in this
language can be transformed into a verb. Thus, the word earth
;
by
a slight change we can express, "he is earth," "he has earth," "he
makes earth," "there is earth," etc. Thus:
(1).
He is earth. The noun is formed into a neuter verb by
adding we^ thus: uhke^ earth, uhkeewe, he is earth.
(2).
He has earth,The noun is formed into a neuter verb by
prefixing o- or od- and adding e, me, or o. Thus: ashkun, a horn,
odashkune, he is horned; loahgahkwud, an ax, owahgahkwudo, he
has an ax; pezheke, a cow, opezhekeme, he has a cow.
(3).
He makes earth. The noun is formed into a neuter verb
by adding -ka, eka or ooka, thus, uhkik, a kettle, uhkikooka, he
makes kettles.
Adjectives. Whilst the adjective is given as a part of speech in
this language, yet, properly speaking, it was no adjective in the form
of other languages. The words that are used as such may be classed
as follows:
(1)
Particles;
(2)
Nouns with adjectival ending;
(3)
Participles (or adjective verbs).
Particles used as adjectives are the following: keche, big;
mcno, good ; mudje, bad ; ooshke, new ; kata, old ; and some few others.
With nouns these particles are used adjectively, and with verbs adverb-
ially.
Thus with a noun, keeche-enene, "a great man;" with a verb,
kcche
sahgeewa, "he loves greatly."
192
Nouns with adjectival ending are formed by simply adding e, ene,
or o, to the noun. Thus: icdJibcgun, clay; wahbegune-onahgitn, a clay
platter. Shooneyah, silver; shooneyah-icene-opwahgun, a silver pipe;
metig, a log; mciigo-cheemaun, a log canoe.
Participles used as adjectives is the common mode in this lan-
guage of expressing quality. Thus: "It is high," is/ipa/i, part, (that
which is high), ishpaug; hence a high building, is/ipau^ icahkuhegun.
So in the same way, (tgahscmg, small, part, of uhgahsah, it is small;
kanwnug, long, from kinwah, it is long. Wtihyahhishkaug, white,
from wahbishkah, it is white. Wasuhwaug, yellow, from osuhwah, it
is yellow.
There are no proper degrees of comparison in this language. The
comparative degree can only be expressed by the use of the adverbs, nuh-
ivHJ,
or ahwahshema, "more." And the superlative degree is imper-
fectly rendered by kache or uhyahpeche^ "very, very much," or by muh-
yahmuhive, "chiefly." Thus: "prettier," nuhiouj quuhnauj; "fatter,"
niihwuj wahnenood. "He loves me more than you," nuhiouj nesahgeik
keen dashween. The most powerful, owh muhyahmuhwe mushkuhwe-
zid. Ashkum denotes, more and more, increasingly. Thus: Ashkum
ahkoose, "he is getting worse," (more sick). Ashkum wahbishka^
"it is getting whiter."
Verbal use
of
adjectives. Participial adjectives can be used
verbally, thus: mushkuhwah^ "it is strong;" o-mushkuhwatoon, "he
makes it strong;" kinivah, "it is long;" o-kinwahtoon, "he makes it
lono-
1?
The pronoun. In this language there are five kinds of pronouns:
personal, possessive, demonstrative, indefinite and interrogative. There
is no relative pronoun, its place being supplied by the participle of the
verb, thus: "God who is merciful," owh Kezha-muhnedoo shawan-
jegad. "I who am writing," Jieen icazhebeegayaun.
"
The box that is
open," ewh muhkuk pakahkoonegahdag.
The personal pronouns standing alone are neen, I or me; keen^
thou or thee; ween, he, she, or him, her; 7ienuhwind, we or us (not
including the party addressed) ; kenuhwind, we or us (including the
party addressed) ; kenuhioah, you; wenuhwah, they or them. In con-
joining with the verb for the nominative case, there is prefixed ne, nin,
or nind, I or we (excluding the party addressed) ; ke, or kid, thou, we
find.
),
you, with the proper terminal inflection of the verb. The third
person, in the neuter verbs, has no prefix. Thus: "I walk," ninpe-
moosa; "thou walkest,^
"*
kepemoosa; "he (or she) walks," pemoosa;
we (excl. ) walk, nepemoosamin; we (including party addressed) walk,
kepemoosamin; you walk,
kepemoosam; they walk, pemoosawug.
INDIAN LANGUAGES.
193
The objective case of the personal pronoun is expressed by a
change in the verb. Thus: "I see him" (or "her"), newahbumaun.
*'He (or she) sees me," newahbumik. "You see it," kewahbundaun.
The possessive pronouns are my, ?ie, nin, nind; thy, ke, kid; his
(or her) o, -od: our (excl.
),
ne^ nind, -naunj our (inch), ke, kid, -naun;
your, ke, kid, -wah; their, o, od, -wah.
Thus: ''
M.J
canoe,^^ nijicheemaun; "our (inch ) canoe," kechee-
maunenaun. The distinction, however, between animate and inanimate
objects must be strictly observed. Animate objects require an n term-
ination to the third person, both singular and plural, as well as o or od,
prefixed. The plural also must (as in nouns) end with
g
for animate
objects, with n for inanimate ones.
The demonstrative pronoun is thus expressed:
This ( animate ) mahbah, pi. mahmig ; 2d, 3d per. mahmin.
wah-owh, pi. oogoo; 2d, 3d per. enewh.
(inanimate) maunduh, pi.
oo-oo pi. oonoo.
That (or the) (animate) owh, pi. egewh; 2d, 3d per. enewh.
(inanimate) ewh, pi. enewh.
Thus: "This man," mahbah, or ivahoivh enene. "He gave it to
that man," ogemeenaun eneich enenewun. "This box," oo-oo muhkiik.
"Those boxes there," enewh ewade miihkukoon.
The indefinite pronouns are one, they, people, etc., expressed in
the inflection of the verb, thus: ekedoom, "they say," "it is said."
Whoever, ahivagivan. Somebody or anybody, ahweyuh. Both,
niihyazh. Each, papazhig. Each of us, papazhegooyung.
The interrogative pronouns are: Who? ahicananf What? ivagoo-
nan ahneen?
Adverbs. This part of speech may be classed as follows: adverbs
proper, adverb particles, adverbs of affirmation and consent, adverbs
of denial, adverbs of doubt, adverbs of interrogation, adverbs used
imperatively, adverbs of quantity, adverbs of comparison, adverbial
expressions.
Adverbs proper may be used with a verb, but separately, as:
icanepuzh, easily; keemooj, secretly; pahbega, suddenly; nuhagauj,
gently ; suhgiikuj, orderly, etc. Also, such words as : ogeduhkummig,
"on the surface of the earth;" ogedebeeg, "on the surface of the
water;" neegaun, "in front;" ishqiiayaung, "behind;"
ogidjuhyeee,
"above;" uhnaunmiihyeee, "below;" pinjeeiihyeee, "within;" mag-
ivauhyeee, "among;" pecheenug, "just, now only."
Adverb particles are such as are prefixed to the verb, as: kewe-
tuh-, around; pahpah-, about; peme-, through or by; p>e-, approach-
13
194
ing; we-, intending; uhne-, proceeding; uhwe-, going to do; oonje-,
proceeding from. Thus: peme-ezhah, he passes through; pahpahpe-
moosa, he walks about; pe-kuhgequa, he comes preaching.
Adverbs of affirmation and consent, as: yes, a, (pron. as in at,
air) ; certainly, kagatj assuredly, ahhedakummig; let it be, mahnoo,
or me-ga-ing; it is so, suh, (in contradistinction to nuhf is it soV)
;
of course, indeed, gooshah.
Adverbs of denial, as : no, kah, kahween; not, kah, kahweensc.
Thus: "he does not walk," kahween pemoosase;
"
by no means," kah-
wasuh; "not at all," kah kuhnuhga.
Adverbs of doubt, as : perhaps, maungeshuh, koonemah; probably,
kuhnuhbitj; I don't know, anduhgivaii; I don't know where he or it is,
iebe, tehe-edoog; I don't know who, ahwagwan, ahwagwanedoog; I
don't know how, niihmunjedoog.
Adverbs of interrogation, as: Is it? -niihf Thus: Is it a man?
Enene nuh? Does he speak? Keekedo nuhf Is he hungry? Puhkuh
-da nuh? Why? Wagoonan oonjef y^hQn'^ Ahneen uhpeef How?
Ahneen ezhef Where? Ahnindef How much? Ahneen minik?
Whence? Ahninde oonjef
Adverbs used imperatively, as: Come! Umba! Come here, oon-
daus; be quick, waweeb. Stop! Pakah! Don't, kago.
Adverbs of quantity, as: "It is enough," me rnenik; much, 7iebe-
nuh; very, keche, ahpeche; more, nuhwuj uhwaushema; more and
more, ashkum; little, punge; almost, kagah; so much, ewh menikj too
much, osaum nebewuh.
Adverbs of comparison : thus, ezhe; too, also, kuhya; as much as,
tebishko menikj as, like, tebishko; more, nuhwuj; less, nuhwuj punge.
Adverbial expressions, as: "It is wônderful," or "wonderful
indeed!" mahmuhkahduhkummig; it is horrible, kuhgwahnesuhgukum-
mig; it is nice, pleasant, minwandahgwukummig.
There is nothing in this language equivalent to our preposition
with. The only substitute is the participle weej, which is prefixed to
the verb, and implies going with, accompanying; thus: He goes with
him, o-weej-ewaun; he works with him, o-iveej-uhnookemaun. When
we want to render such a sentence as "he killed him with his knife,"
we have to introduce the verb uhyoon, "to use," (or ahicaun, anim.
),
thus: Oge-nesaun o-mookomaun ke-uhyood, (literally, "his knife
using"). Again, "he met him with joy," oge-nuhgishkuhwaun emuh
moojegezewening, (in joy) ; or, kemoojegezekenuhgishkuhwaud, "he
rejoiced that he met him."
From. This is expressed by oonje, (usually joined with the
verb) and ng affixed to the noun. Thus: "He comes from town,"
INDIAN LANGUAGES.
195
Odcmaung pe-oonjehah. He started from Toronto, Toronto-ing
ke-oonjemahjah.
To, in, on, at, are expressed by -ng affixed to the noun, and gen-
erally by a verb denoting the motion. Thus: "In the box," mukuk-
oong; he goes to Toronto, Toronto-ing ezhah.
Among, magwa. Thus: Among his friends, magwa weejekewayun.
For, for the sake of, an account of, oonje. As: oonje owh Jesus
Christ, for Jesus Christ's sake. Acting or doing for is expressed by
the accommodative modification of the verb, thus: neho, he dies; o-ne-
botuhicaiin, he dies for him.
By, near, chig. As: Chig ishkoota, "by the fire;" chig ish-
qnanndum, "near the door."
The Inierjection. Men express their emotion one way, women
another. Thus, men, for oh! oh dear! alas! will exclaim, ah-tuhyah!
teewa! whereas women will cry, neeyahf neeyo! ningo! ninga! pro-
longing, always into a sort of wail, or howl, the last syllable.
Other forms of exclamation are, nah^ nushka! lo, hark! wag-
wahgef look! see! wanebun! gone! disappeared! ishta! ah, ah yes!
pakahf stop!
The Verb. In this language the verb is very complex and im-
portant, and, indeed, is the most intricate part of speech, all the other
parts of speech depending on it; and nearly all others are capable of
being put into a verbal form. The importance of this part of speech
in this language is shown from the fact that in forming a sentence it
is a rule to employ a verb wherever possible. Thus, the sentence in
English, "he was there at our last meeting," would be rendered in
this language, "he was there when we last met."
Kev. Edward F. Wilson, in his
"
Manual of the Ojibway Lan-
guage," well remarks that it seems a marvelous thing, indeed, that
"these poor, ignorant Indians," with no knowledge of literature or
the general principles upon which languages are based, should have
handed down so complex a dialect as the one before us. with all its
multitudinal inflections, affixes and prefixes, from one generation to
another.
Mr. Wilson, in his work aforesaid, classifies the verb into the
verb neuter, and the verb transitive. The neuter verb is compara-
tively simple and easy of acquirement, but the transitive verb presents
an enormous amount of matter in which it will require the greatest
patience and a considerable effort of memory to grapple with; the
reason being that within its voluminous inflections are included all the
persons, singular and plural, of the objective case of the pronoun^
being introduced sometimes as affixes, sometimes as prefixes, sometimes
196
by a complete change in the body of the verb. Thus, in learning the
neuter verb, we have, I go, thou goest, he goes; we go, you go, they
goand have done ; but when we commence the transitive verb we
soon find ourselves in a maze of, I see you, you see me, he sees me, he
sees us, they see me, they see them, he sees it, it sees him, he sees his
brotlier, his brother sees meon, on to bewilderment
Among other rules in this language that are to be particularly
noted, is that, in constructing words, a consonant should precede or
follow a vowel, except in dissyllables, wherein two consonants are
sounded in juxtaposition, as in muhkuk, a box, and assin, a stone. The
utterance in these cases is confluent ; but in longer compounds this
juxtaposition is generally avoided by throwing in a vowel for purposes
of euphony, as in the term assina boin, the a in which serves as a mere
connective and properly belongs here only for that purpose; the
word being a compound of two words, assin and hivGin, stone roasters.
Nor is it allowable, in general, for vowels to follow each other in
syllabication, that is, in forming words of two or more syllables, two
vowel sounds are not properly allowed to come together, but a consonant
sound is thrown in between them for euphony, as in the case of mimio,
good, and aukee or akee^ earth. When these two words are combined
to form "good earth," the rule would be to insert the letter w between
the two vowels, thusMinnowaukee, or in the case of ManUo-auk^
"spirit tree," it would be thus expressed, Manitoicauk.
Mr. Schoolcraft, in referring to this language, says that a leading
feature in it is concentration ; that the pronoun, adjective, adverb and
preposition, in certain cases, are chiefly useful as furnishing materials
for the speaker, to be worked into a complicative texture of the verb
and the substantive; and he remarks that nothing, in fact, can be
more unlike than the language viewed in its original elementary state,
in a vocabulary of its primitive words, and the same language as held
under its oral amalgamated form ; that its transposition may be likened
to a picture in which the copal, the carmine and the white lead are no
longer recognized as distinct substances, but each of which has con-
tributed its share towards the general effect, in which one element has
been curtailed, another augmented, and all, however seemingly
discordant, made to coalesce.
lord's PRAYER IN ALGONQUINOJIBWAY DIALECT.
Noo-se-non
ish-pe-ming-a-yah-yan ; tuh-ge-che-e-nain-dah-gwud
Our Father in heaven
who art, supremely adored
ke-de-zhe-ne-kah-ze-win.
Ke-doo-ge-mah-we-win-tuh-be-tuh-give
be thy name.
Thy kingdom let it
slie-iioo-muh-gud. . A-nain-duh-mun o-mah uh-keeng tuh-e-
come. Thy will here on earth let
zhe-che-gaim, te-be-shkoo go a-zhe-uh-yog e-we-de-ish-pe-miiig
it be done, as it is yonder in heaven,
Meen-zhe-she-nom noong-com kee-zhe-guk ka-o-buh-qua-zhe-
Give us this day that which will
gun-e-me-yong. Kuh-ya-wa-be-nuh-muh-we-she-nom-e-newh nirn-
be our bread. And forgive us
bah-tah-e-zhe-wa-be-ze-we-he-hah-nin, a-she ko wa-be-nuh-muh-
our sins as we for-
wung-e-dwah e-gewh ma-je-doo-duh-we-yuh-min-ge-jig. Ka-go
give them who have done us evil. Do not
ween kuh-ya uh-ne-e-zhe-we-he-she-kong-ain e-mah zhoo-be-ze-
(and) lead us into tempta-
win-ing; mah-noo suh go ke-de-skee-we-ne-she-nom. Keen
tion; but do thou deliver us from evil. For
mah ween ke-de-bain-don ewh o-ge-mah-we-win, kuh-ya ewh
thine is the kingdom, and the
kuh-shke-a-we-ze-win, kuh-ya ewh pe-she-gain-dah-go-ze-win,
power and the glory,
kah-ge-nig kuh-ya kah-ge-nig.
forever and forever.
Amen.
LANGUAGE OF THE DAKOTAS.
The language of the Dakota stock, or, as they are commonly
called, the Sioux, is more extensive and complex in many respects, and
more difficult to acquire than any among the several linguistic groups.
It differs somewhat in its construction and sounds from the language
of the Algonquins, showing in its general features that it has origin-
ated among a people possessing force of character and imaginative
powers of mind. It is a stronger and more copious language, in many
respects, than the Algonquin, but perhaps wanting to some extent
as affording the means of that elegance and figurative mode of expres-
sion which characterizes the Algonquin language, in consequence of
its peculiar construction and extensive and varied use of the verb.
It is practically impossible to give, in the limited space which
can be here allotted to this subject, anything beyond the general rules
of orthography and etymology of this language, which, however, will
serve, it is believed, to give a sufficient idea of the language for
general purposes. In view of the limited space which must neces-
198
sarily be here allotted to this subject, the rules of syntax governing
its construction are considered of minor importance.
The vowels used in this language are a, e, i, o, u, and each has
one uniform sound, except when followed by the nasal "n," which
sometimes
modifies.
a, has the sound of English a in father.
e, has the sound of English e in they, or of a in
face.
i, has the sound of i in marine or of e in me.
o, has the sound of English o in go, note.
u, has the sound of English u in rule, or of oo in
food.
The consonants are twenty-four in number, exclusive of the sound
represented by the apostrophe (').
In the use of the English alphabet, in this language, the conso-
nants, not being in number sufficient, have been extended by peculiar
marks, added or attached to letters, indicating the change of sounds
according to the fact. The apostrophe
(')
is used to mark a hiatus,
as in s'a.
Syllables, in the Dakota language, terminate in a pure or nasal-
ized vowel, as maka^ the earth. To this rule there are some excep-
tions.
In this language all the syllables are enunciated plainly and fully
;
but every word that is not a monosyllable has in it one or more
accented syllables, which, as a general thing, are easily distinguished
from such as are not accented. The importance of observing the
accent is seen in the fact that the meaning of a word often depends
upon it; as ma^ga, a field; maga\ a goose; olciya, to aid; oki^ya,
to speak to.
Suffixes
do not appear to have any effect upon the accent; but a
syllable prefixed or inserted before the accented syllable draws the
accent back, so that it still retains the same position with respect to
the beginning of the word; as nape\ hand; mina^pe, my hand;
haksa
,
to cut off with a knife; hawalcsa, I cutoff; mdaska\ flat; can-
mda^ska, boards ; maga, a field ; mitamaga, my field.
A or an final in verbs, adjectives, and some adverbs, is
changed to o when followed by auxiliary verbs or by certain con-
junctions or adverbs.
According to Mr. Biggs, the Dakota language has eight parts of
speech, the pronoun, verb, noun, adjective, adverb, preposition, con-
junction and interjection.
Pronouns may bo classed as personal (simple and compound),
interrogative, relative air.l demonstrative, together with the definite
and indefinite pronouns or articles.
INDIAN LANGUAGES.
199
To personal pronouns belong person, number and case.
There are three persons, the first, second and third.
There are three numbers, the singular, dual and plural. The
dual is only of the first person. Like the Algonquin, it includes the
person speaking and the person spoken to, and has the form of the
first person plural, but without the termination pi.
Pronouns have three cases, nominative, objective and possessive.
The simple pronoun is divided into separate and incorporated;
that is, those which form separate words and those which are prefixed
and inserted into verbs, adjectives and nouns. The separate pronouns
are, singular, mis^ I; nis, thou; is, he. The plural is designated by
unkis, for the first person; 7iis, for the second person, and is. for
the third, adding p?^*
at the end of the last principal word in the
phrase. Dual, unkis (I and thou) we two.
The incorporated pronouns are used to denote the subject or
object of an action or possessor of the thing.
Nominative pronouns, or those which denote the subject of the
action, are singular, wa, I; ya, thou; Dual, un, (I and thou) we two;
Plur., uniDi, we; yapi, ye. The plural term pi is attached to the
end of the verb.
The objective pronoun, or those which denote the object of the
action, are. Sing., ma, me; ni, thee; Plur., unpi, us, and nipi, you.
The possessive pronouns are. Sing., mi or ma, my; ni, thy; Dual,
un, (my and thy) our; Plur., unpi, our; nipi, your.
The pronouns of the first and second persons prefixed to nouns,
signifying a relationship, are singular mi, my; ni, thy; dual, unki (my
and thy) our; plur. unkipi, our; nipi, your, as miciyica, my child;
nideksi, thy uncle; nisunka, thy younger brother; unkicincapi, our
children.
Mita, nita, and ta, singular; unkita, dual; and unkita-pi,
and ta-pi, plural, are used to express property in things, as, mita-
onspe, my ax; nitasunke, thy dog; they say also mitahoksidan, my
boy. These pronouns are also used with koda, a particular friend,
as mitakoda, my friend; nitakoda, thy friend; takodaku, his friend;
and with kicuiva, comrade ; as nitakiciiica, thy comrade.
The reflexive pronouns are used when the agent and patient are
the same person, as: wasteicidaka, he loves himself; wastenicidaka^
thou lovest thyself ; wastemicidaka,! love myself.
The relative pronouns are : tiiwe, who, and taku, what ; tuwe kasta
and titwe kakes, whosoever or any one ; taku kasta and taku kakeSy
whatsoever or anything.
Interrogative pronouns are: tuwe, who? with its plural tuwepij
iakic, what? which is used with the plural signification, both with and
without the termination pi; tiMe, which V hikten, where? have,
tawa, whose? iona, ioiiaka, and ionakeca, how many?
Demonstrative pronouns are: c/e, this, and he, that, with their
plurals, dena, these, and hena, those ; also ka, that, and kana, those,
or so many. From these are formed: denaka and denakeca, these
many ; lienaka and henakeca, those many ; and kanaka, and kanakeca,
so many as those.
Also kon partakes of the nature of a demonstrative pronoun
when it refers to some person or thing mentioned before ; as : wicasta
kon, that man.
When a or an of the preceding word is changed into e, kon
becomes cikon, as : tuwe wanmdake cikon, that person whom I saw, or,
the person I saw.
Article. There are, properly speaking, only two articles, the
definite and indefinite.
The definite article: is kin, the; as tvicasia kin, the man; maka
kin, the earth.
The demonstrative kon approaches very nearly to the nature
of the article and may often be rendered accordingly.
The indefinite article is: wan, a or an, probably a contraction
of the numeral ivanzi, one ; as wicasta wan, a man.
Verbal Roots. The Dakota language contains many verbal roots,
which are used as verbs only with certain prefixes, and which form
participles by means of certain additions. The following is a list of
the more common verbal roots:
Baza, smooth. Gata, spread. Hna, fall ofp.
Ga, open out. Guka, spread out. Hnayan, deceive.
Gan, open out. Hinta, brush off. Huhuza. shake.
Gapa, open out. Hmun, twist. Hca, open out, expand.
Verbs Formed by Prefixes.
The syllables ba, bo, ka, na, pa,
ya, and yu, are prefixed to verbal roots, adjective, and some neuter
verbs, making of them active transitive verbs, and usually indicating
the mode and instrument of the action.
Compound Verbs. There are several classes of verbs which are
compounded of two verbs.
Kiya and ya, or yan, when used with other verbs, impart to them
a causative signification, and are usually joined with them in the same
word, as: nazin, he stands; nazinkiya, he causes to stand. The first
verb is sometimes contracted, as: loanyaha, he sees; ivanyagkiya, he
causes to see.
Conjugation. Dakota verbs are comprehended in three conjuga-
INDIAN LANGUAGES.
201
tions, distinguished by the form of the pronouns in the first and
second persons singular, which denote the agent.
In the first conjugation the nominative singular pronouns are:
tva or toe, and ya or ye.
The second conjugation embraces verbs in yu, ya, and yo, which
form the first and second persons singular by changing the
y
into md
and d.
Neuter and adjective verbs form the third conjugation, known by
taking what are more properly the objective pronouns, ma and ni.
Most Dakota verbs may assume a frequentative form, that is, a
form which conveys the idea of frequency of action. It consists in
doubling a syllable, generally the last, as: baksa, to cut off with a
knife ; baksaksa, to cut off in several places. This form is conjugated
in all respects, as is the verb before reduplication.
Person. Dakota verbs have three persons, the
first, second and
third. The third person is represented by the verb in its simple form,
and the second and first person by the addition of the personal pro-
nouns.
Mood. There are three moods belonging to Dakota verbs: the
indicative, imperative and indefinite.
Tense. Dakota verbs have two tenses, the aorist or indefinite,
and the future.
Participles. The addition of han to the third person singular of
some verbs makes an active participle, as: in, to speak; inhan, speak-
ing; nazin, to stand; nazinhan, standing; mani, to walk; manihan,
walking. The verbs that admit of this formation do not appear to be
numerous.
Personal forms. Active verbs are frequently used impersonally
in the plural number, and take the objective pronouns to indicate the
person or persons acted upon, in which case they may be commonly
translated by the English passive ; as kaskapi (they-bound-him), he
is bound; nicâslaqoi (they-bound-thee), thou art bound; makaskapi
(they-bound-me), I am bound; wicakaslcapi (they-bound-them), they
are bound.
Neider and adjective verbs. Neuter and adjective verbs seem
likewise to be used impersonally, and are varied by means of the same
pronouns; as ta (it-dies-him), he dies; nita (it-dies-thee), thou diest;
mata, I die; tapi, they die, etc.; ivasHe (good), he is good; niioaste
(thee-good), thou art good, etc.
Double verbs. These are formed of two verbs compounded
together. They usually have the pronouns proper to both verbs, though
sometimes the pronoun of the last verb is omitted ; as hdiyontanka
202
[hdi and lyonianka) to come home and sit down; ivahdimdotanka, I
come home and sit down ; also say wahdiyonianka.
Irregular and defective verbs. Ey
a,
to say, with its compounds
Jieya and keya, are conjugated irregularly, h and
p
taking the place of
y
in the second and first persons singular.
Nouns. Dakota nouns may be divided into two classes, primHive
and derivative.
Primitive nouns are those whose origin cannot be deduced from
any other word ; as maka, earth
;
peta, fire
;
pa, head ; ista, eye ; ate,
father; ina, mother.
Derivative nouns are those which are formed in various ways
from other words, chiefly from verbs, adjectives and other nouns.
Diminutives dan, or na, is suffixed to nouns, pronouns, adjectives
and verbs, and has sometimes a diminutive and sometimes a restrictive
signification.
Dan is often joined to adjectives and verbs, as the last principal
wôrd in the clause, although it properly belongs to the noun ; as ''suk-
ianka wan waste-dan (horse a good-little), a good little horse, not a
horse a little good; ni^cinksi ce^ye-dan (thy-son-cries-little), thy little
son cries.
Gender. Gender is sometimes distinguished by different names
for the masculine and feminine ; as wfca^sta, man ; winohin^ca, woman
;
tatanka, buffalo bull; pte, buffalo cow; hehaka, the male elk; upan,
the female elk.
Number. To nouns belong two numbers, the singular and
plural.
Case. Dakota nouns may be said to have two principal cases, the
nominative and objective.
Possession. The relation of two nouns to each other, as posses-
sor and possessed, is sometimes indicated by placing them in juxtapo-
sition, the name of the possessor coming first; as ivahukeza ihupa,
spear-handle ; tipi tiyopa, house-door ; wica'sta oie, man's word.
But the relation is pointed out more definitely by adding to the
last term a possessive pronoun.
Adjectives. Most adjectives in Dakota may be conGidered as
primitive; as ska, white; tanka, large; wa-ste, good.
Number. Adjectives have three numbers, the singular, dual and
plural.
The dual is formed from the singular by prefixing or inserting un,
the pronoun of the first person plural ; as /csapa, wise ; wi casta un-
ksapa, we two wise men ; waonsida, merciful ; waonsiunda, we two mer-
ciful ones.
The plural is formed by the addition of pi to the singular ; as
wa^sie, good; wVcasta wa^stepi, good men.
Comparison. Adjectives are not inflec'-^d to denote degrees of
comparison, but are increased or diminished in signification by means
of adverbs.
Adverbs. There are some adverbs in very common use, whose
derivation from other parts of speech is not now apparent, and which
may therefore be considered as primitives; as e'ca, when; kuya and
kun, under, below ; kitanna, a little, not much ; nina and hinca, very
;
ohinni, always ; sanpta, more ; tankan, without, out of doors ; ivanna,
now, etc.
Prepositions. This part of speech may be divided into separate
and incorporated.
The separate prepositions in Dakota follow the nouns which they
govern, and hence might properly be called postpositions; as ^can
akan nawazin (wood upon I-stand), I stand upon wood; he maza on
kagapi (that iron of is-made), that is made of iron. The following
are the principal separate prepositions, viz.
:
ahna, with. etkiya, towards. om, with.
akan, on or upon. etu, at. on, of, or from, with, for.
ako, beyond. kahda, by, near to. opta, through.
ehna, amongst. kici, with. sanpa, beyond.
etka, at, to. mahen, within. tanhan, from.
en, in. ohna, in. yata, at.
^tanhan, from. ohomni, around.
Incorporated prepositions are suffixed to nouns, prefixed to or
inserted into verbs, and prefixed to adverbs.
The prepositions suffixed to nouns are ta and ata, or ijata^ at or
on ; as tinta^ prairie ; tintata, at or on the prairie ; maga, a field ; ma-
gata, at the field ; can, wood or woods ; canyata, at the woods The
preposition en, in, contracted, is suffixed to a few nouns ; as //, a house
;
tin, in the house. These formations may in some cases be regarded
as adverbs ; as he, a hill or ridge ; heyata, at the hill, or back from.
The prepositions a, e, i, o, instead of being suffixed to the noun,
are prefixed to the verb.
The preposition i is prefixed to a class of adverbs, giving them
the force of prepositions. In these cases it expresses relation to or
connection with the preceding noun; as tehan, far; itehan, far from
any time or place; heyata, behind; iheyata, back of something.
Conjunctions in Dakota, as in other languages, are used to con-
nect woids and sentences; as icaste ka ksapa, good and wise; wicasta
siceca koya, men and children: ^Ûnkan Wakantanka Ozanzan kta,
eyax:
unkan ozanzan.^^ And God said, 'Let light be:' and light was.
Interjections. It is very difficult to translate, or even to classify
204
THE AMERICAN INDIAN,
Dakota interjections. Those in common use may be arranged under
the following heads, according to the emotion they express:
Pain: yun! winsioif ah! oh!
Keofret: hehe! hehehe! hunhe! hunhunhe! oh! alas!
Surprise: hopidan! hopidanniye! hopidansni! inah! inamaf
inyun! iyanaka! wonderful! surprising! astonishing! truly! indeed!
Attention: a! e! hesf hiwo! iho! mah! ioJwf wan! hark! lookf
see! behold! halloo!
Self-praise: ihdaian! ihdaianh! boast!
Affirmation: ecahef icasf ecaes! eesf ehaesf ehiakaes! eyakes!
nakas! indeed! truly! yes!
Disbelief: ezel hes! hinte! ho! hoecah! oho! fie! fudge! you
don't say so!
According to Mr. Riggs, the Dakotas used in their language
over 12,000 words. Something of an idea of the construction of the
Dakota language may be gained from the following example of the
Lord's prayer, rendered in both the Dakota and English languages:
THE lord's prayer IN THE DAKOTA LANGUAGE.
Itancan tawocekiye kin.
Lord his prayer the.
mahpiya ekta nanke
in
Ateunyanpi
Father-we-have heaven
wakandapi kte;
holy-regarded shall
;
ekta token nitawacin
in how thy-will
econpi nunwe.
done may-it be.
ka waunhtanipi
and our-trespasses
tona ecinsniyan
as-may-as wrongly
kicicazuzupi kin. Wowawiyutauye kin
we-forgive the Temptation
sni-po, ka taku sica etanhan
not and what bad from
wowas ake kin, wowitan kin,
strength the, glory the,
nunwe. Amen,
may-be. Amen.
cin
;
Nicaze kin,,
thou-art the Thy name the,
ukte.
shall
akan
Nitokiconze kin u
thy-kingdom the come
econpi kin maka
is done the earth upon
Anpetu kin de taku-yutapi
Day the this food
kin unkicicazuzu-po unkis
the ease-for-us we
unkokicihanyanpi hena iyecen
have-done-to-us those even-as
Mahpiya
Heaven
hecen
so
unkpo;
us give ;,
iyecen
like- as
wicun-
them-
iyaye unyanpi
to go US-cause
he en
the - that into
eunhdaku-po. Wokiconze kin
US-deliver. Kingdom, the
henakiya owihanke wanin nitawa.
all-these and none thine
IROQUOIS LANGUAGE.
Mr. Lewis H. Morgan, in speaking of this language, considers it
imperfect in its construction, and says that it scarcely admits of com-
parison, except on general principles, with those which have been
systemized and perfected; but in this remark Mr. Morgan evidently
does injustice to the language of this people, and his want of proper
estimation of it, no doubt, arises from the lack of a more thorough
knowledge concerning it. His assumption that a language is neces-
sarily imperfect because it is unwritten, is scarcely warrantable. The
language of the Iroquois was as nearly perfect and philosophical in
its construction as the other leading native American languages.
It was marked by six dialects, in use by the six nations of this
group. The same general principle of construction prevailed among
them all, the dialects differing among themselves, for the most part,
in the mere use of words. According to Mr. Morgan, the alphabet
common to the six dialects consists of nineteen letters, a, c, d, e,
g,
h,
i,
j,
k, n, o,
q,
r, s, t, u, w, x,
y,
in addition to which there are several
elementary sounds formed by a combination of letters. The Senacas
occasionally use the sound of x, which, however, is so closely allied
with the sound of s, as not to be distinguishable, except by careful
observation. The Mohawks and Oneidas used the liquid /, and the
Tuscaroras occasionally used the sound of
/.
The Mohawk language
is destitute of labials, having no words in the pronunciation of which
the lips are required to be closed. In this respect it is believed to be
different from any other language.
Careful investigation into this language discloses but twenty-
three elementary sounds. Nouns of one syllable seldom occur in
either of the dialects mentioned, and those of two syllables are not
very numerous ; but those of three and four syllables embrace the
greater part of words which belong to this part of speech. The fol-
lowing specimens are given as examples:
NOUNS OF TWO SYLLABLES.
An-Ja', Day.
Ga-ee', Tree.
So-a^
Night.
Ha-ace^ Panther.
Ga-o', Wind. Je-yeh^ Dog.
Gus-no^ Bark. Gen-joh', Fish.
NOUNS OF THREE SYLLABLES.
Ah-wa'-o,
Rose.
/ O-o^-za, Basswood
O-gis'-ta, Fire.
O-ane-da, Shrub.
O-we'-za,
Ice.
O-na^-ta, Leaf.
0-(Ius^-hote, A spooD Ga-ha^-neh, Summer.
Ga-ha^-da,
Forest. O-gas^-ah, Evening.
O-eke'-ta,
Thistle. Ga-o'-wo, Canoe.
NOUNS OF FOUR SYLLABLES.
O-na-ga'-nose,
Ga-a-nim'-da,
Ga-gwe-dake^-neh,
Sa-da'-che^-rah,
Ga-a-o'-da,
Sa-da'-wa-siin-teh
,
O-wis'-ta-no-o,
An-da^-ka-g-a-gwa,
Water.
Mountain.
Spring.
Morning.
Gun.
Ong-wa-o^-weh,
Ga-ga-neas^-heh,
O-gwen-nis'-ha,
Ah-ta-gwen'-da
,
NOUNS OF FIVE SYLLABLES.
Midnight.
Silver.
Sun.
So-a'-ka-ga-gwa,
Ga-ne-o'-us-heh,
O-da'-wa-an-do,
Indian.
Knife.
Copper.
Flint.
Moon.
Iron.
Otter.
The plural of nouns is formed in several ways, by inflection, of
which the following are examples:
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
O-on'-dote, A tree. O-on-do'-do, Trees.
Ga-no'-sote, A house. Ga-no-so'-do, Houses.
Ga-ne-o'-wa-o, A brook. Ga-ne-o-wa-o'-neo, Brooks.
Je-da^-o, A bird. Je-da-o'-suh-uh, Birds.
O-an'-nuh, A pole. O-an'-nuh-suh, Poles.
Ga-hun'-da, A creek. Ga-hun-da'-neo, Creeks.
Nouns in this language have three genders, which are indicated
in general by prefixing words which signify male and female. The
several dialects have the adjective, on which so much of the beauty of
a
language depends, to express quality in objects. The comparison,
of which they have the three degrees, is effected by adding another
word, and not by an inflection of the word itself, in the following
manner:
POSITIVE.
Great, Go-wa-na'',
Good, We-yo',
Sweet, 0-ga-uh'.
Small, Ne-wa-ah',
COMPARATIVE.
Ah-gwus''-go-wa-na,
Ah-gwu8''-we-yo,
Ah-gwus''-o-ga-uh,
Ah-gwus^-ne-wa-ah,
SUPERLATIVE.
Ha-yo-go-sote^-go-wa-na.
Ha-yo-go-sote^-we-yo.
Ha-yo-go-sote^-o-ga-uh
.
Ha-yo-go-sote^-ne-wa ah.
But in connecting the adjective with the noun, the two words
usually used enter into combination, and lose one or more syllables,
and this principle of construction is observed throughout the language.
The following examples serve to illustrate the manner of compounding
the adjective with the substantive, the words being according to the
Seneca dialect: 0-ya\ irnit] 0-ga-uh\ sweet', 0-ya^-ga-iih, sweet hmt',
O, the first syllable of sweet, being dropped. Again, E'-yose, a
blanket; Ga-geh-ant, white; Yose-a-geh^-ant, white blanket; Ga-no^-
sote, a house; We-yo\ good; Ga-no^-se-yo, a good house; literally,
fruit sweet, blanket white, and house good, illustrative of that natural
impulse in man which leads him to place the object before the quality.
In other instances the adjective is divided, and one part prefixed and-
the other suffixed to the noun, thus: Ga-nuW-da-yeh, a village; Ne-
wa^-ah, small;
Ne-ga-nun-da^-ah, a small village; Ah-ta^-qua'-o-weh, a
moccasin; Ne-wa'-ia-qua-ah, a small moccasin. The adjective is also
frequently used uncompouuded with the noun, as Ga-na'-dike-do
E'-yose^ a green blanket.
The indefinite article a or an does not exist in this language ; but
there are numerous particles which, without significance in themselves
separately, are employed for euphony and to connect words. This
language has also the adverbs, of which the following are examples:
Nake-ho\ here; 0-na, now; Ta-da, yesterday; Ska-no^, well.
The preposition is a part of speech, the most perfectly developed
in this language. The following are examples of simple prepositions,
as: Da-ga-o, across; No^-ga, after; Na^-ho, at; O^-cm-do, before;
Dose-ga^-o, near, etc.
In the declensions through which the substantives are passed,
pronouns as well as prepositions, are interwoven by inflection. These
declensions are not reducible to regular forms, but admit of great
diversities, rendering the language somewhat intricate in its inflections.
The following are examples of the ordinary variations of the nouns:
Ga-no^'-sote,
Ho-Do^-sote,
Ha-to-no^-sote,
Ho-ne'-sa-go,
A-so^-gwa-ta,
Ho-so^-gwa-ta,
Na-no-so^-gwa-ta,
Ho-so^-gwa-ta-go,
O-on-dote^,
Ho-on-(la^,
Ha-to-de-on-dote,
0-ya^
Ho-ya'',
Ho-da-ya,
Wanis^-heh-da,
Dwen-ms^-heh-dake,
Dwen-uis^-heh-deh,
Sa-weD nis''-hat,
Wa-sun^-da-da,
Dwa-sun^-da-dake,
Dwa-sun^-da-da,
Sa-wa-sun^-dart,
A house.
His house.
Of, to, fro, or at his house.
In his house.
A pipe.
His pipe.
Of his pipe.
In his pipe
A tree.
His tree.
Of, to, from, or at his tree.
Fruit.
His fruit.
Of, to, fro, or at his fruit.
Day.
At a day past.
At a day future.
With the day.
Night.
At a night past.
At a night future.
With the night.
The following are examples of the pronoun : E signifies I, we, me,
and us; Ese, thou, ye or you, and thee. He and they are wanting,
except as expressed in the verb by its inflection. The possessive pro-
nouns make the possessive case very
regularly, thus: Ah-ga-iveh\
mine; Sa-weh\ thine; Ho-iveh\ his; Go-iveh\ hers; Ung-gwa-weh\
ours; Swa-weh\ yours; Ho-nau-iceh\
theirs. Similar variations can
be made on some of the relative pronouns.
Interjections are numerous and well adapted to the broad field of
passions. This language has also the ordinary conjunctions.
The Iroquois verbs are conjugated by the variations throughout
the verb itself, thus: Che-wa-ge-'ya-go,
I had shot; A-wa-ge-'ya-go, I
208
shall have shot. In this manner the conjugation not only dispensed
with the pronouns I, thou, and he, with their plurals, but also with the
auxiliary verbs, which have introduced so much prolixity into modern
languages. The Iroquois verbs are conjugated with great regularity
and precision, making the active and passive voices, all the moods,
except the infinitive, and all the tenses, numbers, and persons common
to the English verb. But the participles are wanting. A substantive
for the infinitive mood is found in the present tense of the subjunctive
mood, together with a pronoun, as in the following passage: "Direct
that He -no may come and give us rain," instead of saying, "Direct
He -no to come and give us rain."
In the active voice of Iroquois verbs, the dual number is well
distinguished ; but in the passive voice the dual and the plural are the
same.
This language has the substantive or neuter verb e-neh-ga, I am.
Impersonal verbs are also very numerous, as 0-geon-de-o, it snows
;
0-7ia-yose-don-de-o, it hails; Ga-wa-no-das, it thunders.
To illustrate the manner in which words are made up in this lan-
guage, Mr. Morgan gives the following example:
Nun-da-wa-o, the radix of the name of the Senecas as styled by
themselves, which signifies " a great hill;" by suffixing o-?io, which
conveys the idea of
"
people at," Nun-da-ioa-o-no results literally
"
the people at the great hill." Next, by adding the particle ga^ itself
without significance, but when conjoined conveying the idea of
"
place"
or
"
territory," it gives the compound Nun-da-wa-o-no-ga,
"
the terri-
tory of the people at the great hill."
The number of words in use by the Iroquois in their language
from the best authority attainable was about ten thousand.
A more perfect specimen of this language will be found in the
Lord's Prayer, here given in the Seneca dialect, with a liberal transla-
tion accompanying the same
:
Gwa-nee che-de-oh ga-o-ya-geh, ga-sa-nuh,
Our Father which art in Heaven, hallowed be thy name,
ese sa-nuk-ta-ga-oh, ese sne-go-eh ne-ya-weh yo an-ja-geh
thy kingdom come, thy will be done on earth
ha ne-de-o-deh ga-o-ya-geh. Dun-da-gwa-e-wa-sa-gwus ong-wa-
as it is in Heaven. Forgive us our debts
yeh-his-heh da-ya-ke-a-wa-sa-gwus-seh ho-yeh-his. Da-ge-oh ne
as we forgive our debtors. Give us
na-geh wen-nis-heh-deh e na-ha-da-wen-nis-heh-geh o-a--qwa.
this day our daily bread.
Ha-squa-ali e sa-iio ha wa-ate-keh, na-gwa da-gwa-ya-dan-
Lead us not into temptation but deliver
nake ne wa-ate-keh, na-seh-eh nees o-nuk-ta, na-kuh
from us evil, for thine is the kingdom, and
na ga-hus-tes-heh, na-kuh da-ga-a-sa-oh.
the power, and the glory. Na-huh se-ya-weh.
THE CHEROKEE LANGUAGE.
Mention has been made in a former chapter of this work, see ante
page 49, of the Cherokee alphabet, invented by a native Indian, an
example of which is here given, showing a degree of inventive genius
in the Indian mind truly wonderful. It is a syllabical alphabet con-
sisting of eighty-five characters, each representing a single sound in
the language, and is considered the most perfect alphabet ever in-
vented for any language.
In forming these characters, the inventor used, as far as they
went, those which he found in an English spelling book, although he
knew no language but his own. Sequoyah was what Christians call
a Pagan Indian, not having adopted the Christian religion, and it is
said he regretted his invention when he found it used for purposes of
spreading the Christian religion among his people.
CHEROKEE ALPHABET.
The letters and syllables subjoined in italics at the right of each
character, indicate the sound of the character with which it is con-
nected.
In this dialect there are no labials except w, and that appears to
be modern, ir having been formerly used instead. The sound of
j
and
ch are not expressed, as or is being used instead. R is not used by
the majority of Cherokees, though a rolling r seems to have been the
original sound of /. Those who use r do. not use I, except as dialects
are confounded. V is not used, nor z, but w and s instead. The
number of consonant sounds is not great.
The examples which have been given in this chapter concerning
the Algonquin, Dakota and Iroquois languages, will serve well to
illustrate the construction and general features of the languages spoken
by other linguistic groups of the continent; for, as it has been here-
inbefore observed, there is a similarity in construction throughout all
the American languages.
14
(liljiTukri*^lpljaliit.
D R.
T (K)o a

Ir
5^// t)/r/
ly<^'
y
Ay.. tl/// >
fc
r///' fi)/// r//// V/m
((irhvr
Wa
(!\< a C/. M/. Îv
1$///// (jl
////'
II T7/////
\J///7
\ji;/i/i^J^f(///L
/
\./U' Ily//
iArio a.
î(/fff/ Cw////*
IP

Oqiiv
IT O
JD-iv^ l>J^d JLs/y Cjy/ Rsv
b//// W///
3^//' b/^ \r/iJitc Av. S//^/ ^d.
()lj^/^/
1 i //// Li//6' iu^ *J/^/ Oz/// Ptiv
Vf^/7 %.
hlsr lv^:r//
Cf^// V^tsvr
vi/^'<!/
Mr. .. IC^/^^' fV-V7/ t)\W
JjP/r' V d[/y' fljry Rvv
SOUNDS REPKESENTED BY VOWELS.

a as a in father^ or short as a in rival. o, as aw in law, or short as o in not.
(?, as a in hate, or shoi't as e in met. u, as oo in fool, or short as u in pull.
/,
as i in pique, or short as i in pit. v, as u in but; nasalized.
CONSONANT SOUNDS.
g
nearly as in English, but approaching to k.
d nearly as in English, but

approaching to t.
h, k, I, m, n,
q,
s, t, w.y, as in English. Syllables beginning
ivith
g,
except
f,
have sometimes the power
of
k, A, S, 6,
are sometimes sounded
to, tu, tv, and Syllables wriite?i with tl, except C, sometimes vary to dl.
INDIAN LANGUAGES.
211
CHINOOK JARGON.
It is found that the Indian languages of the continent have con-
stantly been undergoing changes to a greater or less extent from
association and intermixing of the tribes. This has led to the changes
which are found in the several stock languages growing into various
dialects. One of the curious instances in this regard is that which is
called the Chinook jargon, the origin of which has been variously
stated.
The Chinooks were a family of Indian tribes on the northwest
coast of North America, who formerly inhabited both banks of the
Columbia river, from its mouth to the Grand Dalles, broken up into
numerous bands. The Chinooks proper are on the north side, and the
Clatsops on the south and along the coast. The language varied as
the tribes extended into the interior. In all its dialects it is very
complicated and difficult to pronounce. This led the traders of that
country, in early days, to form and introduce a dialect called the
"Chinook jargon," for use among all the various tribes and bands, as
it was found difficult and almost impossible to trade among a people
having such a diversity of dialects as were found existing in that
locality.
This movement was started and the jargon introduced about the
year 1825, and it was at once adopted for communication, especially in
commercial transactions among all the tribes of that locality. In
this jargon, of the ancient language of the Chinooks, only something
like two hundered words are used, the remainder being derived from
Yakima, Wasco, Nez Perce and the coast tribes, with words from the
French, English and Spanish. At this day, however, the progressive
English, it is said, is forcing its way even into the lodges of the most
savage tribes of that country, and many of the original dialects of the
coast, of which Chinook was the most important, have disappeared
entirely with the nations or tribes that spoke them. The following
example of words will serve to show the peculiarity of this jargon:
Above.
Ague.
Ah! (Admiration).
Almighty (the).
American.
Amusement.
Apple.
Arrest.
Arrow.
As if.
Awl.
liad.
Sah-a-le.
Cole-sick.
Wah!
Sah-ale-ty-ee.
Boston man.
He-he.
Le-pome
Mam-ook-haul.
Stick kli-a-tan.
Kah-kwa-spose.
Shoe-keep-woot.
Kul-tus.
Bag. Le-sac.
Bark. Stick-skin.
Basket. O-pek-wan.
Bed. Bed.
Begone. Klat-a-wa.
Bell. Tm-tin.
Big. Hy-as.
Boar. Man co-sho.
Boots. Stick Shoes.
Boy. Ten-as man.
Break. Kok-shut.
Breast. To-toosh.*
(*The word to-ioosh occurs in the dialect of the Ojibways, and in the same sense here used).
Broom.
BufFalo.
Butter.
Calf.
Cai)size.
Cat.
Cattle.
Chair.
Chief.
Chilly.
Christmas-day
Clock.
Clouds.
(ôrd.
Crow.
Diet.
Deity (the).
Doctor.
Door.
Drink (to).
Early.
East.
Earth.
Eat (to).
English.
Englishman.
Eyes.
Father.
Feet.
Female.
Fever.
Fine
Food.
Bloom.
Moos-moos.*
To-toosh-gleese.
Ten-as moos-moos.
Keel-a-pie.
Puss-puss.
Moos-moos.
La-shase.
Ty-ee.
Ten-as cole.
Hy-as Sunday.
Hy-as watch.
Smoke.
Ten-as-lope.
Caw-caw.t
Muck-a-muck.
Sah-a-le-ty-ee.
Doct in-keel-al-ly.
La-pote.
Muck-a-muck chuck
Ten-as-sun.
Sun chah-co.
Ill-a-he.
Muck-a-muck.
King George.
See-ow-ist.
Pap-pah.
La pe-a.
Klooch-man.
Waum sick.
Kloshe.
Muck-a-muck.
Fortnight.
Freezing.
Gale.
Gift.
Give (to).
God.
Good.
Grief.
Head.
Healthy.
Hole.
Home.
Indian.
Intoxicates.
Immense.
Kiss (to).
Kitten.
Large.
Laugh.
Medicine.
Milk.
Mother.
Mountain.
Ocean.
Old.
River.
Shell money (the
large).
Shell money (the
small).
Talk.
Tall.
Mox Sunday.
Hy-as cole.
Shoo-kum wind.
Kul-tus pot-latch.
Pot-latch.
Sah-a-le ty-ee.
Kloshe.
Cly tum-mum.
La tate.
*,^
Wake sick.
Kla-whop.
Mi-ka house.
Si-wash.
Chah-co-dlunk.
Hy-as.
Ba-bay.
Ten-as puss-puss.
Hy-as.
He-he.
Le mes-sen.
To-toosh.J
Ma-ma.
La mon-ta.
Hy-as salt chuck.
Ole-man.
Chuck.
Hy-kwa.
Coops-coops al-le-ka-
cheek.
Wa-wa.
Hy-as.
Whether the examples in the foregoing list of the same words
occurring in other dialects is a mere coincidence of sounds, is not cer-
tain
;
but occurrences of this kind are very frequent in languages and
dialects of people remote from each other, and many of those who
have investigated the subject set it down as an evidence of race unity
among the North American tribes, and of a more intimate comming-
ling at some remote period, which these remaining evidences, in their
opinion, fully establish.
The tendency in the construction of this jargon, as will be
noticed, is that of the free use of what is termed slang, which, per-
haps, has been introduced from two causes: first, the work being com-
mitted to persons wanting in culture and refinement; secondly, because
this style of language is easier taken up and retained than one more
refined in the use of words. The jargon, it is noticed from the afore-
said example, is marked also by quite a free use of French words, or
such as are derived from the French.
(*Tl)e word moos occurs in the Algonquin language, and was the name which that people gave to
the same animal, which we call moose).
(fThe word for crow in the Ojibway dialect, and many others of the Algonquin language is Kah-
l:ah-I:e)
(tXhe word for milk in the Ojibway dialect is To-toosh-waw-bo).
CHAPTER
X.
INDIAN
SIGN
LANGUAGE.
Sign Language among all the American Tribes-One
System
Universal
Most
Tribes
Understood Each Other-Practical
Instance
Cited
Manner of Alluding
to the
Great Spirit-Practical
Illustrations-Use
of Sign
Language-Interpretation
of
SentencesDefinition of Various Signs
Signals
Fire-
SmokeUse of Pony-
BlanketIllustration.
IGN
language,
so-called,
is a mode or
means of
communicating
desires,
ideas and
thoughts
be-
tween
individuals
in aid of, or
taking the
place of, vocal lan-
guage.
This may be by means
of gestures
or other
manifesta-
tions of the
person.
This will
be
recognized
as an intuitive
mode of
communication,
and
was
apparently
the original
medium
of
communicatinir
thoughts
and
desires
bet^veen
man and man.
This mode of
communica-
tion was also aided by various
mechanical
devices,
in which
the use of fire
appears to have
been among the first.
Among-
the American
Indians, a regular
system of sign language
appears
to have
prevailed
throughout
all the tribes, and was every-
where
common in use. This
seems to have arisen from a
peculiar
condition of things existing in regard to a great diversity
of
dialects
among the various tribes, showing that changes or depart-
(213)
SIGNAL OP PEACE.
iires from the germ, or stock language, were constantly going on in
their midst.
Mr. Kohl, in his book entitled "Wanderings around Lake Super-
ior," says, "It is a curious fact, though Indian dialects differ so greatly,
their language of signs is the same for enormous distances. All trav-
elers who have crossed the prairies told me that there was only one
sign language, which all the Indians comprehended, and any one
who had learnt it could travel with it from one end of America to the
other."
Mr. Ellis, in his work on the "Red Man and the White Man," on
this subject also observes, that Indians of most widely separated tribes
could understand and amuse each other by means of the sign language,
in perfect silence without the utterance of a single word.
Mr. Heckewelder also remarks that by this means the Indians
make themselves understood to those nations of Indians whose lan-
guages they are not acquainted with, "for all the Indian nations
understand each other in this way." He further remarks: "It is also
in many cases a saving of words, which the Indians are much intent on,
believing that too much talking disgraces a man."
As an instance showing conversation with the voice was aided by
sign language among the Indians, Mr. Caleb Atwater relates the fol-
lov/ing circumstances which occurred in 1829, at Prairie du Cliien,
where he was a commissioner in negotiating a treaty with several
tribes of Indians. He says:
"If a AVinnebago wished me to walk aside and converse with him
by ourselves, as Nawkaw often did, his only way of communicating his
wish to me was to point to his own breast first, then to me next, and
finally to that part of the prairie (in which we happened to be stand-
ing) where he wished me to go; he uniformly said ^'Maimee''^ (walk),
and that was the only word which was uttered until we had retired to
the place pointed out and thus designated. When arrived at the spot
the conversation was carried on between us with as few words as pos-
sible, using signs for objects, by pointing to them. With his pipe
stem or a stick he would draw in the sand the lines of demarkation,
when the limits of the lands to be purchased of his people were in dis-
cussion between us, and a stick was stuck in the ground to indicate a
corner in the plat. If he approved of my proposition
"
Oah''^ (j^s) was
all he said in reply, and I answered him in the same way. If the
proposition pleased either of us very much the reply was uttered with
great vehemence, otherwise faintly."
Mr. Kohl, in describing the mode of using the sign language
among the Indians, for example, says: When speaking of the Great
INDIAN SIGN LANGAUGE.
215
SIGNAL"WHO ARE YOU?" ANS." PAWNEE.'
216
Spirit they usually direct a reverential or timid glance upwards but
gently, to the sky.
When alluding to the sun or time of the day, which is their only
clock or mode of marking time, and indicating the spot at which the
sun stood when the event to which they are alluding occurred, they
point fixedly to that spot and hold their arm in that position a sufficient
time to impress the fact upon the mind.
When speaking of a day's time, they pass the extended finger
slowly over the head along the sky from the east to the west, com-
mencing at the east and terminating at the wêst. This is the sign for
"one day."
If the shot of a gun is mentioned in an occurrence being narrated,
they usually strike the palm of the left hand with the back of the right,
so as to produce a sharp sound.
If describing a journey on horseback, the first two fingers of the
right hand are placed astride of the forefinger of the left hand, thereby
representing the galloping movement of a horse. If it is a foot
journey, they wave the two fingers several times through the air.
In counting by signs the fingers of the hand are used, as would
naturally be suggested, and the number intended is represented by
holding up the number of fingers corresponding to the number in
question. This mode of expressing numbers is common among our
own race in aid of oral conversation, and it is also used by the Indians
in like manner, as well as in the use of sign language for purposes
generally.
The following example will further illustrate the use of sign
language:
Suppose an Indian wished to convey to another the information
that he had ridden for three days over the prairie. In doing this, he
commences by pointing to himself, which will indicate "I;" he then
makes the sign of riding on horseback, as before explained, which says
"I traveled on horseback;" he next passes his hand with forefinger
extended once over his head athwart the sky, which means a "day,"
and finally holds up three fingers to the person he is communicating
with, to show he spent "three" days in his journey.
To further illustrate the mode of communicating by this means,
and show the manner in which sentences are constructed, the follow-
ing examples are given by Capt. W. P. Clark, of the United States
army, in his book on the Indian Sign Language, showing how sen-
tences, in conveying
information, would be construed when communi-
cated in the si^jn lanofuaofe
:
"I arrived here to-day to make a treaty
my
one hundred lodges
INDIAN SIGN LANGUAGE. 217
are camped beyond the Black Hills, near the Yellowstone river. You
are a great chief
pity me, I am poor, my five children are sick and

have nothing to eat. The snow is deep and the weather intensely
cold. Perhaps God sees me. I am going. In one month I shall
reach my camp." In signs this, literally translated, would read: "I-
arrive here-to-day to make treatyMy-hundred-lodge-camp-beyond
Hills-Black-near-river-called-Elk-you-chief-great-pity-I-poor-my-five-
child-sick-food-all gone (or wiped out) -snow-deep-brave or strong.
Perhaps-Great chief (Great Mystery) above-see-me-I-go-Moon-die-I-
arrive there-my camp."
It will be noticed that those parts of speech called articles, con-
junctions and prepositions are omitted, and that adjectives follow the
nouns which they qualify. Verbs are used in the present tense;
nouns and verbs are used in the singular number; the idea of plu-
rality being expressed in some other mode. Abbreviating is constantly
practiced.
The mode of making signs for purposes of this language are in
general simple, and such as would naturally be suggested to the
human mind as conveying the idea intended. For instance, the sign
for earth is by pointing with the right forefinger to the ground.
The sign for afternoon or latter half of the day, by indicating the
position of the sun westward of the zenith, with the incomplete circle
of thumb and forefinger of the right hand, the other fingers of the
hand closed, held to the right and above the head, and following the
path of the sun in the heavens. For braid (of the hair) carry both
hands to the right side of the head, and make motion as though grasp-
ing hair and braiding it. For brain, touch the forehead with the tips
of the extended first and second fingers. As the passing of the hand
from the eastern to the western horizon marks the day, so the head
reclining on the hand denotes a night. The palm of the hand passed
smoothly down the face and body denotes a woman. The forefinger
raised to the ear means, "I have heard," or "I approve." The back
of the hand placed on the ear means, "I did not hear," or "I do not
believe." The hand laid flat on the lips and then raised, means a
prayer or an oath.
In addition to sign language by gestures or motions of the person,
the Indian had also a mode of conveying information by other means,
through the use of objects, as that of smoke, fire, blanket, arrows, and,
in modern, times, by a pony, mirror, flint, steel, etc. The signal by
display of fire or rising smoke is very ancient. We are informed that
it was by this means, under divine direction, that the children of
Israel were guided on their journey to the promised land. Signals by
fire and smoke were much in use among the Indians in the mountains
or hilly portions of the country. Signals by this means were used
in various ways for various purposes. The common mode of announc-
ing the success of a war party was to build two fires a short
distance
apart, and therefrom send up two parallel columns of smoke.
Two
columns signified good luck.
THE SMOKE SIGNAL.
A marked manner of attracting attention or giving signals by
smoke was by having it suddenly appear and as suddenly disappear,
this being a sure way of attracting attention. For the purpose of
producing this effect, a small fire was built of dry wood, without the
bark, tims making but little smoke. Then some brushy grass or ever-
greens were thrown on the fire, and a blanket was held over it and
removed at intervals.
This would send up great puffs of smoke, and
by proper use of the blanket in this manner it could be sent up forcibly
and suddenly or more slowly, as desired, according to the way the
blanket was used, which would convey information according to the
effect produced. This mode of signals could be enlarged upon by
additional fires, when necessary to convey information more fully,
which might not so well be done by a single fire. Thus a given num-
ber of fires Avould be a signal to convey some particular information,
which the number would denote.
Signals by the use of a pony or horse were quite universal among
the tribes west of the Mississippi, where horses were in general use
and considered indispensable, especially among those tribes of the
great western plains. Signals by this means are fully explained by
Capt. Clark, in his book on Indian Sign Language. The principle of
which, briefly stated, is to this effect:
Considered separately, we have first the pony, used to attract
attention to denote danger, indicate presence of enemy, game, etc.
For this purpose, however, there is but one general, well defined sig-
nal, which is by riding in a small circle or backwards and forwards.
With some the size of the circle or distance ridden up and down
behind the crest of a hill, determines the size of a party, concerning
which information is given, or the quantity of game discovered. This
attracts attention, gives Avarning, and is intended to concentrate or
scatter the party to whom the information is given. If a hunting
party is out, and one of the party discovers game, or if one of the
scouting party discovers the enemy, this signal is used. Indians can
easily tell whether it is intended to give information or warning of
the enemy or as to game, by the care taken by the rider to conceal the
movements of his pony and himself, as well as the circumstances of
the particular case. If nothing is discovered, the Indian in advance
rides up on the crest of a hill or eminence, and usually dismounts,
but the riding on the top of an eminence in full view is sufficient.
The rapid movement in riding backwards and forwards, or around
in a circle, determines the importance or necessity for immediate
action. Very fast riding would call for desperate or
extraordinary
exertion, and violent efforts to reach the rider as soon as possible.
Should an Indian advance, after riding rapidly in a circle, suddenly
secrete himself, those with whom he is communicating
will do the
same, thus indicating that the enemy is near and too numerous for
them to attack. Before the Indians had ponies, like movements were
made by men on foot, in giving signals and conveying
information.
Another method of signals, especially among the Indians of the
plains and the mountains, is by the means of a blanket, or article
serving the like purpose. For instance, in case of the discovery of
buffalo, the watcher stands erect on a hill or eminence, with his face
toward the camp, or in the direction of the party with which he is
connected, holding his blanket with an end in each hand, his arms
being stretched out (right and left) on a line with shoulders.
Encamp. When it is intended to encamp, a blanket is elevated
upon a pole so as to be visible to all the individuals of a moving party.
Come! To beckon to a person. Hold out the lower edge of the
robe or blanket, then wave it into the legs. This is made when there
is a desire to avoid general observation.
THE BLANKET SIGNALBUFFALO DISCOVERED.
Come hack! Gather or grasp the left side of the unbuttoned
coat (or blanket) with the right hand, and, either standing or sitting
in position so that the signal can be seen, wave it to the left and right
as often as may be necessary for the sign to be recognized. AVhen
made standing, the person should not move his body.
The following
illustration of the use of sign language is from
Major Powell's Annual
Keport of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1879-80.
It is obtained from
Tce-caq-a-daq-a-quic (Lean Wolf), chief of
the Hidatsa Indians, of Dakota Territory, who visited Washington in
1880, in the following words:
'^
Four years ago the American people agreed to he friends with
us, bid they lied. That is alV
(1.)
Place the closed
hand, with the thumb resting
over the middle of the index,
on the left side of the forehead,
palmer side down, then draw
the thumb across the forehead
to the rifi^ht, a short distance
"t^f^^
beyond the head
ivhite inan,
American.
(2.)
Place the naturally ex-
tended hand, fingers and thumb
slightly separated and pointing to
tlie left, about fifteen inches before
the right side of the body, bringing
it to within a short distance
luith ns.
(3).
Extend the flat right
hand to the front and right as
if about to grasp the hand of
another individual
friend,
friends.
(4).
Place the flat right hand,
with fingers only extended, back to the
front, about eighteen inches before the
right shoulder
four (years).
(
5
) . Close the right hand, leaving
the index and second fingers extended
and slightly separated, place it, back
(6).
Place the clinched fists to-
gether before the breast, palms down,
then separate them in a curve outward
and downward to their respective sides
|
done^ finished;
^''
that is all.''''
forward, about eight inches
before the right side of the
body, and pass it quickly to
the left in a slightly down-
ward curve
lie.
CHAPTER XI.
INDIAN CHARACTER.
Type of CharacterNative CharacteristicsAttachment to his TribeIntegrity and
FidelityPeaceable, Sociable, Obliging and Hospitable among Themselves
Opinion of ColumbusLove their Neighbors as ThemselvesDue Respect to

the Rights of OthersVices Acquired from the White ManHonorable Char-
acter of the IroquoisOpinion of the Novelist CooperOpinions of Indian
TradersThe Crow Indians Opinion of Mr. CatlinTestimony of Captain
CarverTreatment of Captives.
MlolAT the human mind is prone to prejudices is
an axiom in ethics, of which the American Indian
may justly complain, as tending to establish an
^"^
erroneous idea concerning his native character
Our notions of Indian character have been formed
from an aggressive standpoint, in which the Indian has
been constantly in a condition of defense against con-
tinued invasion. From a more eligible standpoint,
the Indian in his native characteristics might
^HSI
appear to us quite different from what we have been
inclined to paint him.
When we have divested our minds of all prej-
udices, and Adewed the Indian from a standpoint of justice and
humanity, we must concede that, if there are degrees of manhood in
the great family of mankind, by which one people may take rank in
excellence above another, it may be justly claimed for the American
Indian that he stands forth in his original condition, uncontaminated
by the vices of civilization, as among the highest types of native man.
This bold conclusion, it is true, may not apply to every individual
Indian ; neither can the character of the white man, or the Caucasian
race in general, be judged by a single individual, or any given
number of individuals. Neither can the character of the Indian be
formed from isolated tribes or bands in particular localities; but the
aforesaid assertion may be taken as the general standard of Indian
character.
The Indian in his true native character was not aggressive. His
.
(223)
224
general character was that of contentment in what he possessed; but
when his possessions were encroached upon, and his dignity insulted,
his character for revenge was not unlike that of the white man under
similar circumstances; and he invoked the law of retaliation, so early
laid down in the rules of human conduct, which by some is also
considered the great law of nature, "life for life; limb for limb."
Mr. Heckewelder, the Moravian missionary, whose thirty years'
experience among the Indians in that capacity afforded him such an
excellent opportunity of forming a true estimate of the Indian
character, refers with much earnestness to the integrity and fidelity
of the American Indian in his native condition, not only in regard to
individual intercourse and obligation, but with reference, as well, to
the tribe or band to which he belonged, and for which he possessed
an unexampled attachment.
The Indians combined, as if they were actuated by only one soul,
against the enemies of their nation or tribe, and banished from their
minds every consideration opposed to this principle. No selfish views
ever influenced their advice, nor was it in the power of bribery or
threats to diminish the love they bore for their country, or the
particular band or tribe to which they belonged. The honor of their
tribe, and the welfare of their nation, was the first and most
predominant emotion of their hearts, and from thence proceeded in a
great measure all their virtues and all their vices; and, as Mr.
Heckewelder expresses it,
"
actuated by this they brave any danger,
endure the most excrutiating torments, and expire triumphant in their
fortitude, not as a personal qualification, but as a national character-
istic."
Mr. Heckewelder further remarks in defense of the Indian, as
against the abstract conclusions from the over-wrought prejudices of
the white man, that the Indians in their true character are peaceable,
sociable, obliging and hospitable among themselves. These virtues
are a part of their nature. In their ordinary intercourse they are
studious to oblige each other; they never wrangle or fight; they treat
one anothei- with the greatest respect, and live as peaceably together
as civilized people, who have succeeded them. Whether this is a
compliment to the Indian or white man is left to individual opinion.
The great discoverer of the American continent, in letters to his
sovereign respecting this people, says: "There are not a better people
in the world than these, nor more affectionate, affable, and mild. They
love their neighbors as themselves." And to the same effect, in general,
is the testimony of all the early impartial explorers. They pay great
respect to old age. The advice of the father is listened to with attention
INDIAN CHARACTER. 225
and obedience ; but tliat of the grandfather is regarded with increased
respect on account of his age. The words of the more aged of their
community are esteemed by them as oracles.
Though possessing these general characteristics, it is not claimed
for the Indian, however, that he differs essentially from the white man
in regard to a propensity for sundry vices, which we claim as infesting
civilized society. It is said that a prominent trait in native Indian
character was that of due respect for the individual rights of others,
and that the offense of stealing from one another was never known
among them. From reliable accounts of Indian character, it would
seem that this vice which has been so freely charged upon the Indian
is one which evidently entered into his character since the coming of
the white man. Mr. Lewis H. Morgan, the faithful historian of the
Iroquois, speaking of this point in native Indian character, forcibly
remarks that "theft, the most despisable of human crimes, was scarcely
known among them. In the days of their primitive simplicity, a
mercenary thought had not entered the Indian mind." He attributes
this vice in subsequent- Indian society to the conduct and examples of
the white man.
But, as between the Indian and the white man in this regard,
history records for us the fact that the white man himself was the
first offender. The first larceny committed in this country, or the
first instance of property taken without the consent of the owner, was
by a party of Plymouth Rock Puritans, who, while exploring the
adjacent country to fix upon a site for their settlement, found a
quantity of corn which had been stored by the Indians in a place of
deposit for winter's use, which they took and carried away and
appropriated to their own use. It is said in explanation, however, by
the historian, that the intention of the Puritans was to recompense the
Indians for this property whenever they could find them. But
whether they ever found the identical natives who owned it, and made
them recompense therefor, the historian does not inform us. The
explanation given is not very satisfactory, in any event, when we take
into account that the Puritans at this time were armed with guns and
swords, and were in pursuit of the Indians with hostile intent (at least
as seemed to them) ; at any rate the transaction lacked that mutuality
between the parties which lawyers .inform us is necessary to make a
valid contract and relieve the transaction from the taint of a criminal
offense.
In estimating Indian character through details of history the
important fact must be taken into consideration, that upon the arrival
of the whites in sufficient numbers to form communities, whereby the
15
22() THE AMERICAN INDIAN.
Indians were brouiilit in continued contact with them, their character
in many respects became materially changed. The simplicity of their
nature was insufficient to resist the subtle vices attending civilized
life, and, after a few years' intercourse between the two races, the
character of the Indian underwent material change, so that the Indian
as viewed by the white man of latter years is not the Indian he was-
before the white man's invasion.
Mr. Cooper, the great American novelist, who took occasion to-
investigate Indian character pretty thoroughly, in the introduction to
his book entitled "The Last of the Mohicans," says: "Few men exhibit
greater diversity, or, if we may so express it, greater antithesis of
character than the native warrior of North America. In war he is
daring, boastful, cunning, ruthless, self-denying, and self-devoted; in
peace, just, generous, hospitable, revengeful, superstitious, modest,
and commonly chaste. These are qualities, it is true, which do not
distinguish all alike, but they are so far the predominating traits of
these remarkable people as to be characteristic."
Our best estimates and most reliable sources for information
concerning Indian character are derived from those having had
experience among the native tribes in the far distant past, and who
were induced to study this people not from a standpoint of prejudice
but from one of desire to learn the truth. Of this class were
intelligent, respectable traders, whose interest with them was, to some
extent, mutual. To this class may also be added the early French
travelers, also American explorers, like that of Jonathan Carver, and
the great American artist, Mr. Catlin.
Among the Indian traders to whom reference is made and who
has left us valuable information on the subject of the American
Indian, is Mr. James Adair, who was for forty years a trader among
the Indians in the southern colonies towards the Gulf of Mexico,
commencing in the year 1735. He wrote a volume on his experience,
giving much valuable information concerning the Indians during the
period aforesaid, which book was published in 1775. In the preface
he says:
"I sat down to draw the Indians on the spot; had them many
years standing before me, and lived with them as a friend and
brother. My intentions were pure when I wrote ; truth hath been my
standard, and I have no sinister or mercenary views in publishing."
Of the general character of the Indian, Mr. Adair speaks to
the like effect as Mr. Heckewelder and other subsequent writers of
similar motives and
opportunities for observation. Speaking of the
general character of the Indian, Mr. Adair says: "Not an individual
INDIAN CHARACTER. 227
durst ever presume to infringe on another's liberties. They are all
equal. The only precedence any gain is by superior virture, oratory,
or prowess; and they esteem themselves bound to live and die in
defense of their country. A warrior will accept of no hire for
performing virtuous and heroic actions. They have exquisite pleasure
in pursuing their own natural dictates.
'Their hearts are fully satisfied if they have revenged crying
blood, ennobled themselves by war actions, given cheerfulness to their
mourning country, and fired the breasts of the youth with a spirit of
emulation to guard the beloved people from danger and revenge the
wrongs of their country. Warriors are to protect all, but not to
molest or injure the meanest. Every warrior holds his honor and the
love of his country in so high esteem that he prefers it to life, and
will suffer the most exquisite torments rather than renounce it/'
In answer to the charge against the Indian of his savage natui'e,
inclining him to wars among themselves, Mr. Adair assures us that
the Indians in their primitive nature are not fond of waging war with
each other; but that, when left to themselves, free from outside
interference or meddlers, they consider with the greatest exactness
and forethought all the attending circumstances of war.
Nathaniel J. Wyeth, an Indian trader in the country of the Rocky
Mountains and through portions of the American plains something
over forty years ago, speaking of the Indians of that country, w.'th
whom he became acquainted, says that those Indians, according to his
experience, did not possess the feelings of revenge or gratitude in as
great a degree as the English race, and had almost none as compared
with the conceived notions in regard to the original inhabitants of the
continent.
Alexander Ross, an earlv Astorian and fur trader of the North-
west among the Indians of Oregon, speaking of the mysterious Indian
character, says: "From Chili to Athabasca, and from Nootka to Lab-
rador, there is an indescribable coldness about the American savage
that checks familiarity. He is a stranger to our hopes, our fears, our
joys, and our sorrows ; that his eyes are seldom moistened by a tear, or
his muscles relaxed by a smile; and whether he basks beneath a verti-
cal sun on the burning plains of Amazonia, or freezes in the country of
eternal winter on the ice bound shores of the Arctic ocean, the piercing
black eyes and the stern nobility of countenance equally sets at naught
the skill of the physiognomist."
Mr. Catlin, the American artist, speaking in defense of the
character of the Crow Indians dwelling about the head waters of the
Missouri river, and who are a fair type of the native red man, says,
that whilst these people have sometimes been called rascals and thieves,
and rogues of the first order, yet they do not consider themselves such,
for thieving in their estimation is a high crime, and in their eyes a
disgraceful act; that whilst they sometimes capture and run off a
trader's horse and make their boasts of it, they consider it a kind of
retaliation, or summary justice, which they think it right and honorable
they should administer, for the unlicensed trespass through their
country from one end to the other by mercenary white men, who
destroy the game, catch the beaver and drive other valuable furs out of
their country without paying them an equivalent, or in fact anything
at all for it, and this, too, when they have been warned time and again of
the danger they Avould be in if they longer persisted in such practices.
And Mr. Catlin boldly remarks: "Beader, I look upon the Indian
as the most honest and honorable race of people that I have ever lived
amongst in my life, and in their native state, I pledge you my honor,
they are the last of all the human family that will plunder or steal if
you trust to their honor, and for this never ending and boundless
system of theft and plunder and debauchery that is practiced upon
these rightful owners of the soil by acquisitive white men, I consider
the infliction or the retaliation by driving off and appropriating a few
horses but a lenient punishment, which those persons should expect,
and which, in fact, none but a very honorable and high minded people
could inflict, instead of a much severer one which they could easily
practice upon the white men in their country, without rendering them-
selves amenable to any law."
Pere le June, one of the early historians in that portion of the
North American continent then called New France, concerning Indian
character, remarks: "I think the savages, in point of intellect, may be
placed in a high rank. Education and instruction alone are wanting.
The powers of the mind operate wdth facility and effect.""
Lafitau says of the American Indians: 'They are possessed of
sound judgment, lively imagination, ready conception, and wonderful
memory," and he further adds, "they are high minded and proud;
possess a courage equal to their trial ; an intrepid valor, and the most
heroic constancy under torments; and an equanimity which neither
misfortune nor reverse can shake."
Pere Jerome Lallement says of the Indians: "In point of intellect
they are not at all inferior to the natives of Europe, and had I remained
in France I could not have believed that, without instruction, nature
could have produced such ready and vigorous eloquence, or such a
sound judgment in their affairs, as that which I so much admired
among the Hurons."
INDIAN CHARACTER.
'
229
La Potherie says: "When they talk in France of the Iroqnese
they suppose them to be barbarians, always thirsting for human })lood.
This is a great error ; the character which I have to give that nation is
very different from what the prejudices assign to it. The Iroquese are
the proudest and most formidable people in North America, at the
same time the most politic and sagacious."
Charlevoix says, in speaking of Indian character: "The beauty of
their imagination equals its vivacity, which appears in all their dis-
course; they are very quick at repartee, and their language is full of
shining passages, which wôuld have been applauded at Athens or
Rome. Their eloquence has a strength, nature and pathos which no
art can give, and which the Greeks admired in the barbarians."
Capt. Jonathan Carver, who penetrated the heart of the American
wilderness over a hundred years ago, where he spent over a year's
time among the native Indians in the country of the upper Mississippi
river, during which time he was a close observer of the habits, man-
ners, and customs and character of the native Indians, remarks of
their character, that, like that of other civilized nations, it is com-
posed of a mixture of ferocity and gentleness, guided by passion and
appetite which they hold in common with the fiercest beasts that
inhabit their woods, and are possessed of virtues that do honor to human
nature; that they have a cruel, revengeful, inexorable disposition;
that whilst they hear unmoved the piercing cry of such as unhappily
fall into their hands, and receive a diabolical pleasure from the tor-
tures they inflict on their prisoners, yet there is a reverse of this
picture which commands our attention ; that we find them temperate
both in their diet and potations ; that they withstand with unexampled
patience the attacks of hunger, or the inclemency of the season, and
esteem the gratification of their appetites but as a secondary consid-
eration; that we find them social and humane to those whom they con-
sider as their friends, and even to their adopted enemies, and ready
to partake with them of the last morsel, or to risk their lives in their
defense.
But in pursuing this subject, we are not bound to rely solely on
authorities dating back to the earlier period in history, when the Indian
was living in a more primitive state, and uninfluenced by the white
man's vices; but at this day evidence is abundant in support of Indian
character as here laid down, even from official sources, coming from
those having charge of Indian affairs in later times.
Mr. W. W. Anderson, United States Indian Agent at Crow, Creek
and Lawn Brule Consolidated Agency, Dakota, in his report to the
Commissioner of Indian Affairs, August 28, 1886, speaking specially
230
THE AMEPJCAN INDIAN.
of Iiulian character, says: "As a rule, with few exceptions, they
have pleasant countenances, and are kindly disposed. They are tem-
jDerate, honest, truthful and moral; in fact, compare with any people I
ever saw in these particulars, and the chasteness and modesty of the
women might well be the boast of any civilized or enlightened people."
A singular trait in Indian character was that marked in their
treatment of prisoners and captives. Whilst such persons were con-
sidered their enemies, and were captured because they were such, bar-
barous as the Indian character has been charged to be, it did not fol-
low that the captive would necessarily be treated or dealt with in a
barbarous manner. He might be put to death by burning in the most
horrible and barbarous manner, but it did not necessarily follow that
such course would be taken with every captive. Some caprice might
take hold of the mind of the captors, or of the people to whose village
the captive might be conducted, whereby it would be decided by the
council convened for the purpose, that the captive would be permitted
to run the gantlet; that is, pass between two lines of Indians arranged
so that the captive would run between them, subject to blows inflicted
by those standing in the lines between which he passed. If he suc-
ceeded in reaching the further end of the two lines, the general custom
was to adopt him as a friend, upon which every animosity that before
possessed the minds of his captors was removed, and the captive was
thereafter treated as a friend, between whom and his captors there-
after remained the most intimate relations of friendship. Sometimes
captives who had been taken as enemies would be received into an
Indian family and adopted into the tribe, in lieu of some Indian who
had been slain in battle with the whites. Such was the peculiarity of
native Indian character.
CHAPTER XII.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS.
Argument for Race UnityUniformity in Physical CharacteristicsInfluenced by
Climate and SurroundingsCranial StructureGeneral DescriptionCom-
plexionStatureMuscular StrengthFacial OutlineEyesTeethBeard,
Disputed PointMixed BloodUtesChoctawsShawneesKawasCalifornia
IndiansShoshoneesHair of the North American Indian.
JHE
traveler who makes only a pass-
ing note of the physical charac-
teristics of the American Indian,
^'^
or the ethnologist who delights in
theories more than facts concerning
them, finds much on which to base his
faith in the belief that these people are
an entirely different species from any
other people on earth.
However deeply interesting and dif-
ficult the study is, the fact remains that
the majority of real students of ethnology ignore the theories that
claim for humanity a specific classification. Enquiry, in this regard,
finds its most fertile field among the aborigines of America, a subject
which attracted early attention, continuing down to the present day,
with unabated interest. Ethnologists of Europe, especially, appear
to have been making this subject one of diligent study and research
down to recent date, an example of which is afforded in the fact that
the minister from Mexico to Spain, only a short time ago, sent a
request to friends in the city of Chicago for specimens of Indian
anatomy, to aid in ethnological research concerning this people.
A strong phase in the argument for race unity is, that philoso-
phers of the same school differ so widely in regard to the physical
being of the natives of America, and, in search of physical character-
istics, tread on such divergent lines back to the same source. All
agree, however, in giving them an ancestral heritage of remote
antiquity, and greater uniformity in the physical man than the people
composing the natives of the Old World. That they exhibit a striking
(231)
uniformity in physical characteristics, might be said of any race, until
observation overcomes first impressions.
History proves that the American Indian, in his physical charac-
teristics, has been decidedly influenced by climate and surroundings,
in like manner as noticed in the primitive people in other countries of
the world.
It is claimed by some that the cranial structure of the American
native is marked by a decided similarity throughout the entire tribes
of the continent. Much importance is attached to the uniformity of
the facial angle, which is said by ethnologists to be at a mean of
seventy-five degrees for the natives of America, whilst the mean of
the European facial angle is eighty. In both cases a decided national
uniformity exists. Perhaps, however, the influence of custom and
condition would give marked results in this direction, and prove noth-
ing in aid of the theory of non-unity of the human race.
The controversy grows interesting when we reflect that our own
ancestors were a muscular, thick-set, tangle-haired, furtive-eyed, not
to say bloody-handed people, and that we of the present day are only
a few centuries in advance of the primitive American Indian.
A general description of the Indian tells us that the aboriginal
of America is tall, straight of stature, and muscular, having coarse
black hair, well-formed limbs, deep chests, brown or copper colored
complexion, head a little flat, prominent nose, compressed lips, dark
eyes and possessed of a great power of endurance.
In regard to the complexion of the American Indian, Father
Charlevoix says: "The colour of the Savages does not prove a third
Species between the White and the Black, as some People have imag-
ined. They are very swarthy, and of a dirty dark Red, which appears
more in Florida^ of which Louisiana is a Part: But this is not their
natural Complexion. The frequent Frictions they use, gives them this
Red ; and it is surprising that they are not blacker, being continually
exposed to the Smoke in Winter, to the great Heats of the Sun in
Summer, and in all Seasons to all the Inclemencies of the Air."
In stature, some of the tribes are much above the ordinary
height of men, while others are below this standard. In the
average, however, they do not differ essentially from people of our
own race. They are generally less in girth and lighter in their limbs,
and almost entirely free from corpulency or useless flesh, with, here
and there exceptions, as in the case of some tribes of the Iroquois,
and Ottawas of the Algonquin group. Their bones are lighter, their
skulls thinner, and their muscles less hard than of our own race. But
the legs and feet, which are brought into more continual action by
J
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 233
violent exercise on foot or on horseback, which tend to swell the
muscles, and give them great strength in those limbs, are more fully
developed.
It does not follow that the Indian, because he is generally narrow
in the shoulders, and less powerful with his arms than those of our
own race, is as effeminate as his structure would indicate, nor so widely
inferior in brachial strength as one would be led to suppose from the
smooth and rounded appearance of his limbs. The habits and customs
of the Indian are such that his limbs, which are for the most part,
while on the war path or engaged in hunting, denuded and exposed to
the air, are in exercise the most of his life, whereby his muscles
become enveloped by a thicker and more compact layer of integu-
ments, which hide them from the view, leaving the casual observer to
suppose them more inferior in muscular strength than people of our
own race. On this subject Mr, Catlin says:
"Of muscular strength in the legs, I have met many of the most
extraordinary instances in the Indian country that ever I have seen in
my life; and I have watched and studied such for hours together, with
utter surprise and admiration, in the violent exertions in their dances,
where they leap and jump with every nerve strung and every muscle
swelled, till their legs will often look as a bundle of ropes, rather
than a mass of human flesh. And from all that I have seen, I am
inclined to say that whatever differences there may be between the
North American Indians and their civilized neighbors in the above
respects, they are decidedly the results of different habits of life and
modes of education, rather than of any difference in constitution. And
I would also venture the assertion, that he who would see the Indian
in a condition to judge of his muscles, must see. him in motion; and
he who would get a perfect study for an Hercules or an Atlas should
take a stone-mason for the upper part of his figure and a Comanche or
a Blackfoot Indian from the waist downwards to the feet."
Mr. Catlin further remarks, that there is a general and striking
character in the facial outline of the North American Indians, which
is bold and free, and which would seem to mark them as distinguished
from natives of other parts of the world. Their noses are generally
prominent and aquiline, and the whole face would seem to approach to
the bold European character.
Many travelers, in describing the American Indian, represent the
eyes as being smaller than those of people of our own race. This has
arisen from mere casual observation, rather than from close inquiry.
This want of expansion and apparent smallness of the eyes in the
Indian, has been found, upon examination, to be principally the effect
of continual exposure to the wind and rays of the sun, in the absence
of some protecting shield generally adopted by civilized people.
Added to this is another cause, having an influence in the direction
aforesaid, that of the smoke constantly hanging about their wigwams,
and which necessarily contracts the lids of the eyes, much in contrast
with that full flame and expansion of the eye, promoted under the cir-
cumstances of the cool and clear shades wliich our own habitations are
calculated to promote.
The teeth of the Indian are generally regular and sound; usu-
ally remaining wonderfully preserved to old age. This is largely
attributed to the fact that their food is without spices, saccharine or
salt, and which are considered destructive to the teeth. Their teeth,
though sound, are not absolutely white, but have a yellowish cast.
They, however, look whiter than they really are, from the contrast
with the copper or dark color of the skin.
It has been noticed that the true type of the American Indian is
found without beard upon his face. Beard they consider a vulgarity,
and use every means, upon signs of its appearance, to remove it.
Since these people were first known to the whites, Indian authorities
have been at variance on this subject; and there still remains an un-
satisfied curiosity, there being much dispute among those who have
given it attention, as to whether Indians naturally have beards or not.
The writer was assured by an intelligent, educated Indian of the
Flathead nation, that Indians, at least those of his nation, were naturally
inclined to have beards, though to a very limited extent. This
Indian himself had a light scattering beard. He said it was a custom
among his people, in their native condition, to keep the beard plucked
out by means of a sort of tweezers constructed for that purpose.
When asked the reason for this custom, his reply was that Indians,
like white men, desired always to appear young, and therefore took
great pains to keep constantly eradicated any show in the growth of a
beard.
Mr. Catlin says that, from the best information he could obtain
from the forty-eight tribes which he visited, so far as the wild tribes
amongst them were concerned, and where they had made no effort
to imitate white men, at least the proportion of eighteen out of twenty
were by nature entirely, without the appearance of a beard, and, of
the very few who had them naturally, nineteen out of twenty eradicated
them by plucking out several times in succession, precisely at the age
of puberty, when its growth was successfully arrested. Sometimes
this process, from carelessness or inclination, was neglected or omitted,
and when the beard was thus allowed to grow, it would reach the
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 235
length of an inch or two, in which case it was generally very soft and
exceedingly sparse.
Whenever there was a cross of the blood with the European or
African, which occasionally occurred on the frontier, a proportionate
beard would be the result. If plucked out in such case it would be
with much toil and great pain. Exceptions are found to this aversion
to beards among some of the northwestern tribes on the Pacific coast
inhabiting Alaska and Washington Territory, where a slight moustache
is not unfrequent and a full beard is quite common.
The foregoing description, as applied to the Indian in general,
implies uniformity indeed. However, "facts as they do appear" prove
as much diversity among the Indian nations as exists in the Mongolian
or Caucasian races. This is made further apparent by reference to
particular tribes in various parts of the continent.
The Mandans, who inhabited the regions of the upper Missouri,
were remarkable for their fair complexion, blue eyes, and lack of
prowess in war or endurance in toil.
The Iroquois differed in their physical characteristics in some
respects from other tribes of the continent, and the separate tribes of
this nation differed, also, among themselves.
The Mohawks, in their physical structure and appearance, differed
essentially from the Senecas of the same group. The former were
rather thick-set, stout-built people of phlegmatic temperament; whilst
the Senecas were more slight, with countenance not so full, but more
mild, indicating a higher order of intelligence.
The Ottawas of the Algonquin group are also thick-set in their
build, inclining somewhat to corpulency, and are, in stature, of but
medium height.
The Menominees of the same group are in marked contrast with
all other tribes of that group, their skin being of a much lighter
copper color. They are of a very mild disposition and not inclined to
be warlike, essentially differing in the foregoing characteristics from
their neighbors, the Ojibways, of the same stock and who speak the
same language, thus presenting an anomaly, under the circumstances,
which has never been accounted for.
The Dacotah, or Sioux Indians, are described as the finest
specimens of physical manhood ever known among primitive people.
Their mental faculties are of a high order. Their spirit and arrogant
natures find expression in their war-songs, indicating their determined
character.
The Utes are mountain Indians, who are likewise arrogant, brave
and aggressive. They have a much darker complexion than the
230
Sioux, keen eyes of full size, and almost superhuman power of
endurance.
In regard to complexion, the fact is noted that the natives of the
equinoctial region are not darker than are those of the mountains of
the temperate zone. Off the southwest coast of California is the
beautiful island of St. Catherine's. The natives of this island are of a
ruddy complexion, the red and white blending with beautiful effect;
whilst the tribes on the adjacent mainland in the same latitude are
dark complexioned or cinnamon color. The older people of the
Cherokees are described as of an olive complexion, while their young
girls are as fair as the daughters of the white race.
The Choctaws of the Appalachian group have rounded features,
their cheek bones being less prominent than are those of the Indians
of the plains. Their eyes large, oval and brilliant, and, though not
blue, have the mild expression that pertains to that color. They are
an enduring, patient people.
The Shawnees of the Algonquin group are not broad chested like
the Choctaws. They are above medium height, are rather inclined to
an active life, can endure the fatigue of the hunt, and accomplish
tedious journeys without abatement of physical vigor.
The Kawas are lank, "lean and long." Their shoulders broad;
limbs muscular; complexion lighter than most of the neighboring
tribes, and eyes small, piercing black, with fiendish expression.
Among the California Indians, considered by some ethnologists a
different race from the other groups of the continent, a very great
diversity exists. The tribes of northern California are much superior
to those of the central or southern portion. The men are large and
muscular, and have great force and energy of character. They have
somewhat regular features, notably expressive and intelligent. A
writer in an Eastern magazine has described the women as "well
formed," of small features, well turned hands and feet, graceful in
their movements, and intelligent. With their hazel complexions,
bright black eyes and oval faces, they have large claims to beauty.
The California natives present a greater diversity of tribal relation and
condition than any other of the aboriginal nations.
The Shoshonees of the southern sections of California are of
medium stature, powerful build, coarse features, dark bronze color,
and indolent. These are more widely known as the "Digger Indians,"
and are safely classed as the lowest type of humanity on the American
continent.
A tribe of Indians of the Shoshonee stock, formerly inhabiting
the country in the vicinity of Columbia river, were commonly called
PHYSICAL CHAEACTERISTICS. 237
Flatlieads. They were noted for the peculiar shape of their heads,
produced, however, by artificial means. Their foreheads were flat and
pressed back, whereby the tops of their heads became lengthened.
This was done in early childhood by applying a board or some hard
or heavy substance, as that of a mass of clay, to the forehead, with an-
other board or hard substance at the back of the head; and then, by a
continual pressure upon the forehead for a sufficient time, as the child
grew in years, the desired result of flattening the forehead was
produced. No child was allowed to escape this process, so that this
became, by artificial means, a universal physical characteristic with
that people. The origin or reason for this singular custom is not
accounted for.
That the hair of the American Indian is coarse, is no doubt
owing to the care or dressing it receives and to climatic influences.
One peculiar feature of the hair is that, in all tribes, the filament is
round; there are no exceptions. In the Mongol race each hair is oval,
whilst in the Caucasian it is elliptical.
In general, every Indian is a perfect form of man. Capt. Marcy,
in his report to the Secretary of War, concerning his exploring expedi-
tion in the country of the Red River of the South, says of the Indians
of that country: "I have never seen an idiot or one that was naturally
deformed among them."
The physical characteristics of Indian women, in their native
condition, are thus described by Josselyn in his "New England
Rarities," published in London in J672. He says: "All of them are
black-eyed, having even, short teeth, and very white, their hair black,
thick and long, broad breasted, handsome, straight bodies, and slender,
Qonsidering their constant loose habits (clothing), their limbs cleanly,
straight, and of a convenient stature, generally as plump as partridges,
and saving here and there one, of a modest deportment."
CHAPTER XIII.
MANNERS
AND CUSTOMS.
General
Uniformity in Primitive ConditionBest Sources of InformationTestimony
of Mary
Jemisou,
"
White Woman of the Genesee "Testimony of John Brick-
ell a CaptiveExemplary Character in their Home IntercoursePrecept and
Example
Honesty, Bravery and HospitalityRelation Between the Sexes-
Strict
ConductNear Jewish Rites in Traditional RulesMedicine Lodge
Tabernacle of the JewsCustom of Indian Women Politeness in Conversation

Hospitality to Strangers Retentive MemoryCrime of MurderDeath
PenaltyNo Titled PersonagesDressing and PaintingHabits-No Idlers
amono- WomenTraining Boys as HuntersMaking PresentsShaving the
HeadScalp LockCultivation of the HairNative IngenuityTreatment of
Prisoners
Burning at the Stake.
CCORDING to an
old adage, a single
swallow or bird of
passage does not
bring with it the season of
summer; so it may be said
of the American Indian
the manners or special

customs of a single band
or tribe in a particular
locality, do not serve to
indicate the manners and
customs of all the Ameri-
can tribes in general ; but,
notwithstanding these
special customs or particu-
lar manners, which are
found here and there,
growing out of isolated
circumstances, there was
very general uniformity in regard to manners and customs throughout
all the American tribes, all marking race unity.
It is here proposed to speak of the Indian in his primitive condi-
(238)
A LESSON IN ARCHERY.
MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 23^>
tion, before Jiis character or manners and customs were, in any way,
affected by the influence of the white man's civilization. Later writers
are quite too apt to present the Indian as he has appeared in modern
times, under the contaminating influences of which we complain, as
infesting our own civilization ; all of which have tended to sharpen our
prejudices against the red man.
The best sources from which our information concerning the
manners and customs of the Indian is derived, are from the earliest
writers on the Indian subject, or those who dwelt with them in their
native condition as captives, missionaries, traders, or in any other
capacity of intimate relation; among whom there is very general uni-
formity in their representations of Indian character. There are some,
however, like Cotton Mather, in the days of the early New England
Puritans, who have attempted to describe Indian character, and speak
of their manners and customs in an unfavorable light, who occupied no
position to determine the facts, of which they pretended to speak, with
any degree of accuracy; but who occupied an outside position and
spoke from a prejudiced view.
Among the reliable Indian authorities is Mary Jemison, who,
when she was about thirteen years old, was taken captive by the
Indians on the frontier of Pennsylvania, from whence she was taken to
Southern Ohio, and from there transferred to the tribe of Seneca
Indians in Western New York, in the vicinity of the Genesee river,
where she lived among that tribe and where she continued to remain
after the country was settled by the whites, dying at an advanced age,
Sept. 19, 1833, at her residence on the Buffalo Creek Reservation.
Her evidence goes to confirm what is so frequently remarked by
those best acquainted with the Indian in his native conditi m, that the
Indians were, in their nature, peaceable and not naturally inclined to
war, and did not resort to hostile conflicts of this kind except upon
provocation, in defense of their possessions, or, in later times, when
interfered with by the whites, influenced to join in their wars, on the
ground that their own interests were involved, as in the case of the
so-called French war, and the war of the American Revolution, in both
of which the Senecas, and many other tribes, were induced to take part
from representations that their possessions would be in danger unless
they did so.
In regard to the character and manners and customs of the Sene-
cas, who were a fair type of the North American Indian, Mary Jemison
says
:
"After the conclusion of the French war our tribe had nothing to
do till the commencement of the American Revolution. For twelve or
240
fifteen years the use of the implements of war was not known, nor the
war whoop heard, save on days of festivity, when the achievements of
former times were commemorated in a kind of mimic warfare, in which
the chiefs and warriors displayed their prowess and illustrated their
former adroitness by laying the ambuscade, surprising their enemies,
and performing many accurate maneuvers with the tomahawk and
scalping knife, thereby preserving and handing to their children the
theory of Indian warfare. During that period they also pertinaciously
'-is^r
*
.r.^Kf ^^'>^
5
^^^^c^^S^
^JiO^t^^:^ V^-'
GARDEAUHOME OF THE CAPTIVE WHITE WOMAN OF THE GENESEE.
observed the religious rites of their progenitors by attending, with the
most scrupulous
exactness and a degree of enthusiasm, to the sacrifices,
at particular times, to appease the anger of the evil Deity, or to excite
the
commiseration
of the Great Good Spirit, whom they adored with
reverence,
as the author, governor, supporter and disposer of every
good thing in which they participated.
"They also
practiced in various athletic games, such as running,
wrestling, leaping
and playing ball, with a view that their bodies might
MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 241
be more supple, or, rather, that they might not become enervatea, and
that they might be enabled to make a proper selection of chiefs for the
councils of the nation and leaders of war.
'*
While the Indians were thus engaged in their round of tradi-
tionary performances, with the addition of hunting, their women
attended to agriculture, their families, and a few domestic concerns of
small consequence and attended with but little labor.
"No people can live more happy than the Indians did in times of
peace, before the introduction of spirituous liquor among them.
Their lives were a continual round of pleasures. Their wants were
few and easily satisfied, and their cares were only for to-daythe
bounds of their calculation for future comfort not extending to the
incalculable uncertainties of to-morrow. If peace ever dwelt with
men, it was in former times, in the recess from war, among what are
now termed barbarians. The moral character of the Indians was (if
I may be allowed the expression) uncontaminated. Their fidelity was
perfect and became proverbial. They were strictly honest; they
despised deception and falsehood, and chastity was held in high venera-
tion, and a violation of it was considered sacrilege. They were tem-
perate in their desires, moderate in their passions, and candid and
honorable in the expression of their sentiments on every subject of
importance."
This is a faithful picture of the American Indian, whatever
writers like that of Mr. Ellis, the author of a work entitled, "The
Bed Man and the White Man," may present to the contrary notwith-
standing; for, as before intimated, writers having no experience
among the Indians in primitive life, and who, from their prejudices,
are disinclined to accept the representations of those who have actual
knowledge on this subject, seem to delight in indulging in unfavorable
criticisms on the Indian, in order to conform to the popular prejudices
which have arisen against him in later times.
Another reliable authority on Indian manners and customs,
arising out of general Indian character, is John Brickell, who was
for several years a captive among the Delaware Indians in the latter
part of the last century, and who, in his narrative, says that during
the time of his captivity he had every opportunity of observing the
Indian manners and customs, which he gives in general terms to the
following effect: "The squaws do nearly all the labor except hunting.
They take care of the meat when brought in, and stretch the skins.
They plant, tend, gather and house the corn, assisted by young boys
not yet able to hunt. After boys arrive at the hunting age they are
'
no longer considered as squaws, and are kept at hunting. The men
16
are faithful hunters, but when at home lie lazily about and are of little
account for anything else, seldom or never assisting in domestic duties,
which they consider a calling solely for the women and dishonorable
to men. They are kind and indulgent to their children, and are
remarkably quiet in the domestic circle. A dozen persons of all ages
may be in a wigwam at the same time, and would not make noise
enough to prevent the hearing of a pin falling on a hard place. Their
leisure hours are, in a great measure, spent in training up their chil-
dren to what they believe to be right, pointing out bad examples, as:
'
See that bad man ; he is despised by everybody ; he is older than you
are; if you do as he does, everybody will despise you by the time you
are as old as he is.' They also point to good examples as worthy of
imitation, such as brave and honest men
;"
and Mr. Brickell remarks
in his narrative, in the decline of life: "I know I am influenced to
good even at this day, more from what I learned among them, than
what I learned among people of my own color."
Honesty, bravery and hospitality, Mr. Brickell assures us, are
cardinal virtues with the Indian. Let a man prove himself remiss in
respect to any of these virtues, and he will soon find that he has no
business with these people. If a man proves to be cowardly, the
finger of scorn is soon pointed at him, and he is styled a squaw. In
that way they turn a strong current of public sentiment against all
infractions of their moral and religious code.
In regard to hospitality and neighborly kindness, the same
authority says the Indians set a good example for any people to follow.
Their custom of hospitality was well expressed in the language of the
Indian chief, Logan: "When did ever a white man enter an Indian
cabin hungry, and he gave him no meat?" When a company of
strangers or travelers come to an Indian town, or camp in the vicinity,
they are not asked if they want anything, but a runner starts through
the town proclaiming that strangers have arrived. On this intelligence,
every family cooks of the best they have and take it to the strangers,
for which there is no thought of a charge being made, or anything
given in. return. If they desire to be helped on their way, every
possible assistance is granted them in the same benevolent spirit.
Mr. Brickell further remarks: "Their rules and traditions forbid
any indiscriminate
intercourse of the sexes; and I believe as respects
the crimes of fornication and adultery, they are the most strictly
chaste and virtuous people on earth. They worship the Great Spirit,
whom they call Manito, which signifies or conveys to their mind the
idea of all-strength, or rather all-sufficiency. They never used that
name irreverently on one occasion when I was with them. They have
no terms in their language by which they can swear profanely; and
if they ever do it, it must be by means of phrases learned of white
men. Their young, in a remarkable degree, reverence and honor the
aged, especially their parents. They do not covet each other's goods,
nor intentionally make a false accusation against any one, that I ever
knew."
Mr. Brickell also assures us that the Indians are remarkably near
the Jewish rites and ceremonies in their traditional rules. "They have
their regular feasts, such as the first corn that is fit to use, which is
made a feast-offering. When they start on a hunting expedition the
first game taken is skinned and dressed, leaving the ears and mouth
entire ; this they bring to camp and cook whole, and every one eats of
it, and the rest being burned entirely up. They also follow the
Jewish law in respect to things clean and unclean. They frequently
observe family worship, in which they sing and pray. Taking the
manners, customs, rites, and ceremonies and the observance of what
these people believe to be right for them to do or observe, they follow
so closely in general that as a nation they might be considered fit
examples for many of us Christians to follow."
In conclusion on this subject Mr. Brickell says: "Should any
object to these opinions of mine and point to the cruel treatment of
their enemies and often barbarous treatment of prisoners as proof to
the contrary, I will answer and say, consider their ignorant condition,
and withal that they seem to act out but the Jewish precepts, an eye
for an eye, a tooth for a tooth, and blood for blood. I am strongly
inclined to believe that their ideas of right and wrong somehow or
other descended from those laws."
A reliable writer on Indian manners and customs says that a
counterpart therefor may be found in the ancient history of the Jews
or Israelites after their liberation from Egyptian bondage. The
medicine lodge of the Indian may be compared to the place of worship
or tabernacle of the Jews, and the sacrifice, offerings, purifications,
ablutions, and annointings may all be found amongst and practiced by
those people.
The custom of Indian women at certain periods and after child-
bearing were almost those of the Jewish women. They had to
undergo a probation for a certain number of days on all such
occasions, besides ablutions and purifications, before they were
considered fit to enter on their domestic duties ; during this probation
they were considered unclean and altogether unfit to enter the lodge
or join with the family.
Reliable authorities on native Indian customs assure us that the
244
politeness of the Indians in conversation was indeed carried to excess.
It did not permit them to contradict or deny the truth of what was
asserted by another person in their presence. By this, in their civility
to others, they avoided disputes, seemingly acquiescing in whatever
was affirmed by another, apparently assenting, yet in reality perhaps
not actually concurring in anything that was said to them. Thus the
early missionaries, who attempted to convert them to Christianity,
were led into a supposition that the Indian was concurring in his
teachings, when in fact it was no such thing, but a mere civility in not
disputing the assertions of another.
When a stranger entered a town or wigwam he was offered
something to eat, then he was offered a pipe and tobacco. After
smoking, conversation was begun, but never before. No inquiries
were made of the stranger from whence he came or the object of his
mission until he was thus refreshed by their accustomed hospitality.
The Indians had a retentive memory, and could remember events
and details with the utmost accuracy. They were wholly free from
care beyond that of procuring a sufficiency for their subsistence.
They had no set hours for meals. They ate when hunger indicated.
They were, in general, however, inclined to a morning meal, or a meal
in the eai'ly part of the day. When not pressed to toil for subsistence
they were given to a course of pleasure, such as games, telling stories,
holding councils. The men were generally grave and sober-looking.
They repeated to the family traditions and maxims, and told their
children they must live up to them. They had among them many
ingenious traditions and stories of fiction which show them to have
possessed an imaginative mind. In short, they had, in their way, a
regular system of education of the youth.
Their law of civil conduct was, in general, that arising from
immemorial custom or usage, like that of the common law of England
among the English people and their descendants. The crime of murder
was punished with death, in accordance with the Mosaic law, which
has been adopted by civilized nations; but the mode of inflicting the
punishment differed from the white man in this, that under Indian
laws the penalty was inflicted by some relative of the murdered man
or person aggrieved, while under the white man's government the
death of the murdered man is avenged through a hangman or public
executioner, who is paid for his services. In Indian society no Indian
could be induced to take the life of another for a mere pecuniary
consideration.
In the case of orphan children, they were, in general, taken care
of by their nearest
relatives, and the children, when grown up, took
MANNERS AND CUSTOMS.
245
care of their aged parents. AVhen invalid parents had no children to
provide for them, they were generally taken care of by the next of kin.
The Indians had no mechanics or artisans who pursued such voca-
tion as a calling. Every man was supposed to be his own mechanic
and his own artisan, and constructed his own canoe or built his own
lodge. They were not dependent upon any particular class in this
regard. The white man boasts of his skill as a mechanic or artisan,
forgetting that such calling or profession rests with but few persons in
his community, in proportion to the wîole, and that if those in his
society who have become proficient as mechanics and artisans should
be removed, their number would scarcely be missed, and the white
man could no longer boast of his skill.
Indians, in their intercourse with each other, had no titles to dis-
tinguish one person from another, even with reference to their great
captains, leaders or counsellors. The language commonly made use
of in addressing each other was grandfather, father or uncle, or that
of my friend, brother, cousin, mother or sister. They had no such
term among them as sir, madam or mister.
They were very tenacious of their own mode of dressing and
painting, and did not change their fashions as we do.
They were very fond of tobacco, which they generally smoked by
mixing it with the bark and leaves of sumach or red willow pulverized,
and called kinnikinic; but they did not smoke strictly as a habit. The
act of smoking was considered a communion with the Great Spirit,
and was practiced as a token of love and friendship towards others
who joined th-em therein. The primitive Indian was not seen going
about with a pipe in his mouth in the act of smoking, as is the manner
of the white man of to-day. When an Indian indulged in smoking
tobacco, he lighted his pipe, and, after his usual custom of devotion
to the Great Spirit, he sat down, and pursued his smoking in silence.
Although some historians have given us illustrations to the con-
trary, like that from Goodrich, in one of his popular histories, referring
to the discovery of smoking by the Spaniards among the natives of
the West Indies, it is not believed that the Indians of these islands had
a different custom in this regard from those of the continent.
It is stated that among the lower type of natives of the West
Indies, Columbus found a custom of smoking rolls of tobacco, they
being without the ingenuity or knowledge of art sufficient for making
pipes, as was found existing among the Indians of the continent; and
this, it is said, is the origin of cigars, used for smoking at the present
daya mode of smoking adopted among the Spaniards from the use of
the weed, as originally discovered among the natives of the West Indies.
246
Tlifi popular idea is that the Indians are constitutional idlers. The
same may he said of many other races, and even of a large proportion
of our own race. The
professional man of our own race, may, in like
manner, be called an idler; because, first, he is never seen working
with his hands to any extent;
second, a great portion of his time, to
all appearance, is spent in complete idleness. The Indian was of the
opinion that labor was a disgrace to a man. He was, in every sense of
the word, a professional man. He engaged in nothing except that which
belonged to him as a
profession.
The labor incident to household and
domestic affairs, belonged to the woman, and from it none were exempt.
There was no such thing in Indian
society as an idler among women,
and a woman was not required to
perform any part of the labor which
naturally belonged to the man in
the line of his profession. He was
a warrior and hunter. The making
of his arms, his nets, and all the
equipage of the hunter's life, he
considered a part of his duty and
profession, in which he engaged
diligently. Mr. Lewis H. Morgan,
the author of the "League of the
Iroquois," says that the most at-
tractive feature of Indian society
was the spirit of hospitality by
which it was pervaded.
The children, as soon as they
^
had left their cradles, were al-
lowed to go at will wherever they
chose, whether into the water, into
the forest, or in the snow. This
accustomed them to hardship, their
limbs became supple and hardened
=
against the injuries of the air ; at
?^
the same time it also made them
subject to distempers of the
J
stomach and lungs, often resulting
?^
fatally. In the summer,
as soon
as they were up, they ran to the river and into the lake, and continued
there, playing like fish, in fine weather, at the surface of the water.
They put a bow and arrow into the hands of their boys as soon as
FIRST liESSON IN HUNTING.
they arrived at a suitable age, and sent them forth to the forest to
practice the art of hunting. In this pursuit they needed no incentive
or encouraging words, for they were anxious to engage in learning to
be a hunter. They were encouraged to enter into athletic sports and
games, to exercise and strengthen their muscles, to fit them for the
war path and fatigue in hunting. One of the first lessons inculcated
in the children was duty to their parents and respect for old age;
and civilized society does not afford better examples of filial obedience
than was found in the Indian family.
Making presents, in testimony of esteem or gratitude for acts of
kindness or favors received, was a custom prevailing in Indian char-
acter. There is an old and metaphorical expression as to the mode of
making presents: "laying presents at their feet." This was literally
an Indian custom in making presents, placing them at the feet of the
person to whom the presents were made. Mrs. Kinzie, in her book
entitled
"
Waubun, or the Early Day in the Northwest," refers to pres-
ents of ducks, pigeons, whortle-berries, wild plums, and the like, being
made her by the Indian women at Fort Winnebago. She says:
*' These they would bring in and throw at my feet. If, through inat-
tention, I failed to look pleased, or raise the articles from the floor and
lay them carefully aside, a look of mortification and the observation,
*our mother hates our gifts,' showed hoAV much their feelings were
wounded. It was always expected that a present would be received
graciously and returned with something twice its value."
The painting of the" face was a custom which existed among the
Indians, time out of mind, for which various reasons have been
assigned. The painting of the face is not a custom confined exclu-
sively to the American Indian. It is practiced by the white race,
especially among the female portion. The reason for the practice is
not founded upon the naked custom, but upon the ground of adding
to the beauty of the countenance. The Indians painted their faces
more from some symbolic design they had in view; or paint may have
been applied in some instances for the purpose of disguise; but it
must be accorded to the good sense of the Indian that, in general, in
th^ painting of his face he had in view some rational, symbolic design-
The Indian had another custom which was a characteristic feature
in many tribes, that of shaving the head closely, leaving only a small
tuft of hair upon the crown. But this custom was not general among
the American tribes. It was practiced by the Osages, Pawnees, Sacs
and Foxes, lowas, Mohawks, and the Moheagans. This tuft of hair,
left upon the crown, was called the scalp-lock, which, it is said, was
allowed to groAv, out of an act of bravado to the enemy, daring him to
248
take his scalp-lock if he could. Before the Indian could obtain
knives or scissors with which to shave his head, the hair was removed
by means of burning it off with red hot stones, a very slow and pain-
ful operation. The American tribes generally took great pride in the
cultivation of their hair, allowing it to grow to the most extreme
length that it could naturally reach, preserving it to grow over their
shoulders in great profusion, and were quite unwilling to spare even
the smallest lock.
Native ingenuity of the In-
dian was displayed in his manner
of producing fire, which was by
friction applied in different ways.
The most simple was that of rub-
bing together two dry sticks of
wood, of that condition to pro-
duce fire with the least exertion.
Among some tribes and nations a
more efficient mode was used. A
piece of wood was squared or
flattened so as to make it lie
steadily, and in this a small hole
was commenced with the point of
a stone; then another stick was
made, round and tapering at one
end. The small end was placed in
the small hole in the piece of wood
first mentioned. He then put
one hand on each side of the small, round stick, which was usually
about six inches long, and commenced turning it as rapidly back and
forth as possible. Another person held the under piece in one hand
and a piece of spunk in the other, so that when there was the least
sign of fire it would readily communicate with the spunk, and the fire
was kindled by putting the lighted spunk into a bunch of dry grass
that had been rubbed fine in the hands. The Iroquois and Dakotas
used the string of a bow to turn more rapidly the stick before
described, showing more skill in this regard..
The Indian custom of burning their prisoners at the stake is one
which has been the subject of severe criticism and condemnation
among our own race. It was, however, their established mode of put-
ing their enemies to death after capture. According to their law the
fate of an enemy was, in general, death ; so under our law, the fate of
one who commits treason against our government, who is regarded as
INSTKUMENT FOR MAKING FIBE.
MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 241>
our enemy, is death. As between the Indian and ourselves, it is
merely a question as to the mode of executing the law.
We forget, however, that our own race have put to death, by burn-
ing at the stake, more persons, within the time even of our modern
history, than would equal the whole Indian population of America at
any time during that period, for the commission of no crime whatever,
but upon the ill-founded notion that it was required in defense of our
peculiar notions of religion. While we are criticising the Indian for
such barbarities in enforcing the law of his society, we are critizised
by the Indian, in return, in unmeasured terms, for our own acts of
inconsistency and barbarity, to which we really have no defense.
"pleasures and cares of the white man."
CHAPTER XIV.
DANCES.
The Institution of DancesThanksgiving CeremonialAcceptable to the Great
SpiritTaught to Consider it a Divine ArtDesigned by the Great Spirit for their
Pleasure and His Worship
A Mode of Social IntercourseArousing Patriotic
ExcitementStrengthens Popular EnthusiasmInspires Indian YouthThe
Iroquois had Thirty-two Distinct DancesDifferent Kinds of Dances among
Different Nations and TribesSun Dance of the SiouxDeclared by Indian
Agents Barbarous and ForbiddenComparison with the White Man's Pugilistic
ExhibitionsOther Barbarous Practices of the White Man.
MONG the estab-
lished customs of
the aborigines of
America, that of
dancing appears to be the
most prominent and firmly
fixed in their social us-
ages. This people are
not alone in a custom of
this kind, for it is an insti-
tution of great antiquity
among some of the more
enlightened nations of the
Old World, especially
among the Jews; and there
is a singular coincidence in the purposes of dancing among this latter
people and the aborigines of America.
When Jephthah returned from his conquest over the Ammonites,
*'his daughter came out to meet him with timbrels and with dances."
Judg. xi, 34. When the men of Benjamin surprised the daughters of
Shiloh, the latter were dancing at
"
a feast of the Lord." Judg. xxi,
19-21. When David returned after the slaughter of Goliah, the
Israelitish women met him wath singing and dancing. 1 Sam., xviii,
6. When the ark was brought home, David danced before it "with
all his might."
2 Sam., vi, 14. On another occasion, it is said, the
(250)
BUFFALO DANCE.
J>A.KCES. 251
women w-eni out with timbrels and with dances. Ex. xv, 20. Goliah
praised God in soiig and dances after the deliverance of the Israelites
from Pharaoh. On several occasions the people of Israel were
exhorted to praise the Lord in the dance. Ps. cxlix,
3 ; cl, 4. Danc-
ing was common among the Hebrews at their feasts in public tri-
umphs, and at all seasons of rejoicing, and it was practiced on the
occasional festivals, and was a part of the sacred worship on such
occasions.
It is said that among the people of Israel dancing was ar first on
sacred occasions only. It was also a part of the religious ceremonies
of the Indians. Among the Hebrews it was joined with sacred song
and was usually participated in by the women only. When the men
danced, it was in company separate from the women, promiscuous
dancing not being practiced. It was usually performed in the day-
time and in the open air.
Mr. Heckewelder refers to a tradition informing us that when
the Dutch first landed on New York Island, the native inhabitants,
believing them to be celestial beings, or messengers from the Great
Manito, began a solemn dance in order to propitiate them, much in
the manner of the ancient Jewish custom, on like occasions.
Throughout the entire American race, dancing was regarded as a
thanksgiving ceremonial, acceptable to the Great Spirit, and which
they were taught to consider as a divine art, designed by the Great
Manito for their pleasure, as well as for His worship ; and it is said
that the popular enthusiasm broke forth in this form, and was nour-
ished and stimulated by this powerful agency. It is therefore to be
observed that dancing among the Indians was not strictly an institu-
tion of social amusement, but in general placed upon higher and more
sacred grounds.
Mr. Morgan informs us that the Iroquois nation had thirty-two
distinct dances, of which number twenty-six were claimed to be
invented by or wholly original with that people, to each of which a
separate history and object, as well as a different degree of popular
favor, attached. Some of these were costume dances, and were per-
formed by small and select bands; some were designed exclusively
for females ; others for warriors alone ; but the greater part of them
were open to all of both sexes who desired to participate.
The Feather dance and the War dance were the two most promi-
nent of the Iroquois, and were esteemed the highest in the popular
favor. The first they claimed was original with them, the othe}-
was important and common among all American tribes. One had a
religious and the other a patriotic character. Both were costume
I
252
dances and were performed by a select band, ranging from fifteen to
twenty-five in number, and who were distinguished for their powers of
endurance, activity and spirit. Besides these there were four other
costume dances.
The War dance, called by the Iroquois Wa-sa-seh, was usually
performed at night, and only on prominent occasions, or at domestic
councils of unusual interest. After the business of the day was dis-
posed of, and when the dusk of the evening came on, preparations for
the dance began; the people gathered within the council house in
large numbers to witness the performance, while in an adjacent lodge
the band of performers assembled to array themselves in their cos-
tumes, and to paint and decorate their persons for the occasion. A
keeper of the faith, in the meantime, occupied the attention of the
people assembled, with a brief speech concerning the nature and
objects of this dance. A war-whoop now announces the approach of
the band, who, preceded by their leader, march in single file to the
beat of a drum into the council house, where the dance immediately
opens. They group themselves within a circular area, standing thick
together, when the singers commence the war song, the drums beat
time and the dancers proceed. After a moment the song ceases, so also
the dance, the band walk around a common center to the beat of the
drum at half time Another song soon commences, when the drums
quicken their time, and the dance is resumed.
In the middle of the song there is a change in the music, accom-
panied with a slight cessation of the dance, after which it becomes
more animated, until the song ends, and the band again walk to the
beat of the drum. Each tune or war song lasts about two minutes,
the intervals between them being about the same. The drum beats
time about twice in a second, the voices of the singers keeping pace,
thus making a rapid and strongly accented species of music.
Charlevoix gives the following translation of one of these war
songs: "I am brave and intrepid. I do not fear death nor any kind of
torture. Those who fear them are cowards. They are less than
women. Life is nothing to those who have courage. May my enemies
be confounded with despair and rage."
Unlike the mode of dancing as an amusement among the whites
on the toe of the foot, with rapid changes of position, the Iroquois'
method, in the War dance, was chiefly upon the heel, with slow changes
of position and rapid changes of gesture. The heel is raised and
brought down with quickness and force of muscular strength, to keep
time with the beat of the drum, making a resounding noise by the con-
cussion, at the same time shaking the knee-rattle, contributing materi-
DANCES. 253
ally to the pomp and show of the dance. The attitudes in this dance
were those of violent passion, therefore not so very graceful. During
its progress, among the group of dancers one may be seen in the atti-
tude of attack, another of defense ; one will be in the act of drawing
the bow, another of striking with the war club ; some are in the act of
throwing the tomahawk, others listening or watching for an oppor-
tunity; and others are seen striking the foe, naturally leading to dis-
tortions of countenance and unseemly attitudes. At the same time
their striking, wild costumes, erect forms at certain stages of the per-
formance, their activity and wild music, the rattle of the dance, together
with the excitable and excited pranks, make up a scene of uncommon
interest.
In this dance the war whoop and the response, given by the
leader and answered by the band, always preceded each song, and, as
Mr. Morgan remarks, a description of this terrific outbreak of human
voices is scarcely possible. It was a
prolonged sound upon a high note, with
a decadence near the end, followed by an
90IO*
***>*<- *%
^^^^.
abrupt and explosive conclusion, in which
Aii ah.
the voice is raised again to the same
wak-whoop.
pitch. The whole band responds in a
united scream upon the same key with which the leader concludes, and
at the same instant. When reduced to a written scale of music, as
given by Mr. Morgan, is as here shown.
The second dance in public estimation, by the Iroquois, was the
Feather dance, called 0-sto-iveh'-go-wa, sometimes called a religious
dance, because it was specially consecrated to the worship of the Great
Spirit. The music was furnished by two singers, seated in the center
of the room, each having a turtle shell rattle. It consisted of a series
of songs or measured verses of about two minutes each, the rattles
being used to mark time, and as an accompaniment to the songs.
The Thanksgiving dance, Ga-na^-o-uh, was likewise a costume
dance, closely resembling the Feather dance, and was given by a select
band.
One of the most remarkable dances among the Iroquois was called
the Trotting dance, Ga-cW-shoie, which was usually the opening dance
at councils and private entertainments. On the latter occasion no
costume figures were required. The music was entirely vocal and
furnished by those who danced.
Another dance in general use was called the Fish dance, Ga-so-
wa^-o-no, which was adopted among the Iroquois from other tribes.
The music consisted of singing, accompanied with the drum and the
254
squash-shell rattle, the two singers being seated in the center of the
room, facing each other, and using the drum and rattle to mark time
and increase the volume of the music. This dance was participated in
by both sexes, a peculiarity of which is that it affords an opportunity
for the Indian maiden to dance with whoever she prefers as a partner,
that privilege being accorded to her.
An occasional and very singular dance was that called the dance
for the dead, or 0-ke-iva, which was performed alone by the women.
The music was vocal, being plaintive and mournful, and was sung by a
select band stationed in the center of the room. This dance was given
in the spring and fall, when it was believed the dead revisited the earth
and joined in the ceremony.
One of their dances was called che Buffalo dance, Da-ge -ya-go-o-
an^-no, designed for males alone, the music consisting of singing,
accompanied with the drum and rattle, the principal feature of which
was to imitate the actions of the buffalo. According to tradition, this
dance originated in a warlike expedition of the Iroquois against the
Cherokees When they had proceeded as far as the Kentucky Salt
Lick, they heard, for the first time, the buffaloes
"
singing their favorite
songs," (bellowing and grumbling), and from this bellowing, the
music, and from their actions, the plan of the dance was made.
The brief description of these dances here given will, for all
practical purposes, doubtless suffice to afford a general idea of dances
among the Iroquois. The following are additional dances among that
people. Those marked with a star are adapted from other tribes:
For both sexes: 1. O-sto-weh^-go-wa, Great Feather Dance. 2.
Ga-na^-o-uh, Great Thanksgiving Dance. 3. Da-yun^-da-7ies-hunt-ha,
Dance with Joined Hands. 4. Ga-cla'-shote,^ Trotting Dance. 5.
0-to-wa^-ga-ka,* North Dance. 6. Je-ha'-ya, Antique Dance. 7.
Ga-no-jif-ga-o, Taking the Kettle Out. 8. Ga-so-iva-o-no,* Fish
Dance. 9. Os-ko-dci -ia^ Shaking the Bush. 10. Ga-no-ga^-yo, Rattle
Dance. 11. So-wek-o-an'-no^^ Dack Dance. 12. Ja-ko^-wa-o-an^-7io,
Pigeon Dance. 13. Gitk-sa^-ga-ne-a, Grinding Dishes. 14. Ga-so^-a,
Knee Battle Dance.
For females: 15. 0-ke^-wa, Dance for the Dead. 16. 0-as-ka-
ne^-a, Shuffle Dance. 17. Da-swa-da-ne^â, Tumbling Dance. 18.
Un-da-da-o-at'-ha, Turtle Dance. 19. Un-da-da-o-at'-ha, Initiation
Dance for Girls. 20. Un4o-we'-sus, Shuffle Dance. 21. Da-yo-da^-
sun-da-e-go, Dark Dance.
For males: 22. ITa-sa'-se/i,* Sioux, or War Dance. 23. Da-ge^-
ya-go-o-an!-no, Buffalo Dance. 24. Ne-a'-gwi-o-an'-no,^ Bear Dance.
25. Wa-a-no'a, Striking the Stick. 26. Ne-ho-sa-den'-da, Squat
DANCES. 255
Dance. 27. Ga-na-un^-da-do, Scalp Dance. 28. Un-de-a ne-suk'4a,
Track Finding Dance. 29. Eh-nes'-hen-do, Arm Shaking Dance. 30.
Ga-go'-sa, False Face Dance. 31. Ga-je^-sa, False Face Dance. 32.
Un-da-de-a-dus'-shun-ne-af-ha, Preparation Dance.
Mr. Morgan is probably mistaken in classing the Buffalo dance
as among those invented by the Iroquois, or as meaning to convey the
idea that this dance did not exist among other tribes ; for, according to
the Bishop of Meaux, there was a dance among the tribes
"
in the
western parts," called the Dance of the Bull, which is a term here
used for Buffaloes.
Mr. Catlin also specially mentions the Buffalo dance among the
Mandans, which he witnessed Avhile at the Mandan village. He says,
"I have for several days past been peculiarly engrossed, and my senses
have been confounded with the stamping, grunting and bellowing of
the Buffalo dance, which closed a few days since at sun-rise." These
dances, he says, were sometimes continued in that village two or three
weeks without stopping an instant, until the doubtful moment when
buffaloes made their appearance, so that these dances never failed of
effect, as if they have been the means of bringing them in by this
time, the object of these dances, it seems, being for that purpose.
Mr. Heckewelder says: "It is a pleasing spectacle to see the
Indian dances, when intended merely for social diversion and innocent
amusement. I acknowledge I would prefer being present at them for
a full hour, than a few minutes only at such dances as I have wit-
nessed at our country taverns among white people. Their songs are
by no means unharmonious. They sing in chorus ; first the men and
then the women. At times the women join in the general song, or repeat
the strain which the men have just finished. It seems like two parties
singing in questions and answers, and is upon the whole very agreeable
and enlivening. After thus singing for about a quarter of an hour,
they conclude each song with a loud yell, which I must confess is not
in concord with the rest of the music ; it is not unlike the cat-bird which
closes its pretty song with mewing like a cat. I do not admire this
finale. The singing always begins by one person only, but others
soon fall in successively, until the general chorus begins, the drum
beating all the while to mark the time. The voices of the women are
clear and full, and their intonations generally correct."
But the same authority observes that war dances have nothing
engaging in their object; on the contrary, they strike terror to the
beholders, those engaged in them being dressed and painted, or rather
bedaubed with paint, in a manner suitable to the occasion, holding the
murderous weapon in their hands and imitating in their dance all the
256
warlike attitudes, motions and actions which are usual in an engage-
ment with the enemy.
Before starting out on a war campaign, the War dance was per-
formed around a painted post, which was the Indian mode for recruit-
ing for such service. Whoever joined in the dance was considered as
having enlisted for the campaign, and assumed the obligations of
going out with a party. This ceremony was more commonly called
sfriking the post Those participating were painted red, as a symbol
of war. Around the post the warriors recited their deeds of daring,
and it is said that no ancient hero drawn from Homer could exhibit
more fire in words and acts, each warrior detailing his exploits, and
closing each important sentence by striking the post with his spear or
other weapon of war. It was the forest school, in which the young
learned their first lesson in the art of war. Occasions of this kind
among the untutored natives took the place of our more civilized mili-
tary reunions and Fourth of July celebrations.
When returning from a successful expedition, the dance of Thanks-
giving was always indulged in. It partook of the character of a
religious ceremony, accompanied with singing and choruses, in which
the women joined, but otherwise took no part in the performance.
La Hontan, speaking of dances among the North American In-
dians, says they were of several sorts, the principal of which was the
Calumet dance; the others were the Chief's dance, the Warrior's dance,
the Marriage dance, and the dance of the Sacrifice, differing from each
other both in cadences and in steps or leaps, as he terms them, it
being impossible, he says, to describe them, for "they have so little
resemblance to ours; the Calumet dance, which they perform oniy on
certain occasions, as when strangers pass through their country, or
when their enemies send them ambassadors to treat of peace, being
the most grave and handsome."
The rattle used in dances is called by the Iroquois Gus-da-wa-sa,
and by the Algonquins Chi-chi-coue.
Capt. Jonathan Carver, in speaking of the style in performing
any dance, says that the women, particularly those of the western
nations, dance very gracefully, and that different nations vary in their
manner of dancing. The Ojibways throw themselves into a greater
variety of attitudes than any other people, sometimes holding their
heads erect, at other times bending forward almost to the ground, then
reclining on one side, and immediately after on the other. The Sioux
or Dakotas carry themselves more upright, step firmer and move more
gracefully
; but all accompany their dances with a disagreeable noise,
both in their style of singing and words of exclamation.
DANCES. 257
Mr. Catlin, the artist, mentions the following dances among the
western tribes whom he visited: The Slave dance, the Begging or
Beggar's dance, the Discovery dance. Dance to the Medicine of the
Brave, among the Sauks and Foxes. The Beggar dance, the Buffalo
dance, the Bear dance, the Eagle dance, and the Dance of the Braves,
among the Sioux and Ojibways; the Buffalo dance, the Boasting dance,
and the Begging dance among the Mandans.
Mr. Fletcher, United States Agent among the Winnebagoes in
1848, says that dancing is a national trait of this tribe, and is a part
of their religious, social and military system ; that the War dance was
celebrated by them before starting on the war-path, and although this
tribe at that time had not for several years been engaged in war, it was
still kept up among them, concerning which he says:
"
The object of
this seems to be the same as that sought to be effected by martial
music and military reviews among the whites, namely, to keep alive
a martial spirit and in peace prepare for war."
The Bear dance was engaged in as a religious ceremony by the
Sioux. In this dance the dress was of bear skin ; the dancers imitated
the motions of that animal, and they hoped by this ceremony to win
success in hunting the bear.
W. P. Clarke, of the United States Army, in his work on the
"
Indian Sign Language," thus refers to dances among the wild tribes
of the western plains: "The Comanches have the Haven, Buffalo,
Bull, Swift Foxall war dancesand Dance of Fear, with shields
and lances, when they expect an attack; Turkey Dance, imitating
motions of turkeys. The Deer dance might be called the Juggler's
dance, as the dancers pretend to swallow red beans and then throw
them out through the breast."
The Caddoes had a Corn dance, held when the corn vâs ripe
enough to eat, and, until this dance took place, no one was allowed to
pick any of the corn. They also had a Beaver dance, in which the
medicine men swallowed large shells.
The Berthold Indians had a special dance for the women, called
the AVhite Buffalo dance. They also had the Strong Heart, Bull,
Wolf, and Young Dog dances. They used masks of buffalo heads for
the Bull dance, and wolf skins for the Wolf dance.
The Cheyennes had a special war dance, when all the soldiers
were wanted for war purposes. A large fire was made in the center
of the camp, where the warriors assembled, mounted and dismounted,
but wearing all their
"
war toggery," weapons, etc. Men, women and
children joined in the dance, and when the excitement had become
intense and reached its greatest height, the head men went among the
17
dancers and picked out twelve of the best and bravest soldiers, and
placed two lines of six each on opposite sides of the fire. Then the
old men and head men gave them advice, telling them that they must
be vigilant and brave, and must never run from their enemies, and
that their people would, after their return, sing of their brave deeds,
but should they be killed on the battle field, than which there is no
more glorious death, they would be great chiefs in the hereafter.
Generally speaking, the Plains Indians had the Omaha or Grass
dance, engaged in by men, old and young, at any time ; this is also a
begging dance. The Fox dance wâs for young men, at any time. The
Wolf dance was performed by those just going to war. The Horse
dance took place once in two years; a large lodge is pitched in the
center of camp ; the men are in war costumes, and their ponies painted
;
they then circle, charge, discharge guns, etc. The Scalp dance was
engaged in by men and women, after the scalps have been brought
home; those who have been on the war-path have their faces blackened.
Chief, or Short Hair dance, was mostly for old men, at any time. In
the Night dance, young men and girls engaged, at any time. The
Strong Heart dance was for young men, at any time, as also was the Spirit
dance. In the Otter dance, young men used poles with otter skins,
the ceremony taking place at any time. This was a medicine dance.
The Kill dance was performed by mothers whose sons had been to war
and met with success. These do not exhaust the list of dances, but
are the principal ones.
The Corn dance,- or Green Corn dance, was one which seems to
have been observed among all the tribes within the country where the
zea maize or Indian corn was found, and although very many, and, it
may be said, nearly all of the dances, once faithfully observed by the
tribes in their native or wild condition, have disappeared and fallen
into disuse, especially amongst those Indians called the civilized tribes,
yet the festival or Green Corn dance is still observed by these latter
tribes, especially those of the Indian Territory.
The Indians of the country of the Northwest coast, along the
Columbia river and other waters, where salmon abounded, had the
Salmon dance, with which was connected many superstitions; but
since the coming of the white man it is no.longer observed.
The Gros Ventres celebrated the Goose dance to remind the wild
geese, as they left in the autumn, that they had had good food all
summer and must come back in the spring. This dance was performed
by the women, each one carrying a bunch of long seed grass, the
favorite food of the wild goose. They danced to the sound of the
drum, circling about with shuffling steps.
i
DANCES. 259
According to Beverly, some tribes of Indians had also a dance
called the Festival dance, which was performed by the "dancers them-
selves forming a ring, and moving round a circle of carved posts that
are set up for that purpose, or else round a fire made in a convenient
part of the town ; and then each has his rattle in his hand, or what other
thing he fancies most, as his bow and arrows, or his tomahawk. They
also dress themselves up with branches of trees or some other strange
accoutrements. Thus they proceed, dancing and singing, with all the
antic postures they can invent, and he is the bravest fellow that has
the most prodigious gestures."
In this connection it is interesting to note information given in
the Annual Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs for the year
1884, p. 37, wherein is set out the report of the Pine Ridge agency,
Dakota, in wîich it is noted that the Indians about that agency have
made "great progress in abandoning many of their customs, noticeably
that of the Sun dance, which, for the first time in the history of the
Ogalla-Sioux and Northern Cheyennes, was not held. The abandon-
ment of such a barbarous and demoralizing ceremony, antagonistic to
civilization and progress, as it has been proved, is a bright and prom-
ising event in the tribe's struggle towards advancement in the white
man's ways, and for this, credit and thanks are due the younger element
among the tribe, having encountered in so doing the opposition of the
old and non-progressive Indians. It is to be hoped that a firm stand
on the part of the government in the future will prevent the reappear-
ance of the Sun dance."
In the report of the Indian Commissioner for 1886, is also found
the following information from the Indian Agent at Crow Creek and
Lower Brule consolidated agency: "These Indians have given up the
Sun dance. Scalp dance, and other barbarous dances that keep alive
their wild natures and retard their progress, but I have not endeavored
to break up the Squaw dance and such other harmless amusements."
It is noticed that other Indian agents, in these various reports,
frequently take occasion to inform the commissioner that they have
broken up and prohibited the Sun dance and other barbarous dances
and practices among the Indians under their control.
The hope so earnestly indulged in by these Indian agents that the
firm stand taken by the government will prevent the reappearance of
these barbarous practices among "the Indians, will find a hearty
response from every true philanthropist and advocate of Indian welfare;
but those who look upon the civilization of mankind as something
tending to contribute to their happiness, in the advancement of their
moral condition, cannot well content themselves with a success accom-
plished through the Indian department in inducing the Ogalla-Sioux
and other tribes to abandon their long-established and extremely bar-
barous customs mentioned, but they may properly demand, in the
interest of civilization, that the barbarous and brutal pugilistic practices
of the white man's prize-ring shall be abandoned, that his bull-fights,
cock-fights, horse-races, and other like brutal exhibitions for the
amusement of the grosser senses of the civilized white man, be also
removed from the catalogue of favorite amusements for the edification
of civilized people, and whilst the government agents are so active in
putting a stop to the barbarous and demoralizing influence of the Sun
ilance, let their activity include also attention to the aforesaid demoral-
izing practices among our own people.
THE SCALP DANCE.
CHAPTEE XV.
AMUSEMENTS
AND GAMES OF CHANCE.
Indians are Fond of
AmusementDelight in Games of ChanceBall Playing
Game of La CrosseAddicted to PracticalJoking-Various Modes of Gambling

Various Devices for AmusementGame of the Plum StoneCard playing.
HE Indians, in their native
;^
condition, were fond of
amusements and games of
^"^
chance, and, above all,
were much given to gambling.
In this regard, however, it may be
said of them, as in respect to most
other peculiarities of character,
they do not perhaps differ essen-
tially from the white man, especi-
ally so far as a propensity for
gambling is concerned, and it is a
singular coincidence that, in their
games and mode of gambling, in
many respects, they are similar in
character to those amongst civil-
ized people.
Their dances, spoken of in
the foregoing chapter of this work
specially devoted to that subject,
whilst not designed strictly as
an institution of amusement, but
more as a religious devotion,
might perhaps, to a certain extent,
be classed under that head.
Amusements and games, among
the Indians, were something
which attracted the special attention of travelers and writers at an
early day, the trait being so
prominently marked in the Indian char-
acter. Their attention was drawn in this direction particularly from
(261)
INDIAN WOMEN PLAYING GAME OF
PLUM STONE.
the fact that in their amusements and games so many features were
found much resembling, in this respect, the practices of the white man.
The Iroquois had, in connection with their dances, a kind of
amusement, in tlie nature of what we would call concerts, four in num-
ber, as follows: 0-ee-dose^; the Medicine concert, Ga-no-da -yo-siih;
the Female concert, 0-e-un^-do-ta; and Thanksgiving concert, Ah-do'-
tceh. The 0-ee-dose^ was the most prominent, and is thus described by
Mr. Morgan:
"It was given in the night, in a dark room, and no women were
allowed to be present. Those engaged in the concert were seated on
benches around the room, in a continuous row, each one holding in his
hand a rattle. These rattles were made to give each one a different
-
note, by means of different sized shells, and holes bored in them to
emit the sound. Among twenty of them, rattled together at such a
concert, no two would give the same sound. Corn was placed inside
the shell. When the parties were ready, one of their number sang a
song, to which they all beat time with their rattles, and at certain
intervals all joined in the song in chorus. Another then commenced
a song, which was continued and finished in the same manner. After
each one in turn had sung his song, which, with the accompaniments
and the choruses, made a not unpleasant entertainment, the concert
was ended."
Their games, except those involving athletic sports, were played
by both sexes, some of them together and some of them separately.
They also had games belonging to children only. Their games were
much the same as those found among all the tribes throughout the
continent, in which the practice or mode of playing them was quite
uniform, subject to the same rules and proceedings.
Mr. Morgan notes the following games among the Iroquois : The
Ball game, or 0-ia-da-jish^-qiia-age; the game of Javelin, or Ga-na^-
ga-o; the game of Deer Buttons, or Gus-ga-e-sa^-ia; game of Snow
Snake, or Ga-wa'-sa; game of Archery, or bow and arrow, Wa-a^-no,
Ga'-no; game of the Bowl and Peach Stones, or Giis-ka^-eh.
The games of the Iroquois, like those of other nations, were
divisible into athletic games and games of chance. As Mr. Morgan
observes, unlike the prizes of the Olympic games, no chaplets awaited
the victors. They were strifes between nation and nation, village and
village, or tribes and tribes; in a word, parties against parties, and
not champion against champion. The prize contended for was that of
victory; and it belonged not to the triumphant players, but to the
party which sent them forth to the contest.
Betting upon the result of games was not only common among
AMUSEMENTS AND GAMES OF CHANCE. 263
ihe Iroquois, but was a custom among all the American tribes, thus
referred to by Longfellow:
"
So they sat and played together,
All the old men and the young men,
Played for dresses, weapons, wampum,
Played till midnight, played till morning,
Played until the Yenadizze,
Till the cunning Pau-Puk-Keewis,
Of their treasures had despoiled them."
The bets were generally made in a systematic manner, the articles
at stake being deposited with the managers of the game ; thus the
principal stake holder, so well observed among our civilized people,
was an established feature with the Indian in their institution in
gambling and games of chance. A bet offered by a person upon one
side, in the nature of some valuable article, was matched by a similar
article, or one of equal value, by some one upon the other side. Per-
sonal ornaments were the usual gambling currency. Other bets fol-
lowed in like manner, until hundreds of articles were sometimes col-
lected.
The game of ball is usually played in the winter season, after the
winter's hunts are over, and during the summer while the game is
unfit to kill, and in the midst of their athletic sports, games of chance
and war. The mode of playing this game is thus described by Mr.
Schoolcraft
:
"
The game is played by two parties, not necessarily equally
divided in numbers, but usually one village against another, or one
large village may challenge two or three smaller ones to the combat.
When a challenge is accepted, a day is appointed to play the game;
ball bats are made, and each party assembles its whole force of old
men, young men and boys. They women never play in the same game
with the men. Heavy bets are made by individuals of the opposite
sides. Horses, guns, blankets, buffalo robes, kettles and trinkets, are
freely staked on the result of the game. When the parties are
assembled on the ground, two stakes are placed about a quarter of a
mile apart, and the game commences midway between them ; the object
of each party being to get the ball beyond the limits of its opponents.
The game commences by one of the old men throwing the ball in the
air, when all rush forward to catch it in their ball bats before or after it
falls on the ground. The one who catches it throws it in the direction of
the goalof the opposing party, when, if it be caught by one of the
same side, it is continued in that direction, and so on until it is thrown
beyond the limits ; but if caught by an opponent, it is thrown back in
the opposite direction. In this way the ball is often kept all day
264
h7
<
O
o
<
Q
;z5
f
I
between the two boundaries, neither party being able to get it beyond
the limit of the other. When one has caught the ball, he has the
right before throwing it to run towards the limits until he is overtaken
by the other party, when, being compelled to throw it, he endeavors
to send it in the direction of some of his own party, to be caught by
some one of them, who continues sending it in the same direction."

The ball is carved from a knot, or made of baked clay covered
with rawhide of the deer. The ball bat is from three to four feet
long; one end bent up in a circular form of about four inches in
diameter, in which is a net-work made of rawhide or sinews of the
deer or buffalo.
Mr. Morgan says this game reached back to remote antiquity, and
was universal among the red races, and was played with a degree of
zeal and enthusiasm which would scarcely be credited. Among the
Iroquois the parties to the play stationed themselves in two parallel
lines, facing each other, each one holding a ball bat, and with which
alone the ball was handled. As soon as all the preliminaries were
adjusted, the ball was dropped between the two files of players, and
taken between the bats of the two who stood in the middle of each
file, opposite to each other. After a brief struggle between them, in
which each endeavored with his bat to get possession of the ball and
give it the first impulse towards his own gate, it was thrown up, and
then commenced the contest.
The play went on with so much earnestness that they frequently
wounded each other in their unconscious zeal for success, resulting
sometimes in broken bones. Notwithstanding this, no ill-feeling
between them arose in consequence of mishaps of this kind. These
plays were conducted with the utmost fairness, during which disputes
seldom arose.
Among their prominent games was one called the game of Plum
Stone, or game of the Bowl, known according to other translations as
the game of the Dish or Platter, and sometimes known as the game
of the Little Bones; pieces of bone, worked into form, being some-
times used in place of plum stones or other substances, thus described
by Mr. Kohl in his
"
Kitchi-Gami, or Wanderings Around Lake
Superior:"
"
It is played with a wooden bowl, and a number of small figures
bearing some resemblance to our chessmen. They are usually carved
very neatly out of bones, wood or plum stones, and represent various
things: a fish, a hand, a door, a man, a canoe, a half moon, etc. They
call these figures 'paêssawa^ ' (carved plum stones), and the game
has received its name from them. Each figure has a foot on which
260
it can stand upright. Tliey are all thrown into a wooden bowl (in
Indian, onagan). The players make a hole in the ground, and thrust
the bowl with the figures into it, while giving it a slight shake. The
more figures stand upright on the smooth bottom of the bowl through
this shake, all the better for the player. Each figure has its value,
and some of them represent to a certain extent the pieces in the game
of chess. There are also other figures which may similarly be called
the pawns. The latter, carved into small round stars, are all alike,
have no pedestal, but are red on one side and plain on the other, and
are counted as plus and minus, according to the side uppermost.
With the pawns it is perfect chance which side is up, but with the
pieces much depends on the skill with which the bowl is shaken. The
other rules and mode of calculation are said to be very complicated,
and the game is played with great attention and passion. This game,
as thus described, singularly corresponds in some respects to our game
of chess. It is somewhat differently played among different tribes,
although all are founded upon the same general principle."
Capt. Jonathan Carver speaks of the game as the game of the
Bowl or Platter, which, he says, is played between two persons only,
each person having six or eight little bones, not unlike a peach stone
in size or shape, except that they are quadrangular, two of the sides
of which were colored black and the others white. These they
threw up into the air, from whence they fall into a bowl or platter
placed underneath, and made to spin around. Accordingly as these
bones present the white or black side upwards, they reckon the game.
He who happens to have the greatest number of a similar color turned
up, counts five points, and forty is the game.
Hennepin, referring to this game, says the men commonly play
with the stones of certain fruits that are red on one side and black on
the other. These they put into a large wooden platter not very deep,
or into a basin of birch bark upon a woolen blanket or dressed skin.
They play six or seven together, but only two of them take hold of the
platter with their two hands. One after another they lift it up and
strike the bottom against the ground to hustle these six objects
together. If there come up five red or five black, all of the same side,
a game is won.
Mr. Morgan thus speaks of this game as played among the
Iroquois: "A dish about a foot in diameter at the base was carved out
of a knot, or made of earthen. Six peach stones were then ground, or
cut down into an oval form, reducing them in the process about half in
size, after which the heart of the pit was removed, and the stones
themselves were burned upon one side, to blacken them. The peach
stones were shaken in the bowl by the player, the count depending
upon the number which came up of one color, after they had ceased
rolling in the dish. It was played in the public council house, by a
I
succession of players, two at a time, under the supervision of managers
j
appointed to represent the two parties and to conduct the contest. The
game was ended and the victory gained by him who finally won all the
peach stones in the bank, which was usually one hundred."
Jolm Tanner, the Indian captive, speaks of this game as the
Beg-ga-sah-mik, which he says are small pieces of wood, bone, or
sometimes brass, made by cutting up an old kettle. One side is
stained or colored black, the other side they aim to have bright.
These may vary in number, but can never be fewer than nine. They
are put together in a large wooden bowl or tray kept for that purpose.
Two parties, sometimes twenty or thirty, play sitting opposite each
other in a circle. The mode in playing consists in striking the edge
of the bowl in such a manner as to throw all the Beg-ga-sah into the
air; and on the manner in which they fall into the tray depends the
gain or loss of the party. If his stroke has been to a certain extent
fortunate, the player strikes again and again, as in the game of billiards.,
until he misses, when it passes to the next.
Among the Dakotas, it is said, the women often play this game of
Plum stones more than the men, and often lose all their trinkets in
betting on it.
The game of Deer Buttons among the Iroquois was much like that
of the game of Dish and Plum stones, except that the use of the dish
was omitted. It was rather a fireside game.
The game of Javelin, which, it seems, was most common among
the Iroquois, depended upon the dexterity with which the javelin was
thrown at a ring, as it rolled upon the ground. The javelin was an
instrument five or six feet long, and about three-fourths of an inch in
diameter, made of a substantial kind of wood, sharpened at one end.
The ring was about eight inches in diameter, made either into a hoop
or solid like a wheel, by winding with splints. Sometimes the javelin
was thrown horizontally by placing the forefinger against the end,
supporting it with the thumb and second finger. In other cases it was
held in the center and thrown with the hand raised above the shoulder.
The javelins themselves were the forfeit in the play, and the game was
gained by the party which won them.
Among the amusements of the Iroquois, Algonquins and other
nations, in the latitudes of snow in the winter season, was the game of
Snow-snake, designed primarily as a diversion for the young, but was
occasionally made a public game between tribes, like other games, and
268
aroused a degree of spirit involving betting, as in other games. These
were made of hickory with perfect precision and finish. They were
from five to seven feet in length, about one-fourth of an inch in thick-
ness, and gradually diminishing from about an inch in width at the
head to about half an inch at the foot. The head was round, turned
up slightly, and pointed with some hard or heavy substance, to
increase its momentum when started.
In playing this game, the snake was thrown with the hand by
placing the forefinger at the tail end, and starting it with the thumb
and remaining fingers. It was thus made to run upon the snow crust
with the speed of an arrow, and to a much greater distance,
sometimes running sixty or eighty rods. Success depended upon
dexterity and muscular strength of the parties engaged. The snake
which ran the greatest distance was a point for the side to which it
belonged.
Archery, or practice with the bow and arrow, as a matter of amuse-
ment as well as profit, to acquire experience for hunting, was something
common among all the tribes, as with all our civilized people, who
practice shooting at a mark or target.
Charlevoix speaks of a game he saw played between the Pottawat-
amies and Miamis, called the game of Straw. These straws were
small reeds, about the bigness of a wheat straw, and about six inches
long. They took a parcel commonly of 201 ; always an odd number.
After having shuffled them well together, making innumerable contor-
tions, and invoking the Genii, they separated them with a kind of an awl
or pointed bone, into parcelsof ten each ; every one taking his own at a
venture, and he that happened to get the parcel with 11 gained a cer-
tain number of points that were agreed on, the whole game being
sixty or eighty.
Women have also a game, called among the Ojibways Uh-puh-se-
kuh-won, which is played with two leather belts tied with a string,
about two feet long. These are placed on the ground, and each
woman, with a stick about six feet long, tries to take up the Uh-puh-
se-kuh-icon from the other contesting party, and in doing so throws it
in the air. Whichever party gets it first to the place designated,
counts one in the game.
The play of the Moccasin is another game practiced among the
Indian tribes, the mode of proceeding being substantially the same
among them all. It is thus described as played among the Dakotas:
There are two parties to the play, several on a side, one playing
against the other. One side will sing whilst one man of the other
party hides a ball and moccasins. There are three moccasins used for
the purpose. The man takes the ball or stick between his thumb and
forefinger, and slips it from one moccasin to another several times,
and leaves it in one of them, and then stopssomething like thimble-
play among the whites. The party who have been singing have to
guess in which moccasin the ball is, for which purpose one man is
chosen. If he guesses where the ball is the first time, he loses.
Should the ball not be in the moccasin he guesses the first time, he can
try again. He has now two moccasins for a choice, and has to guess
which one the ball is in. If he is successful, he wins ; if not, he loses,
and so they have only one chance in two of winning. When one side
loses, the other gives up the moccasins to the other party to try their
luck awhile at hiding a ball. There are no high numbers in the game.
The children sometimes play the game of Plum stone. The
children also have a game, played with grains cf corn, precisely like a
game sometimes played among our white people. They take some
grains of Indian corn, or something of the kind, and put them into the
hand, closing it up, and asking another how many there are in the
hand. The one who guesses right has the gamesomething like what
our white children sometimes call the game of "odd or even."
The Indian children also had two other games, thus described by
Hennepin: "They take a bow and two sticks, one big, one little; they
hold the little one in their right hand and strike it up as high as they
can with the other ; another looks where it falls, and throws it up again
to him that struck it. This play has likewise something in it like
some among the European children. They likewise make a ball of
rushes or leaves of Indian corn ; they toss it up and catch it upon the
point of a stick. The great people, men and women, pass away the
winter nights atelling stories over the fire, like the Europeans."
Foot-racing between individuals was also a favorite pastime among
all the tribes. Among those tribes who, after the discovery and intro-
duction of horses into this country, had acquired them, this was suc-
ceeded by horse-racing. Around or in the vicinity of the villages of
Indian nations, especially among the tribes of the American plains, who
were possessed of horses, would be found race tracks, for the purpose
of running and competing in trials of speed of this kind, the same as
found upon the agricultural fair grounds in the farming communities
of our white people at the present day.
Caleb Atwater says that in 1829', during the time he was among
the tribes of Indians in the Upper Mississippi country at Prairie du
Chien, as a commissioner to negotiate the treaty, he found them, their
young men especially, addicted to card playing, on which they bet
heavily, in some instances losing largely at the so called game of "old
270 THE AMEmCAN INDIAN.
sledge." Card playing, and other like games of the white man, intro-
duced among them by the whites at an early day, are largely indulged
in; but this simply proves nothing beyond the fact of mere acquire-
ment of an additional source of vice borrowed from the great stock of the
white man. It neither strengthened the Indian's propensity for
gambling, nor added anything to the Indian's field of satisfying his
propensity for playing games of chance. It operated simply as an
evidence upon the Indian mind that the white man, in his evil ways in
this respect, did not differ essentially from himself.
CHAPTER XYI.
Legend of Indian CornFacts Concerning SameUses of CornMeat and Other
ArticlesNo Regular Time for MealsEat when they are HungryMode of
CookingWomen do the Work of CookingMode of Preserving MeatThe Zea
MaizeMode, Use and Manner of CookingWild RiceVegetables and Fruits
Fondness for SugarSugar MakingA Grand Indian CarnivalMode of
Proceeding in Making SugarMokuks, or Birch Bark Boxes.
A EI ED and iil-cle-
fined have been the
notions of the white
man as to the food
and subsistence of the Indian
in his native condition.
Que
thing, however, is settled and
generally
understood,
that
the Indian's "staff of life,"
in the vegetable kingdom,
was the zea maize, or what
we commonly call Indian
corn; around which ckistered
in his imagination, the same
as with his tobacco,
various
superstitions, believing it to
have been given him as a
special favor through
the
goodness of the Great Spirit,
and concerning
which the
Ojibways have the following
beautiful legend:
A poor Indian was living with his wife and children in a beautiful
part of the country. His children were too young to give him any
assistance in hunting; and he had but ill luck himself. But he was
thankful for all he received from the forest, and although he was very
poor, he was very contented.
His oldest son inherited the same disposition, and had ever beeu
(271)
PROTECTING CORN-FIELDS FROM THE RAVAGES
OF BIRDS.
I
272
obedient to his parents. He had now reached the age at which it is
proper to make the initial fast, which the Indian lads all do at about
fourteen or fifteen. As soon as the spring arrived, his mother built
him a little fasting-lodge in a retired spot, where he would not be
disturbed; and when it was finished he went in and began his fast.
He amused himself for a few mornings by rambling about in the
vicinity, looking at the shrubs and wild flowers (having a taste for
such things) and brought great bunches of them along in his hands,
which led him often to think on the goodness of the Great Spirit in
providing all kinds of fruit and herbs for the use of man. This idea
quite took possession of his mind, and he earnestly prayed that he
might dream of something to benefit his people, for he had often
seen them suffering for the want of food.
On the third day he became too weak and faint to walk about,
and kept his bed. He fancied, while thus lying in a dreamy state,
that he saw a handsome young man, dressed in green robes, and with
green plumes on his head, advancing towards him. The visitor said:
*'I am sent to you, my friend, by the Great Spirit, who made all things.
He has observed you. He sees that you desire to procure a benefit
to your people. Listen to my words, and follow my instructions."
He then told the young man to rise and wrestle with him. Weak as
he was, he tottered to his feet and began, but after a long trial, the
handsome stranger said: "My friend, it is enough for once ; I will
come again." He then vanished.
On the next day the mysterious visitor reappeared and renewed
the trial. The young man knew that his physical strength was even
less than the day before ; but as this declined, he felt that his mind
became stronger and clearer. Perceiving this, the stranger in
plumes again spoke to him. "To-morrow," he said, "will be your last
trial. Be strong and courageous ; it is the only way in which you can
obtain the boon you seek." He then departed.
On the third day as the young faster lay on his pallet, weak and
exhausted, the pleasing visitor returned; and as he renewed the con-
test, he looked more beautiful than ever. The young man grasped
him, and seemed to feel new strength imparted to his body, while that
of his antagonist grew weaker.
At length the stranger cried out: "It is enough. I am beaten.
You will win your desire from the Great Spirit. To-morrow will be
the seventh day of your fast, and the last of your trials. Your father
will bring you food, which will recruit you. I shall then visit you for
the last time, and I foresee that you are destined to prevail. As soon
as you have thrown me down, strip off my garments, and bury me on
FOOD AND SUBSISTENCE. 273
the spot. Visit the place, and keep the earth clean and soft. Let no
weeds grow there. I shall soon come to life, and re-appear with all
the wrappings of my garments and my waving plumes. Once a
month cover my roots with fresh earth, and by following these direc-
tions your triumph will be complete." He then disappeared.
Next morning the youth's father came with food, but he asked
him to set it by, for a particular reason, till the sun went down.
Meantime the sky-visitor came for his final trial, and although the
young man had not partaken of his father's offer of food, he engaged
in the combat with his visitor with a feeling of supernatural strength.
He threw him down. He then stripped off his garments and plumes.
He buried his body in the earth, carefully preparing the ground, and
removing every weed; and then returned to his father lodge. He
kept everything to himself, revealing nothing to denote his vision or
trials. He partook sparingly of food, and soon recovered his perfect
strength. But he never for a moment forgot the burial-place of his
friend. He carefully visited it, and would not let even a wild flower
grow there. Soon he saw the tops of the green plumes coming out of
the ground, at first in spiral points, then expanding into broad leaves,
and rising in green stalks, and finally assuming their silken fringes
and yellow tassels.
The spring and summer had now passed, when one day towards
evening, he requested his father to visit the lonely spot where he had
fasted. The old man stood in amazement. The lodge was gone, and
in its place stood a tall, graceful and majestic plant, waving its taper
leaves and displaying its bright colored plumes and tassels. But
what most attracted his admiration was its cluster of golden ears. "It
is the friend of my dreams and visions," said the youth.
"
It is
Mon-da-min; it is the spirit's grain," said the father. And this is the
origin of the Indian corn.
It is this legend from which the poet Longfellow draws in the
fifth canto of his
"
Song of Hiawatha," relating to
"
Hiawatha's fast-
ing." For the youth mentioned in the legend he substitutes his char-
acter, Hiaivatha; wherein, in closing his description of the fasting of
Hiawatha, and his contest with
"
the friend of man, Mondamin," he
says:
"
Homeward then went Hiawatha
To the lodge of old Nokomis,
And the seven days of his fasting
Were accomplished and completed.
But the place was not forgotten
Where he wrestled with Mondamin
;
Nor forgotten nor neglected
,
Was the grave where lay Mondamin,
18
274
Sleeping in the rain and sunshine,
Where his scattered plumes and garments,
Faded in the rain and sunshine.
Day by day did Hiawatha
Go to wait and watch beside it;
Kept the dark mold so^'t above it,
Kept it clean from weeds and insects,
Drove away, with scofPs and shoutings,
Kahgahgee, the king of ravens.
Till at length a small green feather
From the earth shot slowly upward,
Then another and another.
And before the summer ended
Stood the maize in all its beauty,
With its shining robes about it,
And its long, soft, yellow tresses;
And in rapture Hiawatha
Cried aloud,
'
It is Mondamin
!
Yes, the friend of man, Mondamin!'
Then he called to old Nokomis
And lagoo, the great boaster,
Showed them where the maize was growing.
Told them of his wondrous vision,
Of his wrestling and his triumph,
Of this new gift to the nations,
Which should be their food forever."
According to Mr. Morgan, the Iroquois have a legend that the
corn plant sprang from the bosom of the mother of the Great Spirit,
after her burial. From the most remote period to which tradition
reaches, they cultivated this plant, also the bean and the squash, of
which they raise sufficient quantities to supply their utmost want, pre-
paring them for food in a great variety of ways. In the Iroquois
mode of expressing the idea, these plants are mentioned together
under the figurative name
"
Our Life," or
"
Our Supporters." From
this it would appear that this people did not rely, like some of the
tribes in other parts of the continent, so much upon the chase as a
means of subsistence. They were not so migratory in they character,
and resided more in permanent villages and within certain well defined
territorial limits ; and it is affirmed that among this people, two-thirds of
their food or means of subsistence was vegetable. The fruit of the
chase was a secondary, although a necessary, means of subsistence, the
same as animal food is with the white man.
This proportion in the subsistence or articles of food among the
Iroquois, as to the amount of corn found in their country at various
times, is well sustained through many accounts coming to us from
early writers. When their country was invaded in J 687 by the French
under De Nonville, in the vicinity of the Genesee river, La Hontan
informs us that the French army "spent five or six days in cutting
down the Indian corn with our swords." There wêre probably at least
six hundred persons engaged in this work, which would show the
existence of quite extensive fields. The French commandant him-
self, in referring to the quantity of corn destroyed at this time, says:
"We remained at the four Seneca villages until the 24th of July.
All that time we spent in destroying the corn, which was in such great
abundance that the loss, including old corn that was in cache, which
we burnt, and that which was standing, was computed, according to
the estimate aftewards made, at four hundred thousand minots of
Indian corn" (1,200,000
bushels). This, however, must be regarded
as an extravagant estimate.
In the report of Gen. Sullivan's expedition into the Seneca coun-
try in 1779, that portion relating to a destruction of property on the
occasion shows the abundant resources of that people in their supply
of means of subsistence, and especially in regard to corn and other
vegetable productions. In this expedition Gen. Sullivan is reported to
have destroyed forty Indian villages, 160,000 bushels of corn, vast
quantities of beans and other vegetables, a great number of horses,
hogs, cattle, farming utensils, etc., and everything that was the result
of labor or production by cultivation, and this was the sanguinary
achievement of three weeks' unmolested and unremitting employment
of between four and five thousand men.
The Virginia tribes for a long time sustained the English colony
at Jamestown with supplies of corn from their own fields, without
which, Capt. Smith says, they must have perished; and in which all
the early writers concur.
The tribes on the north of the Gulf of Mexico, in the country of
the Appalachians, raised the zea maize in such quantities that De
Soto's army on one occasion, it is said, marched through the fields of
maize for the distance of two leagues. Mr. Schoolcraft says it is quite
evident that the cultivation of the zea maize gave the ancient mound
builders the capacity of concentrating their numbers and living
together in large towns, which created a necessity for and enabled
ihem to construct and defend those antique works.
It is true that in every case where the Indian population was con-
centrated to any considerable extent, we must believe that they were
sustained by cultivation of the zea maize, accompanied by other plants
within th^ catalogue of edible vegetable products. Out upon the great
plains in the country of vast herds of buffalo, where the circumstances
permitted the concentration of population, the Indian became more a
hunter; relying more upon the chase for subsistence, and less upon
k
the cultivation of vegetable products, and all this rather from necessity
than as a matter of choice.
The zea maize, like the sugar cane, seems to have been originally
a tropical plant, and became gradually carried northv^ârd by migration
of the tribes, until, in time, by care and cultivation, it reached to forty-
nine degrees of north latitude. Spanish writers mention the fact of
its being found in abundance in the West Indies, at the time of the
discovery.
Mr. Schoolcraft thinks that the presence of zea maize, in various
parts of the North American continent, constitutes one of the best evi-
dences of the track of migration of the Indian tribes. From this he
derives the fact that the northern tribes, wherever this plant is found,
migrated from the south, or rather, perhaps, from the southwest, com-
mencing in the country of Mexico.
The great Athapasca family, starting from an opposite center of
migration, did not possess the zea maize. This plant was raised to
perfection so as to preserve seed, from an early period, at Red Lake,
north of the sources of the Mississippi, near latitude forty-nine degrees,
and in the valley of the Red River of the North. It had been carried
to remote points in this direction, in the migration northwest of the
Ojibways, the Knistenoes, and the Assiniboins, and in these latitudes
it ceases. This plant, it seems, however, was not found by the early
explorers in the vicinity of the Columbia river.
The Gulf of St. Lawrence is set down as the most northerly lati-
tude to which the Indians had carried this grain at the time* of the
discovery. None of it was found north of this latitude at the time this
part of the country was first Adsited by the whites. In following up
the St. Lawrence river, passing into Lake Ontario, thence through the
country of the Iroquois, in 1610, the cultivation of the zea maize was
found by the French in all their cantons; and, it is said, that as an
article of food was one of the unmistakable causes of the progress to
political power made by this celebrated group of tribes, by means of
which they could sustain more heavy population . and live in more
compact villages.
In 1702, in sustaining the infant colony of Louisiana, the zea
maize was found so abundant among the Choctaws, who were the
original occupants of the country, that the soldiers of the colony were
for months quartered on that tribe.
The track of its spreading among the tribes upon the Atlantic
coast is clearly traced along its shores into Massachusetts and all New
England, where they raised the small variety of white and yellow
flint corn, and where their nokahik (pulverized parched corn) con-
stituted the sustaining food of their warriors when unable to procure
game.
The planting, cultivating, harvesting, and general care of the corn,
was a work allotted to the women, which they performed with the
utmost cheerfulness, generally working in parties by mutual agreement,
attending to the fields of each other in conjunction. Before they
obtained implements of the white man, their tools for preparing the
ground and planting the corn were sea shells or sharpened sticks, or
implements made of wood of sundry devices, as their ingenuity would
suggest.
As we have learned of the Indian the mode of planting and culti-
vating their corn, we must infer that their mode of doing the same
thing in their early history was the same, or similar to our own, except
in the implements used. They had no plows, as we have, for the pur-
pose of cultivating the ground, but in the place of an implement of
this kind they used sharpened sticks or other similar implements, by
which they loosened up the soil and kept their fields clear of weeds
and grass. The ground was raised up into small hills of about two
feet in diameter, and in height about twelve inches, the hills from
center to center being four or five feet apart. After the field had once
been prepared in this manner, the hills were never leveled down, but
the field remained in that condition, renewing the removal of the
grass from time to time as occasion demanded. The ancient corn
fields of the Indians were always marked in later times by the appear-
ance of these small hills extending over the surface.
As the ears of corn commenced to ripen, great attention was
required in keeping off blackbirds and other graminivorous species
from destroying the crop. This labor was assigned to the matrons,
girls and boys, for which purpose stagings were erected in different
parts of the field, on which the watchers would sit to frighten away
these birds by various modes, as by screaming with loud voices, or
beating of sticks and the like. As Longfellow has expressed it:
"
As the day dawned,
Kahgahgee, the kingof ravens,
Gathered all his black marauders,
Crows and blackbirds, jays and ravens,
Clamorous on the dusky tree-tops,
And descended, fast and fearless,
On the fields of Hiawatha."
There were also in the country various wild fruits, grains and
vegetable productions that did not require cultivation, which were an
important source of Indian subsistence. Among the wild fruits were .
plums, crab apples, thorn, cherry, elder and cranberries. Many of the
small lakes or streams of still water yielded supplies of wild rice that
the Indians gathered in great abundance in the autumn, and which
they made into soup. The woods and prairies abounded with black-
berries, huckleberries, strawberries, raspberries, gooseberries, black
currants, wild grapes and marsh cranberries. There was a root com-
monly called the ground-nut, resembling in shape and taste the West
India sweet potato. This served for food and grew in rich black soil.
There was another plant called wa-be-zee-pin, or swan potato, found
in bogs or marshy soil. These were boiled or roasted, but were not
very palatable, and were eaten only in cases of extreme hunger.
Another root sometimes eaten by them and called o-du-pin, was a long,
white, tender root, having a pungent taste.
The Indians along the sea coast lived largely on clams and other
shell fish, and fish in general was everywhere an important article of
food. The Indians in the country of the Columbia river and its tribu-
taries lived largely upon salmon and various bulbous roots growing in
that country in abundance. The principal of the roots is the kamas,
a white bulb, which, when cooked by roasting in a fire, covered with
earth, is quite nutritious and agreeable to the taste. They have in
that country various other roots besides the kamas, but of the roots
this is their chief reliance.
In the country last mentioned, as soon as the snow is off the
ground, they begin to search for a little bulbous root which they call
the jjohpoh, which looks like a small onion, and has a dry, spicy taste.
In May they get the spatlam or bitter root, a delicious white root
which dissolves by boiling in water, and forms a jelly somewhat bitter
in taste. The Bitter Root river and mountains derive their name from
this plant. In June comes the little hyacinth bulb, which, when roasted,
is as nice as a chestnut. The kamas stalk grows a foot or over, in
length, having on it pale blue flowers. This plant grows in beds so pro-
fusely that the stalks cover the field so closely that at a little distance
they somewhat resemble a sheet of water. The Indians live upon this
root two or three months in the year, and, with the salmon, it is their
chief article of food. The women stop upon the grounds and gather
the kamas, while the men go to the fishing stations and procure fish.
The tribes of the Sierra Nevada country eat what is called the
mazaneto, or little apple ; these, with pine and grass seeds and a little
clover, with, at times, small quantities of fish and small game, mostly
constitute the food of these tribes. An early American resident of
California says he has frequently seen the natives of the San Joaquin
valley eating green clover with great avidity. One of the delicacies
of the Blackfeet tribe was berries boiled in buffalo blood.
279
John R. Jewett, four years a captive among the Indians in the
vicinity of Vancouver's Island, nearly a hundred years ago, says of
the mode of living among these tribes, that their food consists almost
wholly of fish or fish spawn, fresh or dried, the bladder of whale, seal
or sea-cow, clams and berries of various kinds, all of which were eaten
with a profusion of train oil for sauce, not excepting even the most
delicate fruit, as strawbeiries and raspberries. They had but two
methods of cooking, boiling and steaming. Their cooking, however,
was mostly by boiling.
The mode of boiling food among the tribes of the continent, in
general, before the coming of the white man, was by putting water
into a wooden trough or tub, then putting hot stones into the water,
by which means the water was kept boiling until the food was cooked.
Indians were quite fond of broth, and this was a common dish among
them, both as a matter of choice and economy. Frequently, when
their store of provisions was reduced to a small animal or small part
of an animal, or a single bird, which could not well be divided
among a party of several persons, it was put into a vessel and
boiled, so that the substance became as far dissolved in water as pos-
sible, making it into a soup. In this manner the whole could be
divided equally between the parties, by which each would receive a
due share.
Meat was preserved by cutting into slices and hanging in the sun
or near the fire, thereby drying or cooking it sufficiently for preserva-
tion without salt. Corn, when ripened, was generally secured by
placing it in what were generally called caches, being holes dug in dry
or elevated spots of ground, in which the corn was placed, and then
covered over with earth sufficiently to turn off the water. Corn, among
the Iroquois especially, was likewise preserved by braiding the husks
of the ears together, and then hanging them up on poles, placed aloft
in their cabins. It seems that the white man learned this manner of
preparing corn of the Indian.
The Indians had no such thing as regular meal times, or periods
in the day for eating. They simply ate when hungry ; that is, when
they had anything to eat.
Corn, the staple of their vegetable food, is cooked in various
ways, and, as we have borrowed this plant from the Indians, so we
have been instructed by them as to the various ways of cooking it; all
of which we have observed to this day, together with preserving the
identical names which the Indians gave to the same dishes. One
mode of cooking corn is by taking it when green, removing the kernels
from the cob, and boiling with beans. The dish, in the dialect of the
280
New Eugiancl tribes, is called succotash, and the mode of cooking, as
well as the name, we have derived from them.
Another mode is by taking the corn after it becomes ripe, shelling
the kernels from the cob, and then boiling the corn by putting ashes
into the water in which it is boiled, the effect of which removes the
hull from the kernel. After being sufficiently boiled, the corn is
taken out, put into cold water and washed clean, thus entirely remov-
ing the hull from the corn. This they call hominy, and the mode of
cooking and the name of it we have also adopted. Another mode is
by parching the corn in the fire, then separating it from the ashes, and
pounding it in a mortar until pulverized into meal. This was eaten in
various ways; by making it into a pudding, which we commonly call
hasty pudding (which we learned also to make from the Indians), or
by making it into cakes baked in the ashes. Hunters carried a quan-
tity of this pulverized corn in their sacks, eating it dry, a small hand-
ful at a time, or mixing small quantities in water. Sometimes these
various dishes would be improved by adding sugar or molasses, made
from the sap of the sugar maple tree.
Mr. Brooks, in his
"
Story of the American Indian," says that
from the Indians came our squashes and pumpkins, beans and melons,
and that the Indian women were the first to serve the smoking meal
of baked beans, and to teach the colonists from over the sea how to
prepare the hoe-cake and the ash-cake, pone and hominy, samp and
succotash, gruel for the sick-room, and the toothsome pop corn so dear
to our childhood.
The mode of pounding or pulverizing dry maize varied considera-
bly among different tribes. This work, by custom, was left to the
women, who generally exercised their own ingenuity in regard to it.
Where circumstances favored it, mortars and vessels of stone were
used. The mortar was sometimes formed by a depression in the face
of a rock or a detached block of stone. Frequently an orifice was
formed in wood or a suitable log, by burning into the surface, and
scraping out the coal. By renewing the fire on the clean surface, a
deep excavation would soon be made, and, indeed, in this manner
wooden bowls and quite large canoes were formed out of the logs of
suitable trees.
Before obtaining the metal hatchet of the white man, hominy
blocks, consisting of a movable wooden mortar, were formed from a
solid block of wood, from two feet to thirty inches in length, by hol-
lowing out one end by burning. The pestle used consisted of a
smoothly-wrought piece of hard wood of about four feet in length,
rounded off at each end, being smallest in the middle portion, so as to
be more conveniently grasped by the hand. After the introduction
of the iron ax by the whites, the stump of a tree was excavated, or
an orifice cut in the body of a fallen tree to serve as a mortar.
Among other articles of spontaneous production used as food
among the Indians was that of the wild rice before mentioned, which
grows in the shallow water of the rivers and lakes in latitudes north
of forty degrees, in what is now the states of Michigan, Wisconsin,
Iowa, Minnesota, and the valleys of the upper Mississippi and Mis-
INDIAN WOMEN GATHERING WILD RICE.
souri, and was found in such quantities as to furnish one of the prin-
cipal means of Indian subsistence in the country of its production.
It usually ripens in September. It is a small cylindrical grain of
about half an inch in length, covered by a very thin pellicle of a dark
color.
In preparing wild rice for eating, it is usually boiled in plain
water to the consistence of hominy, and eaten with a spoon. It con-
tains more gelatinous matter than the southern rice, and is very
nutritious. It is sometimes prepared for eating by roasting, when it
is eaten dry. It grows upon a stalk which rises above the surface of
the water some six feet or more. The labor of gathering this corn,
is by custom, as in other like work, assigned to the women. The
places Avhere each family is to gather it are generally selected and
assigned by mutual consent, which is respected by all as their indi-
vidual possessions.
The grain when sufficiently ripe is separated from the stalk by
thrashing or striking with a canoe paddle or stick prepared for that
purpose. The harvesting is usually done by two or three women, one
of whom takes the bow, and the other the stern, of a moderate-sized
hunting canoe, perfectly water tight, which, being cleaned out for the
purpose of receiving the grain, they shove into the field of rice, and
bending the stalk in handfuls over the side of the canoe, they beat at
the grain with a stick or paddle. When taken from the bottom of the
canoe, it is full of husks or chaff, and requires to be winnowed. It is
then put into bags and stored away for winter use. If a surplus is
obtained, more than is needed for the family's use, it is sold to the
traders on which to subsist the men engaged in their service.
The chief delicacy among the Indian tribes was wild honey, of the
common honey bee. Of this they were very fond, and in many local-
ities they gathered large quantities.
But the most esteemed article of food in the line of delicacies
was maple sugar, made from the sap of the sugar maple tree, in all
those latitudes where the ground becomes materially prepared by freez-
ing weather in winter, and whereby the course of the sap is favorably
affected, as it commences to ascend to the branches in the spring of
the year. The season of sugar-making, from the beginning to the end,
is a sort of carnival, or general holiday occasion, from which no Indian
can be prevailed upon to absent himself under any inducement that
could be offered him, and since the Indian has assumed the habits of
the white man in those localities where the sugar maple grows, this
same Indian carnival is kept up; and even where civilized Indians
engage in the service of white men for hire, when the sugar-making
season approaches they leave their employer for the sugar camp, the
wages he is receiving being no object whatever. He prefers the fes-
tivities of the sugar camp during its season to the compensation of his
employer, whatever the amount may be.
As the spring season approaches, and the sap of the sugar tree
commences to pass upwards, the Indian families repair to their sugar
camp and commence their favorite work. The mode of drawing the
sap is thus described by Charlevoix: "When the sap begins to rise,
they make a jag or notch in the trunk of the maple, and by means of
a bit of wood which they affix in it, the water runs as by a spout.
This water is received into a vessel, which they set under it. To make
it run plentifully there must be much snow upon the ground, the night
must be frosty, the sky clear, and the wind not too cold." The sap is
carried in bark vessels to a place where preparation is made to receive
it, and Avhere a fire is prepared. It is then put into kettles and boiled
down to sugar, the labor of which devolves chiefly upon the women,
as in most other occasions of domestic affairs.
Before the coming of the white man, since which kettles of iron
or other metallic substances have been obtained, it is doubtful if the
Indians had any mode of making the sap of the sugar maple into sugar,
and it is said that the art of making it into sugar was not known to
them until they were instructed therein by the white man; and that
the Indians before that time only made the sap into molasses, or thick-
ened it to some extent by boiling, which must have been by the use of
hot stones, as in the case of cooking their meat ; still we have accounts
of earthen pots being used for boiling purposes to some extent by
some tribes in their primitive condition.
Indians of all ages, and especially the children, eat greedily of
this article, both while it is in the state of molasses and after it passes
into the stage of sugar. They also put up large quantities of the latter
for sale, in boxes made from the white birch bark, mocoks or mokuks.
These boxes are in the shape of the lower section of a quadrangular
pyramid, of a light brown color, and when new, a nankeen yellow.
The children during the carnival, the same as our white children,
engage with great delight in boiling down the sap to syrup, and laying
it out on the snow to cool, making of it a kind of candy. Their
mothers, too, supply them with miniature mokuks filled with sugar
from the first running of the sap. These little mokuks are ornamented
with porcupine quills, skillfully wrought in the shape of flowers and
figures. The boxes designed for sale are of all sizes, from twenty to
seventy-five pounds in weight. The number of boxes, of average size,
made in a single season by an industrious and strong-handed family,
it is said, is frequently from thirty to forty, in addition to the sugar
which the family consumes ; and seldom less than a dozen to twenty
boxes to each family. The heyday scenes of the Se-se-boh-kivud-o-
ka-win or sugar-making, crowns the labors and festivities of the spring.
CHAPTEE XVII.
MARRIAGE AND DOMESTIC AFFAIRS.
Marriage InstitutionSimplicity of the Marriage CeremonyObservations of Rev,
Isaac McCoy and OthersPleasure TripsThe Mother had Custody of Children
Rights of PropertyMarriage and DivorceWife's Attention to the Husband
on Return from HuntingTestimony of Mary JemisonHer Experience as an
Indian WifeHer Labor not SevereContinued Sameness in Domestic Duties
Her Task not Harder than White Women who are Brought up to Work
Polygamy ToleratedNot much Practiced.

S to the marriage customs
among the Indians, we
have been liable to the
\>--
same errors and miscon-
ceptions concerning them as in
regard to many other things per-
taining to the Indian subject.
Among most people or nations of
the earth, whether civilized or
otherwise, some kind of ceremony
exists, in order to render the mar-
riage of persons binding or com-
plete. But the American Indian,
it seems, had no idea of anything
of this kind.
Rev. Isaac McCoy refers to
certain misconceptions or popular
errors in regard to the Indian
marriage. He states, that after twenty years' abode among the Indians,
and an acquaintance with more than twenty tribes, and after inquiry
of the missionaries and others in the Indian country, and of the Indians
themselves, he was unable to find information that any kind of cere-
mony ever took place among the Indians in connection with a marriage
between the parties, as in any way affecting the same ; that the stories
told by some writers on the Indian subject of the custom that a young
man who desired a partner was made to whistle on a wooden instru-
284)
MARRIAGE AND DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. 285
ment prepared for the purpose, as a symbol of communicating his
desires to some Indian maiden whom lie wished to marry, are a fabri-
cation. He says, that whilst such fancied customs make a very good
story, it is unfortunate that such stories are altogether fabulous. His
evidence, in which all the authorities seem to concur, is that in native
Indian life, unaffected by the influences of the white man, the parties
come together without ceremony, and that when either becomes tired
of the other they separate with equal facility.
Father Hennepin declares that marriage among the Indians is not
a civil contract ; that the man and woman do not intend to bind them-
selves together for life ; and that they live together no longer than they
agree and love one another. As soon as they are discontented with
each other they separate without any clamor or noise, and remain per-
fectly indifferent for each other thereafter.
But Father Hennepin mistakes the premises entirely when he
declares that marriage among the Indians is not a civil contract. That
is precisely what it is, and it is regarded in a no higher light than
such. But it is not a civil contract with any express covenants,
according to the customs of the white man ; but rather an implied con-
tract, or contract with implied obligations, like a common law contract,
so called, in those countries where the English common law is in force,
liable to be dissolved by mutual consent. Among the tribes in general,
however, the husband might of his own motion put away or divorce his
wife without her consent ; but if he did so without cause, in the opinion
of his wife's relatives, he incurred their displeasure, and was liable to
retaliation. Among the Indians no tribunal for the purposes of relief
of the parties in case of a desire to separate existed, the termination of
the contract being entirely with the parties themselves.
Mr. Brickell, spoken of elsewhere in this work, speaking of the
Indian marriage and divorce, says: "I know of no marriage ceremony
among them, and never heard of a case of separation and divorce."
John Tanner, who was taken captive by the Indians when about
seven years old, and grew to manhood among the Ojibways, in the
vicinity of Lake Superior, in his narrative states the manner of
his marriage to an Indian woman, which well illustrates the Indian
custom. The name of the woman he gives as Mis-kiva-him-o-kwa,
"Ked Sky of the Morning." He was then living with an aged woman,
Net-no-kwa, who had adopted him as her son. The parties had met at
the wigwam of his foster mother on several occasions, and she had
expressed to Tanner a desire that he should marry this girl, which he
was not inclined to favor. One day, on returning home after a short
absence, he says:
286
"
When I arrived at our lodge, on the following day, I saw 3Iis-
kica-hmi-o-Jciva sitting in my place. As I stopped at the door of the
lodge and hesitated to enter, she hung down her head ; but Net-no-kwa
greeted me in a tone somewhat harsher than was common for her to
use to me.
'
Will you turn back from the door of the lodge, and put
this young woman to shame, who is in all respects better than you are?
This affair has been of your seeking and not of mine or hers. You
have followed her about the village heretofore ; now you would turn
from her, and make her appear like one who has attempted to thrust
herself in your way.' I was, in part, conscious of the justness of Net-
no-lxwd's reproaches, and, in part, prompted by inclination, I went in
and sat down by the side of Mis-kwa-bun-o-kwa, and thus we became
man and wife. Old Net-no-kwa had, while I was absent at Eed River,
without my knowledge or consent, made her bargain with the parents
of the young woman, and brought her home, rightly supposing that it
would be no difficult matter to reconcile me to the measure. In most
of the marriages which happen between young persons, the parties
most interested have less to do than in this case. The amount of
presents which the parents of a woman expect to receive in exchange
for her, diminishes in proportion to the number of husbands she may
have had."
Mr. Tanner further adds that it commonly happens, even when a
young man marries a young woman of his own band, that he has previ-
ously had no personal acquaintance with her. Perhaps they have seen
each other in the village in passing about, but probably have never
spoken together. The match is agreed on by the parents, and, when the
arrangement is made known to the young people, they probably find
in themselves no objection to it, as they know should it prove disa-
greeable mutually, or to either party, it can at any time be broken off.
Peter Jones says that the common practice among his people in
marriage was for the parents of both parties to make up a match, very
often without the consent or even the knowledge of the parties to the
marriage. Sometimes this agreement was entered into when the chil-
dren were very young, and it generally happened that they yielded to
the arrangement made by their parents, not only without any court-
ship, but before they had spoken to each other. When the contract
was not made by the parents, the Indian youth, having fixed his atten-
tion on some young woman, would make his wish known to his mother,
or to some particular friend to whose care he had committed the pres-
ents he had prepared for the occasion. The presents usually con-
sisted of a fine blanket, and other articles of dress for his intended,
and a kettle,. a sack of corn, or some other articles for the parents. If
these presents were received, it was at once understood that the offer
was accepted. The period o courtship was not generally protracted
beyond a few months, and was frequently of short duration.
According to the same authority, the practice of traveling, or
going on a pleasure trip, in later times in our more finished society
called "wedding tours," was a practice also in vogue among the
Indians. On this subject Mr. Jones says: "The period of their
courtship is not generally protracted beyond a few months, when it is
terminated by the young man's taking his chosen companion on a
wedding trip for several days. Wherever night overtakes them, there
they pitch the wigwam, and spend the day in shooting or fishing, the
hride steering the canoe. When this excursion is ended, they return
with the product of the chase, which they present to the parents of
the bride, laying it at the mother's feet; and with them they continue
to reside, as the parents consider they have a claim on their industry
and support till they have a family of their own to maintain. On this
account the parents are always anxious that their daughters should
marry good hunters. Although no public vows are made, nor any
particular ceremonies are performed, at the marriages of the' Indians,
it is surprising how seldom their mutual engagements are violated."
Mr. Morgan, speaking of the customs of the Iroquois, says:
"
Marriage was not founded upon the affections, which constitute the
only legitimate basis of this relation in civilized society, but was reg-
ulated exclusively as a matter of physical necessity. It was not even
a contract between the parties to be married, but substantially between
their mothers, acting oftentimes under the suggestions of the matrons
and wise men of the tribes to which the parties respectively belonged.
In a general sense, therefore, the subject of marriage was under the
supervision of the older members of each tribe; but, practically, it
was under maternal control."
Mr. Morgan says that according to custom among the Iroquois,
the husband and wife were never of the same tribe, and the children
were of the tribe of their mother. No right in the father to the
custody of the children, or their nurture, was recognized, and so, after
separation, the father gave himself no further trouble concerning them,
nor interested himself in their welfare. They became estranged as
well as separated. Among some Indian nations, in cases of separa-
tion, the male children were taken by the father, and the female chil-
dren by the mother. The care of Indian children in infancy and
childhood was entrusted to the watchful attention of the mother.
Among the Iroquois, inconsiderable as property was among them,
it was held subject to distribution under fixed laws. It consisted
merely of planting lots, orchards, houses, implements of the chase,
weapons, wearing apparel, domestic utensils, personal ornaments, stores
of corn, skins of animals, and those miscellaneous fabrics which the
necessities of life led them to invent. The rights of property of both
husband and wife were continued distinct during the existence of the
marriage relation, the wife holding and controlling her own the same
as her husband, and, in case of separation, taking it with her. No
individual could obtain the absolute title to land, as this was vested
by the laws of the Iroquois in all the people; but he could reduce to
possession unoccupied lands by cultivation to any extent he pleased,
and so long as he continued to use them, his right to their enjoyment
was protected and secured. He could also sell his improvements or
bequeath them to his wife or children.
Whilst the Indians had no such thing in their custom, in general,
as a marriage ceremony, considered necessary to give efiPect to the con-
tract of marriage, yet they had customs of ceremonies attending or
incident to occasions of such a union between the parties, as that of
giving presents to the parents of the bribe. This was different from
the white man's custom, where the presents are given to the bride her-
self. They also had a custom of a great feast on marriage occasions,
the same as people of the more civilized nations, where the guests
were sometimes very numerous, at which they danced, sang and entered
upon other diversions which usually took place on occasions of rejoic-
ings.
On the subject of Indian domestic life, Mr. Heckewelder relates
the following anecdote of an aged Indian who had spent much time
among the white people of Pennsylvania and New Jersey:
One day about the year 1770, he observed that the Indians had a
much easier way of getting a wife than the whites, but were also more
certain of getting a good one.
"
For," said he, in his broken En-
glish, "white man court-court, may be one year! may be two year
before he marry! "Well! may be then got very good wife, but may
be not! may be very cross! Well, now, suppose cross, scold so soon
as get awake in morning, scold all day, scold until sleep,all one ; he
must keep him (the pronouns in the Indian language have no femi-
nine gender).
White people have law forbidding throwing away wife,
be he ever so cross ! must keep him always. Well ! how does Indian
do? Indian, when he see industrious squaw, which he like, he go to
him, place his two forefingers close aside each other, make two look
like one, look squaw in the facesee him smilewhich is all one, he
say yes! so he take him homeno danger he be cross ! no! no! Squaw
know too well what Indian do if he cross! throw him away and take
another! Squaw love to eat meat! no husband, no meat! Squaw do
everything to please husband; he do the same to please squaw; live
happy!"
The Indian, according to his custom, had specific causes for
divorce, the same as has the white man under his code of laws.
These were, in general, unfaithfulness ; and intolerable laziness, on the
part of the wife, wâs also cause for divorce. Polygamy or plurality
of wives prevailed to a very general extent among all the American
tribes of the continent. It was considered lawful for any man to
marry as many wives as he could provide for. They generally selected,
if possible, sisters, from an idea that they would be more likely to live
together in peace, and that the children of the one would be loved
and cared for by the other more than if the wives were not related.
According to Mr. Morgan, polygamy was forbidden by the Iroquois,
and never became a practice among that people.
Mr. Heckewelder says the work of the women is not hard or
difficult, and they perform their tasks with cheerfulness. Within
their wigwams their labor is trifling, their utensils being few. There
is no scrubbing to be done and but little washing, and that little is not
frequent. Their principal occupation is to cut and fetch in the fire-
wood, cultivate the ground, sow and reap the grain, and pound
the corn in their mortars for use, and to make bread, which they bake
in the ashes. When going on a journey or to hunting camps with
their husbands, they carry a pack on their backs, which often appears
heavier than it really is. Mr. Heckewelder says that he never knew
an Indian woman to complain of the hardship of carrying this burden,
the contents of which served for her own comfort and support, as
well as that of her husband.
Mrs. Jemison, the so-called Captive White Woman of the Gene-
see, speaks of the cheerfulness with which she performed her task as
an Indian wife. She says in pursuing their farming, in order to
expedite their work, and at the same time enjoy each other's company,
it was a custom among the Indian women to all work together, in one
field, or "at whatever job they may have had on hand. In the spring
they chose for the ensuing year an old active squaw to be their driver
and overseer when at labor, which honor she accepted, and whom they
considered themselves bound to obey.
When the time for planting arrived, and the soil was prepared,
the women assembled in the morning, and were conducted into a field
where each planted one row ; they then went into the next field and
planted once across, and so on till they had gone through all the
fields of different families in the vicinity. By this rule they per-
19
290 THE AMERICAN INDIA.N.
formed their labor of every kind, and every jealousy of one having"
done more or less than another Avas effectually avoided.
The Indian, in general, had no such thing in his household as
domestic jars or family quarrels. His general character tended to
harmony. Mr. Heckewelder says that it seldom happened that a man
would condescend to abuse his wife or quarrel, even although she was
inclined to do so, and had given him just cause therefor. In such a
case the man, without replying, would take his gun or bow, and go off
at a distance into the woods and remain there perhaps for several days,
subsisting on the game he might kill, well knowing that he could not
inflict a greater punishment on his wife for her conduct than by thus
absenting himself for a time from the wigwam. She is not only thus
kept in suspense, uncertain when he will return, but she would be
reported as a bad and quarrelsome wife. On such occasions the man
does not tell his wife on what day he will be back, which, otherwise,
when on good terms, he never neglects to do. She is thus put to
shame by her neighbors, who soon suspect something, and do not fail
to put such questions to her as she either cannot answer or is ashamed
to own. But when he returns she endeavors to show him by her atten-
tions that she has repented, though perhaps neither speaks to the other
a single word on the subject of what has passed, and as his children,
if they have any, will hang about him and soothe him with their
caresses, he is, on their account, ready to forgive, or, at least, to say
nothing unpleasant to their mother.
According to Indian custom, on return of an Indian from a long
journey or long absence, on entering his wigwam, the meeting with
his wife and family is unattended by outward demonstrations of any
kind. He simply says to his wife, "I am returned;" to which his wife
will answer, "I rejoice," and, having cast his eyes around, he will ask
if all the children are well, when, being answered in the affirmative, he
replies, "I am glad," which for the present is all the conversation that
passes between them, nor does he relate anything that occurred on his
journey until he has partaken of nourishment, which his wife speedily
prepares for him. After awhile, when he has refreshed himself, if the
family are alone, or when the men of the village have assembled at
his wigwam, his wife, with his family and others who may come in^
hear his story at length.
Baron La Hontan, in his book entitled
"
New Voyages to North
America," written in
1689, gives an account of some rather singular
customs among the Indians of New France at that time, which is the
starting point for writers of Indian manners and customs, on the sub-
ject of marriage and relation of the sexes, down to the present time.
Even Mr. Armstrong, in his work on the
"
Sauks and the Blackhawk
War," repeats the substance of this story of La Hontan, as applied
to the tribe of which he speaks.
These stories of La Hontan, how-
ever, are believed to be incorrect, and that no such customs as he
relates existed among any tribes of the North American Indians.
lb
CHAPTEK XYIII.
PARENTAL AND FILIAL AFFECTION.
Unfounded
Prejudices against the IndianRedeeming Characteristics in his Parental
and Filial AffectionStriking Incidents RelatedA Daughter's Attachment to
her Aged FatherPathetic AnecdoteA Father's Affection Manifested for his
Son
Remarkable InstanceA Father's Cheerful Death to Follow the Spirit of
his Child to the Land of SoulsRespect for Old AgeFond of their Children
A Mother's Attention.
i>s,
HE prejudice instilled into our minds
t against the Indian has led us to believe
in the depravity of his nature, from which
^''
springs no redeeming features. There is
much in this idea that is erroneous, for whilst the
Indian presents an anomaly in human character
differing in many respects from other races of
the earth, he possesses many redeeming charac-
teristics of marked excellence, especially in regard
to parental and filial affection.
On this subject Mr. Catlin, after his many
years' experience among the Indians, well remarks,
that from the enslaved condition in which Indian
women are held, the world would naturally think
that theirs must be a community formed of incon-
gruous and inharmonious materials, and conse-
quently destitute of those fine, reciprocal feelings
and
attachments which naturally flow from the
domestic
relations in the civilized world. Yet, he
declares, it would be untrue, and doing injustice
to the Indians, to say that they are, in the least,
behind in conjugal, filial and parental affection;
that there is no trait in the human character which is more universal
than the attachments which flow from these relations; no part of the
human species who have a stronger affection and a higher regard for
them than the North American Indians, and there is no subject in the
Indian character of more importance to be rightly understood than this.
(292)
PARENTAL AND FILIAL AFFECTION. 293
A very striking instance under this head is given by Mr. School-
craft, showing the devotion of a daughter for her aged father. The
case occurred in the vicinity of Mackinaw. He says:
'^
GUchie Nai-
gow (Great Sand Dune) was a Chippewa chief, who, during a long
life, maintained a reputation for bravery, vigorous exertion, and policy
in Indian life, in the region of the Upper Lakes. He was a warm
friend of the French during their supremacy in the Canadas; and an
actor in the scenes of peril that preceded and followed the fall of Que-
bec in 1759. He had been one of the assailants at the memorable
capture of old Fort Michilimackinac, in 1763, and is mentioned by the
name of Le Grand Sable, as one of the most sanguinary actors on that
occasion. He lived many years afterwards, shifting his tent, as the
seasons changed, from the open shores of Lake Huron and Michigan
to the thick woods which are the shelter of the natives from the wintry
winds. Eighty years and upwards have now whitened the locks of the
aged chief, and he felt that his continuance in these scenes must be
short, when he accompanied his relatives for the last time, daring the
month of March, from the borders of the water to those forests which
yield the acer saccharinum, or sugar-maple. This is a season of
enjoyment with the Indians, and they usually remain at their sugar-
camps until the sap assumes too much acidity to be longer capable of
being made into sugar syrup, and the trees begin to put forth leaves.
In the meantime, the days of the enfeebled patriarch, who had pitched
his tent in a hundred forests, approached their close. It was found
that, Avhen they had packed up their effects to return to the open lake,
he was unable to sustain the journey. His daughter, No-do-iva-qua,
the wife of Sa-ga-nash, determined to carry him on her shoulders,
that he might, for the last time, be permitted to witness those refresh-
ing shores. For this purpose, as soon as the carriers were ready to
move, she took her long and stout deer-skin ape-cun, or head-strap,
and fastening it around his body bent herself strongly forward under
the load, then rose under the pious burden, and took the path for the
lake. It is usual to put down the burdens at set places, and to proceed
by rests [on-wai-be by on-wai-be) on their way. These she obeyed,
and brought him safely to the open shores of Lake Michigan. The
distance was about ten miles. I obtained these particulars from the
woman herself at Michilimackinac, in 1833, when she was aged. The
feat of ^neas in carrying Anchises, when infirm, on his shoulders
through the flames of Troy, has long been celebrated, but is rivalled
here by an Algonquin woman. Poetry has embalmed the one act, let
history do the same for the other."
Another instance in the same direction is given by Mr. William
"Warren, whose father was an Indian trader in the early days in the
vicinity of Lake Superior, and whose mother was an Ojibway woman,
and who grew to manhood among that people. The instance arose out
of the following circumstances:
A large party of 0-du-gaum-eeg Indians, otherwise called Foxes,
floated down the Ontonagon river in their small inland bark canoes.
They landed in the night on the island of their foes, the Ojibways, and
early in the morning captured four women that had gone to gather
wood. The revenge of the Ojibways was quick and complete; and as
the Foxes, by their exultant yells, disclosed to their enemies the course
of their flight, hundreds of Ojibway warriors embarked hastily in their
large lake canoes in pursuit. A dense fog covered the lake, and de-
pending on this for an eventual escape and confident of their superior
numbers, the Foxes, elated wdth their success, kept up a continual
yelling and singing. Thus guided, the Ojibways silently and swiftly
pursued them, keeping purposely in their wake till they arrived oppo-
site a line of steep, rocky course, a mile above the mouth of the Mont-
real river, and some twenty miles or more from the point. Here they
fell upon the Foxes in great fury, fighting in large canoes, which sat
firmly in the water. They nearly destroyed to a man the party of four
hundred Foxes, who, being in small canoes, were upset, and most of
them dispatched in the water.
Soon after the above occurrence, a party of Foxes fell upon a
camp of Ojibways at Kali-puk-wa-ka, while the men were out hunting.
They captured two youths, having driven them into boggy ground.
One of these youths was the son of a principal Ojibway chief named
Bi-ans-wah. At the time the capture was made, the father of the
young man was out on a hunt. Returning home, he heard the heart-
rending news, and, knowing that his son's fate would be at stake, he
immediately pursued the returning captors singly and alone. Follow-
ing in their trail, he arrived at one of their principal villages, where
the Foxes were preparing for burning his son. He stepped boldly
into the midst of his enemies, and offered to take the place of his son.
"My son," said he, "has seen but few winters; his feet have never
trod the war-path ; but the hairs of my head are White, and over the
graves of my relatives I have hung many scalps that I have taken
from the heads of your warriors." The old chiefs offer was accepted
by the Foxes, his son released and himself burned at the stake, with
all the tortures that savage ingenuity could invent. The son returned
to his people, and was afterwards known by his father's name. He
became a noted man in his tribe.
The act above related was terribly avenged by the Ojibway tribe.
M
i
PARENTAL AND FILIAL AFFECTION. 295
A large war party was collected, and marched against the town of the
Foxes, on the Chippewa river, and they returned not till six villages
of their enemies had been laid waste, and their inhabitants destroyed.
After this the Fox tribe retired from the country bordering on Lake
Superior, and fell back on the Mississippi.
Another instance of parental affection, illustrating the peculiar
belief and confidence of the American Indian in a future existence, is
given by Jonathan Carver, in his travels among the Naii-de- wis-sous,
or Dakota nation. He says:
"Whilst 1 remained amongst them, a couple whose tent was
adjacent to mine lost a son of about four years of age. The parents
were so much affected at the death of their favorite child that they
pursued the usual testimonies of grief with such uncommon rigor, as
through the weight of sorrow and loss of blood, to occasion the death
of the father. The woman, who had hitherto been inconsolable, no
sooner saw her husband expire than she dried up her tears and
appeared cheerful and resigned.
"As I knew not how to account for so extraordinary a transition,
I took an opportunity to ask her the reason of it, telling her, at the
same time, that I should have imagined the loss of her husband would
rather have occasioned an increase of grief, than such a sudden dimi-
nution of it.
"She informed me that as the child was so young when it died,
and unable to support itself in the country of spirits, both she and her
husband had been apprehensive that its situation would be far from
happy; but no sooner did she behold its father depart for the same
place, who not only loved the child with the tenderest affection, but was
a good hunter, and would be able to provide plentifully for its support,
that she ceased to mourn. She added that she now saw no reason to
continue her tears, as the child on whom she doted was happy under
the care and protection of a fond father, and she had only one wish
that remained ungratified, which was that of being herself with them."
Mr. Heckewelder, the devoted Moravian missionary, says there is
no nation in the world who pay greater respect to old age than the
American Indians. From their infancy they are taught to be kind
and attentive to aged persons, and to never let them suffer for want of
necessaries or comforts. The parents spare no pains to impress upon
the minds of their children the conviction that they would draw down
upon themselves the anger of the Great Spirit were they to neglect
those whom, in His goodness, He had permitted to attain such an
advanced age, and whom He had protected by His Almighty power,
through all the perils and dangers of life.
296
"
It is a sacred principle among the Indians," he says, "and one
of those moral and religious truths which they have always before
their eyes, that the Great Spirit who created them, and provided them
so abundantly with the means of subsistence, made it the duty of
parents to maintain and take care of their children until they should
be able to provide for themselves."
An established trait in Indian character is that they are fond of
their children, and treat them with the greatest respect and considera-
tion. They rarely punish them in any way, and no children seem
happier than those of Indian families.
Some Indian tribes have among them regular story tellers, who
have devoted a great deal of time to learning the myths and stories of
their people. The Indian mother sometimes sends for one of these,
and, having prepared for him a feast, she and her little ones, who are
huddled up near her, listen to the stories of this dreamer, who thus
entertains them for hours.
Orphan children are usually supported by their nearest relatives.
When they have no relatives able to support them, they are main-
tained by individual parties, and this is done with the same cheerful-
ness and apparently with the same parental affection as if they were
the children of the persons contributing to their support. Even in
war between tribes and nations, captive children are adopted into
families willing to receive them, and are treated in the same way as
their own children.
I
CHAPTEE XIX.
INDIAN HABITATIONS.
Simplicity of the Indian Habitation or WigwamTerm Wigwam, from whence
DerivedMode of Constructing Habitations among Different NationsAmong
the Algonquin TribesAmong Tribes of the Sioux StockAmong the
MandansAmong the Indians of the Plains in GeneralAmong the Tribes of
the Shoshonee StockAmong the NootkansAmong the Tribes of the Iroquois
$3tockInside Arrangement and Construction.
^HE Indian habitation is
OJIBWAY VILLAGE.
p
sometimes styled by our
English speaking peo-
'^''
pie a lodge; probably
derived from the house of the
gate-keeper on a gentleman's
estate in England, which was
called the gate-keeper's lodge;
or from the same term fre-
quently applied in England to
a small house in a park or
forest, thus referred to by
Shakespeare
:
"
He and his lady are both at the lodge,
Upon the north side of this pleasant chase."
These habitations were at first known to Europeans as icigwams,
a word in the Algonquin language from ivigwas, "birch bark," icigwam,
something made or constructed of birch bark ; such habitations being
generally covered with the bark of the birch tree. But latterly, since
the white man's invasion has reached the great western plains, where
the language of the Dakotas largely prevails, these Indian habitations
have been more generally called by our English speaking people
tepees, a word in the Dakota language signifying the same as icigwam
in the Algonquin language. The word in the Iroquois language, to
signify the Indian habitation, is ga-no-sote.
The aborigines of the Island of St. Domingo called a house bohia.
This refers to their common dwellings, made of light wood work, cov-
(297)
298
CARIB HOUSE.
ered with branches and shrubs interwoven. Others they called bohar-
qiies, composed of piles of wood, driven into the earth, and joined at
the top in a conical form, or shape of a tent. This last word the
Spanish took from the natives
as haheque; from this, it is
supposed, comes the word
harhecue.
The Pilgrim's Journal
thns describes the Indian
wigwam of New England at
that day: "The houses were
made with long, young sap-
lings, bended, and both ends
stuck in the ground. They
were round like unto an
arbor, and covered down to the ground with thick and well-wrought
nets, and the door was not over a yard high, made of a mat to
open. The chimney was a wide hole in the top, for which they
had a mat to cover it close, when they pleased. One might stand
and go upright in them. In the midst of them were four little
trundles (truncheons) knocked into the ground, and small sticks laid
over, on which they hung their pots and what they had to seethe.
Bound about the fire they lay on mats, which are their beds. The
houses were double-matted, for, as they were matted Avithout, so were
they within, with newer and fairer mats."
Another authority of like early date, speaking of Indian habita-
tions, referring also to the fact of the protection of their villages by
fortifications, says:
"
Their houses are most of them built of one fashion, only differ-
ing in length, all of them agree in breadth of twenty feet. They
build after this manner: they set peeled boughs of nut trees in the
ground, according to the bigness of the place which they intend to
build, then, joining the tops of the boughs together, they cover the
walls and top with the bark of cypress, ashen and chestnut trees,
which are laid one upon another, the smallest side being turned
inwards, according to the bigness of the houses. Several families, to
the number of fifteen, dwell together, every one having his own apart-
ment. Their
fortifications are most of them built on steep hills, near
rivers
;
^he access to them is only at one place. They are built after
this manner: They set great poles in the ground, with oaken pallisa-
does on each side,
crossways, one amongst another; between the
crosses, they set other trees, to strengthen the work. Within this
INDIAN HABITATIONS. 299
enclosure they generally build twenty or thirty houses, of which some
are a hundred and eighty feet long, and some less, all of them full of
people. In the summer they pitch tents along by the river side to
fish. Against winter they remove into the woods, to be near their
game of hunting and also fuel."
The mode of constructing habitations among the tribes of the
Algonquin stock was quite uniform. Their temporary habitations,
those designed for moving about from place to place in hunting and
fishing, were constructed of pole frames and covered with matting or
skins; but their more permanent dwellings, usually found in their
villages, were constructed of bark. Light was usually admitted
through an aperture at the top of the l^dge, through which also the
smoke escaped.
In their hunting or war expeditions, which often led them through
desolate forests long dis-
tances from home, the In-
dians had the art of rearing
temporary lodges with much
readiness and facility. On
arriving at their evening sta-
tion, they gathered a few
poles, placed them in the
proper position, meeting at
the top, and covered them
with their matting or bark,
completing the construction
in perhaps half an hour's time. Among tribes of the snow latitudes,
like the Esquimaux, they also understood how to convert snow into
material for a wigwam, and in the depth of winter made them quite
comfortable.
Mr. Morgan thus describes the habitation of the Iroquois people:
"The Ga-no^-sote, or Bark house, was a simple structure. When
single, it was about twenty feet by fifteen upon the ground, and from
fifteen to twenty feet high. The frames consisted of upright poles,
firmly set in the ground, usually five upon the sides and four at the
ends, including those at the corners. Upon the forks of these poles,
about ten feet from the ground, cross poles were secured horizontally,
to which the rafters, also poles, but more numerous and slender, were
adjusted. The rafters were strengthened with transverse poles, and
the whole were usually so arranged as to form an arching roof. After
the frame was thus completed, it was sided up and shingled with red-
elm or ash bark, the rough side out. The bark was flattened and
ESQUIMAUX SNOW HOUSE.
rv=fej^^
;-
GA-NO-SOTE, OR IROQUOIS BARK HOUSE.
dried, and then cut in the form of boards. To hold these bark boards
lirmly in their places, another set of poles, corresponding with thos&
in the frame, were placed on the outside; and, by means of splints and
bark rope fastenings, the boards were secured horizontally between
them. It usually re-
quired four lengths of
boards and four courses
from the ground to the
rafters to cover a side
as they were lapped at
the ends, as well as
clap-boarded; and also
in the same proportion
for the ends. In like
^
manner the roof was
covered with bark
boards, smaller in size,
with the rough side out,
and the grain running
up and down; the boards being stitched through and through with
fastenings, and thus held between the frames of poles, as on the
sides. In the center of the room was an opening for the smoke, the
fire being upon the ground in the center of the house, and the
smoke ascending without the guidance of a chimney. At the two
ends of the house were doors, either of bark hung upon hinges of
wood, or of deer or bearskin suspended before the opening ; and, how-
ever long the house, or whatever the number of fires, these were the
only entrances.
"Over one of these doors was cut the tribal device of the head of
the family. Within, upon two sides, were arranged wide seats, also of
bark boards, about two feet from the ground, well supported under-
neath, and reaching the entire length of the house. Upon these they
spread their mats of skins, and also their blankets, using them as seats
by day and couches at night. Similar berths were constructed on each
side, about five feet above these, and secured to the frame of the
house, thus furnishing accommodations for the family. Upon cross-
poles near the roof was hung in bunches, braided together by the husks,
their winter supply of corn. Charred and dried corn and beans were
generally stored in bark barrels and laid away in corners. Their
implements for the chase, domestic utensils, weapons, articles of
apparel, and miscellaneous notions, were stowed away and hung up
wherever an unoccupied
place was discovered. A house of this
description would accommodate a family of eight, with the limited
wants of the Indian, and afford shelter for their necessary stores,
making a not uncomfortable residence. After they had learned the
use of the ax, they began to substitute houses of hewn logs, but they
constructed them after the ancient model. Many of the houses in
their modern villages in the valley of the Genesee were of this descrip-
tion.''
The style of lodges among the tribes of the Dakota stock differed
somewhat in their appearance and construction from those of the
Algonquin. Their lodges were generally constructed by setting up
poles, meeting and fastened at the top, making a lodge from eight to
fifteen feet in diameter, the poles being from ten to fifteen feet high
and covered with tanned
buffalo skins; elk skins were
also used for this purpose.
They make summer houses,
in size from twenty to thirty
feet long and about fifteen or
twenty feet wide, of wood or
perches set upright. These
perches were set in the
ground aboat one foot, and
were about six feet out of the
ground, and over this was put
a roof of elm bark. These
habitations were very favor-
able for summer use. A lodge of skins would last three or four years.
The skin lodge they carried about on their backs, or on horses, through
all their winter hunts. These, in general, would accommodate five or
six persons. In some lodges, the Sioux of the Plains say they have
feasted fifty warriors without inconvenience. About four feet is what
one person would occupy. The women constructed and removed the
lodges.
Among the Winnebagoes, a branch of the Dakota stock, the cus-
tom in constructing their lodges was much the same as with the tribes
of the Algonquin stock. With them a lodge forty feet in length and
sixteen in width would accommodate three families of ten persons each.
Among many tribes, of the Dakota and Shoshonee stock, their per-
manent habitations were constructed in more substantial style, and
covered with earth. Of this class were the habitations of the Omahas,
which are thus described by Alice C. Fletcher, for some time a resi-.
dent among them
:
MOVABLE WIGWAMS.
"These dwellings are built by setting carefully selectscl and pre-
pared posts closely together in a circle and binding them firmly with
willows, then backingr them with dried o^rass and coverinof the entire
structure with closely packed sods. The roof is made in the same
manner, having an additional support of an inner circle of posts, with
crotches to hold the cross logs which act as beams to the dome-shaped
roof. A circular opening in the center serves as a chimney and also
to give light to the interior of the dwelling; a sort of sail is rigged
and fastened outside of this opening to guide the smoke and prevent it
from annoying the inmates of the lodge. The entrance passage way
usually faces the east, is from six to ten feet long, and is built in the
same manner as the lodge. A skin or blanket is hung at the outer
COMANCHE WIGWAM.
opening, and another at the inner entrance, thus affording a double
protection against wind and cold. The fire is kindled in a hollowed
place in the center of the floor, and around the walls are arranged
platforms made of reeds, on which robes are spread for use as seats by
day and as beds by night."
Such also, as before described, were the style of habitations
among the Kansas, Mandans, Hidatsa, Osages and many other cognate
tribes of the great American plains.
The Caddoes, lonies, Ah-mau-dah-kas, Wacos and To-wac-o-nies,
who dwelt in the country of the Brazos, had houses built of a frame-
work of poles, in a conical shape, thatched with long prairie grass,
with low doors; the fires built in the center of the lodge; the lodge
circular, about twenty-five feet in diameter and twenty high.
In La Clercq's "Establishment of the Faith," Vol.
2, p. 170, is
the following description of the habitations of a tribe called the Taensa^
in what is now the state of Tennessee: "The walls of their houses are
made of earth, mixed with straw, the roof is of canes which forms a
dome that is adorned with paintings."
Major Backus, of the United States army, says of the Navajoe
lodge that it is an exceedingly rude structure, and is usually built of
pinon or cedar sticks, which are covered on the exterior with flat stones
and earth. It is in the form of a cone, seldom exceeding five feet in
height, and has a triangular opening in front. The fire is made in
front of the lodge. The Navajoes are nomadic in their habits, often
changing their residences, frequently sheltering themselves in caves or
fissures of the rocks. They have no permanent residences.
The Nootka Indians, a branch of the Shoshonee stock, built quite
substantial habitations of planks and hewn timber, thus described by
John R. Jewett, who was four years a captive among them: "They
erect in the ground two very large posts, at such a distance apart as is
intended for the length of the house. On these, which are of equal
height, aad hollowed out at the upper end, they lay a large spar for
the ridge pole of the building, or if the length of the house requires it,
two or more, supporting their ends by similar upright posts; these
spars are sometimes of an almost incredible size, having myself meas-
ured one in Maquina's house, which I found to be one hundred feet
long, and eight feet four inches in circumference. At equal distances
from these two posts, two others are placed on each side, to form the
width of the building ; these are rather shorter than the first, and on
them are laid in like manner spars, but of a smaller size, having the
upper part hewed flat, with a narrow ridge on the outer side to support
the ends of the planks. The roof is formed of pine planks, with a
broad feather edge, so as to lap well over each other, which are laid
lengthwise from the ridge pole in the center to the beams at the sides,
after which the top is covered with planks eight feet broad, which form
a kind of covering, projecting so far over the ends of the planks that
form the roof as completely to exclude the rain. On these they lay
large stones to prevent their being displaced by the wind.""
The mats heretofore spoken of, used for lodge covering, were
made from rushes in a manner somewhat like that by which the
Chinese make similar fabrics, not unlike the mode in which the house-
wives in early times made rag carpet,' the rushes serving as the warp
of the fabric. They were about four feet wide, and of various lengths,
as the occasion for which they were used demanded, and when carried
from place to place were rolled up like a scroll.
It has been suggested that the Indian, in constructing his lodge
or wigwam of cone shape, or as Mr. Schoolcraft has expressed it, in the
shape of an inverted bird's nest, has borrowed his idea from the habi-
tation of the beaver, which is, in form, like the cone shaped wigwam
of the Ojibways and many other tribes inhabiting the beaver countries.
Many travelers have noted the fact that there were some tribes of
Indians, even in their native condition, who built quite substantial
habitations. This class of habitations was somewhat common among
the Dakotas, also the Chickasaws, and more southern tribes towards
the Gulf of Mexico. Capt. Carver notes the fact that when he visited
the tribe of Sauks, or 0-saii-kies, on the Wisconsin river near the
portage of the Fox river, they had, at that place, a village containing
ninety houses, each large enough for several families. They were
built of hewn planks, neatly jointed and covered with bark, so as to
keep out the most penetrating rains, and before the doors were placed
comfortable shades. The streets were regular and spacious, so that it
appeared more like a civilized town than the abode of savages.
SUCCESSOR TO THE INDIAN HABITATION.
CHAPTER XX.
THE INDIAN CANOE.
The Word CanoeFrom whence DerivedAmong what People First Seen by
EuropeansHow MadeBecame a Universal Word among the WhitesIndis-
pensable to the IndianUsed by War PartiesDiflFerent Styles of Canoes
Among
Different Tribes and NationsCanoe of the Mandans and Western
Tribes
Canoes of the Carribbees-Bark CanoesCanoes of Light Material for
Convenience
of PortageMode of Constructing CanoesVarious Sizes-
Selecting Trees for a CanoeTime of Stripping Bark for CanoeQuotation
from
Longfellow.
CANOE PORTAGE.
w^rw/HE word canoe is one
coming from the lan-
guage of the Carrib-
^"^
bees, a native people
found by Columbus inhabit-
ing the eastern portion of the
West Indies. They called
themselves, in their own lan-
guage, Carinago, Calliponan^
Calmago, and, abbreviated,
Calina, signifying, it is said, a brave and valiant man. The original
word for canoe in the language of this people was Canaoa.
It is here, among this people, that this kind of boat was first seen
by Europeans. It was formed from the trunk of a tree, dug out or ex-
cavated by cutting or burning into a suitable shape. The natives not
being possessed of iron or metallic tools, and having the use of only
such as could be shaped out of hard stone, made but slow progress in
the process of cutting into wood, hence, in work of this kind, they were
aided by the application of fire, through which means, by care in con-
nection with their rude implements, they were enabled to shape boats
of this kind, so as to make them quite perfect, although the process
was very slow and tedious.
This kind of boat being something entirely new to Europeans, and
unlike anything of their own, in its structure, attracted attention, and
(305)
20
I
306
THE
AMERICAN INDIAN.
THE INDIAN CANOE.
307
became a marked object in their subsequent descriptions of the
manners and customs of this people; hence, among all people of the
various languages, subsequently visiting the American continent, the
word canoe became the general term for a boat of this kind. Whilst
the popular idea has been that it was an Indian word, in the language
of the tribes of the American continent, the fact is, that it comes, from
the language or dialect of a tribe of minor importance, inhabiting the
islands of the sea, and having no connection or communication, so far
as known, with the natives of the continent or main-land.
The word for canoe in the language of the great Algonquin
group is Chcc-maun; in that of the Iroquois, Ga-o-ica; in the Dakota,
Wa-fa. In the Nootka dialect the word for canoe is Ch(ip-aiz.
^^
Mr. Ellis, in his work entitled the
"
Red Man and the White
Man," very justly remarks that, *'what the horse is to the Arab, the
dog to the Esquimaux, and the camel to the traveler across the desert,
the canoe was to the Indian : that it served the purpose for transporta-
tion of himself from place to place, across and along the rivers and
streams, over the small lakes or still bodies of inland waters, and
across the bay and arms of the sea, and other great waters of the con-
tinent; and that it served for the Indian's transport with his furs and
commodities, which were rendered articles of commerce aft^r the com-
ing of the white man, the projx)rtion wbich the waterways bore to land
travel for the routes which the Indian traversed being estimated
at least at nine parts out of ten. The lake shore was skirted, the
swamp was cunningly threaded, the river channel was boldly
followed, the rapids wore shot and leaped, and the mazy streams of
shallows and sand-bars were patiently traced in all their sinuosities by
the frail skifF."
Canoes were also used by war parties, in fleets of large numbers,
in proceeding to attack an enemy, and sometimes battles were fought
by opposing forces in their canoes on some broad expanse of water. A
noted instance of this kiiid is related where a party of Ojibways, to
avenge an injury committed upon them, pursued a party of Fox Indians
on Lake Superior, whom they overtook some distance east of La Pointe,
and near the mouth of Montreal river, and, in their large Cimoes, which
sat firmly on the water, attacked with great fiu-y, and nearly destroyed
the whole party of Foxes, some 400 in number, who, being in small
canoes, were upset, and most of them drowned or dispatched in the
water.
As the cities of the white man are, for the convenience of trans-
portation and commerce, situated u|X)n navigable waters, or arms and
bays of great seas, so the Indian selected for his habitation, or
I
t1
^08 THE AMERICAN INDIAB.
collection of habitations, called villages, some eligible spot upon a
stream, lake or arm of some great body of water, for convenience in
traversing the country by water, for various purposes suited to his
mode of life.
The different tribes and nations had different styles in which
canoes were made, and there was a diversity in the material,
marked
by the locality or other circumstances. One kind of canoe was con-
structed of wood from the section of a large tree in the manner here-
tofore
described among the Carribbees; another was constructed
of
bark,
generally of the birch tree; when this was not to be had, the
bark
of the red elm was used, especially among the Iroquois
nation.
THE IKOQCOL3 BARK CANOE.
The Mandans, living on the upper Missouri river, and some tribes
in the vicinity, made canoes of the skins of buffaloes, which were
made almost round like a tub, by straining a buffalo skin over a form
of wicker work made of willow or other boughs. These were moved
by means of a paddle in the hands of a person standing at the bow,
the person reaching the paddle forward and drawing it towards him,
by which means he pulled the canoe along with considerable speed.
Mr. Catlin sa}^ that these very curious and rudely constructed
canoes were made in the form of the Welch coracle, which he under-
stands were propelled in the same manner as the Mandan canoe, and
which he regards as a very curious circumstance, inasmuch as the
Mandans are found in the heart of the great wilderness, of America.
M'hile all the other surrounding tribes construct their canoes in
decidedly different forms and of different materials. There were also
different styles of canoes that were made of the same material; among
many tribes the general style of the canoe, whether made of wood or
bark, was, however, essentially the same.
As the ships or great water crafts for navigating the seas would
vary in form or style among the different nations constructing them,
so, among the different tribes and nations of Indians, the style of their
canoes would be marked by a method of construction or ornament
])eculiar to each tribe or nation, which, in some respects, would note
their ingenuity or degree of intelligence.
The canoe of the Carribbees was simple and rude in its form and
construction, being what would be called in common speech a mere
THE INDIAN CANOE. 309
dug-out, as straight in form as the log of which it was constructed,
being, however, brought to a point at the bow and stern; but the
tribes of the continent were very generally able to make the canoe
more ornamental in style of construction, the bow and stern not only
being brought to a sharp point, as a means to serve in guiding through
the waters, whereby it would be propelled more easily, but also pro-
jecting upward, somewhat in the form of a scroll, and artistically
carved so as to present a very fine appearance. In this regard the
natives of the Pacific coast, in Oregon and Washington territories, were
particularly
ingenious, and showed remarkable skill and intelligence
in constructing
their canoes of wooden logs, making them sometimes
of enormous size, so that they would stand very heavy seas on the
ocean, upon which they sometimes ventured at considerable distance
from the land.
Bark canoes were seldom found among the natives south of thirty-
five degrees north latitude, which was from the fact, as is understood,
that there was no suitable kind of bark found in that region from
which to construct canoes; but among the tribes further north canoes
were made of wood as well as bark, but to a more limited extent, from
the fact that to make them of wood required more labor, and they
could not be made so light as if constructed of bark.
In countries where tribes traveled over long distances in their
canoes, which necessarily required that portages should be made on
the route of long journeys, it was important that the canoes should
be made of as light weight as possible, and among such tribes the
bark canoe was quite universally in use. The Winnebagoes used
chiefly canoes made of wood, which they finished with great skill.
The Sioux or Dakotas made canoes of both wood and bark; but made
few in proportion of the latter material, and even these, it is said,
were poor and ill-constructed. They were more skillful in making
canoes of wood.
It is remarked by travelers in early days that no bark canoes were
found among the tribes in the country of the northwest coast.
It seems that some of the American tribes, although in the midst
of streams, did not possess the ingenuity of making canoes of the
ordinary style, but used instead a kind of raft. Mr. Wyeth, a trader
forty years ago in the country of the Shoshonees, says that the
navigation of that region appears to have been confined to the cross-
ing of streams when the water was too cold for comfortable swimming,
and that the only convenience used for that purpose was something
that was little more than a good raft, made of reeds, which were found
in many of the streams. These rafts were about eight feet long, and
310
were formed by placing small bundles of reeds, with the butt ends lashed
together, with their small ends outwards. Several of these bundles
were lashed together opposite each other, and in such a manner as to
form a cavity on the upper side of the raft. There was no attempt to
make them water-tight, the dependence for floating being on the buoy-
ancy of the materials used. The raft was propelled Avith a stick, and
almost entirely by pushing. This rude form of navigation was,
apparently, the only one ever used in that part of the country, in
which, in fact, there was hardly enough timber to encourage the more
impi'oved form of boat.
The tribes of the Algonquin group, and those of the Iroquois
stock, north of the latitude before mentioned, as a general thing con-
structed their canoes of bark. Canoes of this material were seldom
found among tribes of other nations save the Dakotas. The great
Ojibway nation, who were of the Algonquin stock, used bark canoes.
It is said they were the most skillful canoe builders in this country,
and probably the most skillful in this regard of any people in the
world.
The frame of the work was made of pine or some other light
wood, which was sheathed over with birch bark, or, where it could not
be had, that of the red elm tree. The edges of the sheathing were
lapped and then sewed together with thin filaments of elm bark, or
with the delicate strong roots of the tamarack, called in the Algonquin
language Watap. Then the seams were covered over thoroughly
with the gum from the fir tree, or other like substance, and thereby
made perfectly tight, so that it would ride upon the water as light as a
cork. As the bottom was perfectly round, having no keel, it required
great skill in riding it, to keep it balanced so as not to upset; but the
experienced Indian found no inconvenience whatever in this regard.
Under his consummate skill, his canoe would glide over the water with
such unerring balance that scarcely any deviation whatever could be
perceived from its natural position in the water when not under
motion.
These canoes were of various sizes, the most common being about
twelve feet in length. Those of this length were intended for carrying
two persons. The largest were from thirty-six to forty feet in length.
The carrying capacity of a canoe of twenty-five feet long, it is said,
was estimated at about two tons, but the Indians of the Pacific coast,
before referred to, made much larger canoes with much greater carry-
ing capacity, extending frequently to one hundred feet in length, and
having a width in proper proportion.
In selecting trees from which to obtain bark for a canoe, the
THE INDIAN CANOE. 311
object is to obtain such trees as will afford strips of bark as long as
the canoe is designed to be, so that the bottom of the boat will be, if
possible, all of one piece, thus affording greater strength. The sides
of canoe may be of several pieces, properly joined as before described.
Baron La Hontan, in describing the mode of construction of birch
bark canoes, says they are trimmed and strengthened with wicker
wreaths, and ribs of cedar wood, which are almost as light as a cork.
On the two sides of the boat there run, from one end to the other, two
principal head-bars, in which the ends of the ribs are encased, and in
which the spars that run across the boat and keep it compact are made
fast.
The time for obtaining bark from the birch-tree, in the order of
nature, is during or about the month of August, when the sap is
passing from the branches downwards, so that the bark is sufficiently
loosened to be stripped from the tree without difficulty. Whenever the
sap is wanting, at other seasons, during w^hich it adheres tightly to
the tree, it was loosened by the Indians by the means of hot water
applied to the tree, so it could be easily taken off. This mechanical
process, however, was not adequate to admit of taking off the bark in
very large pieces.
The mode of proceeding in manufacturing the birch bark canoe
is thus graphically described by the poet Longfellow, in his "Song of
Hiawatha:"
"
Give me of your bark, O Birch-Tree!
Of vour vellow bark, O Birch-Tree!
* * * *
I a light canoe will build me,
Build a swift Cheemaun for sailing,
That shall float upon the river."
* * -J*- *
Thus aloud cried Hiawatha.
^t * * *
With his knife the tree he girdled;
Just beneath its lowest branches,
Just above the roots, he cut it,
Till the sap came oozing outwards;
Down the trunk, from top to bottom,
Sheer he cleft the bark asunder,
With a wooden wedge he raised it,
Stripped it from the trunk unbroken.
"
Give me of your boughs, O Cedar!
Of your strong and pliant branches,
My canoe to make more steady.
Make more strong and firm beneath me!"
* it * *
Down he hewed the boughs of cedar,
Shaped them straightway to a frame-work,
312
Like two bows be formed and sbaped tbem,
Like two bended bows together.
Give me of your roots, O Tamarack

!
Of your fibrous roots, O Larch-Tree!
My canoe to bind together,
So to bind the ends together
That the water may not enter.
That the river may not wet me
!
"
* * * *
From the earth he tore the fibers,
Tore the tough roots of the Larch-Tree,
Closely sewed the bark together.
Bound it closely to the frame-work.
''Give me of your balm, O Fir-Tree!
Of your balsam and your resin,
So to close the seams together
That the water may not enter,
That the river may not wet me!
"
* * * *
And he took the tears of Balsam,
Took the resin of the Fir-Tree,
Smeared therewith each seam and fissure,
Made each crevice safe from water.
* * * *
Thus the birch canoe was builded.
f'
CHAPTER XXI.
WEAPONS AND UTENSILS.
ê^
Weapons of the Primitive IndianThe Bow and ArrowWar ClubSpearHatchet
Flint Arrow HeadsStone HatchetsUtensils for Various PurposesFlint
KnivesGraining ToolsAwlsFish SpearsNetsImplements for Producing
FireUtensils for CookingClay Pots.
T the time when the American
iy
Indians were first encountered
[^y^
by Europeans they had among
^^^
them no weapons or utensils
made of iron or any other kind of
metal, although it is incidentally noted
in New England history that while a
party of Pilgrims, who came oyer in the
Mayflower, were out exploring the
country soon after landing, on going
back into the country a short distance,
a yolley of arrows was shot at them by
the natiyes, without damage, howeyer.
These arrows they took pains to gather up and examine, and found
among them one that was pointed with brass, the others being with
flint, and the tips of deer's horns ; but this brass pointed arrow head,
as noted, must haye come from European sources in some way, and
not from any manufacture of the Indians.
The evidence of history is that their weapons and utensils were
originally made of wood, shells and stone, or the bones of animals.
Along the Atlantic coast, and far back into the interior, the hoe with
which the Indian women cultivated the field, it is said, was a clam shell
or something of that kind. Their common ax was of stone, having a
withe fastened in the form of a noose or loop around the head part for
a handle. Their mortars, in which they pounded or pulverized their
corn, pestles for pounding, and chisels for various purposes, were also
of stone or wood. They also had implements of stone which served for
knives for various purposes, which, it is said, were sharpened to so
(313)
keen an edge that they could easily cut their hair with them. They
also had pots and vessels of numerous styles made of clay, some of
which were made in that manner and of such kind of clay as to with-
stand the heat of fire for cooking.
In catching fish they made nets from the fibre of the bark of trees,
or from a kind of weed in the nature of hemp. They also caught fish
by means of a hook made of bones, fastened to a line in the same
manner as practiced among our own people. When fish were found in
shallow water, they were taken by shooting with a bow and sharp
pointed arrow, in the use of which the Indians were very skillful.
They also made a kind of spear pointed with deer's horn or sharp stone,
with which they also took fish from the water.
Their weapons of wâr were the bow and arrow, spear, war club,
and stone ax. The arrow was headed with a sharp stone or flint,
sometimes with the horn of the deer or the claw of the eagle. They
also had a kind of spear which they used as a weapon of war, and
which was nothing more than a small pole sharpened at the end and
hardened by me^ns of fire, or by thrusting into hot ashes. As for the
tomahawk, that common implement in both war and peace, with the
Indian in later times, it was not the implement of such general use
oriofinallv, when made of stone. The tomahawk of metal came into
common use among the Indians in consequence of its being furnished
them by the whites. After the introduction of the metallic hatchet or
tomahawk, it superseded the use of many other implements; as did
also the metallic scalping-knife, furnished them by the white man in
later times.
Metallic scalping-knives and tomahawks of civilized manufacture
for Indian use, were carried into the Indian country by thousands and
ten thousands, and sold at enormous prices. In his rude, untutored
condition, the Indian was a stranger to weapons of this kind, and, as
Mr. Catlin remarks, "he works not in the metals, and his untutored
mind has not been ingenious enough to design or execute anything so
savage or destructive as these civilized refinements on the Indian bar-
hariiy. In his native simplicity he shapes his rude hatchets from a
piece of stone, heads his arrows and spears w4th flint, and his knife is
a sharpened bone or the edge of a broken silex."
The war club of modern times, with a blade of steel eight or ten
inches in length, and set in a club studded around and ornamented pro-
fusely with brass nails, since the coming of the white man, is also
another civilized refinement among later Indian weapons. The primi-
tive war club of the Indian, curiously wrought of Avood, and fashioned
with considerable ingenuity of form and grace with a spike of bone or
WEAPONS AND UTENSILS. 315
point of deer's horn, which was imbedded in the ball or bulb at the
head, was admirably fitted to the hand, and calculated to deal a deadly
blow. The head of the war club is about three and one-half inches in
diameter, with an edge of flint or some other hard substance that may
be sharpened on one side.
Before the Indians acquired metallic hatchets they had great diffi-
culty in cutting down trees and splitting up the wood for use. The
mode of felling them was by burning at the roots, when they would cut
off the branches and split up the tree with their stone hatchets to the
best advantage these implements would admit of. Their hatchets were
usually made of such hard substances as to withstand the stroke for
this purpose ; but to sharpen the edges of them it took a great deal of
time and patience.
Another mode which the Indian had of putting a handle upon his
stone hatchet was by splitting a thrifty growing branch of a young tree
sufficiently to admit of crowding the ax into the same, so as to have
each side of the branch fit into the groove around the head of the ax.
Here it would be left until the branch had grown completely around
the stone, sufficiently firm to form a handle, when the branch was cut
off of even length. This made a very substantial implement for the
purposes for which the ax was designed.
One of the Pilgrim writers, in giving an account of the exploration
of a party of that people after landing from the Mayflower, gives the
following information as to utensils of the Indians, found at that time
on visiting some of the wigwams, whose occupants, it seems, were
temporarily absent:
"
In the houses we found wooden bowls, trays and dishes, earthen
pots, hand-baskets made of crab-shells wrought together, also an En-
glish pail or bucket ; it wanted a bail, but it had two iron ears. There
were also buckets of sundry sorts, bigger and some lesser, finer and
some coarser ; some were curiously wrought with black and white, in
pretty works, and sundry other of their household stuff. We found,
also, two or three deer's heads, one whereof had been newly killed, for
it was fresh. There was also a company of deer's feet, stuck up in the
horns, hart's horns and eagle's claws, and sundry such like things
there were ; also two or three baskets full of parched acorns, pieces of
fish, and a piece of broiled herring. We found, also, a little silk grass,
and little tobacco seed, with some other seeds, which we knew not.
Without were sundry bundles of flags, sudledge, bulrushes and other
stuffs to make mats. Some of the best things we took away with us,
and left the houses standing still as they were."
(The Indians no doubt considered themselves fortunate upon fur-
316
ther acquaintance with the white man, that their houses on the occasion
referred to were left standing, and that they escaped by having only
some of their best things taken away).
To accompany the bow and arrow, the Indian had what is called a
quiver, in which he carried his arrows. It was variously constructed
and ornamented, generally made of the skins of animals, or some kind
of bark suitable to the purpose. It was suspended from the shoulders
by a strap around the breast. The Indian's efficiency in war and
hunting depended largely on the number of arrows he was able to
procure. As a general thing each Indian possessed the ingenuity to
manufacture his own arrows as well as most other weapons and
utensils ; but there would be among all tribes, as a rule, one or more
persons skilled in the art of arrow-making, which was pursued as
a calling. A character made so prominent in Longfellow's celebrated
*'Song of Hiawatha," wherein the arrow-maker is thus referred to:
"There the ancient arrow-maker.
Made his arrow heads of sand stone,
Arrow heads of Chalcedony,
Arrow heads of flint and jasper
Smoothed and sharpened at the edges,
Hard and poHshed, keen and costly."
It seems that the shield, that means of protection in battle so im-
portant among the ancient warriors of the Old World, was found
among the native tribes of America at an early day, but mostly among
those of the great American plains on the west of the Mississippi ; but
it is not well settled whether this implement was known to them before
the discovery, or whether it was introduced among them by the
Spaniards upon their invasion of New Mexico. The better opinion,
however, would seem to be, that the Indian adopted the use of this im-
plement after he acquired the use of horses, in which he imitated the
Spanish warrior by use of a shield. The Indian shield was generally
composed of the thickest pieces of buffalo skins, painted and decorated
in the highest style of their art. They appended to it ornaments of
eagle's feathers and the like.
Early travelers state that some of the tribes in the country of the
northwest coast, wore for their dress a jacket of mail, which covered
them in front, and afforded protection against arrows, to the most
vital portion of their bodies, and was composed of thin battens of
very tough wood, woven together by a small cord, with armholes and
strings at the bottom corners to fasten it around the waist.
But among the catalogue of Indian utensils or implements, that of
his pipe was the most important and indispensable. This was
constantly at hand, and from it he drew consolation equally in hunger,
WEAPONS AND
UTENSILS.
317
':fr0,\
m
,Ai
A'"''}
W
l<U.'liin,i,.i|.'. .i||,f,i||M|)|,/|,|,|||
STONE IMPLEMENTS.
318
want or misfortune. To this he appealed as a medium of communion
with the Great Spirit, the smoke of which, as it ascended upwards, he
ima""ined was acceptable to Him as an offering of his gratitude and
fidelity.
A traveler, speaking of household utensils in the primitive life of
the Indian, says:
"
The furniture in these native hats is exceedingly simple. The
chief articles are two or three pots or kettles for boiling their food,
with a few wooden plates and spoons. The former, in the absence of
metal, with which the inhabitants were unacquainted, were made of
coarse earthenware that resisted the fire ; and sometimes of a species
of soft stone, which could be excavated with their rude hatchets. Nay,
in some cases, their kitchen utensils were of wood, and water made to
boil by throwing in heated stones. Since their acquaintance with the
Europeans, the superiority of iron vessels has been found so decided
that they are now universally preferred. The great kettle or caldron,
employed only on high festivals associated with religion, hunting or
war, attracts even a kind of veneration, and potent chiefs have assumed
its name as their title of honor."
Mr. Wyeth, speaking of the Shoshonee Indians, says that the
utensils originally in use among this people were wholly of stone,
clay, bone or wood. Their implements were the pots, bow and arrow,
knives, graining tools, awls, root-diggers (implements for digging roots
used for food), spears, nets, a kind of boat or raft, the pipe, mats for
shelter, and implements to produce fire.
The pot, in most common use, was formed of some kind of long,
tough root, wound in plies around the center, shortening the circum-
ference of the outer plies so as to form a vessel in the inverted shape
of a bee-hive, properly securing the same, so as to make the vessel
water-tight. This vessel, among other things, is used for boiling
food, which is done by heating stones, and immersing them in the
water contained in it, until the required heat is attained for cooking.
The bows of this people were made of the horns of the mountain
sheep and elk, and of wood. When made of horn, they were about
two feet ten inches long. They were of two parts, spliced in the
center by sturgeon glue and deer sinews wound around a splice. The
horn is brought into shape by heating and wetting, and is worked
smooth by scraping with sharp stones, and being drawn between two
rough stones, thus making an efficient and beautiful bow.
Their knives were rude instruments produced by breaking pieces
of obsidian, which had a tendency to form sharp edges, like glass, and
was common in that country.
WEAPONS AND UTENSILS. 319
Graining tools for preparing skins were originally made of bone;
sometimes obsidian, secured to a staff, was used for this purpose. Awls
were made of bone and large horns rubbed to a sharp point.
E-oot-diggers were crooked sticks, the end used in the earth being
curved and sharpened by putting it in the fire and rubbing against a
rough stone. They were also made of elk and deer horn, attached to
a stick. They were used to obtain small roots which the country pro-
duced, such as kamas, souk, yampas, onions, tobacco root, etc.
The word tomahaick is from the Algonquin language, pronounced
differently in the dialect of the various eastern tribes. The significa-
tion of the word by some authorities is said to be to strike.
Says La Hontan: "Before the Europeans arrived in North
America, the savage of the north and south made use of pots of earth.
Instead of hatchets and knives, they made use of sharp stones, which
they tie with thongs of leather, in the end of a cleft stick. Instead
of awls they make use of a certain sharp bone, which is above the
heel of the elk. They have no fire-arms, but only make use of bows
and arrows.
"
When they would make platters or wooden spoons, or porringers,,
they drill their wood with their stone hatchets, and hollow it with fire,
and do after scrape it, and polish it with a beaver's tooth.
"
To plant their Indian corn they make use of pick axes of wood,
for want of those of iron. They have large gourds in which they put
the fat of bears, wild cats, etc. There is none but has his leather bag
for his pipe and tobacco. The women make bags of the rind of linden
trees, or of rushes, to put their corn in. They make thread of nettles,
and of the bark of the linden tree, and of certain roots, whose names
I know not. To sew their savage shoes, they make use of very small
thongs. They make likewise mats of bulrushes to lie upon, and,
when they have none, they make use of the barks of trees. They
make use of the branches of trees to hang their earthen pots upon to
boil their victuals."
Implements used for procuring fire have been already mentioned
in Chap. XIII of this work, concerning *' Manners and Customs."
CHAPTEK XXII.
NAMES OF PERSONS.
Application of Names to Designate PersonsImitation of Jewish CustomNames
have SignificationMale and Female NamesNo SurnamesDuplicate Names
From whence Names of Persons are DerivedBaby NamesNaming Children
"There is Something in a Name"Custom of the DakotasCustom in

Changing NameNicknamesObjection to Speaking their Own NameHusband
and Wife do not Mention Each Other's NamesExamples of Indian Names.
1
HE custom of the
application of
names to designate
^^
individuals among
tlie race of mankind is,
apparently, as old as lan-
guage itself, and the sys-
tem appears to have existed
amongst all nations and
people ; observing the cus-
tom in general, in naming
individuals, to give such
as were descriptive of the
person, or as referred to
some circumstance with
which the individual was
in some way connected,
and the like. This was
especially so with the
ancient Jews.
The North American
Indians had no other rule
or idea than this in giving
names to persons. They
have faithfully imitated the Jewish custom in this regard. Through-
out all Christendom, at least, the custom of the Jews has been
followed, by simply adopting, to a great extent, the names in use by
(320)
MIN-NOGEE-SHIK" CLEAR SKY."
Name of an Ojibway chief and favorite name for persons
among Indian tribes.
NAMES OF PERSONS. 321
that people; as, for instance, the word Aaron, which is a Hebrew
name, signifying "lofty," "inspired." The only difference between
Christian people and the Hebrews is, that we have adopted this and
other like names arbitrarily or without reference to their original
signification.
Mr. Heckewelder, the Moravian missionary, referring to . this
subject, says: Indians who have particularly distinguished themselves
by their conduct or by some meritorious act, or who have been the
subject of some remarkable occurrence, have names given to them in
allusion to those circumstances. Thus, he says, he knew a great war-
rior who had been impatiently waiting for daylight to engage the
enemy, who was afterwards called Cause daylight, or Make daylight
appear. So, one who had come in with a heavy load of turkeys on his
back, was called The carrier
of
turkeys, and another, whose shoes or
moccasins were generally torn or patched, was called Bad shoes; all of
which names were generally expressed in a single word, in compound
form, or in the manner of our own compound words.
The custom in regard to names of persons, both male and female,
seems to have been the same throughout all the native tribes of the
continent, with all the attendant superstitions, which were faithfully
imitated and reproduced in like manner among them, down to the
minutest circumstances.
The custom of surnames, existing among our own race, was some-
thing unknown among the Indians. Indeed, there seems to have been
no occasion or demand for a custom of this kind among them. The
requirement or convenience which suggested among us the application
of surnames to distinguish one person from another, as of one John
from another John, by surnaming these persons Jones or Smith, was
entirely obviated in the principle upon which Indian names of persons
were applied; that is, by the application of a name which would be
descriptive of the person, or which would, in some way, indicate the
person. In this custom the repetition or duplication of names, or the
same name among several persons, by which confusion would arise,
would rarely, if ever, occur.
Among our own race, history informs us that each person originally
had but one name. The custom of distinguishing persons by surnames,
it is said, first originated in Greece and Egypt, not so much from
design as from circumstances ; as in the case of Aristides, who was
called the Just, which latter word became his surname. So Phocion
was called the Good; Plato, the Athenian Bee. Surnames were intro-
duced into England by the Normans, and were adopted by the nobility
A. D. 1100. The old Normans used Fitz, signifying son, as Fitzherhert.
21
The Irish used O' for grandson, as G'Neil. The Scottish Highlanders
used Mac, as 3Iacdoncild, son of Donald. The Saxons added the
word son to the father's name, as Williamson.
Plato recommended that parents give happy names to their
children; and the Pythagoreans taught that the minds, actions, and
successes of men were according to their names, genius and fate.
The Indians, however, according to a custom among them, fre-
quently acquired duplicate names, and like a custom among our own
people, were sometimes known as well by one name as another; as in
the case of Zachary Taylor, the hero of the Mexican war, was given the
appellation of "Rough and Ready;" so Gen. Jackson, was called "Old
Hickory
;"
which were peculiar names by which these distinguished
persons were known as well as by their true names ; and so in the case
of the great Seneca chief, Sa-gi-you-icat-ha, or "Keeper Awake," was
known also by the name of Bed Jacket.
In general, Indian names for persons are derived from the terms
for sky, cloud, sun, moon, stars, mist, wind, sound, thunder, lightning,
lakes, rivers, trees, animals, birds, and the like. The Indians did not
in their names of persons, strictly speaking, classify them as masculine
and feminine, dividing them into classes for male and female.
Amongst the Ojibways, however, in their names, the gender, or names
for females, were marked by the terminal syllable qua, as in the name
Au-zhe-hik-o-qua, "Woman of the rock." Names for women were fre-
quently otherwise marked, by being taken from different sources from
that of males ; as from the skies, the forest, the stream, or the field of
flowers, and the like.
The Indians also had amongst them a similar custom to our own,
in regard to a class of names, which we call baby names, or names of
childhood, such as Little Bird, Bad Boy, and other like names. They
also had for their children their regular original, or what we call bap-
tismal names, which were frequently given, as with us, in ceremonial
style, concerning which Peter Jones says, that when a child is to be
named, the parents make a feast and invite all the old people to come
and eat at their wigwam ; a portion of the meat is offered as a burnt
sacrifice; and, during the time this is burning, the giver of the name
makes a prayer to the God to whom he is about to dedicate the child,
and towards the close proclaiming what the name is to be.
In some cases they had their children named when a few days old,
in others not till they had attained the age of two or three years.
Almost every young person received a nickname, either characteristic
or arising from some peculiarity, which they often retained after
arriving at maturity; but, in such cases, these names were considered
NAMES OF PEESONS. 323
only in the light in which they were given, and not treated seriously
or as permanent.
According to Capt. Clark, among the Shien or Cheyenne Indians,
when a child is first born, whether a boy or a girl, it is called baby
(a girl baby or a boy baby), afterwards by any childish name, until, if
a boy, he goes to war. Then he will be named from something that
has happened on the journey, from some incident, some animal killed,
or some bird that is supposed to have helped him to success. Capt.
Clark says that an old Cheyenne Indian gave him the following inci-
dent in his life concerning his own name. He said
:
"When I was small I was called Little Bird. When I first went
to war and returned to camp, the name of Long Horn was given me
by an old man of the camp. Then the traders gave me the name of
Tall-White-Man; and now, since I have become old, they (the Indi-
ans) call me Black Pipe. This name was given me from a pipe I
used to carrv when I went to war. I used to blacken the stem and
bowl just the same as I did my face after these trips, and was espe-
cially careful to do so when I had been successful."
The Indians, like our white people, believe that frequently there
is something in a name, and under this notion they sometimes take
the name of some successful, distinguished Indian warrior, who has
passed away from his own band or totem, believing that there is some
special luck or medicine in this name.
Among some of the Dakota tribes, the custom of naming their
children in the order in which they were born prevailed; thus the
first born son would be called Chaske, the second Haijoam, the third
Hape^da, the fourth Chatum. and the fifth Harka. The first born
daughter would be called Winona, the second Harpen, the third Harp-
stina, the fourth Waska, the fifth Weharka.
The Sauks or Osaukies, a tribe of the Algonquin stock, had a
custom of naming their children in the order of their birth, marked
by the different colors with which the child was at first painted. The
first in order, being painted white, would be called Waupello, meaning
"he that is painted white." There was a celebrated chief of that
tribe by this name, who flourished in the forepart of the present cen-
tury. The second wôuld be painted yellow, and his name would be
Osauwa or Osauwakee, meaning "he that is painted yellow."
The Indians had a custom of a regular change of name, which
was made, at times, with ceremony appropriate to the occasion. In
such cases, the name adopted became permanent, and was not consid-
ered a duplicate of the former name, but as a substitute for that and
all other names by which the party had before that time been known.
This custom finds its counterpart in the nations of the Old World, from
the earliest time. For instance, Marcus Aurelius Antonius, Roman
Emperor, A. D. 121, was first called Marcus and Annius Yerus, the
two latter names being those of his father. Being afterwards adopted
into the Aijrelian family by Antonius Pius, he took the name of Mar-
cus Aurelius. On his accession to the throne, he took the name of
Anionhis.
The popes changed their names at their exaltation to the Pontifi-
cate, and history informs us that this was
"
a custom introduced by
Pope Surgeus, whose name, till then, wâs Swine-Snout, A. D. 687."
The custom was drawn originally, it is said, from the precedent fur-
nished in the New Testament in the cases of Peter, who was formerly
called Simon, and Paul, whose original name was Saul.
In France it was usual to change the name given at baptism, as
was done in the case of two sons of Henry XL, who were christened
Alexander and Hercules, but whose names at their confirmation were
changed respectively to Henry and Francis. And it was usual for
those of the Romish church, at their entrance into monasteries, to
assume new names, to show that they were about to lead a new life,
and that they had renounced the world, their family and themselves.
According to a very general custom among the Indians, after
performing any special exploits, an Indian had a right to change his
name if he so desired, and the new name he assumed might be
changed several times during his lifetime. The first occasion of
change was generally a great event with an Indian brave. It was not
necessary that the new name should be commemorative of the exploit
occasioning the event of change, although this was, in general, sug-
gestive of such new name.
According to custom among many of the western tribes, when the
new name to be given a person was decided upon, in order to give it
prominence by a kind of official sanction, a crier was employed, for
some pecuniary consideration, to proclaim throughout the land that
the person in question, giving his former name, had taken upon him-
self a new name, by which he should henceforth be known; at the
same time announcing the new name. This corresponds to a like
manner of changing names among the people of our more civilized
governments, which is done by petition and sanction of the law making
power, or by decrees in courts of justice under some general enact-
ment.
Mr. Adair, who contends for affinity of the Indians with the Jews,
remarks that when the Israelites gave names to their children or
others, they chose such appellatives as best suited their circumstances
NAMES OF PERSONS. 325
and the time, and this custom was as early as the patriarchal age, for
we find Abram was changed into Abraham, the former meaning,
"Father of elevation," and the latter, "Father of a multitude."
Jacob was changed into Israel; the former meaning "a supplanter,"
and the latter,
"
a soldier of God." Such changes were made, it is
understood, to correspond with changing circumstances and events in
after life. Says Mr. Adair: "This custom is a standing rule with the
Indians, and I never observed the least deviation from it. They give
their children names expressive of their tempers, outward appearances,
and other various circumstances ; a male child they would call Choola,
'the fox,' and a female, PaJwhle, 'the blossom, or flower.' The
father and mother of the former are called Choolinge and Choolishke,
'
the father and mother of the fox
;'
in like manner, those of the latter,
Pakahlingge and Pakahliske; for Ingge signifies 'the father,' and
Ishke 'the mother.'
"
Peter Jones says that nicknames given to children are often
retained after they have arrived at maturity. The character of this
class of names can be judged from the following: Cut Nose, a
notorious Indian of the Sioux nation, noted for his barbarity in the
great Sioux massacre in Minnesota in 1862. Loon Foot, (Maung-zid),
generally known among the whites as Big Foot, a noted chief of the
Pottawattamie tribe in the early part of the present century ; Winking
Eye, (Che-che-bing-way), a leading chief of the Pottawattamie tribe,
promoted to that position by a great council at Prairie Du Chien in
1829.
The following is mentioned by Peter Jones among others, as an
occasion for change of Indian names: If a sick person or his friends
suppose that the grim monster Death has received a commission to
come after an Indian bearing a certain name, they immediately make
a feast, offer sacrifices, and alter the name. By this maneuver they
think to cheat Death, when he comes, of the soul of the Indian of such
a name, not being able to find the person bearing it.
According to Charlevoix, one Indian, when talking to another in
common discourse, never called him by his proper name. This would
be considered impolite; but they always gave him the quality he had
with respect to the person that spoke to him, but when there was
between them no relation or affinity, they used the term brother, uncle,
nephew or cousin, according to each other's age, or according to the
estimation, in which they held the person they addressed.
A very peculiar custom, it seems, prevailed very generally through-
out all the tribes, in regard to persons telling their names. When,
asked to do so, an Indian would decline to give it himself, but such
person as might be in company with him would give the name for him.
The Arrapahoes say that this has been a custom with them from their
earliest traditions, of which they give no other explanation than that
tliey were so raised or educated, and they firmly adhere to this accepted
custom.
According to Peter Jones, the same custom prevailed among the
Ojibways, of which he says, when an Indian is asked his name he will
look at some bystander and request him to answer. This reluctance
arises from an impression they receive when young, that when they
repeat their own name it will prevent their growth and they will be
small in stature. Husbands and wives, he says, never mention each
other's names, it not being in accordance with Indians' notions of
etiquette.
The Indian is not alone in notions of this kind; a very common
custom prevails in domestic life among our white people, especially in
the middle and lower walks, wherein the Avife, in referring to her
husband, uses the personal pronoun, and the husband frequently
returns the compliment in the same manner. And it is indeed quite
common, after the charms of early married life have passed away,
and have given place to the frosts of fading years, for the wife, instead
of referring to her husband by name, to mention him as the "old
man," and he, again, to return the compliment, speaks of her as the
"old woman."
The Indian was tenacious of his custom in giving names, so much
so, indeed, that he was reluctant to recognize white men, as he became
compelled to mingle with them, by any names but those which he
himself applied to them. Mr. Heckewelder notices this peculiar Indian
trait, and says they will give names to white men derived from some
remarkable quality which they have observed in them, or from some
circumstance which remarkably impresses them. Thus when they
were told the meaning of the name of "William Penn, and that the
word
"
pen" meant an instrument for writing made of a quill, they trans-
lated it into their language Meqiion, meaning
"
a feather or quill."
The Iroquois called him Onas, which in their idiom means the same
thing.
The characteristic features in Indian names of persons are thus
given by Em. Domenech, in his work entitled
"
Seven Years' Resi-
dence in the Great Deserts of North America:"
men's names. women's names.
The Four Bears. The Kose Bud.
The Deceitful Wolf. The Eechning Flower.
The White Buffalo. The Weeping Willow.
The Red Bear.
The Sweet Scented Herbage.
NAMES OF TERSONS. 327
men's names.
The Elk's Head
The Horses' Tramp.
The Sensible Man.
The Smoke.
The Bloody Hand.
The Shell.
He who Ties His Hair in Front.
women's names.
The White Cloud.
The Swimming Hind.
The Polar Star.
The Pure Fountain.
The Woman Who Strikes Many.
The Woman that Dwells in the Bear's
Cavern.
The following examples of names of persons (males) in the Ojib-
iray dialect, with translations, are given by Peter Jones, the educated
Ojibway:
Nawahjegezhegwabe, the sloping sky.
Pepoonahhay, the God of the north, who makes the wînter.
Manoonooding, the pleasant wind.
Kezhegoowinene, sky man, or man of the sky.
Pamegahwayahsing, the blown down.
Sahswayahsegog, the scattering light, by the sun or moon.
Mahyahwegezhegwahy, the upright sky.
Kanahwahbahmind, he who is looked upon.
Oominwahjewim, the pleasant stream.
Naningahsega^ the sparkling light.
Pahoombwaicindung, the approaching roaring thunder,
Ahzhahivahnahguahdivaby, the cloud that rolls beyond.
Madivayahshe, the whistling wind.
Oozhahivahshkooezhig, the blue sky.
Shahicundais, the God of the south, who makes the summer.
Wahbegwiihna, white feathers.
Wawanosh, the beautiful sailor.
JVahbahnoosay, morning walker.
Nahwahquayahsega, the noon day, or shining sun.
Kechegahmewinene, man of the lake.
The female names are distinguished from the males by the femi-
nine termination, quay, or gooquay, or qua. Masculine names can be
rendered feminine by adding the foregoing termination ; for example
:
Naningahsegaquay, the sparkling light woman.
Oozhahivahshkoogezhigooquay, the blue sky woman.
Oogenebahgooquay, the wild rose woman.
Mesquahquahdooqiiay, the red sky woman.
The following are examples from Indian names of persons from
Schoolcraft, drawn from the stock words sky, thunder, sun, storm, wind,
clouds, earth, stars, etc.
:
Au-be-tuh-gee-zhig, center of the sky.
Ba-bwa-me-au-she, low pealing thunder
Kau-che-daus, the cloud in contact with the sun.
Kau-ga-au-shc, the equinoctial wind or storm.
Mo-kan-ge-zhig, the sun bursting from a cloud.
Wauh-nn-nung, the morning star.
The following are drawn from terrene objects:
Kau-gica-dwa, the questioner.
Neezh-e-pe-nais, the coupled birds.
Wau-goosh-aince, the little fox.
The following are examples of the names of women in the Ojib-
way dialect, taken from atmospheric phenomena, from the forests,
streams, and the like: iC
Aii-zhe-bik-e-qua, woman of the rock.
As-sm-au-mik-e-qua, woman of the pebbly bottom water.
Bain-wa-wa-ge-zhig-e-qua, woman of the thunder cloud.
Ke-neance-e-qua, little rose bud woman.
O-buh-bau-mewa-wa-ge-zhig-e-qua, woman of the murmuring of
the skies.
CHAPTEE XXIII.
INDIAN LOCAL NAMES.
Indian Names Applied to LocalitiesPopular Idea SignificationClassification of
Groups in Determining NamesTracing Origin of NamesAlgonquin Names
PrevailPhrases Reduced to One WordContraction of WordsIgnorance of
Origin and MeaningIndian Names of States and TerritoriesNames Coming
from the French and Other LanguagesSame Word in Different Languages
and Dialects, Differing in MeaningNames Coming Through Illiterate Persons
The Word PenobscotRendered by the French in Sixty Different WaysThe
Word CalumetNot an Indian Word as SupposedWords of French Orthog-
raphyCorruption of Indian NamesExamples of Corruption of Indian Words
Inappropriate Signification of Words.
HILST the
primitive
race of this
count r
y
whom we call Indians is
fast disappearing before
the march of civilization,
1
they have left to us a
constant reminder of
their former existence
in the land, through the
multitude of local names
1 which have been applied
to rivers, lakes, towns,
counties, states, and lo-
calities of various de-
scriptions, the origin and meaning of which are becoming a subject of
interesting inquiry.
As Mr. Lossing well observes, in speaking of the destiny of this
fading race, they will leave behind them myriads of memories of their
existence here, in their beautiful and significant names of our moun-
tains and valleys, our lakes and rivers, our states, counties, villages and
cities ; but we may say to our people
:
(329)
OHIOPEHELLE.
"Water whitened by rapid descent over rocks."
"
That mid the forests where they warr'd,
There rings uo hunter's shout;
But their name is on your waters
Ye may not wash it out."

The popular idea is that these Indian local names, or those taken
to be such, are genuine names and possess some appropriate significa-
tion
;
but whoever will take the trouble to investigate in this regard
will find much in this notion that is erroneous. The language of this
people not being a written one, there is wanting a permanent standard
of pronunciation ; hence, in transferring Indian names into our litera-
ture they have been [liable to material changes in their sounds, so
much so, in a large proportion of instances, that the original intention
can scarcely be arrived at with any degree of certainty.
In pursuing this subject intelligently, it is proper first to classify
the various groups of native inhabitants, as nearly as may be, so far as
they are marked by a common or generic language; and in this con-
nection a brief reference to the Indian languages in general would also
seem proper. Indian geographical names, or names applied to locali-
ties, are supposed to mark the fact that the tribe or nation from whose
language the same are derived once inhabited the country in which
such names are found. This, in general, is found to be the case;
therefore, the classification of these inhabitants and designation of the
country which each nation or group inhabited, becomes material in
pursuing an investigation in regard to the origin and meaning of these
names.
In a preceding chapter entitled "Linguistic Groups," information
on this subject is given, showing as definitely as can well be shown,
the country inhabited by the various linguistic groups according to the
most convenient classification.
Thus, in tracing Ihe origin or arriving at the meaning of Indian
geographical names, we have first to determine from which language
of the several groups they are derived, and through what particular
dialect they are produced.
Among the tribes east of the Rocky Mountains, the Algonquin
language, as spoken by the Ojibway nation, was, in general, regarded
as the court language, so that when a person fell among a strange
tribe whose language he did not understand, if he spoke this language,
they were bound, as a rule, to furnish someone who could communicate
with him in this language. It was through this medium that Mar-
quette, on his route from Montreal to the Des Moines, spoke with the
various tribes ; and so it was with all those early French travelers,
including La Hontan, who proceeded, as we may believe from his nar-
rative, far among the western tribes. Thus, the language of the
INDIAN LOCAL NAMES. 331
Algonquius became, in one sense, the universal language of the conti-
nent, whereby it happens that a large proportion of our Indian geo-
graphical names are derived from that source.
Indian local names, as well as names of persons, when expressed
in our language, are, in general, comprised of several words, but when
expressed in the Indian language are composed of a single word, com-
pounded in the manner of their accustomed ingenuity in the use of
their language. As an illustration of this, Mr. Heckewelder cites the
instance of the name given by the Indians to the place where Phila-
delphia now stands, which they preserved to the latest time, notwith-
standing the great change which had taken place. The name was
Kue-que-na-ku, pronounced Koo-ek-wen-aw-koo^ and which means
"the grove of the long pine trees."
The same authority further remarks that the Indians have proper
names not only for towns, villages, mountains, valleys, rivers and
streams, but for all remarkable spots, as, for instance, those which are
particularly infested with gnats and mosquitoes, places where animals
have their dens, and the like.
In regard to Indian names, not only are the people who have
succeeded the native tribes of this country in complete ignorance of
the origin and meaning of those they have left to us to designate rivers,
lakes, and other localities, but they are unaware of the fact that very
many of the local names which we are now using and which we suppose
to come from other sources are also Indian names, or are derived
therefrom. Of the thirty-eight states of the Union eighteen have
Indian names: Massachusetts, Connecticut, Alabama, Tennessee, Ken-
tucky, Ohio, Michigan, Illinois, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri,
Mississippi, Texas, Arkansas, Nebraska, Kansas, and, as is supposed,
Oregon; which, in general, are derived from great rivers or other
waters. Of the nine organized territories of the United States five have
Indian names : Dakota, Wyoming, Utah, Idaho and Alaska ; and it is
to be noted also that the principal rivers of North America, especially
those in the United States, with but a few exceptions, have Indian
names, or those which are intended to be such.
Our Indian local names, in general, with the exception of those
east of the Alleghany Mountains, have come to us through the early
French adventurers or their descendants ; and, in general, as has been
before mentioned, from the language of the Algonquin group. In the
foregoing assertion an exception has to be made in regard to some few
local Indian names in the southern states which have come throuofh
the Spanish, who had invaded that country before the French had
reached the valley of the Mississippi ; so that our Indian local names
332
have come to us through, or according to, the orthography of three
several languages, viz. : Spanish, English and French.
In pursuing the subject of Indian geographical names, there is
one thing with which we have to deal, wherein, at this time, we can
obtain little or no satisfactory aid in case of doubt or uncertainty.
We frequently find the same Indian word, or one having the like
sound, in different languages or dialects, with an entirely different
meaning; so, what may have been the original intention in applying
such name to any given locality, or from which language or dialect
the word is derived, will be a matter difficult to determine. As a gen-
eral rule, in such cases, conjecture only can be given. For instance,
the word Chicago, or that which is essentially the same, is found in
several languages and dialects with entirely different meanings.
Whilst those to whom we are indebted for our Indian local names
were in some instances, as in the case of Marquette, Hennepin and La
Hontan, men of learning, and are supposed to have written with some
degree of accuracy when referring to them, yet a large proportion of
those to whom we are indebted therefor were illiterate persons and
relied exclusively upon sounds addressed to the ear, and were unable
to aid their memory by reducing them to writing; so that very few of
these Indian geographical names have come to us in correct form.
They are almost universally a corruption, to a greater or less extent, and
their meaning has to be arrived at either from tradition or by patient
investigation into the language of the group or dialect of the tribe
from which the name is derived. This has been done, to a consider-
able extent, and the world is much indebted to those patient students
who have undertaken this task, and given their time towards accom-
plishing a result so much desired.
Take as an example the word Penobscot, the name of a river in the
state of Maine. This name, which passes for an Indian word, and
which is brought to us by the French, is said to have been reported
by them in sixty different ways during their occupancy of the country
in the vicinity of this river, about 1664. The name most generally
used by them, however, was Pcm-au-an-shek. The English, the new
Plymouth colonists, caught the word of the Indians, Penohscof, by
which it was known as early as 1626. The true Indian name, it is
said, was Pen-oh-sceag or Pen-oh-scoote, suggested by the rocky falls
just above Bangor, from Penohsg, "rocky" and Utieral, "a place,
'^
that is "the rocky place."
The learned Dr. Trumbull, of Hartford, Connecticut, who is prob-
ably the best authority on Indian languages now living, in referring
to this subject, says: "Remembering how unsettled and capricious
INDIAN LOCAL NAMES. 33o
was the English spelling *n the seventeenth century, how absolutely
every clerk and recorder was a law unto himself, and how often we
find a common English word spelled in three or four different ways by
the same writer and perhaps on the same page, in early colonial rec-
ords, uniformity in the spelling of Indian names was not to be
expected. The variations which some of these names present are
almost innumerable. Others have undergone complete transformation,
retaining scarcely a suggestion of their original sounds."
Dr. Trumbull, amongst others, has given the following examples
of the metamorphosis or change of Indian local names or "place-
names," as he calls them, transforming them not only into a corrupted
form of Indian names, but also into English words and terms. Thus,
he says: ''^ Kupioauke^^ has become "Cape Poge," and its equivalent
in another dialect is "Quebec;" Nameock is "May Luck;" Oggusse-
patigsuck is shortened to "Oxyboxy;" Neastoqiiaheaganuck to "East-
crig;" Tomheganoynpskid io "Higganum;" Wonococomaug to "Con-
gamuck;" Wehompskat to "Obscob;" Mashenupsuck to "Snipsic"
Weguapaugset to "Boxet."
"So, in Maine, Matche-haguatus has been identified with 'Major
Biguyduce; ' in Maryland Poiopaco survives as 'Port Tobacco;' in
Rhode Island Wannemetonomy is reduced to
'
Tommony,' or
'
Tam-
many
'
hill ; Papasqiiash becomes
'
Papoose Squaw ' point, and Mits-
quaiaug passes through Musquetohaug to the more familiar
'
Mus-
queto-hawk' brook. Of Qiienechouan (or Qinnnitchiian) , the designa-
tion of a
'
long rapid ' near the entrance of the Ottawa river, the
French of Canada first made 'fifteen dogs' [quinze chiens), and then
invented a story to account for the name.
"
The signification of many place-names is obscured by the loss
of one or more syllables or an initial consonant, as in 'Toket' for
Toioket,
'
Quaddic ' for PatiaquoUuck,
'
Catumb ' for Keiumpscut,
'Paug' for Pishatipaug or Pesnckapaug, and for Neeshapaug 'Was-
suc,' for AssawassuG or Nashanasuck^ 'Nunkertunk' for Wanungatuck,
and 'Titicut' (on Taunton river, in Massachusetts), for Kehteikiuk-
qid, or Kettetukut. The sound of m or
p
before a sibilant or mute
was often lost to English ears ; thus for M^squamicuk we have
'
Squo-
macuk,' for Mashapaug 'Shepaug,' for Pescatuk 'Scantic' and 'Scit-
tico,' for Pishgachtigok
'
Scatacook,' etc. Nearly as often an initial
n has been dropped, e.
g.,
'
Ashawog,' 'Assawaug,'
'
Shetucket,'
'
Shan-
nock' and 'Shunock.'
"
To show the misconception we have as to Indian names, the word
Calumet will serve as an illustration. This is the name of a river
putting in at the southern extremity of Lake Michigan. In early
times frequent iiiquiiy was made as to why this river was so called.
The answer, in general, was that it was an Indian word signifying "pipe
of peace," which the Indians smoked at their councils, and that in the
vicinity of this river w-as a place of holding Indian councils.
This is correct with three exceptions. First, the word Calumet is
not an Indian word ; second, it does not of itself signify pipe of peace
;
third, Indian councils were never held in the vicinity of this river.
The Avord Calumet, says Charlevoix, in his book of travels in North
America, is a Norman word, wdiich signifies a reed, forming a natural
tube with which Norman smoking implemen+s wêre constructed. The
word Calumet originally referred only to the tube, afterwards used to
designate the whole implement, the same as in our language wê call
the same thing a pipe. The Indian name of this river was Conamic,
and signifies
"
snow beaver," which, it would seem, our English speak-
ing people mistook for Calumet, which is not an appropriate significa-
tion applicable to this river as intended.
One source of confusion or uncertainty with our English speak-
ing people in regard to these Indian local names, is in reference to
those that come to us through the French, which have generally
remained as originally fixed and are designated on our maps, and in
our histories in the French orthography, in pronouncing which we
are in the habit of giving to the letters used the sounds they have
according to our own orthography; of this class are the words
Michilimacinac, Ohio, Miami, Illinois, Chicago, Iroquois, Quebec, etc.
Few people understand that the word Miami and Maumee, which
are generally understood to be Indian words, are both the same word
;
that the only difference in them is that the former is given in French
orthography, whilst the latter is rendered according to English orthog-
raphy. The word given, according to French orthography, when prop-
erly pronounced, as they pronounce it, and as the Indians wôuld speak
it, is Me-aii-mee, hastily pronounced in common speech Maiimee.
It is not altogether the fact of these various ways of rendering
Indian words that has created so much confusion in our Indian local
names, but the difference in the orthography of words or mode of
spelling them has been also a source of great perplexity, as before
illustrated. This has occurred sometimes through misapprehension,
and sometimes through sheer carelessness.
There is a post-village in Wisconsin called Weyamvega, which is
a name passing for an Indian word, but in that form is not. The
word intended, according to the late Gov. Doty of that state, from
whom the writer obtained this information, is Wey-au-ice-ya, which,
while he was a member of congress from that state, he gave to the
INDIAN LOCAL NAMES. 335
postoffice department at Washington, as the name he recommended
for a postolB&ce then about to be established at that place. The depart-
ment, he says, mistook the
y
in the last syllable as written by him for
g,
and recorded the name accordingly, rendering the same as it now
is as the name of that village. The word intended is an Algonquin
word of the Menominee dialect, and signifies "whirling wind." It
was the name of a faithful Menominee Indian guide, long in the
service of Gov. Doty in early days, whose name after his death he
sought to perpetuate by applying it to this town, in which it seems,
however, he was unsuccessful.
There is a class of local names which are understood to have the
sound of Indian words, and, therefore, are taken to be such, which in
fact are not really Indian names. Of this class, as an example, may
be mentioned the word Monee, the name of a town in Illinois on the
Illinois Central railroad. This was the accepted name of the wife of
an Indian trader, Joseph Bailes, a French-Canadian of considerable
influence and note among the Indians, in the early days of the North-
west Territory.
His wife was an Indian woman of the Pottawatamie tribe, with
whom she was a great favorite. Her baptismal name was Mary, which
her husband pronounced Mauree, according to the French pronuncia-
tion. In the Pottawatamie dialect, like that of most all other tribes
of the Algonquin group, as before mentioned, there is no sound of
?%
the sound of n being used instead. The Indians, therefore, pronounced
her name Maunee or Monee. In a treatv between the United States
Government and the Pottawatamies a tract of land was reserved to this
woman by the name of Monee, in the vicinity of the town before men-
tioned.
The word Kalamazoo, the name of a river in Michigan, and which
passes for an Indian word, may be cited as one among the numerous
instances as an example where an Indian word has been corrupted
from inattention in catching sounds in Indian words. The proper
word is said to be Ne-gik-an-a-ma zii, which is stated to be a contrac-
tion of an Indian phrase descriptive of the stones seen through the
water in the river bed, which, from a refractive power in the current,
resembled an otter swimming under the water. The term having its
root forms in Negik, an otter, the verb Kana, to hide, and Ozoo, a
quadruped's tail. The letter Z is a mere transposition of n in native
words passing from Indian to the French language.
But the French are not alone chargeable with the confusion
before referred to, from their manner of rendering Indian names in so
many different ways; the English were alike heedless or inattentive in
this regard. For instauce, the word that we generally pronounce 3Io-
hcgan, which is accepted as the name of a tribe of Indians once
dwelling on the east bank of the Hudson river, the English have, at
different periods, referred to as Mohiccon, Mohuccan, Mohegans,
MuJiheekaneiv, Mahingan; the Dutch called them Mohikanders; and
the French referred to them as Mourigans. It would seem that the
proper term is Mahingan, signifying wolf.
Among the striking instances of the numerous ways of rendering
Indian words by the English is that of the word accepted as Pokano-
kit, the name given by historians to the locality at which was the seat
of the noted chief, called by the English "King Phillip." The English
rendered this word in the following various different ways: Pauka-
nakett, Pocanakei, Pockanockett, Pokanokik, Pokanocketf, Paivunnaw-
kutt, Puckanokik, Pockanacket.
As to the signification of Indian local names, to which reference
has been made, as a rule they always possess some appropriate mean-
ing, but which when translated into our language are frequently want-
ing in that elegance of signification which we suppose them to possess,
especially from their magnificent or euphonious sounds. As an illus-
tration of this, a few examples will suffice
:
The word Nokomis, the name of a town of some importance in
Illinois, supposed to be taken from Longfellow's poem of "Hiawatha,"
when translated into our language, means simply "grandmother," or
"my grandmother." The word Ontonagan, the name of a river in
the upper peninsula of Michigan, rather a bold-sounding word, which
is supposed to signify something grand, means in our language,
"
there
goes my dish," or "lost my dish," from the circumstance, it is said, of
an Indian girl attempting to dip up some water from the stream, when
the current
swept the dish out of her hand, whereupon she exclaimed,
"there
goes my dish." Muskingum (properly Moos-gig-am), a river
in Ohio,
signifies "Moose Eye." loiva, one of the states of the Union,
from a tribe of the Indians of that name, signifies "sleepy," or
"drowsy
ones." Chenango, the name of a river in New York, is an
Iroquois
name, meaning "bull thistles."
CHAPTEK XXIV.
DRESS.
Simplicity in StyleSuggestive of ConvenienceGeneral Uniformity among the
TribesDifferent StylesDress According to Weather and SeasonDescription
of the Indian DressMaterialSkins of AnimalsMocassins for the Feet
Dress of the Indian WomanIts Convenience According to Notions of Strict

ProprietyIndians of the Pacific CoastCriticism of the White Man on Fantas-
tic Indian DressThe White Woman's Fantastic Dress ComparedThe Indian
Paints his Face, so does the White WomanThe Indian War BonnetNot a
Fantastic Display, but a Superstitious NotionBuffalo Horns as a Badge of
BraveryThe Indian Dress is Symbolic, rather than one of Fantastic Display
The Indian DudeIndian Dress of the Mountains and the Plains.

'HE dress of the American
Indian, in his native condi-
/Wf
tion, was one of simplicity in
^ style and suggestive of con-
venience, in which there was verv
general uniformity among the tribes
and nations of the continent. There
were different styles or grades of
dress, but these were, in general,
everywhere nearly or substantially
the same ; commencing with a simple
article of apparel or excuse for ap-
parel, and passing through various,
styles and grades to the completely
clothed body, as the inclemency of
the weather or other circumstances
might demand.
On this subject Charlevoix
remarks that the men, when it is
hot, have often only something of an
apron to cover a particular part of
the body. In the winter they clothe
themselves more or less according to
the climate.
(337)
IDEAL INDIAN MAIDEN.
22
338
One of the most prominent articles of Indian apparel was the kilt,
secured around the waist by a belt, and descending midway or more to
the knees. This, with the addition of moccasins for the feet, was, in
general, the complete dress of the Indian when on the war path or
eno-aged in the hunt. The object was to free himself from all encum-
brances, as far as possible, so as to admit of greater activity, and to
avoid fatigue that might be induced from restraint of much clothing.
The dress further consisted in clothing the waist and arms with a kind
of loose garment, somewhat in the style of what we call a hunting
shirt, and a blanket or robe thrown over the shoulders. This was the
complete dress of an Indian.
Before the invasion of the white man the Indian dress was manu-
factured from the skins of animals; since which event, the fabrics of
art, or productions of the white man's skill, have been adopted, except
as to moccasins for the feet, usually made of dressed deer skin and
other animals affording like substantial material; but it is noted that
the Indian parts with this traditional article of apparel with extreme
reluctance. On this subject Mr. Schoolcraft says, moccasins have
stood their ground as a part of the Indian costume with more entire
success against European innovation than perhaps any other part of
the
original dress.
Another style of Indian costume, very generally adopted in warmer
weather or warmer climates, instead of the kilt, was that called in the
language of the Algonquins, Azian or Unseaun; in English, loin-cloth,
and, in common speech, breech-cloth; the body being otherwise nude
with the exception of moccasins.
The dress of the Indian woman was one of like convenience, in a
style marking her native modesty and strict notions of propriety, orna-
mented in a manner peculiar to Indian ideality and taste, being the
costume of their mothers from all time. There were no ever changing
Paris fashions in those days to upset feminine minds and impoverish
masculine pockets.
Peter Jones, in speaking of the Indian woman's dress, says the
native Indian women wore "short gowns and petticoats, made of
dressed deer skin, and a mantle thrown over the shoulders. They also
wore leggins and moccasins neatly worked." As a mark of neatness
and modesty in the character of the native Indian woman, her garment,
called a short gown, completely covered her arms, and was closely
fitted about the neck.
An early writer thus describes the Indian woman's dress at the
time the English first came among this people on the Atlantic coast:
"Their garments are a pair of sleeves of Deer or Moose-skin drest.
DEESS. 339
and drawn with lines o several Colours into Asiatic works, witxi Buskins
of the same, a short Mantle of Trading Cloath, either Blew or Bed,
fastened with a Knot under the Chin, and girt about the middle with
a Zone, wrought with white and blew Beads into Pretty AVorks. Of
these Beads they have Bracelets for their Neck and Arms, and Links
to hang in their Ears, and a fair Table, curiously made up with Beads
likewise, to wear before their Breast. Their Hair they Combe back-
wards, and tye it up short with a Border, about two handfulls broad,
wrousfht in Works as the others with their Beads."
The dress of the Indian man in his native simplicity, is described
by the same authority as simply a waist cloth, and a mantle of skin or
cloth, which was commonly laid aside. Yet, nakedness, it is said, did
not result in indelicacy. In this regard Boger Williams says, "I have
never seen that wantonness among them, as with grief I have heard of
in Europe." The same author further says that the Indians were fond
of dress, as all uncivilized and most civilized people are, is a matter of
course, and cheap ornaments of glass or metal could buy from them
their choicest furs.
The dress of the Indians of the Pacific coast, in what is now Ore-
gon and Washington Territory, according to eJohn B. Jewett, for
several years a captive among the Indians of that country, usually
consisted of but a single garment, which was a loose cloak or mantle
called kuisack, in one piece, reaching nearly to the feet. This was
tied loosely over the right or left shoulder, so as to leave the arms at
full liberty. In winter, however, they sometimes made use of an
additional garment, which was a kind of hood, with a hole in it, for
the purpose of admitting the head, the garment falling over the breast
and back as low as the shoulders. This was bordered at the top and
bottom with fur, and only worn when going out in the cold. The gar-
ments of the women did not vary essentially from those of the men,
the mantle having holes in it for the purpose of admitting the arms
and being tied closely under the chin, instead of over the shoulders.
The chiefs dressed in more costly apparel, and in a manner to dis-
tinguish them from the common people of the tribe.
There has been much criticism among civilized people on the
fantastic dress of the native Indian ; that he paints his face ; that he
wears quills of birds stuck in his hair ; that he wears strung about his
neck the claws of birds and ferocious animals as valued ornaments.
Whilst the dress of the white man, it is true, is not open to criticisms
of this kind, and is, perhaps, as consistent in its make-up as the com-
pulsion of fashion will admit, the case of our white woman, under
the guidance of fashion, is not so easily disposed of. Whilst the
340 THE AMEIUCAN INDIAN.
;^.
BLACKFOOT CHIEFFANTASTIC DEE3S.
white man, under our custom, does not paint his face like the untu-
tored Indian, this much cannot be said of the white woman.
Whilst the Indian, it is ad-
mitted, wears bird's claws, sus-
pended about his neck, which he
does as a symbol for some pur-
pose
;
the white woman puts upon
her bonnet the whole bird, claws
included, with no signification
whatever, except that the fash-
ion director informs her that it
adds a charm to her personal
appearance. The white man,
it is true, does not wear the
quills of birds stuck in his hair,
nor in the hat covering his head,
but leaves this to the taste of
the white woman, who sends
across the sea to obtain plumes
from the great bird of the desert,
purely as a matter of ornament,
prescribed by the rules of fashion.
The
Indian, in putting on plumes,
selects them from his own great native
bird of the air, and this he does, not as an
ornament, but as a symbol to signify his
courage and bravery.
The Indian, in his dress, is in the
habit of Avearing many things which
appear to us as fantastic, and a mark of
his light character and folly. For instance,
there is a style of head-dress called the
war-bonnet, composed of quills or feathers
taken from particular kinds of birds,
that we frequently see painted in fancy
sketches of Indian figures, which is gen-
erally taken among us to be worn purely
as an ornament, the fact being quite other-
wise. This war-bonnet is thus described
by Ca])t. Clark, in his work on "Indian
IviVftJ
PEINCE OF WALESFANTASTIC
STATE DRESS.
Sign Language:'"
"The tail feathers of the golden eagle
Compare fantastic dress of the Indian
are used tor makmo^ these gforgfeous head-
chiefwith that of the white ciuef. com-
^ o o
pare Indian syiuhol of peace (pipe), with
dresses. There are twelve feathers in the
white man's symbol of war (the sword).
DRESS.
341
tail, and as many as sixty or seventy are used in making the bonnet.
The feathers for the cap proper are fastened to cloth or skin, made to
fit the head in the shape of a brimless and crownless hat. The feathers
are placed side by side, touching, and, when the bonnet is put on the
head, assume a nearly vertical position, the whole forming a cylinder-
shaped head-gear. Fastened to the head-piece behind is a long- strip
of skin or cloth (red cloth is now generally used) which, when the
person is standing, reaches to and sometimes trails on the ground.
The feathers are fastened on one side of this cloth. This head-dress
is also frequently decorated with real or imitation buffalo horns, and
some tribes have, besides, masses of ermine skin fastened on near the
base of the feathers. Some bird, or the special medicine, which
belongs to the owner of the bonnet, is also fastened on these in front.
At the tips of the feathers a few horse hairs are fastened to the tail
piece."
Many Indians placed the most implicit confidence in this war-
bonnet, thus aided by this special medicine, which may be only a dirty
little bag given them by their magician or medicine man; and are
firm in the belief that it turns aside all the missiles of their enemies.
As an example, an instance is related of a once famous chief of
the southern Cheyennes, showing the confidence the Indians have in
the war-bonnet for protecting them against harm. He Avas engaged
in a fiofht between the Chevennes and Foxes, who were behind cover,
dismounted. He charged on them and was met with such a storm of
bullets that the feathers in his bonnet were entirely cut away. On
being asked how it was that he was not hit in the engagement, he
replied that his medicine was on his head, regarding this as a full,
complete and perfect explanation. His story was corroborated by
warriors who were enoâged with him in the action. Instances of this
kind tended to confirm Indian confidence in the war-bonnet, like the
helmets of the ancients, as a protection from harm in hostile engage-
ments.
Courage and skill in war, or special deeds of bravery and daring,
obtain for the favorite brave in all tribes distinguished features in
dress. Under this rule the Indian warrior, who by his bravery had
become entitled to this favor, was permitted to wear as an ornament
upon his head the horns of a buffalo, which was added to his head-
dress as a symbol of bravery. This could be worn only by consent of
the council. A chief could not wear this symbol of courage unless it
was bravely won and accorded him by the council of his tribe. As
the white soldier rejoices in his stars and stripes, so did the Indian in-
his buffalo horns or other symbolizing features.
The Indian woman took great pride in her black, luxuriant growth
of hair, which she allowed to grow at full length, never trimming nor
cutting it in the least degree, and w^hich she parted in front and
combed down upon her back, usually braided or tied with a band to
keep it in place. With the Indian woman there were no wigs, false
curls or frizzes. The Indian man
was in like manner proud of his
fine growth of hair, and would
have considered himself disgraced
to have it shorn off.
HoAvever, among some tribes
a custom prevailed of plucking out
the hair of the head by the roots,
with the exception of a small lock
or tuft on the crown, which was
left as a bravado, that in case they
should fall into the hands of their
enemies, there is left remaining a
scalp, which, it is conceded, the
conquering party is entitled to.
This custom prevailed among the
Mohawks of the Iroquois nation,
and some of the other tribes of
that people, but not among the
Senecas. It prevailed also among
the Pawnees, Sacs and Foxes,
lowas, Kansas, Otoes, Shawnees,
and some of the Dakota tribes.
It is said that notwithstanding
the stern character of the Indian,
and his utter detestation of effem-
inacy in man, scarcely a tribe was
exempt from the humiliation of
occasionally producing specimens
of that abnormal human growth,
particularly mentioned by Mr. Catlin and known among our own race
as the dandy; in modern times, the dude. The characteristics of the
Indian specimen were similar to those of the same species in the white
race, and were held in as much contempt in the sensible Indian niind.
This class despised war or danger of any kind, and were averse
to engaging in the fatigues or perils of the hunt. Their robes were
never adorned with scalp locks, nor their necks with the claws of the
SENECA MAIDEN.
DRESS.
343
bear. They could not wear red paint, as this symbolized success in
battle. For the dandy to attempt to wear these emblems of a brave
career might imperil his life. His dress was usually made from the
skin of the mountain goat or red deer; and the trimmings were of
ermine, swan's down, porcupine quills and wampum. He usually spent
hours every day in making his toilet, the minutest details of which
received his greatest care. He
would languidly watch the athletic
games engaged in by the young
braves of the tribe, but took no
part in their sports himself.
If coincidences, in the re-
semblance of character, may be
taken as evidence in the claim for
race unity, then the resemblance
of characteristics in the Indian
dandy and the white dude would
avail much as proof in support of
this claim.
In dress, while comfort and
convenience seemed to be the one
essential sought for by the Indian,
yet there were those among them
who were skillful in arranging,
ornamenting and adorning their
native costumes with pleasing and
picturesque effect.
It is said of the Crow Indians,
and of their hereditary enemies,
the Blackfeet, that they paid more
attention to dress than other North
American tribes. The native dress M
of the Crow was of white skins,
^
which travelers and traders tell "^rr?
us they excelled in dressing. The
marked feature of the warrior's
uniform was war-eagle feathers, wampum, ermine and scalp locks.
The dress of the women was less showily trimmed, yet very attractive,
as worn by the handsome belles of the Crow tribes.
The dress of the Blackfeet tribe was similar to that of the Crow
Indians, except that it was black or brown skins instead of white. The
trimmings or general manner or fashion of garments were the same.
YOUNG SENECA WARRIOR.
344
Not less interesting than that of the Crow and Blackfeet, was the
dress of the Comanches or Navajoes of the southwest, who are said
to have worn cloth garments, and surprised the invading white men
with the beauty and harmony of colors in their blankets or shawls,
the three primitive colors, red, blue and yellow, blending with
brown and other neutral colors with very pleasing effect. The decided
colors were obtained from the mountain flowers, and the shades and
tints from the roots and barks of trees, well known for their coloriuo:
qualities by these students of the native weeds.
A favorite robe among all classes of natives was the skin of the
bear or bison dressed carefully and painted on the inside with symbolic
figures.
The Indian's love of display is prominent only on days of fes-
tivity or occasions of note. "In holiday attire" the native dress is
profusely ornamented. The raven's or eagle's feather is one of the
valued ornaments, and is worn as proudly by the Indian brave as a
soldier wears his epaulets or the dude his silk hat and matchless swal-
low-tail coat. The reader has, no doubt, learned that the men among
the natives of America display more love for dress, ornament and
style than the women, and noticed that with the white race this is
reversed. The Indian women, in dress, simply ignored paint, pomatum
and feathers, while the men delighted in the contrast of decided
colors, painted their faces, and in "full dress" were as elaborate as a
city belle, and sometimes quite as decollete. The head-dress of a
chief is plumed and garnished according to his merit or bravery and
skill in war or hunting. A Avar eagle's feather is added to the head-
dress of a chief for every enemy slain by his OAvn hand.
It has been recorded that among certain tribes the war chiefs
went. about among their people dressed in poorer garments than any
member of the tribe, unless upon
"
state occasions," when their dress
is adorned and made gorgeous in the extreme. The plain style of
garments worn by the chiefs in every-day life can be accounted for in
no other way than that these high officials desire to be an example of
patience and economy to their people, or it may be that the Indian
mind places the power of leadership far beyond and above outward
show. AVhatever the cause of their plainness of attire in their chiefs,
it is true that no people were more loyal or devoted to their rules than
the native red men of America.
CHAPTER XXV.
RELIGION.
Man Naturally a Religious BeingA Characteristic Prominent among the Indians-
Religion Similar to the JewsBelief in One Great SpiritBelief in a Bad
SpiritSubordinate Good SpiritsLike the Jews they had Fasts and Feasts
Observed with Religious DevotionTraditions of the FloodHouses of Worship

of Civilized PeopleIndian Medicine LodgeAbiding Faith in a Future Exist,
enceLand of the Blessed, or Country of SoulsThe Passage of the Soul to the
Everlasting AbodeBelief in Difficulties on the WayBelief that the Soul
Tarries a Time Near the BodyPassage Over a Stream on the Way to the Land
of SoulsLike the River Styx of the GreeksPerils in Passing Over this Myth-
ical RiverDescription of the Land of the BlessedIndian Religion a Subject
of CriticismWhat the Indian Thinks of the Religion of the White ManThe
Indian PriestThe Indian Highly Devotional Smoking, a Devotional Act
Believed in Souls of AnimalsBelief of the Iroquois and other Tribes.

;AN, it is said, is nat-
urally a religious
being, and that no
^^^^""^^
people have been
found on earth without some
kind of religious belief. This
characteristic was especially
prominent with the aborigines
of this country. Their relig-
ion was similar to that of the
Jews, as coming to us through
the inspired writings of that
people. They believed in one
great Creator and supreme,
overruling power ; theybelieved
in ' a bad spirit, to whom was assigned, in general, the evil doings of
earth; and they believed in subordinate good spirits, who administered
to the happiness of mankind within their sphere.
Lik^ the Jews they had their fasts and feasts, which they observed
with like religious devotion. The tribe of Mandans, who dwelt in the
upper country of the Missouri river, had a tradition that at some time
there was a great flood over the face of the earth, destroying the race
(345)
"DAWN OP PERPETUAL PEACE.'
of mankind with the exception of one person, who was saved by the
means of a great canoe constructed by the advice of the Great Spirit.
Many other tribes were known to have a similar tradition.
Civilized people have their houses of worship, or place of religious
devotion; the Indian had his medicine lodge, or Medawegamig, wherein
were held ceremonies of mystery, under charge of their high priests or
big medicine men.
The Indian had an abiding faith in a future existence, "in a land
of the blessed or country of souls, upon a new earth or terrene abode,
which is to be replete with animal life, disporting its varied creations
amidst beautiful groves or along the banks of smooth streams and
lakes, where there are no tempests, no pinching and chilling vicissi-
tudes of weather, and no broken formations of rough mountains, cata-
racts or volcanoes ; but where the avocations of life are so delightful
and varied, and so completely exempt from the power of evil, thattheir
happiness is complete. Death, it is fancied, opens the door to this
sweet land, and death is, therefore, viewed with complacency. The
great Manito is heard of, and presides there, but he is not a God of
judgments or punishments ; his voice is exclusively that of a father
welcoming home his wandering children from the land of sufferings,
trials, and death."
Many Indians believed that their souls, after death, were many
months in traveling to the regions of the everlasting abode ; and that
in reaching it they had great difficulties to surmount and great dangers
to encounter, especially of a river, which they would have to pass, and
where many had been wrecked. They speak of a dog against which
they have to defend themselves; of a place of torments, where they
expiate their faults; and of another place where the souls of the pris-
oners of war who had been burned are tormented. This notion
accounts for one reason why, after the death of such persons, they fear
their souls will stay about their abodes to revenge their suffering.
They very carefully visit all places, striking continually Avith a stick,
and sending forth hideous cries to drive away these souls.
Mr. Catlin says that the Dakotas believe that after death the soul,
in reaching the place of eternal abode, has a great distance to travel to
the west, and has to cross a dreadful deep and rapid stream, which is
hemmed in on both sides by high and rocky hills, over which, from hill
to hill, there lies a long and slippery pine log, over which the dead
have to pass to the delightful hunting-grounds. On the other side of
this stream, there are six persons of the good hunting-grounds with
stones in their hands, which the 7 throw at those who attempt to cross,
when they reach about the middle of the stream. The good walk on
RELIGION. 347
aely to the end of their journey, where there is one continual day;
where the trees are always green ; where the sky has no clouds ; where
there are continually fine and cooling breezes ; where there is one con-
tinual scene of feasting, dancing and rejoicing ; where there is no pain
or trouble ; and where the people never grow old, but live ever young,
and enjoy the youthful pleasures.
In crossing over this log the wicked see the stones coming and
try to avoid them, by which they fall from the log and go down
thousands of feet to the water which is dashing over the rocks, and
which is polluted with dead fish and animals, where they are carried
around and continually brought back to the same place, in whirlpools,
where the trees are all dead, and the waters are full of toads and the
like, and the dead are always hungry and have nothing to eat, are
always sick and never die, where the sun never shines, and Avhere the
wicked are continually climbing up by thousands on the sides of a
high rock, from which they can overlook the beautiful country of the
good hunting-grounds, the place of the happy, but can never reach it.
This mythical river of the Indians corresponds to the river Styx
of the ancient Greeks, in the lower world, which, in their belief, was
to be crossed in passing to the region of the dead.
But it must be noted that these beliefs, as to temporary or pro-
longed punishments, mentioned, did not extend to all the American
Indians, but were entertained only by some particular tribes. In
general, the Indian held to the belief that Gezhe-Maniio, the Great
Merciful Spirit, would not, in after life, inflict upon them punishments
or torments of this kind.
The Indians hold, also, that there are spirits of a lesser degree, who
have their particular departments, and whom they suppose preside over
all the extraordinary productions of nature, such as lakes, rivers, cata-
racts or mountains that are of an uncommon magnitude, and likewise
over the beasts, birds, fishes, and even vegetables and stones that
exceed the rest of their species in size and regularity. To all of these
they pay some kind of adoration. Thus, when arriving at a great
cataract, on the borders of a great lake, the banks of a great river, or
other great body of water, they present to the spirit that presides
there, some kind of ofPering.
It was a general belief among the Algonquin tribes, and indeed
the like principle of belief pervaded the whole American race, with some
variations or minor exceptions, that there were two great beings that
ruled and governed the universe, who were at war with each other, or,
in other words, whose purposes were antagonistic. One was good, the
other bad. The good spirit, called by the Algonquins GUclie-Maniio,
348
"Great Spirit," or Gezhe-Manito, "Merciful Spirit," was all kindness
and love. The bad spirit, called by them Mache-Manito, was the
spirit of all evil, who delighted in doing mischief. Some thought
that these two spirits were equal in power, and therefore they wor-
shipped the evil spirit on a principle of fear. Others doubted which
was the more powerful, and therefore endeavored to keep in favor with
both, by giving each of them some kind of worship ; adoring the one,
through a spirit of gratitude for his goodness, and appeasing the
other, through a spirit of fear.
On this subject Mr. Schoolcraft pertinently remarks, that one of
the strongest, and at the same time one of the most ancient points of
Indian belief is, that of the duality of God ; in other Avords, the sepa-
ration of that great overruling power into two antiponent spirits, good
and evil. This, as he remarks, was the leading doctrine in the zenda-
vesta of Zoroaster ; and was a common oriental notion long before the
son of Terah was called from the plains of Persia to cross the
Euphrates. Everywhere our Indians have upheld this idea of duality
of gods, ascribing to one good and to the other evil powers, with its
ancient developments of subordinate polytheism.
The religion of the native Indian has been the subject of some
ridicule by persons of the Christian faith ; but there has been, in this
respect, a spirit of mutual retaliation, to some extent, between the
untutored savage and the enlightened Christian. An example of this
is given by Baron La Hontan, in his book of travels among the North
American Indians, two hundred years ago, showing how this people
ridicule the scriptural account of the creation and the fall of Adam,
entailing upon his posterity perpetual sin. The death of Christ for
the redemption of mankind, they declare, according to Christian
showing, has failed of its intended purpose; that this Christian
religion is divided and subdivided into so many sects that it can be no
other than a human artifice, leaving them in doubt as to which of
these various sects they must join in order to conform to the true
faith.
The minister or priest of the Indian religion was a person whose
calling, in general, was comprised in a threefold capacity, minister,
physician and prophet. According to the ideas of many, the preten-
sions of the Indian medicine-man did not differ essentially, in some
respects, from that of the corresponding individual of the white man
of the present day, called our physician or doctor of medicine, wlio
prescribes medicine for the sick in an unknown tongue, and diagnoses
the disease of his patient in mysterious terms, beyond his patient's
comprehension.
IIELIGION. 349
The Indians, like Christian white men, concurred on one general
point in their religionthat of a future existence; but like Christian
white men they differed among themselves upon many other phases of
their religious beliefs. Many believed in a resurrection of the body,
the same as some Christian white men. Whilst some believed in per-
petual happiness for all, in the eternal hunting-grounds, others
believed, like the Christian white man, in future rewards and punish-
ments. They thought that those who lived virtuously would be trans-
ported to a place abounding Avith every luxury, and where the earth
produces to the greatest perfection all her sweetest fruits ; and, on the
other hand, some believed that those who have spurned the duties of life
will be removed to a barren soil, where they will wander up and down
among rocks and through barren places, where they w411 be stung by
gnats of enormous size.
One of the earliest writers on the subject of the American Indian,
in reference to his religion and ideas of a future existence, says: "Yet
do they hold the immortality of the soul, in which their Indian faith
jumps, much with the Turkish Alkoran, dreaming of a certain paradise
or southwest elysium, wherein they shall everlastingly abide, solacing
themselves in odoriferous gardens, fruitful corn fields, green meadows,
bathing their tawny hides in the cool streams of pleasant rivers, and
sheltering themselves from heat and cold in the sumptuous palaces
framed by nature, concluding that neither pain nor care shall molest
them, but that nature's bounty will voluntarily contribute from the
storehouse of their elysium, at the portals whereof, they say, lies a
great dog, whose churlish snarlings deny admission to unworthy intrud-
ers
;
wherefore it is their custom to bury with them their bows and
arrows, and good store of their ivampiimeage and mowhacks, the one to
affright that affronting cerberus, and the other to purchase more
immense prerogatives in their paradise. For their enemies and loose
livers, whom they account unworthy of this happiness, they say that
they pass to the infernal dwelling of Ahomocho, to be tortured accord-
in of to the fictions of the ancient heathen."
The Indian was highly devotional in his nature and exceedingly
devout. He attributed to the Great Spirit all the blessings he enjoyed
in life, for which he was continually returning thanks. The evils of
life which overtook him he did not recognize as judgments from the
Great, Good Spirit, whom he designated as Gezhe-Maniio; but in his
opinion they were the workings of the Evil or Bad Spirit, designated
by him as Mache-ManUo; and whilst he returned thanks to the Great,
Merciful Spirit, from whom all these blessings were derived, on the.
other hand he was constantly endeavoring to appease the Evil Spirit,
that lie might forbear inflicting those evils and disasters which he had
the power to visit upon him.
It is remarked by those best acquainted with Indian manners and
customs, that in regard to their religious devotion, as a rule, in taking
up their pipe to indulge in smoking, or in setting down, to their simple
repast, they rendered some homage, or in some way acknowledged
their gratitude to the Great Spirit for his goodness in supplying them
with the needs and comforts of life, which they enjoyed at his hands.
They believed that the Evil Spirit entered into and took the form
of venomous reptiles or species of furious animals, which they always
refrained from killing or injuring, lest they might increase the wrath
of the Evil Spirit, who, in return, they believed, would visit them with
evil consequences.
The Indians believed that the soul of the dead lingers about the
wigwam, or place of the departed, for several days, and that it hovers
about the body after it has been laid in the grave or place of burial for
some time, before it finally departs to the wôrld of spirits, in conse-
quence of which belief a custom prevailed of leaving a small opening
in the grave, when the body was buried in the ground, through which
the soul might enter to its former tenement.
In general, the Indians not only believed in the immortality of
the souls of the human family, but they believed that all animals are
endowed with immortal spirits, and that, after death, they possess
supernatural power to punish any one who has dared to despise them
or make unnecessary waste of their race. So that when they deified
any of these animals they imagined that they had the aid of their souls,
imparting to them the power or destructive quality the animal in life
possessed.
Peter Jones says that the Indians had an idea that living trees
possessed the sense of feeling, and that to cut them down put them in
pain, and that some of their pow-wows or medicine-men pretended to
hear the wailing of the forest trees when suffering under the operation
of the hatchet or ax. They were, therefore, superstitious on the subject
of cutting down green or living trees, fearing the consequences that
might follow from the spirits of the forest in retaliation for such act
of destruction.
Among the Iroquois, says Mr. Morgan, heaven Avas the abode of
the Great Spirit, the final home of the faithful. They believed that
there was a road down from heaven to every man's habitation. On
this invisible way the soul ascended in its heaver
ly
flight, until it
reached its celestial habitation. After taking its final departure the
soul was supposed to ascend higher and higher on its heavenly way,.
IIELIGION. 351
gradually moving towards the westward, until it came out upon the
plains of heaven. The same authority informs us that with the Iro-
quois people heaven was not regarded as a hunting-ground, as among
other native tribes. Subsistence in after life, in their opinion, had
ceased to be necessary ; that when the faithful partook of the sponta-
neous fruits around them it was for the gratification of taste and not
for the support of life.
The Creeks believed in a good and bad spirit, and a future state
of rewards and punishments. They believed that the Good Spirit
inhabits some distant, unknown region, where game is plenty and goods
very cheap, where corn grows all the year round, and the springs of
pure water are never dried up.
They believed also that the bad spirit lives a great way off, in
some dismal swamp, which is full of galling briers, and that he is com-
monly half-starved, having no game or bear's oil in all his territories.
They had an opinion that droughts, floods, famines, and their miscar-
riages in war, were produced by the agency of the bad spirit. But of
all these things they seem to have had only confused and irregular
ideas and some special opinions.
The Chickasaws believed in a Great Spirit, by whom they were
created ; but they did not believe in any punishment after death. They
believed that the spirit leaves the body as soon as it dies, and that it
assumes the shape of the body, and moves about among the Chickasaws
in great joy. They believed that the spirits of all the Chickasaws go
back to Mississippi, in the country in which they took up their abode
at the end of their journey from the west, and join the spirits of those
who have died there; and then all the spirits will return to the west
before the world is destroyed by fire.
A part of the Winnebago Indians believed that the paradise of
souls is above, but did not define its particular location in the heavens.
Some said that good Indians go, after death, to the paradise above^
and that bad Indians go to the west ; others believe that this paradise
is located in the west, and that all go there. Those who believed in
the latter theory generally located their land of souls on an island far
in the west.
There seems to have been a general belief, among all the Indian
nations, that the country of the happy future was seated somewhere to
the westward, and was reached by a journey in that direction, the same
as civilized or christian people, in speaking of heaven, locate it above.
Col. Dodge, in his book entitled "Plains of the AVest," speaking
of the religion among the numerous tribes of Indians of the Plains, or
what was then the great wild west, says their religious creed was a
352
wide one; that all persons of all ages, colors or beliefs, who died
unscalped or unstrangled, will meet in that final heaven of bliss; that
each goes there just as he was here; with the same passions, feelings,
wishes and needs; his favorite pony is killed at his burying place, to
enjoy an eternity of beautiful pasture, or to bear the master in war or
in chase ; that he will need arms to defend himself against enemies,
therefore his bow and quiver, or other weapons of defense, are buried
with him. He will need fire, so flint and steel, or a box of matches,
are included in the outfit for his final journey.
The personal misfortunes and peculiarities which an Indian has in
this 'life, they believe follow him beyond the grave. A one-legged
man in this life is one-legged through all eternity; one who loses his
sight here goes blind through all the eternal life. There is no such
thing as growing older there, consequently they believe every one
remains forever at exactly the age at which he entered the new life.
The puling infant, the decrepit hag, the young girl or stalwart Avarrior,
as each dies, so remains through all eternity. A body emaciated or
distracted by pain or disease, sends on the long journey a soul which
suffers in the same way. This affords another reason or explanation
why an Indian warrior, overtaken by his enemies, so cheerfully meets
his fate of death.
According to John R. Jewitt, who was several years a captive
(something over eighty years ago) among the Indians, in what is now
Washington Territory, on the northwestern coast, those Indians
believed in the existence of a supreme, Great Good Spirit, who was one
great Tyee^ or chief in the sky, who gave them their fish and all other
means of subsistence ; they also, like other Indians, believed that there
was an evil spirit who was the author of all evil. Their usual place
of worship of the Great Spirit appeared to be the water. When-
ever they bathed they addressed some words of prayer to him, entreat-
ing that he would preserve them in health and give them good success
in fishing and other undertakings. The same authority, however,
says that those Indians had no belief in a future existence; that in his
effort to instill such belief into their minds, they could comprehend
nothing of what was said, and pointing to the ground on the occasion
of the burial of one of their number, the chief remarked that that wâs
the end of him, and he was like that. This people, it appears, had no
superstitions whatever about ghosts or subordinate spirits, like most
of the Indian tribes of the continent
The Senecas, one of the Iroquois Six Nations, believed in a Great
Good Spirit, whom they called Mau-wah-7ie-u, who Avas the creator of
the world and every good thing. They also believed in a bad spirit,
RELIGION. 353
whom they called Ha-ne-go-at-geh, the
"
Evil Minded," whom they
believed to be the brother of the Great, Good Spirit, but was less pow-
erful than he, and who was opposed to him and everyone that wished
to be good. They believed that this evil spirit made all the evil
things of earth, such as snakes, wolves and all other boisterous or
noxious animals of that kind.
Charlevoix says that some Indians are of opinion that all human
bodies have two souls; that one never leaves the body but to go into
another. The Indians thought that the soul, which so faithfully
remained to keep company with the body, must be fed, and it was to
fulfill this duty that they carried provisions to "the tombs or graves of
the dead ; a practice so well marked in Indian custom.
According to Mr. Catlin, the Mandans believed in the existence of
a Great or Good Spirit, and also an evil spirit; the latter of whom
they said existed long before the Good Spirit, and is far superior in
power. They all believed in a future state of existence and future
rewards and punishments. But they believed that those punishments
were not eternal, but commensurate with their sins. As this people
lived in a country where they suffered from cold in the severity of
winter, they very naturally reversed our ideas of heaven and hell; the
latter they describe as a country very far to the north, of barren and
hideous aspects, and covered with eternal snows and ice. The terrors
of this freezing place they described as most excrutiating ; whilst
heaven they believed to be in a milder and more congenial latitude,
where nothing was felt but the purest enjoyment, and where the
country abounded in buffaloes and all the luxuries of life. Those who
went to the regions of punishment, they believed, were tortured for a
time in proportion to their transgressions, and then transferred to the
land of the happy, where they were again liable to the temptations of
the evil spirit, and again answerable for other new offenses.
The primitive Indians offered sacrifices or burnt offerings to the
Great Spirit or Giiclii-ManUo; but they were not sacrifices of living
creatures, but, as La Honton informs us, were sacrifices of goods or
articles of property. He says that in one day the Indians burnt, as a
sacrifice to the Great Spirit, at Missilimaldnac^ 50,000 crowns worth
of goods, which were received of the French in exchange for beaver
skins. These religious ceremonies, he informs us, are required to be
at a time when the air is clear and serene, and the weather fair and
calm ; everyone brought his offering, which was laid upon a pile of
wood, of which the fire was to be kindled. When the sun mounted
higher, a ring was made around the pile, each with a piece of bark
lighted in order to set the pile on fire, and the warriors danced around
23
and sang iTntil the whole was burnt, when the old men made their
harrangues or invocations addressed to Gitche- Ilaniio, and presented
him, from time to time, with pipes of tobacco lighted, at the sun.
This ceremony generally lasted till sunset, allowing some intervals of
rest, at which they sat down and smoked leisurely. Of their praises
or invocations to GUche-Manito or the Great Spirit on such occasions,
the following example, which is given by La Hontan, sums up in a
degree the essential points in the native Indian theology, and well
illustrates their devotional spirit:
*' Great Spirit, Master of our Lives; Great Spirit, Master of all
Things, both Visible and Invisible; Great Spirit, Master of other
Spirits, whether Good or Evil, command the Good Spirits to favor thy
Children, the Outaoiias, etc. Command the Evil Spirits to keep at a
distance from 'em. O Great Spirit, keep up the Strength and Cour-
age of our Warriors, that they may be able to stem the fury of our
Enemies ; Preserve the Old Persons whose Bodies are not yet quite
wasted, that they may give Counsel to the Young. Preserve our
Children, enlarge their Number, deliver 'em from evil spirits, to the
end that in our old Age, they may prove our Support and Comfort;
preserve our Harvest and our Beasts, if thou mean'st that they should
not die from Hunger; Take care of our Tillages, and guard our
Huntsmen in their Hunting Adventures. Deliver us from all Fatal
surprizes, when thou ceasest to vouchsafe us the Light of the Sun,
which speaks thy Grandeur and Power. Acquaint us by the Spirit of
Dreams, with what thy Pleasure requires of us, or prohibits us to do.
When it pleases thee to put a Period to our Lives, send us to the great
Country of Souls, where we may meet with those of our Fathers,
our Mothers and our Wives, our Children and our Relations. O Great'
Spirit, Great Spirit, hear the Voice of the Nation, give ear to thy
Children, and remember them at all times."
Bev. Isaac McCoy says that the religious opinions of Indians
who have received no impressions from other people are remarkably
uniform, excluding the absurdity of idol worship, and embracing the
fundamental truths of the existence of God and his overruling provi-
dence, man's accountability, the immortality of the soul, future rewards
and punishments, a consciousness of guilt for offenses against God,
etc. Their external ceremonies embrace sacrifices for the purpose of
propitiating the Deity, and festivals, accompanied with music, dancing,
speeches, unmeaning noises, etc. Mr. McCoy, in this connection,
advances the opinion that the ancient mounds found in this country
were erected as places of worship from high places, according to-
custom spoken of in scripture among the ancients.
1
CHAPTEE XXYI.
Multitude of SpiritsManifested in Mysterious WaysOmens among the Stars and
CloudsFlight of BirdsSuperstition about the RobinThunder God of the
OjibwaysSuperstition of the OjibwaysCreek Indians had Sacred Plants
Buffalo BloodMagic PropertiesSuperstitions of the War BonnetLarge

Animals Objects of SuperstitionWhite Animals Objects of WorshipLarge
Animals Believed to Possess Powerful SpiritsSpiritualism an Old Story among
the DakotasTendency to Believe Everything is Inhabited by SpiritsLegend
of a Mythical Bird Singing at EveningsSacred Character of FireDreams
Believed inSuperstitions of the Indian and the White Man do not Essentially
Differ.
'îr^cV
ISTORY has no record of
-^
any people not possessiniJ^
some degree of supersti-
tion. The xlmerican In-
dians had a system of super-
stition that can be accounted
for in no other way than by their
faith in a multitude of spirits,
manifested to them in various
a n d mysterious ways. The
significance which Indian super-
stition giyes, as omens, to signs
in the heayens among the stars
and clouds, or to aspects, inci-
dents or objects around them, which attract their attention, will either
quicken their minds to joy, or strike their souls with terror.
They are close observers of the flight of birds. Their motions
in the "upper deep" are studied as a page of revelation. The gyra-
tions of birds of prey are most intently watched, as they are believed
to presage events of peace or war.
"
Where the carcass is, there are
the eagles gathered together," is the image strongly thrown forward
in their war songs and chants.
The birds of the carnivorous species are familiar with the upper
currents of the atmosphere, where the gods of the air are supposed to
(3:5)
356
dwell ; hence their associations in the Indian mind with the deities of
battle, as messengers to carry intelligence.
Minute attention is also given to the meteorology of the clouds.
Their size, their shape, their color, their motions, with their relative
position to the sun, and the horizon, form the subject of a branch of
Indian knowledge which is in the liands of their medas and prophets.
Important events are often decided by predictions founded on such
observations. The imagery of this exalted view of the celestial
atmosphere, with its starry background, and its warfare of thunder,
lightning, electricity and storm, is very much employed in their per-
sonal names, either from superstition or taste. This imagery is
capable of the grandest construction and is highly poetic.
While the eagle and the vulture are known to be held in high
esteem by various Indian tribes, we lind, by research, that birds are
generally regarded as the especial messengers of
"
GUchi-ManUoy
A page or two relating to the Indian folk lore, telling us of the wonder-
ful power with which birds are endowed, will be read with interest.
Yelil^ the Crow, is looked upon by the Thlinkeets as their Cre-
ator. It is believed to have beaten back the dark waters of chaos
with its wings.
Indian tradition tells us that the wind is produced either by a
bird or a serpent. The owl produces the north wind, the butterfly
the south wind.
A very pretty Indian tradition is, that the robin was once an
Indian woman, who fasted a long time, and just before she was turned
into a bird she painted her breast, and, as she flew away, she laughed
for joy, but left the promise that she would return to her friends early
in each spring-time through all the coming years. If there was to be
peace and plenty, she declared she would come laughing ; but if war
or trouble, her voice should convey the prophecy of evil tidings.
Among some of the far western tribes, we are told that the belief
exists that animals were created before the light. Many accidents
were the result of this condition, one of which resulted in light being
produced. A hawk, happening to fly into the face of a coyote, mutual
apologies and a long discussion on the emergency of the situation,
followed. The result of the discussion was that the coyote got ready
a ball of inflammable material and some pieces of flint. These the
hawk took and flew with them into the sky, where he struck fire and
lighted his ball, and sent it onward, as it continues to move with its
bright and shining light, for it was the sun. In the Chibeha history
of creation, the blackbird is a prominent actor in carrying light over
the world.
357
The Ojibways consider the thunder to be a god in the shape of a
large eagle, that feeds on serpents; and that it has its abode on the
top of a high mountain in the west, where it lays its eggs and hatches
its young. Hence,
*'
young thunder
"
is something more than a figure
of speech to the children of the forests.
Rev. Peter Jones, an Ojibway Indian, gives the following tradi-
tional instances current among his people, on the aforesaid subject:
An Indian who was said to have ventured, at the risk of his life, to
visit the abode of the thunders, after fasting and offering devotion to
the thunder, with much difficulty ascended the mountain, the top of
which reached to the clouds. To his great astonishment he there
saw the thunder's nest, where a brood of young thunders had been
hatched. He saw here, also, all sorts of curious bones of serpents,
on the flesh of which the old thunders had been feeding their young,
and the bark of the young cedar trees peeled and stripped, on which
the young thunders had been trying their skill in shooting their
arrows before going abroad to hunt serpents.
Of another tradition, he says that a party of Indians were travel-
ing on an extensive plain, when they came upon two young thunders
lying in their nest in their downy feathers, the old thunders being
absent. Some of the party took their arrows, and, with the point,
touched the eyes of the young thunders. The moment they did so
their arrows were shivered to pieces. One of the party, more cautious
than his companions, entreated them not to meddle with them ; but
the foolish young men would not listen, but continued to tease and
finally killed them. Soon after, a black cloud appeared, advancing
towards them with great fury. Presently the thunder began to roar
and send forth volumes of its fiery indignation. It was evident that
the old thunders were enraged on account of the destruction of their
young. Soon, with a tremendous crash, the arrows of the mighty
thunder-god fell on the foolish young men and destroyed them ; but
the more cautious and good Indian escaped unhurt.
John Tanner, in his narrative of his thirty years' captivity among
the Ojibway Indians, speaks of the occasion of a severe thunder storm
one night, when one of the Indians of their camp, becoming much
alarmed at the violence of the storm, got up and offered some tobacco
to the thunder, entreating it to stop.
He says that in the morning, after the storm, they found an elm
tree near by, which had been struck and set on fire by lightning and
was still burning; and that the Indians had a superstitious dread of
this fire, and none of them would go to get some of it to replace theirs,
which had been extinguished by rain. He at last went and brought
>'
358
some of the fire himself, though, he said, not without apprehension.
Whilst he had fewer fears than the Indians, yet, he confesses, he was
not entirely free from the same unfounded apprehensions which so
constantly pursue them.
Some Indians believe, as before mentioned in a preceding chapter,
that the Great Spirit specially presides over the extraordinary works
of nature, such as lakes, rivers, cataracts or mountains that are of an
uncommon size, and to whom they pay special adoration when visiting
places or objects of this character, and there present to him some kind
of offering in token of their adoration. An instance of this kind is
given by Capt. Jonathan Carver, in the case of a young prince (as he
styles him) of the Winnebago Indians, whom he fell in with in his
travels, and who accompanied him to the Falls of St. Anthony. He
says:
"The prince had no sooner gained the point that overlooks this
wonderful cascade, than he began with an audible voice to address the
Groat Spirit, one of whose places of residence he imagined this to be.
He told him he had come a long way to pay his adoration to him, and s
now would make him the best offering in his power. He accordingly
first threw his pipe into the stream ; then the roll that contained his
tobacco; after these, the bracelets he wore on his arms and wrists;
next, an ornament that encircled his neck, composed of beads and wires;
and at last, the ear rings from his ears; in short, he presented to his
God every part of his dress that was valuable; during this he fre-
quently smote his breast with great violence, threw his arms about,
and appeared to be much agitated.
"All this while he continued his adorations, and at length con-
cluded them with fervent petitions that the Great Spirit would
constantly afford us his protection on our travels, giving us a bright sun,
a blue sky, and clear, untroubled waters ; nor would he leave the place
until we had smoked together, with my pipe, in honor of the Great
Spirit."
The Indians of southern California always hunt in pairs, through
the superstitious fear of the spirit of animals. They believe that good
luck will forsake them if they eat of the game that their own hands
have killed. Hence, they exchange game with each other at the close
of the day's hunt.
An Ojibway can rarely be induced to speak his own name, being
early taught that speaking it will lessen his stature. The New
England tribes never mention the name of one who is dead, for fear of
some evil that would follow.
A cruel superstition existed among some of the tribes of the
INDIAN SUPERSTITION. 359
western plains, that of sacrificing a female slave on various suspicious
notions, as that of averting the displeasure of the spirits.
The Creek Indians had seven sacred plants which they regarded
with superstitious observance.
It was a belief among some of the Ojibways that buffalo blood had
magic properties, and that bathing in it would keep them from harm
in battle.
A superstition prevailed among the tribes of the great western
plains, and some tribes in the mountains beyond, that a warrior in
battle who wore upon his head a war bonnet, so called, a kind of head-
dress extending down upon the back, ornamented with a certain kind
of quills, will escape danger from the arrows or bullets of his enemies.
With most Indians a strange animal was an object of superstitious
fears, and white animals were always objects of their superstition to a
greater or less extent.
The Apaches regard white birds as possessing souls. The Indians
of the plains worship the white buffalo. This animal is very rare.
Among all the American tribes large animals were believed to
possess powerful spirits, and were objects of worship or adoration.
What in modern times is termed spiritualism, was, with the
Dakota Indians, an old story. They practiced summoning spirits of
the dead, and questioned them concerning friends and relatives at a
distance, or of their own ventures or future success ; all this with light
extinguished, as is the present custom of spiritualism. Usually, the
presence of the spirits was invoked while the mediums were sitting
covered with blankets and singing in a low tone.
The tendency of the Indian mind is to the belief that everythiug
is inhabited by spirits. On this subject, we may add that science
no longer puts aside, as beneath its notice, new facts that do not fit old
theories; and the mind is less disturbed by the thought of spirits
assuming various forms and taking on material shapes than in any other
period of the world's history. There is, at this day, a large class of
our own race who assert that they can make the spirits of the dead
answer them at will, and who claim to hold communion with friends
from the spirit world.
The American Indians have a beautiful legend of a mystical bird
that comes only in summer evenings, when the moon is full, and sings
in the grove, beside their wigwams, songs of the spirit land, that give
tidings pf their departed friends.
One of the most curious opinions or superstitions of this people is
their belief in the mysterious and sacred character of fire. Sacred
fire was obtained from the flint. None other was used for national or
religious purposes, after that mode of making fire became known to
the Indians. Fire was always considered by them a symbol of purity.
Dreams are considered by the Indians as a direct communication
from the spirit world. It is said that the boldest warrior will wake
with shudderings from a profound sleep, and nothing will bend his
will to a course which he has thus been instructed to avoid. A whole
family have been known to desert their lodge at midnight, because one
of their number had an ominous dream of blood and tomahawks. The
dream of a brave, whose character or counsel carries weight with it,
will often decide the issue of peace or war for his tribe.
Among the ancient Jews, dreams were supposed to proceed from
God, and, if bad, inspired fear and provoked prayer.
It is said by an officer of the United States navy, speaking on the
subject of superstition among the tribes of California, Oregon and
Washington Territory, that they are very superstitious, and liable to
be deceived by jugglers or professed dreamers ; but, he remarks, he
very much questions if they are more thoroughly "bamboozled and
mystified than a large proportion of our own people are by another
set of jugglers who practice their art, and make their living, surrounded
by all the intelligence and civilization of the age."
According to the notions of the white man, it is this intense
superstition of the American Indian which conduces largely in mark-
ing him as a pagan, and in pointing him out as a special object of our
attjBntion and missionary work; forgetting that the Indians are not
alone in attaching importance to dreams, the flight, motion and songs
of birds ; nor that superstition did not entirely vanish from ourselves
with the mad frenzy of the days of the Salem witchcraft.
It is a well recognized superstition, especially among the Puritan
descendants, that pigeons appearing in large flocks, presage sickness
or pestilence; whilst smaller flocks generally foretell health and hap-
piness. Wild geese flying south in the early autumn foretell an early
winter. If the hooting of an owl over the lodge of an Indian causes
dread to fill the hearts of the inmates, the crowing of a domestic hen
is no less a sign of terror to the more enlightened race, and it was
believed that nothing short of the immediate killing of this feathered
example of "feminine rights" would avert from the household some
pending disaster, thus foretold.
In the opinion of the white man, it is a good sign for swallows to
build their nest at the window of his dwelling, and children are early
taught to believe that to destroy a swallow's nest, thus built, will bring
misfortune to the family. The four leaf clover lightens the heart of
the finder, as being sure to bring good luck ; and a horseshoe is found
4
t
INDIAN SUPERSTITION. 361
in cottage and mansion as an emblem of like import. At weddings,
funerals and baptisms, superstition figures largely in the display or
mode of conducting the ceremonies. The tick of the death-watch in
the wall is cause for the deepest anxiety, as a warning of approaching
death of some one of the family.
If a white or brown spider spins his web before you, good tidings
await you, but if it is a black spider, it forebodes sorrow or disaster.
The howl of a dog or lowing of cattle in the night are heard with
apprehension.
A suspicious dread of evil will fill the hearts of the aborigines
and Anglo-Saxon alike, if a rabbit chance to cross his path. With the
Iroquois, amulets were worn to ward off witches; and so with the
"Mohawk Dutchman," a horseshoe was put over the door of his dwell-
ing for the like purpose.
Many of the foregoing superstitions, in some instances, so deep
rooted in our prejudices, have come with our ancestors across the sea,
and become a part of our own mystic household philosophy, and yet
we wonder at the superstition of the untutored Indian.
The English poet, in his masterly essay on man, has given us the
following suggestion concerning Indian superstition, as viewed by the
average mind, which may afford an appropriate field for a moment's
reflection.
"
Lo, the poor ladian, whose untutored mind,
Sees God in clouds and hears him in the wind."
And yet, by the writings of the Jews, like accounts are given of
the manifestation of the Divine voice and His holy presence among
men, as here assigned to the imagination of the untutored Indian; and
yet, for this, we have never styled that people the untutored Jews.
This idea, thus expressed, is but the outcropping of that misconcep-
tion existing in the prejudiced mind of the white man. If the tutor-
ing of the savage mind is to be accomplished with those barren results
which have attended our own efforts at reforming society and restrain-
ing
wickedness and sin among ourselves, then it may be well for the
poor Indian that he has remained in ignorance of the calamities to
overtake him, when his mind shall have become tutored up to the
standard of our own civilization; that is, if we would believe what we
say of ourselves and read in the newspapers.
CHAPTER XXVII.
WITCHCRAFT.
Pagan Character of the Indian Marked by His Belief in WitchcraftThe Civilized
White Man and Pagan Indian Compared in this RegardThe Indian's Fear of
Supernatural AgenciesBelief in Witchcraft was UniversalEffect upon their
Prosperity and Population- Among the Iroquois LeagueWizards, a Secret
Association Meeting at NightTradition among the Onondagas Indian Pow-
wowsConjurers and Medicine MenWitchesWizardsTheir Powers and
CharacteristicsWitches in the Shape of AnimalsThe Puritan Idea of Witches-
Ignorance Charged upon the Indian for his Belief in WitchesReference to the
Learned Sir Mathew HaleWho Tried and Convicted Two Old Women for the
Crime of being Witches.
THE GREAT HEAD.
It was a common belief among Indians that there
was a human-like creature, < onsisting simply of a head
marie terrific with large eyes, and covered with long
hair. Ilis home was supposed to be somewhere upon
a huge rock.
MONGST other attributes
marking the Pagan charac-
ter of the American Indian,
in the opinion of the chris-
tianized white man, was that of
his belief in witchcraft ; and,
while those devoted missionaries
of Europe were hastening to the
American continent to christian-
ize the untutored Indian and re-
claim him from his benighted
condition, the learned Sir Mathew
Hale was sitting in judgment
and condemning innocent, harm-
less old women to be burned at
the stake for the crime of witch-
craft.
However much the Indian
may pride himself upon his native
courage, braving all seasons,
baring his breast to the storm,
careless of danger, hunger, thirst
and cold, fond of displaying his
courage and firmness of charac-
(362)
WITCHCRAFT.
3G3
ter in the midst of tortures, at the very thought of which our own
natures revolt and shudder, the Indian, whose life is spent in constant
warfare against the wild beasts of the forest and savages of the wilder-
ness, possesses a weakness in his character which makes him one of
the most fearful and timid beings. The vague childish apprehension
of an unknown power, which, unless he can summon sufficient fortitude
to conquer, changes him from a hero into a coward; and such change
comes over him when he is called upon to pass from those things
material, or which he recognizes as real, to confront that which, in his
superstitious belief, he looks upon as supernatural, or that which we
call wUchcraft.
It is incredible, says Mr. Heckewelder, to what a degree the
Indians' superstitious belief in witchcraft operates upon their minds.
The moment their imagination is struck with the idea that they are
bewitched, they are no longer themselves. Their fancy is constantly
at work in creating in their minds the most horrid and distressing
images. They see themselves falling a sacrifice to the wicked arts of
a vile, unknown hand, one who would not have dared to face them in
fair combat.
The belief in witchcraft prevailed extensively among the North
American tribes, and it is known, even in more modern times, that it
was one of the principal means used by the Shawnee prophet, brother
of Tecumseh, to get rid of his opponents, and that several prominent
men of his tribe were sacrificed to this diabolical spirit. Mr. School-
craft, who investigated concerning this subject among the Iroquois,
says that the belief in witchcraft among that people was universal, and
its effects upon their prosperity and population, if tradition is to be
credited, were at times appalling.
The theory of the popular belief, as it existed in the several
-cantons of the Iroquois league, was this: The witches and wizards
constituted a secret association, which met at night to consult on mis-
chief, and each was bound by inviolable secrecy. They say that this
fraternity first arose among the Nanticokes, a tribe of the Algonquin
stock, latterly inhabiting eastern Pennsylvania. A witch or wizard
had power, they believed, to turn into a fox or wolf, and run very
swiftly, emitting flashes of light. They could also transform them-
selves into turkeys or big owls, and fly very fast. If detected or hotly
pursued, they could change into stones or rotten logs. They sought
carefully to procure the poison of snakes or poisonous roots to effect
their purpose. They could blow hairs or worms into a person.
There was formerly a tradition among the Onondagas that an old
man of their tribe, living on the Kasonda creek, where there was, in
3G4: THE AMERICAN INDIAN.
old times, a populous Indian village, and that one evening, whilst he
lived there, he stepped out of his lodge, and on doing so immediately
sank into the earth and found himself in a large room, surrounded by
three hundred witches and wizards. Next morning he went to the
council and told the chiefs of this extraordinary occurrence. They
asked him if he could identify persons he saw there ; he said that he
could. They then accompanied him to all the lodges, where he pointed
out this and that one, whereupon they were marked for execution.
Before this inquiry was ended, a very large number of both sexes were
killed for being witches.
Another tradition says that about fifty persons, charged with
being witches, were burned to death at the Onondaga castle. The
witchcraft delusion prevailed among all the cantons. The last persons
executed for witchcraft among the Oneidas, it is said, were two females,
about the year 1800, the executioner being the notorious Hon Yost of
Revolutionary memory, and the execution was done in accordance with
the decree of the council, the mode being that of striking the victims
with the tomahawk.
The Indian pow-wows^ conjurers or medicine men, (synonymous
terms), in general, united witchcraft with the application of their
medicines. Witches and wizards were persons supposed to possess
the agency of familiar spirits, from whom they received power to inflict
diseases on their enemies, and prevent the good luck of the hunter and
the success of the warrior. They were believed to fly invisible at
pleasure from place to place, and to turn themselves into bears, wolves,
foxes, and, in short, into animals of all descriptions. Such change
they pretended to accomplish by putting on the skins of such animals,
at the same time crying and howling in imitation of the animal they
wished to represent. The Indians said they had seen and heard
witches in the shape of these animals, especially the bear and the fox.
They said when a witch, in the shape of a bear, was being chased,
all at once it would run around a tree or a hill, so as to be lost sight of
for a time by its pursuers, and then, instead of seeing a bear, they would
behold an old woman walking quietly along, or picking up roots, and
looking as innocent as a lamb. The fox Avitches, they said, were
known by the flame of fire which proceeded out of their mouths every
time they barked.
It is to be noted that the harmony of opinion between the Indian
and the white man, in regard to witches, in one respect, is quite remark-
able. The white man, especially the Puritan, in general, marked the
person of a witch as an old woman. This was the general character-
istic of Indian belief. It is said that an Indian council, in condemning
WITCHCRAFT. 365
a person for being a witch, did so with great caution, lest the conjurer
should get the advantage over them and thus bewitch the whole assem-
bly. If, therefore, the witch was an innocent old woman, she would be
less liable, for want of physical capacity, to turn around and bewitch her
accusers.
The self-righteous. Christian white man, who has delighted in his
criticisms upon the character of the red man for his ignorant, unfounded
superstitions, may draw consolation, in his assumption, from the judg-
ment rendered by the learned Sir Mathew Hale, before referred to,
wherein Amy Dunny and Rose Cullender, two harmless old women of
the vicinity, were convicted and condemned to be burned at the stake,
at St. Edmondsbury, on the charge of bewitching two neighboring
children. In addressing the jury, he charged them that there were
two things they had to inquire into. First, whether or not these
children were bewitched ; secondly, whether these women did bewitch
them. He said he did not, in the least, doubt there were witches.
First, because the scriptures affirm it ; secondly, because the wisdom of
all nations, particularly their own, had provided laws against witchcraft,
which implied their belief of such a crime.
WHITE man's witchTEST BY FLOATING.
If she floats on the water she is a witch. If she sinks and drowns she is proven not a witch.
The Christian white man, who has indulged so much in his intol-
erent criticisms upon the Indian character for his barbarous practices
and ill-founded superstitions, assuming so much perfection for his own
race in this regard, should take the trouble to read a brief chapter on
the icitch mania, set out in Mackay's work, entitled "Extraordinary
Popular Delusions." He will find a history here of superstitious
beliefs and barbarous conduct of the Christian white man which far
eclipses the most extreme illustrations of Indian barbarity ever recorded
against that people.
The career of one Mathew Hopkins, whom the writer aforesaid
styles an "ill weed," who flourished amidst the long dissensions of the
36G
civil war in England, in tlie time of Cromwell, and who was styled the
"
AVitch Finder General," as occurring in an age of enlightenment and
learning, seems almost incredible, even of a half civilized country
But witches were not confined to the Old World. Thev followed
the Puritan and Christian adventurer in their emigration to New
England and Virginia, and here the judicial horror of the Old World
was continued in the condemnation and execution of innocent old
women and harmless individuals ; and, in one case, a writer observes,
*'It can hardly increase our feelings of disgust and horror that this
insane community actually tried and executed a dog for the same
offense."
Matthew Hopkms_W^tcli Fmdcf Genefdll
WHITE MAN S WITCH FINDER.
This illustration, representing Matthew Hopkins examining two witches who are confessing to him
the names of their imps and familiars, is copied from Caulfield's Memoirs of Remarkable Persons, 1794,
where it is taken from an extremely rare print.
CHAPTER XXYIII.
FASTS AND FEASTS.
The American Tribes had a Custom of Fasts and FeastsCustom of Fasts Not
FrequentCustom of Feasts Quite FrequentFeasts a Favorite Source of Ex-
citementDifferent Kinds of Feasts among Different NationsFeasts of the
White Dog UniversalGeneral Kesemblance of Feasts among AllThe Man
who Gave Many Feasts a Great Favorite with his TribeFeasts among the
OjibwaysMedicine FeastFeasts for DreamsFeast of Giving NamesWar
FeastThe Great FeastWabweno FeastFeast for the DeadFeast for His
MedicineBoys' FeastRegular Feasts of the IroquoisMaple FeastPlanting
FestivalStrawberry FestivalGreen Corn FestivalHarvest FestivalNew
Year's FestivalFasts Strictly a Religious Custom.
HARVEST FESTIVAL.
From an old picture.
5
HE custom of astiii<r
and feasting prevailed
among all the Ameri-
^^
can tribes. The oc-
casions on which fasting was
enjoined were, however, not
so very frequent. Eigorous
and long-continued fasting
was enjoined upon the young,
unmarried persons of both
sexes, beginning at a very
early age. To be able to
continue long fasting con-
ferred
an enviable distinction; the Indians therefore enjoined upon
their
children the necessity of remaining long without food. This
custom,
it is said by some, was for the purpose of inuring their
children to endure hunger in case of want from lack of a supply of
food,
which so often occurred in Indian life; and it may have been
partly designed for this end, but all the circumstances which accom-
pany these fasts leave no room to doubt that religion was the principal
motive, and the better opinion seems to be that this custom of fasting
was from religious superstition, through which they received some
spiritual benefit. Sometimes the children fasted three, five, seven, and
some, it is said, even ten days, in all of which time they took only a
(367)
368
little water, and that at distant intervals, during which they paid par-
ticular attention to their dreams, from the character of which their
parents, to whom they related them, formed an opinion of the future
life of the child.
Dreaming of things above, as birds, clouds, and the sky, was con-
sidered favorable. In these dreams, also, the children received
impressions which continued to influence their character through life.
An instance is related of a distinguished warrior, who dreamed in his
childhood, when fasting, that a bat came to him, whereupon he chose
this animal for his medicine or guardian spirit. Throughout his life
he wore the skin of a bat tied to the crown of his head, and in his war
excursions he went into battle exulting in confidence that his enemies,
who could not hit a bat on the wing, would never be able to hit him.
He distinguished himself in many battles, and killed many of his ene-
mies
;
but, throughout his long life, no bullet ever touched him ; all of
which he attributed to the protecting influence of his medicine or
guardian spirit, revealed to him in answer to his fasting in boyhood.
Feasts among all the American tribes were frequent, of which the
different kinds and occasions among some tribes were quite numerous.
When the chiefs were convened on any public business they generally
concluded with a feast, at which time their festivities and mirth knew
no bounds. There were, among all the tribes, certain stated feasts or
festivals ; but, as the Indian kept no special note of time, as that of the
annual recurrence of certain days in the year, the observances of these
feasts were suggested by the changing of the seasons, the ripening of
the fruits, or the gathering of the harvest ; the time of these feasts and
festivals, therefore, being regulated in this manner.
According to John Tanner, among the Ojibways, the parent stock
of the Algonquins, there were nine established feasts:
First. Me-tai-we-Jwon-de-ivin, Medicine feast, or that feasting
which forms a part of their great religious ceremony, the Meiai. This
is under the direction of some old men, who are called chiefs for the
Metal, and only the initiated are admitted. The guests are invited by
a Me-zhin-no-way, or chief's man of business, who delivers to each of
the guests a small stick; in the South, they use small pieces of cane;
in the North, quills, which are dyed and . kept for the purpose, are
sometimes substituted. No verbal message is delivered with this
token. Dogs are always chosen for the feast, from a belief that as they
are more sagacious and useful to men, so they will be more acceptable
to their divinities than any other animals. They believe that the food
they eat at this and some other of their feasts ascends, though in a
form invisible to them, to the Great Spirit. Besides the songs chanted
PASTS AND FEASTS. 369
on occasions of this Jeast, they have numerous exhortations from the
old men. Among much of unintelligible allusion and ridiculous
boasting, these addresses contain some moral precepts and exhortations,
intermixed with their traditionary notions concerning Na-na-hiish and
other personages of their mythology. Whenever the name of the
Great Spirit is uttered by the speaker, all the audience seem wrapped
in the deepest attention, and respond to it by the interjection Kwa-ho-
ho-ho-ho-ho! the first syllable being uttered in a quick and loud tone,
and each of the additional syllables fainter and quicker, until it ceases
to be heard. They say the speaker touches the Great Spirit when he
mentions the name, and the effect on the audience may be compared to
a blow on a tense string, which vibrates shorter and shorter, until it is
restored to rest. This peculiar interjection is also used by the Otta-
was, when they blow or shoot with their medicine skins at the persons
to be initiated.
This is a sort of special feast, participated in only by a certain
class called the 3Iedaivm, or society of the Meda, more particularly
described in another chapter of this work, entitled "Secret Societies."
Second. Wain-je-tah We-koon-de-ioin, Feasts called for by
dreams. Feasts of this kind may be held at any time, and no particu-
lar qualifications are necessary in the entertainer or his guests. The
word Wain-je-tah means common, or true, as they often use it in con-
nection with the names of plants or animals, as Wain-je-tah 0-muk-
Jcuk-ke, meaning a right or proper toad, in distinction from a tree frog
or lizard.
Third. Ween-dah-was-so-ivin, Feast of giving names. These
are had principally on occasion of giving names to children, and the
guests are expected to eat all, be it more or less, that is put into their
dishes by the entertainer. The reason they assign for requiring, at
this and several other feasts, all that has been cooked to be eaten, is,
apparently, very insufficient; namely, that they do so in imitation of
hawks, and some other birds of prey, who never return a second time
to what they have killed.
Fourth. Me-nis-se-no We-koon-de-ivin, War feast. These feasts
are made before starting, or on the way towards the enemy's country.
Two, four, eight, or twelve men, may be called, but by no means an
odd number. The Avhole animal, whether deer, bear, or moose, or
whatever it may be, is cooked, and they are expected to eat it all; and,
if it is in their power, they have a large bowl of bear's grease stand-
ing by, which they drink in place of water. Notwithstanding that a
man who fails to eat all his portion is liable to the ridicule of his more
.
gormandizing companions, it frequently happens that some of them
are compelled to make a present of tobacco to their entertainer, and
beg him to permit that they may not eat all he has given them. In
this case, and when there is no one of the company willing to eat it
for him, some one is called from without. In every part of this feast,
Avhen it is made after the warriors leave home, they take care that no
bone
of
the animal eaten shall be broken; but after stripping the flesh
from them, they are carefully tied up and hung upon a tree. The
reason they assign for preserving, in this feast, the bones of the victim
unbroken, is, that thus they may signify to the Great Spirit their
desire to return home to their own country with their bones uninjured.
Fifth. Gitche We-koon-de-win, The great feast. This is a feast
of high pretensions, which few men in any band, and only those of
principal authority, can venture to make. The animal is cooked
entire, so far as they are able to do it. This kind is sometimes called
2Iez-ziz-a-kwa-wm.
Sixth. Waiv-bun-no We-koon-de-win, Wawbeno feast. This,
and the other mummeries of the Wawbeno, which is looked upon as a
false and mischievous heresy, are now laid aside by most respectable
Indians. These feasts were celebrated with much noise and disturb-
ance, and were distinguished from all other feasts by being held
commonly in the night time, and the showing off of many tricks with
fire.
Seventh. Je-bi Naw-ka-win, Feast with the dead. This feast is
eaten at the graves of their deceased friends. They kindle a fire, and
each person, before he begins to eat, cuts off a small piece of meat,
which he casts into the fire. The smoke and smell of this, they say,
attracts the Je-bi to come and eat with them. It may here be men-
tioned that the Chinese also have the custom of similar feasts.
Eighth. Che-bah-koo-che-ga-win, Feast for his medicine. Dur-
ing one whole day in spring, and another in autumn, every good
hunter spreads out the contents of his medicine bag in the back part
of his lodge, and feasts his neighbors in honor of his medicine. This
is considered a solemn and important feast, like that of Meiai.
Ninth. 0-skin-ne-ge~tah-ga-win, Boys' feast. This might be
called the feast of the first fruits, as it is made on occasion of a boy, or a
young hunter, killing his first animal of any particular kind. From
the smallest bird or a fish, to a moose or buffalo, they are careful to
observe it.
According to Mr. Morgan, six regular festivals, or thanksgivings,
were observed by the Iroquois. The first in order of time was the
Maple festival. This was a return of thanks to the maple itself, for
yielding its sweet waters. Next was the Planting festival, designed
FASTS AND FEASTS. 371
chiefly as an invocation of the Great Spirit to bless the seed. Third
came the Strawberry festival, instituted as a thanksgiving for the first
fruits of the earth. The fourth was the Green Corn festival, designed
as a thanksgiving acknowledgment for the ripening of the corn, beans
and squashes. Next was celebrated the Harvest festival, instituted as
a general thanksgiving to "our supporters" after the gathering of the
harvest. Last in the enumeration is placed the New Year's festival,
the great jubilee of the Iroquois, at which the white dog was sacri-
ficed.
04a-de-none-ne-o Na-wa-ia, or Thanks to the Maple. This, as
before mentioned, was the first stated feast or festival of the year,
held in the spring, and usually called the Maple dance. The primary
idea in the ceremonial was to return thanks to the maple itself; at the
same time they rendered their thanks to the Great Spirit for the gift
of the maple. This occasion lasted but for one day. At the season
when the sap commenced to run, the keepers of the faith, who were
persons specially appointed in each tribe for religious cermonial pur-
poses, announced the time and place for commemorating the occurrence
of this event, and summoned the people to assemble for that purpose.
Several days beforehand, the people assembled for the mutual confes-
sion of their sins, both as an act of religious duty and as a prepara-
tion for the council. This preliminary council was called a meeting
for repentance, and was opened by one of the keepers of the faith,
with an address upon the propriety and importance of acknowledging
their evil deeds to strengthen their minds against future temptations.
Old and young, men, women and children, all united in this public
acknowledgment and joined in the common resolution of amendment.
One of the keepers of the faith first set the example of confession by
taking a string of white wampum in his hand, after which he handed
the string to the one nearest to him, who made his confession in like
manner, and passed it to another, and so on around among all assem-
bled. It was the wampum which recorded their words and gave their
pledge of sincerity.
On the morning of the day of this festival, the matrons to whom the
duty was assigned commenced the preparation of the customary feast,
which was as sumptuous as the season and their limited means would
afford. Towards mid-day the outdoor sports and games, which were
common to such occasions, were suspended, and the people assembled
in council. An opening speech was then delivered by one of the
keepers of the faith, of which, according to Mr. Morgan, the follow-
ing was the usual form
:
"Friends and Eelatives: The sun, the ruler of the dav, is
372
high in his patli, and we must hasten to do our duty. "We are assem-
bled to observe an ancient custom. It is an institution handed down
to us by our forefathers. It was given to them by the Great Spirit.
He has ever required of his people to return thanks to him for all
blessings received. We have always endeavored to live faithful to this
wise command.
"Friends and relatives, continue to listen: It is to perform this
duty that we are this day gathered. The season when the maple tree
yields its sweet waters has again returned. We are all thankful that
it is so. We therefore expect all of you to join in our general thanks-
giving to the maple. We also expect you to join in a thanksgiving to
the Great Spirit, who has wisely made this tree for the good of man.
We hope and expect that order and harmony will prevail.
"
Friends and relatives: We are gratified to see so many here, and
we thank you all that you have thought well of this matter. We thank
the Great Spirit that he has been kind to so many of us, in sparing
our lives to participate again in the festivities of this season. Na-lio.''^
The Iroquois generally concluded their customs with the word
Na-ho, signifying
"
I have done." Other speeches, in the nature of
exhortations to duty, followed from various persons and sages assembled
among the multitude. These were followed by a dance, usually that
which was called the G^êat Feather dance (O-sto-weh-go-ioa), which was
performed by a select band in full costume, reserved for religious
councils and great occasions. Other dances followed, in which all
participated. Before the ceremonies were ended the thanksgiving
address was made to the Great Spirit, with the burning of tobacco as
an offering, after which the people partook of the feast, then separated,
and repaired to their homes
A-yent-wa-ta, or Planting festival. This word signifies the plant-
ing season. When this season arrived, it was always observed by a
feast or festival. The season of planting was usually determined by
certain manifestations in nature or progress of vegetation, as that of
the voice of the whippoorwill, or that when the leaves of the trees
became as large as a mouse's ear. This, like that of the Maple festi-
val, continued but one day, and in its observances and ceremonies was
similar to that occasion. The following is the form of the opening
address generally in use among the Senecas in this latter festival
:
"
Great Spirit, who dwellest alone, listen now to the words of thy
people here assembled. The smoke of our offering arises. Give
kind attention to our words, as they arise to thee in the smoke. We
thank thee for this return of the planting season. Give us a good
season, that our crops may be plentiful.
"Continue to listen, for the smoke yet arises. (Throwing on
tobacco). Preserve us from all pestilential diseases. Give strength
to us all, that we may not fall. Preserve our old men among us, and
protect the young. Help us to celebrate with feeling the ceremonies
of this season. Guide the minds of thy people, that they may remem-
ber thee in all their actions. iVrt-/io."
The concluding address was as follows:
"
Great Spirit, listen to the words of thy suffering children.
They come to thee with pure minds. If they have done wrong, they
have confessed, and turned their minds (at the same time holding up
the string of white wampum with which the confession was recorded )
.
Be kind to us. Hear our grievances, and supply our wants. Direct
that He-no may come, and give us rain, that our Supporters may not
fail us, and bring famine to our homes. Na-lioy
Ha-nuii-da^-yo, or Berry festival. In the progress of the season,
next came the Strawberry festival, the earth's first fruit of the season.
The Iroquois seized upon this spontaneous gift of the Great Spirit, or
as they styled him Ha-tceii-ne-yu, as another suitable occasion for a
feast or festival of thanksgiving. The observances at this festival were
substantially the same as those at the festival of the Maple, with varia-
tions of terms to designate the particular occasion, which was concluded
with a feast of strawberries mixed with maple sugar, prepared in the
form of a jelly, upon which the people feasted. The ripening of the
whortleberry was often made the occasion of another festival in like
manner and form as the Strawberry festival.
Ah-dake^-ica-o, or Green Corn festival. This word, or that from
which it is derived, signifies a feast. It continued four days, the pro-
ceedings of each day being different in many essential particulars, but
each terminating with a feast. When the green corn became fit for
use the Indian made it another occasion for feasting, rejoicing, and
general thanksgiving to the Great Spirit. On the first day of this fes-
tival, after introductory speeches were made, the Feather dance, the
thanksgiving address, with the burning of tobacco, and three or four
other dances, made up the principal exercises. The second day com-
menced Avitli the usual address, after which they had a thanksgiving
dance, which was the principal religious exercise of the day, inter-
spersed with thanksgiving speeches and songs. The following is a
collection of these thanksgiving speeches, well illustrating the Indian's
grateful character and devotion to the Great Spirit:
*'We return thanks to our mother, the earth, which sustains us."
"We return thanks to the rivers and streams, which supply us
with water."
"We return thanks to all herbs, which furnish medicine for the
cure of our diseases."
"
We return thanks to the corn, and her sisters, the beans and
squashes, which give us life."
"
AVe return thanks to the bushes and trees, which provide us with
fruit."
"We return thanks to the wind, which, moving the air, has ban-
ished diseases."
"We return thanks to the moon and stars, which have given to us
their light when the sun was gone."
"We return thanks to our grandfather, He-no, that he has pro-
tected his grandchildren from witches and reptiles, and has given to us
his rain."
"We return thanks to the sun, that he has looked upon the earth
with a beneficient eye. Lastly, we return thanks to the Great Spirit,
in whom is embodied all goodness, and who directs all things for the
good of his children."
The third morning was set apart for a thanksgiving concert, called
the Ah-do-weh, which constituted the chief ceremony of the day. The
occasion was opened by an appropriate introductory speech from one
of the keepers of the faith. The ceremonies or worship consisted of a
succession of short speeches from different persons, one after another,
returning thanks to a great variety of objects, each one following his
speech with an appropriate song, the words of which, and sometimes
the music also, were of his own composing. In a chorus to each song,
all the people joined, after which two or three dances were introduced
before the enjoyment of the feast, with which the proceedings of the
day terminated. On the fourth day, the festival was concluded witii
the peach stone game, Gus-ga-a, a game of chance on which they
wagered profusely.
Da-yo-nun^-neo-qua Na De-o-ha^-ko, or Harvest festival. After
the gathering of the harvest, the Iroquois held another great thanks-
giving for four days. The name given to this . festival signifies
"Thanksgiving to our Supporters." It was instituted primarily, it is
said, to return thanks to the corn, beans and squashes, which were also
characterized by the Iroquois under this figurative name, our support-
ers, (the same as we are in the habit of calling bread the
staff of life),
also to the tribe of spirits who are so intimately connected, in their
minds, with these plants themselves, that they are nearly inseparable.
The resulting object, however, of all these Indian rites, was praise of
Ha-wen-ne-yu. In occasions under this head, the ceremonies and fes-
tivities of each day resembled that of the Green Corn festival.
The poet Longfellow, in his
'*
Song of Hiawatha," thus refers to
the Harvest festival or Feast of Mondamin
:
"
And still later, when the Autumn
Changed the long, green leaves to yellow,
And the soft and juicy kernels
Grew like wampum hard and yellow,
Then the ripened ears he gathered.
Stripped the withered husks from off them,
As he once had stripped the wrestler,
Gave the first feast of Mondamin."
Gi-ye-wa-no-us-qua~go-wa, or New Years jubilee. The name
given this festival literally signifies "The most excellent faith," or
"the supreme belief," the word being analyzed as follows: Gi-ye^-ica^
faith or belief ; no-us-qua (superlative), excellent or best; and go^-wa,
great or supreme. The ceremonies, on this occasion, were such as
were deemed by the Iroquois appropriate in ushering in the New Year.
This religious ceremony was held in midwinter, about the first of Feb-
ruary, and continued for seven successive days, revealing in its cere-
monials nearly every feature in their religious system. The most
prominent peculiarity characterizing this jubilee, and indicating what
they understood by the most excellent faith, was the burning of the
white dog, on the fifth day of the festival, or feast of the wîite dog,
a custom prevailing generally throughout all the tribes of the conti-
nentanother evidence in their customs strongly marking the unity of
the American tribes. Among other ceremonies during this festival
was the following, as given by Mr. Morgan:
"The observances of the new year were commenced on the day
appointed, by two of the keepers of the faith, who visited every house
in and about the Indian village, morning and evening. They were
disguised in bear skins, or buffalo robes, which were secured around
their heads with wreaths of corn -husks, and then gathered in loose
folds about the body. Wreaths of corn-husks were also adjusted
around their arms and ankles. Thev were robed in this manner, and
painted by the matrons, who, like themselves, were keepers of the
faith, and by them were they commissioned to go forth in this formi-
dable attire, to announce the commencement of the jubilee. Taking
corn-pounders in their hands, they went out in company, on the morn-
ing of the day, to perform their duty. Upon entering a house, they
saluted the inmates in a formal manner, after which one of them, strik-
ing upon the floor to restore silence and secure attention, thus addressed
them
:
"'Listen, Listen, Listen: The ceremonies which the Great Spirit
has commanded us to perform are about to commence. Prepare your
370 THE. AMERICAN INDIAN.
houses. Clear away the rubbish. Drive out all evil animals. We
wish nothing to hinder or obstruct the coming observances. We
enjoin upon every one to obey our requirements. Should any of your
friends be taken sick and die, we command you not to mourn for them,
nor allow any of your friends to mourn. But lay the body aside, and
enjoy the coming ceremonies with us. When they are over, we will
mourn with you.' After singing a short thanksgiving song they
passed out."
The foregoing injunction of these "keepers of the faith" singu-
larly finds a corresponding incident in the gospel of St. Luke, wherein
it is written: "And he said unto another, Follow me. But he said,
Lord, suffer me first to go and bury my father. Jesus said unto him,
Let the dead bury their dead ; but go thou and preach the kingdom
of God. And another also said. Lord, I will follow thee; but let me
first go bid them farewell, which are at home at my house. And
Jesus said unto him, No man, having put his hand to the plough, and
looking back, is fit for the kingdom of God." St. Luke, ix, 59, 60,
61, 62.
Li this connection Mr. Morgan pays the following tribute to the
devotional spirit and religious character of the Indian
:
"The fruits of their religious sentiments, among themselves,
were peace, brotherly kindness, charity, hospitality, integrity, truth
and friendship; and towards the Great Spirit, reverence, thankfulness
and faith. More wise than the Greeks and Romans in this great par-
ticular, they concentrated all divinity into one Supreme Being; more
confiding in the people than the priestly class of Egypt, their religious
teachers brought down the knowledge of the 'Unutterable One' to
the minds of all. Eminently pure and spiritual, and internally con-
sistent with each other, the beliefs and the religious ceremonies of the
Iroquois are worthy of a respectful consideration."
CHAPTEE XXIX.
Coinc'dences with Nations of the Old WorldNo Fear of DeathCeremonies Much
Like the JewsRelatives of the Deceased put on Coarse Garments
Women as
"Hired Mourners "Offering Made During Time of Mourning
Ojibways
CustomAttended with Much InterestOffering Food to the D*adCremation
among Some TribesInstance Kelated Mourning
Cradle of ChildCustom
Never to Mention Name of the DeceasedBury Body East and WestReasons
ThereforNo Enduring Monuments.
MANDAN CEMETEKY.
^ÂNY of the incidents
"Illy
riw
and customs related
under this head lead
us to note the re-
markable coincidence with
those we find in the customs
among nations of the Old
World, thereby affording an-
other instance affirming the
theory of the affinity of the
American Indians with the
inhabitants of the other con-
tinents.
To
"
the man without fearthis stoic of the wood," death has no
terror. Its coming is rather an event of joy. He meets his sum-
mons to the land of the Eternal with the hope of fairer fields and
happier hunting-grounds. Calm and unmoved in spirit, the Indian
faces death. His fortitude, as he makes his exit from this life, even
from youth to old age, under all circumstances, has been the theme of
much comment and unsettled
opinion. Death to the red man is only
a release from all the ills of the present existence, and he goes
onward to eternal life with a fearless faith in a future of never failing
happiness.
The ceremonies that attend upon the death and burial of any
member of an Indian tribe or family, are much like those recorded of
like ceremonies among the Jews of the olden time.
(377)
When a death occurs, the near relatives of the deceased put on
coarse and tattered garments, blacken their faces, and, sitting upon the
floor near the departed, bewail their dead in tones of the deepest grief
and despair. In many of the tribes the custom of calling in women
as
"
hired mourners," to aid in honoring the dead, prevails. These
women take their places near the body of the deceased, and keep up a
constant wail until exhausted, when another set take their places, and
thus the mourning and great lamentation is kept up until after the
burial. The coarse garments are worn a year, which is the usual time
of mourning for a deceased parent, husband or wife.
The first few days after the death of the relative are spent in
retirement and fasting. During the whole of their mourning, they
make an offering of a portion of their daily food to the dead, and this
they do by putting a part of it in the fire, which burns while they are
eating. They deem this very acceptable on account of its igniting
the moment it touches the fire. Occasionally they visit the grave of
the dead, and there make a feast and an offering to the departed spirit.
Tobacco is never forgotten at these times. All the friends of the dead
will, for a long time, wêar leather strings tied around their wrists and
ankles for the purpose of reminding them of their deceased relatives.
At the expiration of a year, the widow or widower is allowed to
marry again. Should this take place before the year expires, it is con-
sidered not only a want of affection for the memory of the dead, but
a great insult to the relations, who have a claim on the person during
the days of mourning.
Among the Ojibways, a custom observed by the widows was that
of tying up a bundle of clothes, somewhat in the form of a small
child, frequently tastefully ornamented, and which she would carry
about or have constantly near her, as a memorial of her departed hus-
band. When the days of mourning were ended, a feast was prepared
by some of her relatives, at which she appeared in her best attire,
having for the first time in twelve moons washed herself all over, when
she again looked neat and clean.
We are informed that both among the Ojibways and other Indian
tribes, it was a custom to cut off a lock of hair in remembrance of their
deceased children, especially young infants, and to wrap it up in paper
and gay ribbons. Around it they laid the playthings, clothes, and
amulets of the departed child. These formed a tolerably long parcel,
which was fastened up crosswise with strings, and could be carried like
a doll.
They gave the doll a name, signifying "misery" or "misfor-
tune," and which may be best translated "the doll of sorrow." This
\
379
lifeless object took the place of the deceased child. The mourning
mother carried it about for a whole year, and placed it near her at the
fire, sighing often when gazing upon it. She also took it on her
travels, like a living child. The leading idea was that this helpless
child, as it did not know how to walk, could not find its way into para-
dise. The mother could therefore help its soul on the journey by con-
tinually carrying about its representative. This they carried about till
they fancied the spirit of the child had grown sufficiently to be able to
help itself along.
When the year of grief was ended, a family feast was prepared,
the bundle unfastened, and the clothes and other articles given away,
but the lock of hair was buried.
The mode of burial of the dead, while strikingly similar through-
out the tribes, varied in different localities. Mrs. Jemison, the captive
white woman of the Genesee, says that the general custom is to dress
the deceased in his best garments, and place the body in a coffin made
of skins or bark. With the body is placed a drinking cup and a cake,
two or three tapers or torches, and the implements most used during
the lifetime of the person. If he is a warrior, his weapons of war-
fare are buried beside him ; if a hunter, his trappings for the chase
;
if a woman, some treasure of her wigwam garnishings ; if a child, its
favorite plaything. As the coffin is lowered into the grave, the
*'
burial service," which consists of an address to the dead, is deliv-
ered by the chief or person in charge of the burial. In this address,
the dead is charged not to worry on his way to the
"
happy land," and
not to trouble his wife, children or friends whom he has left.
He is admonished to inform or tell all strangers whom he will
meet, to what tribe he belongs, who his relatives are, and the condition
in which he left them. He is assured that he will soon meet all the
friends and relatives that have gone before him, together with all the
famous chiefs who will receive him with joy and furnish him with the
things needed in his home of perpetual happiness. After the address
the grave is filled and left until evening, when near relatives of the
dead build a fire near the head of it, around which they sit until morn-
ing. This is kept up for nine successive nights, at the end of which
time, it is believed, the departed one has reached the end of his journey.
They carry a portion of their daily food to the grave while the
spirit lingers with the body. The time for its final exit varies with the
different tribes.
In the case of burial of a female, she is provided with a paddle, a
kettle and ajoekuri, or carrying strap for the head, and other feminine
implements.
380
Baron LaHoutan says of the Indians that "these good people
believe that death is a passage to a better life. When the corpse is
dressed they set it upon a mat in the same posture as if the person
were alive ; and his relations being around him, every one in his turn
addresses him with a harangue, recounting his exploits with those of
his ancestors. He that speaks last speaks to this purpose: 'You sit
now along with us, and have the same Shapes that we have
;
you want
neither Arms, nor Head, nor Legs. But at the same time you cease to
be, and begin to evaporate like the smoke of a Pipe. Who is it that
talked with us two Days ago? Sure, 'twas not you; for then you would
speak to us still. It must therefore be your Soul which is lodged in
the great Country of Souls along with those of our Nation. This Body
which we now behold will, in six Months' time, become what it was two
Hundred Years ago. Thou feelest nothing, thou seest nothing, because
thou art nothing. Nevertheless, out of the friendship we had for the
Body, while animated by thy Spirit, we thus tender the Marks of that
Veneration, which is due to our Brethren and our Friends.'"
Charlevoix says that when an Indian is sick and thinks himself
past recovery, he calmly takes leave of his friends around him and
gives orders for a feast, in which all the provisions which remain in
the cabin must be used. His dogs are killed, that the souls of these
animals may go into the other world, and give notice that the dying
person will arrive there soon. All the bodies of the slaughtered dogs
are put into the kettle to enlarge the feast.
Schoolcraft says the burial ceremony among our Indian tribes is
at all times attended with interest, from the insight they give to In-
dian character. Some of these incontestably disclose their belief in
the immortality of the soul, while the idea of its lingering with the
body for a time after death and requiring food, denotes a concurrence
with oriental customs and beliefs.
In modern times, with the Ojibways, when a corpse is put into its
coffin, the lid is tied, not nailed on. The reason they give for this
is that the communication between the living and the dead is better
kept up; the freed soul, it is believed, can thus have free access to the
newly buried body.
Over the grave a roof shaped covering of cedar bark is built to
shed the rain.
A small aperture is cut through the bark at the head
of the grave. On asking an Ojibway why this was done, he replied:
"To alloAv the soul to pass out and in. You know that, in dreams, we
pass over wide
countries, and see hills and lakes and mountains and
many scenes, which
pass before our eyes and affect us. Yet, at the
same time, our bodies do not stir, and there is a soul left with the body,
DEATH AND ITS INCIDENTS. 31
else it would be dead. So, you must perceive, it must be another soul
that accompanies us."
The offering of food and libations to the dead is one of the oldest
rites of the human family and pervaded the whole Indian continent.
This reveals a custom known to have prevailed among the people of
India, and widely, at ancient periods, among the Mongols.
Fires are kindled at the graves of the dead and continued for
nights, the object being to light the spirit on its journey to the spirit
land.
In regard to death and burial among the Bonaks, or Root Dig-
gers, in the region of California, the following is given, as the custom
among this people, by an early resident of that country. He says:
"After sunrise the body of the deceased was tied up in a blanket,
which she possessed when living, and borne to a spot some hundred
yards distant, where her funeral pyre was being raised. The entire
camp followed, most of whom were crying and wailing greatly. The
body was laid on the ground while the pyre was being built. This
occupied considerable time, during which the mourning was kept up
in loud and wild wailings. The females were blackened around their
chins, temples, ears, and foreheads, and jumped and cried like Metho-
dists under excitement. They often prostrated themselves upon the
ground and, not unfrequently, on the body of the deceased. The pyre
being finished, the body was placed upon it with all her beads, baskets?
and earthly effects. This done, the pyre was fired all around, and as
the blaze enveloped the body the mourners seemed to give wây to un-
bounded grief.
"I noticed one individual who gave utterance to his sorrow in loud
and broken strains. He was naked, as were most of the men, except a
small girdle round the middle. As he half cried, half sung his sorrow,
he would occasionally speak something distinctly, but without appear-
ing to address himself to the people or any portion of them. I learned
he was the speaker, or what might, perhaps, on this occasioa be termed
the priest of the tribe. In the course of the ceremony, groups of
Indians would occasionally gather around him. On one occasion, I
observed him drawing marks in the sand as he spoke. He said: 'We
are like these lines; to-day we are here and can be seen; but death
takes one away, and then another, as the winds wipe out these lines in
the sand, until all are gone.' Auvd drawing his hand over the marks,
he continued,
'
they are all gone even now ; like them, we must all be
wiped out, and will be seen no more.' I witnessed the burning, until
the body was almost consumed, and during the whole time the mourn-
ers kept up intense feelings of grief and anguish."
382
The T'linkits, and other tribes of Alaska, also burn their dead
upon funeral pyres, with the exception of the bodies of Shamans or
sorcerers, which are deposited in boxes and elevated on posts. Slaves
who die are not considered worthy of any ceremony whatever. The
corpse of such are thrown into the sea like the carcass of a dog.
According to an intelligent traveler who visited Alaska in 1877,
when a T'linkit dies his relatives prepare a great feast, inviting a large
number of guests, especially if the deceased was a chief or worthy
member of a clan. The guests are chosen from some other clan ; for
instance, if the deceased belonged to the raven clan, the guests must
be from the wolf clan, and vice versa. Poor persons, who are unable
to pay the expense of such ceremony, take their dead to some distant
cove or other place, and burn them without any display.
When the invited guests have assembled, and the pyre is erected,
the corpse is carried out of the village and placed upon the fagots.
The pyre is then ignited in the presence of the relatives, who, however,
take no active part in the ceremonies, confining themselves to weeping
and howling. On such occasions many burn their hair, placing their
heads in the flames ; others cut their hair short. After the cremation
is accomplished, the guests return to the dwelling of the deceased. If
he was a husband, they seat themselves with the widow, who belongs to
their clan, around the walls of the hut. The relatives of the deceased
then appear with their hair burned or cropped, faces blackened and dis-
figured, and place themselves within the circle of guests, sadly leaning,
with bowed heads, upon sticks, and then begin their funeral dirges
with weeping and howling. The guests take up the song when the
relatives are exhausted, and thus the howling is kept up for four nights
in succession, with brief interruptions for refreshment.
If the deceased was a chief or wealthy person, the custom is for
the relatives to kill one or two slaves, according to the rank of the
dead, in order to give him servants in the other world. At the end of
the period of mourning, or on the fourth day following the cremation,
the relatives wash their blackened faces, and then paint them with gay
colors ; at the same time making presents to all the guests, chiefly to
those who assisted in burning the corpse. Then the guests are feasted
again, when the ceremony is ended. The heir of the deceased is his
sister's son, or if he has no such relative, then the younger brother.
The heir of a male is compelled to marry the widow.
The custom of cremation, or disposition of the dead by burning
the body, seems to have prevailed very generally among the tribes of
the Pacific coast.
The Indian usually seeks the highest point of land he can obtain
PAINTED GRAVE POST.
for the burial of his dead. The body is often buried in a sitting posture,
sometimes with the limbs drawn up, and sometimes extended and in
a reclining position. It is a custom among
the tribes, very generally, to put up grave
posts and paint characters upon them,
denoting the number of enemies killed,
prisoners taken, and the like. Flags are
often hung over the graves of chiefs and
warriors. For other Indians a piece of
white cotton or something of the kind is
used instead. This custom is very ancient.
With many tribes, when a person first dies
he is put upon a scaffold. The Indians
sometimes light a fire somewhere near.
The rubbish is all cleared away from under
the scaffold, and everything is kept clean
around the place.
With the Sioux, if a warrior is killed
in battle, they secure his body, dress it in
the most showy manner, and bury it in a sitting posture. This is
considered an honor due alone to warriors. It is said that the Dakotas
make no mounds over the graves of the dead.
When one of the Chickasaws dies, they put on him his finest
clothing, also all his jewelry and beads. This is done that he may
make a good appearance in the new and happy country to which he is
going.
The Pawnees bury their dead with the same general ceremonies
as is recorded of other tribes. The chief persons of the band receive
especial honors. The horse of a warrior is killed upon his grave, that
it may be at his service in the country of the dead, and bear him to the
appointed place of rest. The women are as much honored in their
death as the men.
There is less demonstration in the burial of children and youth
when they pass on from the scenes of this life, though the grief of the
parents is often inconsolable. This grief, when the object is a son, is
often deeply partaken of by the father, especially if the lad be grown
and has developed forensic talents to. succeed him in the chieftainship
of the tribe or band. Black is the universal sign for mourning. It is,
with the Indian, the symbol for death.
When a little child dies, it is at once wrapped in a white skin,
pinked, and painted with many colors. This is done in the presence
of the parents. It is then placed upon a kind of sledge and carried
\
384
to its burial. Presents are bestowed on those who assist in the burial
of children, the same as for older people.
Among many tribes, the mourning cradle is an object of interest.
In life, the Indian mother has her babe bound to a board in an upright
position, with its feet resting on a broad band at the base. It is then
placed in a light wicker cradle and slung over her back. If the infant
dies before it arrives at the age of seven months, the mother fills the
empty cradle with black feathers and still carries it for the space of a
year. During the time, nothing will induce her to be separated from
it. She is often heard singing her wigwam lullabys and talking to
her inanimate treasure, in the sweet low tones that only the mother's
voice can give.
The delicate custom of never mentioning the name of a deceased
friend, proves that the tenderest feelings of humanity rest in the heart
of the Indian. If obliged to refer to the departed, it is usually done
by speaking of some incident in which the deceased was connected;
or they may say (referring to the dead), he who was our friend, our
counselor, or our father, as the case may be.
Hennepin says of Indian burial, according to the customs of the
tribes with which he became acquainted, that they bury their dead in
the manner of a mausoleum, which they encompass around about
with stakes or palisadoes, twelve or thirteen feet high. These mauso-
leums, he says, are commonly erected in the most eminent place of
their savage borough. They send every year solemn embassies to their
neighboring nations to solemnize the feast of the dead. All the people
of Northern America spare nothing to honor their dead friends and rela-
tions, whom they go to lament. They go to the mausoleum, muttering
a sort of prayers, accompanied with tears and sighs, before the bones,
whose memory they honor for their great exploits in peace and war.
He says, "they have likewise a Custom of putting in the Coffin
of the deceased of riper Years, whatever they esteem valuable. They
put their Shoes of pinked Skins, garnished with red and black Porcu-
pines, a pair of Tongs, a Hatchet, Necklaces of Purple, a Pipe, a
Caldron, and a pot full of Sagamite, or Pottage of Indian Corn,
with
some fat Meat. If he be a Man, they bury him with a Gun, Powder
and Ball; but those that have no Fire-Arms, content themselves with
putting in their Coffin their Bows and Arrows, that when they are in
the Country
of
Souls (as they phrase it) and of the Dead, they may
make use of them in Hunting."
The Indians chose elevated places for burial, comxpletely out of
the reach of floods or standing water. They were often sightly and
picturesque points, which commanded extensive views. As they were
without proper tools, they did not dig the graves deep ; but made them
secure from the depredations of wild beasts by placing over or around
them the trunks of trees, in a suitable manner, to prevent such depre-
dations.
Mr. Schoolcraft says, in burying they placed the body east and
west, with the head to the east. The reason given for this is, that
they may look towards the happy land in the west. The same author-
ity remarks that no trait has commended the forest tribes of the old
area of the United States more to the respect and admiration of the
beholder, than the scrupulous regard with which they are found to
remember the burial grounds of their ancestors, and the anguish of
their mind at any marks of disrespect or disturbance of their bones.
It was this element in Indian character which inspired that people to
resist, to the utmost of their power, the ruthless invasion of the white
man upon the Indian domain. If the white man has fought, bled and
died for his country, so the Indian has perished alike to protect the
graves and sacred resting place of his ancestors.
Caroline C. Leighton, in her book entitled "My Life at Puget
Sound," speaking of the Indian custom of burial and other supersti-
tions in the country over which she traveled, says: "At one of the
portages (on Snake river) we saw some graves of chiefs, the bodies
carefully laid in east and west lines, and the opening of the lodge built
over them towards the sun-rise. On a frame near the lodge was
stretched the hides of their horses, sacrificed to accompany them to
another world. The missionaries congratulate themselves that these
barbarous ceremonies are no longer observed; that the Indian is
weaned from his idea of the happy hunting-ground, and the sacrilegious
thought of ever meeting his horse again is eradicated from his mind.
I thought, with satisfaction, that the missionary really knows no more
about the future than the Indian, who seems ill-adapted to the con-
ventional idea of heaven. For my part, I prefer to think of him, in
the unknown future, of retaining something of his earthly wildness
and freedom, rather than as a white robed Saint, singing psalms and
playing on a harp."
The North American Indians never raised permanent monuments
to perpetuate or do honor to the memory of their dead. The mounds
and mausoleums, that have attracted so much attention, can hardly be
regarded as built or raised for that purpose. No pillar or "storied
urn" has been found among the relics of their past generations.
That this is the result of their indifference to the present life,
and their intense faith in a grand and happy future, seems to be the
most natural conclusion.
25
CHAPTEK XXX.
THE INDIAN MEDICINE MAN.
Term MedicineThree Distinct ProfessionsThe Doctor of MedicineThe
MagicianThe ProphetPopular IdeaDressMedicine BagIts Contents
Its ConstructionClaims of Supernatural InfluenceAnimal Magnetism
Trials of PowerA Remarkable InstanceProphetic GiftsMental Telegraphy

Holy GarmentsRobes of MysteryRobes of StateJudicial Ermine Obser-
vances in Regard to Medicine MenIn Regard to SmokingTetotalism and
Chastity of Women.
j.MY the term medicine, here used, raucli
more is implied than mere curative drugs,
ivU
or a system of curative practice, in the
î'^ ills of the human system. As an adjec-
tive, it embraces the idea of supernatural, as
well as remedial practice, in healing the sick.
The Indian medicine man is an individual,,
in Indian life, whose office or calling, in the
popular mind of the white man, has been ill-
defined, and vaguely understood. This arises
largely from the term medicine, applied to him,
a term which we have become accustomed to
using to designate this individual, an error
which comes, doubtless, from a mistranslation or misunderstanding of
the term usually employed to designate the person. A more accurate
translation would give us, in our language, the word
"
mystery
"
in its-
place.
From this constant use of the word medicine, in. this connection,
people generally understand that the individual to whom it is applied
is purely a physician or doctor of medicine, which is a misconception
of what is comprehended within this term among the Indians them-
selves. Although, in practice, the Indian medicine man may, inci-
dently, take in the calling of administering to the sick, as that of a
physician, still this branch does not strictly come within the meaning
of the word medicine man, as understood by the Indian.
Among the Indians, according to Mr. Schoolcraft, there were
(386)
THE INDIAN MEDICINE MAN. 387
three distinct professions, all of which we have been taught to under-
stand are comprised under the head of "medicine man,'' termed, in
the Algonquin language, the Mas-ke-ke-ivin-nin-ee, the Me-da-win-
nin-ee, and the Jee-sic-ka-icin-mn-ee. The first is the physician or
doctor of medicine, from Mas-ke-kee, a liquid dose, and in-nin-nee, man.
The second includes also the profession of a physician or medical prac-
titioner, but has a different mode of administering to his patients, or
curing diseases, and is from the word Meda, signifying medical magic,
the art of administering to the sick by magic, and in-nin-nee, man, con-
cerning which it is said: "The Meda, or Medcaoinmnee, is in all
respects a magician. He is distinct from the Maskekewimiinee. or
medical practitioner, who administers both liquid and dry medicines,
bleeds, cups with a horn, and operates on ulcers, swellings, and fresh
wounds. The latter takes his denomination from mas-ke-ke, a liquid
dose. The former from Meda, a mysterious principle. The one is a
physician, the other a priest."
The Jee-su-ka-iuin-nm-ee, or third character mentioned, whilst
practicing the art of healing, however, as well, but by different modes,
as before shown, is simply a prophet or one who foretells events, from
Jeesiika, to prophecy. On this subject Mr. Schoolcraft says: "The
art of prophecy, or the Jesukaw'm, differs from the Medaicin in its
being practiced alone, by distinct and solitary individuals, who have
no associates ; who, at least, do not exist, and are never known as
societies. Prophets start up at long intervals and far apart among the
Indian tribes. They profess to be under supernatural power, and to
be filled with a divine afflatus. It is, however, an art resembling that
of the Medaicin, and founded on a similar principle of reliance, differ-
ing chiefly in the object sought The Meda seeks to propUiaie events
;
the Jossakeed aims to predict them. Both appeal to spirits for their
power. Both exhibit material substances, as stuffed birds, bones, etc.,
as objects by or through which the secret energy is to be exercised.
The general modes of operation are similar, but vary. The drum is
used in both, but the songs and incantations differ. The rattle is con-
fined to the ceremonies of the Meda and the Wabeno. The Jossakeed
addressed himself exclusively to the Great Spirit. His office, and his
mode of address, are regarded with great solemnity and awe. His
choruses are peculiar, and deemed by the people to carry an air of
higher reverence and devotion."
Men' who professed the art of the Medawin were formed into
societies or associations, an account of which is given in a subsequent
chapter under the head of
"
Secret Societies." Mr. Schoolcraft further
says of the Medaicin:
"
Its original significance is obscured by its
388
present application to medical influence, supposed to be exercised by
certain mineral or animal matter, as small bits of metal, bones,
feathers, and other objects kept in the arcanum of the sacred
gush-ke-ioe-ta-gun,
or medicine sack. But it is quite obvious that
no physical application of these articles is even pretended by the
operators, but that they rely wholly on a subtle, invisible, necromantic
influence, to be exerted in secret, and at distant as well as contiguous
points."
The popular idea of the office of the Indian medicine man is thus
expressed by the missionary, the Abbe Em. Domenech. He says these
medicine men
"
are a kind of priests, doctors and charlatans, who pre-
tend to cure illness, explain auguries, and foretell future events. They
feign to be inspired by the spirits ; they perform rigorous acts of pen-
ance
;
submit to mutilation, fasting and self-mortification ; they profess
charms and secrets, which invest them with great power ; they preside
over all religious ceremonies, and take the lead in the dance and the
song. Cunning, deceit, shrewdness, a little knowledge and a great deal
of juggling trickery, form the foundation of their renown. They
obtain from the people a kind of respect different from that with which
other dignitaries are treated, fear being
its principal element; they are looked
upon as oracles, but the same admira-
tion is not bestowed upon them as upon
sachems and warriors."
A distinctive mark of the Indian
medicine man was the wearing of a
peculiar robe of office having the hair
side out, accompanied by the ever-pres-
ent medicine bag, curiously wrought and
ornamented, in which were carried his
nostrums, and which was claimed of
itself to possess healing properties that
might be imparted to the patient by
touch. The general theory of sickness
was that it was caused by evil spiritual
influence, and after pretending to dis-
cover the location of the disturbing
spirit in the body of the patient, the only remedial agency employed
consisted in incantations for the purpose of driving away these evil
or disturbing spirits.
A traveler of experience on the subject of the Indian medicine
bag, says its complete catalogue of contents would excite wonder and
KNISTENAUX MEDICINE MAN.
*'
provoke a smile." He thus describes the contents of a medicine bag
which, on a particular occasion, he examined
:
*' There were dried herbs in quantity, leaves, barks, roots and
stems. Here a claw, there a tooth, yonder an ear. One package con-
tained a beak and a feather, another a human nail. Our search
brought to light small images of wood carefully wrapped and labeled.
These were the totems that preside over the use and effects of the med-
icines, and without their presence in the pouches the skill of the In-
dian doctor would avail nothing. The Indian from time immemorial
has believed that every animal has a great original or father, and the
medicine men choose one of these originals as their particular Mani-
tou. The image of this animal or bird is the totem, and as the doctors
heal with the help of the spirits, they naturally place the totem where
they think it will do the most goodin the medicine bag. The images
are of rough workmanship, but they answer the purpose for which they
were designed as well as if they came from the hands of the skilled
carver. We found in the bag we examined representations of the sun
and moon, and some odd pieces of wood carving supposed to represent
the human figure."
Mr. Catlin, the artist, says that in all tribes their doctors are
conjurors, are magicians, are soothsayers, and perhaps would rank as
high priests, inasmuch as they superintended all their religious cere-
monies. They are looked upon by all as oracles of the nation. In all
counsels of war and peace they have a seat with the chiefs, are regu-
larly consulted before any public step is taken ; and the greatest defer-
ence and respect are paid to their opinion.
He remarks in explanation of the word medicine, which is used in
^
this connection, that the Indians do not use or understand this word in
our language ; but in each tribe they have a word of their own con-
struction, synonymous with mystery or mystery man in our own lan-
guage. Further explaining, he says: "For instance, I am a 'medi-
cine man ' of the highest order amongst these superstitious people, on
account of the art which I practice ; which is a strange and unaccount-
able thing to them and, of course, called the greatest of 'medicine.'
My gun and pistols which have percussion locks, are great medicine;
and no Indian can be prevailed upon to fire them off, for they say they
have nothing to do with the white man's medicine."
In describing the medicine bag of the medicine man Mr. Catlin
says it is. constructed of the skins of animals, birds or reptiles, and or-
namented and preserved in a thousand different ways, as suits the
taste or freaks of the person who constructs it. These skins are gen-
erally attached to some part of the clothing of the medicine man, or
carried in his hand. These bags are often decorated in such a manner
as to be exceedingly ornamental, and are stuffed with grass, moss, or
something of the kind.
One of the arts claimed by the Indian medicine man was that he
could, by the exertion of a supernatural influence which he possessed
control the minds of others, and an instance is mentioned where it is
claimed that a medicine man of the Assinaboin tribe accepted a chal-
lenge from a rival medicine man for each to try the exertion of this
supernatural power over the other on an occasion appointed. Each
being furnished with his medicine bag, arrayed in full dress and cov-
ered with war paint, they met in the presence of a great concourse,
both having prepared for the occasion by long fasting and conjura-
tions. After smoking their pipes, a ceremony which precedes all im-
portant councils, the medicine men sat down opposite each other a few
feet apart.
The trial of power seems to have been conducted on principles of
animal magnetism, and lasted a long while without decided advantage
on either side, until the medicine man of the Assinaboins, concentrat-
ing all his power, or as expressed according to the Indian idea, gather-
ing his medicine, in a loud voice commanded his antagonist to die,
who, it is said, succumbed, and in a few minutes
"
his spirit," as the
narrator expressed it, "went beyond the sand buttes." This of course
gave increased confidence of the tribe in the power of this medicine
man, who firmly believed that his spiritual power had alone secured
his triumph.
It is stated by the same authority from which the foregoing inci-
dent is derived, that a Jesuit priest of long experience among the
Indians, in missionary labors, being informed of this story, instead of
expressing disbelief, went on rather to express quite a different senti-
ment, saying that he had seen many exhibitions of power among these
medicine men, which he could not explain. "I have known," said he,
"predictions by these medicine men of events, far in the future, to be
literally fulfilled, and have seen medicine tests in the most conclusive
way. I once saw a Koo-te-nai Indian (known generally as SJcookum-
Tamaherewoas, from his extraordinary power) command a mountain
sheep to fall dead, and the animal, then leaping among the rocks of
the mountain side, fell instantly lifeless. This I saw with my own
eyes, and I ate of the animal afterwards. It was unwounded, healthy
and perfectly well."
A remarkable instance, showing the accuracy with which these
medicine men could at times foretell events, is related by a writer in
the Atlantic Monthly for July, 1866, concerning a medicine man
among the wild tribes of the Upper Missouri river, whose name is
given as Maqueapos, and who, he says, was an ignorant and unintel-
lectual person, but that his predictions were sometimes absolutely
astounding. On one occasion, a party of ten voyagers set out from
Fort Benton, then the most remote post of the American Fur Com-
pany, for the purpose of finding a certain band of northern Blackfeet.
The expedition was perilous from its commencement, and the danger
increased with each day's journey. The war paths, war party fires,
and similar indications of the vicinity of hostile bands, were each day
found in greater abundance.
Persons experienced in Indian life can, at a glance, tell what
tribe has made a war path or a camp fire. Indications which would
convey no meaning to the inexperienced, are often conclusive proofs
to the keen eyed mountaineer.
The party of adventurers, in this case, soon found, by accustomed
indications, that they were in the thickest of the Cree war party opera-
tions, and so full of danger that seven of the ten turned back. The
remaining three, through their resolute character, continued their
journey until this resolution failed them, and they, too, determined
that after another day's travel northward they would hasten back to
their comrades. On the afternoon of the last day, four young Indi-
ans were seen, who, after a cautious approach, made the signs of peace,
laid down their arms and came forward, announcing themselves to be
Blackfeet of the Blood band. They were sent out, they said, by
Maqueapos, the medicine man before mentioned, to find three white
men, mounted on horses of a peculiar color, dressed in garments actu-
ally described to them, and armed with Aveapons which they, without
seeing them, minutely described.
The whole history of this expedition had been detailed to them
by Maqueapos; the purpose of the journey, the personnel of the par-
ties, the exact location at which to find the three last mentioned who
persevered, had been detailed by this medicine man with as much
fidelity and accuracy as could have been done by one of the whites
themselves; and so convinced were the Indians of the truth of the
old man's medicine that the four young men, before mentioned, were
sent, four days later, to appoint a rendezvous with the whites, at a place
a hundred miles distant. The appointment was fulfilled, the objects
of the expedition speedily accomplished, and the whites, after a few
days' rest, returned to the point of their starting out.
The writer of the article, before mentioned, says he was at the
head of the party of whites, and himself met the Indian messengers.
Upon questioning the chief men of the Indian camp, many of whom
afterwards became his warm personal friends, and one of them hi&
adopted brother, no suspicion of the facts as narrated could be sus-
tained. The medicine man, Maqueapos, could give no explanation
beyond the general one, that he "saw us coming and heard us talk on
our journey." He had not, during the time, been absent from the
Indian camp, and it seems had apparently no mode and no information
whatever by which he could determine the facts which he foretold,
except through his intuitive power, or medicine which he possessed.
The writer of the aforesaid article says that a subsequent intimate
acquaintance with Maqueapos disclosed a remarkable medicine faculty,
as accurate as it wâs inexplicable. He was tested in every way, and
almost always stood the ordeal successfully. This remarkable circum-
stance is in the same line of foretelling events, referred to in another
chapter of this work, entitled "Indian Prophecies."
In closing his article, the writer before mentioned, whilst declar-
ing that it is not his object to defend or combat the Indian notion of
medicine men, says: "Whoever will take the trouble to investigate,
will find in the real Indian a faith, and occasionally a power, that
quite equals the faculties claimed by our civilized clairvoyants, and
will approach an untrodden path of curious, if not altogether useful,
research."
This Indian idea of the gift of prophecy, understanding mysteries,
and faith to accomplish results, by will of the medicine man, singularly
coincides with the Jewish ideas as expressed in 1 Cor. xiii,
2, wherein
these subjects are thus recited: "And though I have the gift of
prophecy, and understand all mysteries, and all knowledge ; and though
I have all faith, so that I could remove mountains," etc.
The following paragraph, found in the St. Louis Republican of
recent date, under the head of "Mental Telegraphing," shows that this
power of mystery claimed to exist among the Indians is one attracting
the attention of the intelligent mind:
"It is said that the Indians on the plains have always practiced a
system of mental telegraphing among themselves, by means of which
they communicate with each other almost instantaneously, and without
messengers or signals. This mental telegraphing is by no means
peculiar to the Indians on the plains of the United States. The same
thing has been done by many people on the plains and among the
mountains, both in America and other countries, and is to-day and
always has been one method of manifesting knowledge known to and
practiced by many persons. The manner in which such communica-
tions are made seems to be and is a great mystery. Many theories
about it have been suggested, all of which fall far short of satisfying
the minds of the people as to how it is done. The fact that such com-
munications are sent and received, and that they are often genuine and
true, and that such is one mode of manifesting knowledge, is now
almost universally conceded."
Not only does the Indian medicine man wear his robes of mystery,
but the custom of wearing robes or holy garments to distinguish the
sacred office of a person is not confined to the untutored Indian ; it
was an ancient custom of the Jews, according to the writings of whom
it was commanded: "Thou shalt put upon Aaron the holy garments."
Ex. xl, 13.
And this custom of priestly robes was carried into the church in
later times, and, indeed, is continued down to the present day. More-
over, these robes of mystery, among civilized nations in succeeding
generations, have been extended to kings, and of which we speak as
their robes
of
state; and the custom of wearing the like robes of mys-
tery has been extended to judicial functionaries, and styled judicial
ermine; so that whoever is inclined to criticise the Indian medicine
man for his superstitious garments, marking or aiding his calling,
must remember that our more enlightened races have borrowed or
shared with him, down to the latest time, the same or the like super-
stitions.
The wilder tribes are accustomed to certain observances, which
are generally termed the tribe-medicine. Their leading men inculcate
them with great care
perhaps to perpetuate unity of tradition and

purpose. In the arrangement of the tribe-medicine, trivial observances
are frequently intermixed with very serious doctrines. Thus, the
grand war council of the Dakota confederacy, comprising thirteen
tribes of Sioux, and more than seventeen thousand warriors, many
years since, promulgated a national medicine, prescribing a red stone
pipe with an ashen stem for all council purposes, and an eternal hos-
tility to the whites. And the opinion has been expressed that the pre-
diction may be safely ventured that every Sioux will preserve this
medicine until the nation shall cease to exist. And to this, it is said,
may be traced that terrible Indian war that devastated Minnesota, and
from which it was predicted that there could not, in the nature of
things, especially in view of native Indian character, be a peace kept
in good faith until the confederacy of the Dakota nation was, in effect,
destroyed.
The Crows, or Upsaraukas, will not smoke in council, unless the
pipe is lighted with a coal of the buffalo chip, and the bowl is rested
on a fragment of the same substance. Their chief men have, for a.
great while, endeavored to engraft teetotalism upon their national medi-
cine, and have succeeded better than the Indian character would have
seemed to promise.
Among the Elatheads, female chastity is a national medicine or
injunction among their theories of mystery, a characteristic which pre-
vailed very generally among the American tribes. With the Mandans,
friendship for the whites is supposed to be the source of national and
individual advantage.
CHAPTEE XXXI.
INDIAN PROPHECIES.
The Indian ProphetAn Important FunctionaryAs with the Ancient JewsWas the
Oracle of
"
All Mystery"False ProphetsChiefs had Their ProphetsFore-
telling EventsRemarkable Instance RelatedCapt. Carver Relates an Instance
Father Charlevoix's ExperiencePeter Jones Gives Instance of Indian
Account from an Indian CaptiveSingular Instance of Foretelling the Future
Fulfilled in the Escape of Three CaptivesFather Charlevoix's Experience
Peter Jones Gives Instance of Indian Prophecy.

^#HE Indian in his super-
stitions and beliefs, in
his notions of super-
^^
natural manifestations
and agencies, does not differ
essentially from the white man.
An important functionary with
him, as with the ancient Jews,
was that of the pi'ophet, or one
who could foretell events.
Sometimes the prophet com-
bined also the character of
priest and doctor of medicine,
and to him was committed all
such things as were considered
mysteries. In short, he was
the oracle of "all mystery."
These persons, in general,
took rank among the natives
accordingly as they had shown
or proved their superiority in the line of their profession ; and the
experience of the Indian, in regard to this class of functionaries, was
not unlike that of the Jews, for they occasionally had among them
false prophets, or those whose prophecies were not always genuine or
precisely accurate. So that whenever a prophet had shown his skill
or accuracy in foretelling events, he took rank accordingly among his
tribe or people.
(395)
WARNINGS OF THE GREAT SPIRIT.
But it is proposed here to speak of prophecies rather than of
prophets. Attention is given to this latter subject under the head of
*' Medicine Man."
The ruling chief of a tribe or confederation of tribes generally
h^d his prophet, selected with reference to his superior skill in his
profession, the same as the white man, in the affairs of his govern-
ment, has his lieutenant, general adviser, or prime minister, selected
with like reference to his peculiar capabilities. The commander of a
military force has his chief of staff or adjutant general. The man-
ager of a large corporation has his legal counsel, who occupies not
only the place of counselor in matters of law, but as a general adviser
in business affairs as affected by the law.
The untutored mind of the Indian stood constantly in fear of
those things which to him were considered supernatural, mysterious or
beyond his comprehension. The principal chief to whom the admin-
istration and guidance of affairs were committed, therefore, selected
his prophet to give him guidance and information concerning future
events, whereby he might be the better enabled to direct the affairs of
his people committed to his charge.
Instances are given by travelers, captives and historians, of the
foretelling of events by Indian prophets, which are quite remarkable.
Among these is one related by Capt. Jonathan Carver, coming to his
attention during his travels through the interior parts of North
America, in the year 1767. The most westerly point reached by him
was the St. Peter's, or Minnesota river, in the vicinity of which he
spent the winter with the Dakotas. On his return East, the ensuing
summer, he proceeded by way of what is known as the grand portage,
which lies on the northwestern borders of Lake Superior. Here he
met a large party of Knistinoes, or, as he calls them,
"
Killistinoes
and Assinipoils Indians," who were come to this place in order to meet
the traders from Mackinaw, who made this their road to the north-
west. In relating the incident before mentioned, he says:
"The traders we expected being later this season than usual, and
our numbers very considerable, for there were more than three hun-
dred of us, the stock of provisions we had brought with us was nearly
exhausted, and we waited with impatience for their arrival.
"
One day, whilst we were all expressing our wishes for this
desirable event, and looking from an eminence in hopes of seeing them
come over the lake, the chief priest belonging to the band of the
Killistinoes told us that he would endeavor to obtain a conference with
the Great Spirit, and know from him when the traders would arrive.
I
paid little attention to this declaration, supposing that it would be
INDIAN PROPHECIES.
397
productive of some juggling trick, just sufficiently covered to deceive
the ignorant Indians. But the king of that tribe telling me that this
was chiefly undertaken by the priest to alleviate my anxiety, and at
the same time to convince me how much interest he had with the
Great Spirit, I thought it necessary to restrain my animadversions on
his design.
"The following evening was fixed upon for this spiritual confer-
ence. When everything had been properly prepared, the king came
to me and led me into a capacious tent, the covering of which was
drawn up, so as to render what was transacting within visible to those
who stood without. We found the tent surrounded by a great number
of the Indians, but we readily gained admission, and seated ourselves
on skins, laid on the ground for that purpose.
"In the center I observed that there was a place of an oblong
shape, which was composed of stakes stuck in the ground, with inter-
vals between, so as to form a kind of chest or coffin large enough to
contain the body of a man. These were of a middle size, and placed
at such a distance from each other that whatever lay within them was
readily to be discerned. The tent was perfectly illuminated by a great
number of torches, made of splinters cut from the pine or birch tree,
which the Indians held in their hands.
"
In a few minutes the priest entered, when an amazing large
elk's skin being spread on the ground just at my feet, he laid himself
down upon it, after having stripped himself of every garment except
that which he wore close about his middle. Being now prostrate on
his back, he first laid hold of one side of the skin, and folded it over
him, and then the other, leaving only his head uncovered. This was
no sooner done than two of the young men who stood by took about
forty yards of strong cord, made also of an elk's hide, and rolled it
tight around his body, so that he was completely swathed within the
skin. Being thus bound up like an Egyptian mummy, one took him
by the heels, and the other by the head, and lifted him over the pales
into the inclosure. I could also now discern him as plain as I had
hitherto done, and I took care not to turn my eyes a moment from the
object before me, that I might the more readily detect the artifice; for
such I doubted not but that it would turn out to be.
"The priest had not lain in this situation more than a few seconds
when he began to mutter. This he continued to do for some time, and
then by degrees grew louder and louder, till at length he spoke articu-
lately
;
however, what he muttered was in such a mixed jargon of the
Chippeway, Ottawaw and Killistinoe languages, that I could under-
stand but very little of it. Having continued in this tone for a con-
siderable while, he at last exerted his voice to its utmost pitch, some-
times raving, and sometimes praying, till he had worked himself into
such an ag-itation that he foamed at the mouth.
"
After having remained near three-quarters of an hour in the
place, and continued his vociferations with unabated vigor, he seemed
to be quite exhausted and remained speechless. But in an instant he
sprang to his feet, notwithstanding, at the time he was put in, it
appeared impossible for him to move either his legs or arms ; and,
shaking off his covering, as quick as if the bands with which it had
been bound were burned asunder, he began to address those who stood
around in a firm and audible voice. 'My brothers,' said he, 'the Great
Spirit has deigned to hold a talk with his servant at my earnest
request. He has not, indeed, told me when the persons we expect wall
be here, but to-morrow, soon after the sun has reached his highest
point in the heavens, a canoe will arrive, and the people in that will
inform us when the traders will come.'
"
Having said this, he stepped out of the inclosure, and, after he
had put on his robes, dismissed the assembly. I own I wâs greatly
astonished at what I had seen, but as I observed that every eye in the
company was fixed on me, with a view to discover my sentiment, I
carefully concealed every emotion.
"
The next day the sun shone bright, and long before noon all the
Indians were gathered together on the eminence that overlooked the
lake. The old king came to me and asked me whether I had so much
confidence in what the priest had foretold as to join his people on the
hill, and wait for the completion of it. I told him I was at a loss
what opinion to form of the prediction, but that I would readily attend
him. On this, we walked together to the place where the others were
assembled. Every eye was again fixed by turns on me, and on the
lake; when, just as the sun had reached his zenith, agreeable to what
the priest had foretold, a canoe came around a point of land about a
league distant. The Indians no sooner beheld it than they set up
an universal shout, and by their looks seemed to triumph in the
interest their priest thus evidently had with the Great Spirit.
"
In less than an hour the canoe reached the shore, when I attended
the kinfif and chiefs to receive those who were on board. As soon as
the men were landed we walked all together to the king's tent, when,
according to their invariable custom, we began to smoke ; and this we
did, notwithstanding our impatience to know the tidings they brought,
without asking any questions ; for the Indians are the most deliberate
people in the world. However, after some trivial conversation, the
king inquired of them whether they had seen anything of the traders?'
INDIAN PROPHECIES.
399
The men replied that they had parted from them a few days before,
and that they proposed being here the second day from the present.
They accordingly arrived at the time, greatly to our satisfaction, but
more particularly so to that of the Indians, who found by this event
the importance, both of their priest and of their nation, greatly aug-
mented in the sight of a stranger.
"
This story, I acknowledge, appears to carry with it marks of
great credulity in the relater. But no one is less tinctured with that
weakness than myself. The circumstances of it, I own, are of very
extraordinary nature; however, as I can vouch for their being free
from either exaggeration or misrepresentation, being myself a cool and
dispassionate observer of them all, I thought it necessary to give them
to the public. And this I do without wishing to mislead the judgment
of my readers, or to make any superstitious impressions on their minds,
but leaving them to draw from it what conclusions they please."
It seems, from the cautious manner in which Capt. Carver treats
the aforesaid occurrence, that he was naturally skeptical as to matters
of this kind ; and the accuracy with which this prophecy was fulfilled
naturally impressed his mind with considerable force, and he felt
called upon, as will be seen, to assure the reader in language as forc-
ible as possible, of the truth of the circumstance he witnessed. And
not content with this, in the preface to his book, or, as he calls it,
"address to the public," he again refers to this matter, and remarks
that the credibility of the incident before mentioned, and the prognos-
tication of the Indian priest having been questioned, he thinks it
necessary to avail himself of a further opportunity to endeavor to
eradicate any impression that might be made on the minds of his
readers, by the apparent improbability of his story; and he assures
the reader again that he has related this occurrence just as it hap-
pened, being an eye witness to the whole transaction, and being at the
time free from any trace of skeptical obstinacy or enthusiastic credu-
lity, he was consequently able to describe every circumstance minutely
and impartially, which he has done, but without endeavoring to
account for the means by which it was accomplished.
The aforesaid occurrence is what at this day would be called,
among that class of people known as spiritualisis, as a case of spirit-
ual manifestation through a genuine medium. In this day and gen-
eration, occurrences of this kind are not uncommon, and in them there
are many enthusiastic believers, especially among the class of people
before mentioned; but the ocf^nrrence which Capt. Carver relates,
transpired nearly a hundred years before the appearance among us of
that phenomenon called spirUualism or spiritualistic seances.
Another like case of foretelling events by an Indian prophet is
given in an account of the captivity of Richard Rue, George Holman
and Irving Hinton, who were captured in February, 1781, in Kentucky,
near the falls of the Ohio river, now called Louisville, by the renegade
white man, Simon Girty, at the head of thirteen Indians.
The history of the captivity of these men is given in a book,
entitled "Recollections of the Early Settlements of the Wabash Val-
ley," by Sandford C. Cox, of Lafayette, Ind.
;
published in 1860.
The writer was a descendant of the captive George Holman, the facts
which he related having come down through family tradition, as an
important incident in connection with the escape of Richard Rue, one
of the captives named.
The writer of this account, apparently feeling that he might be
charged with too much credulity as to the account he gives, seemingly
attempts to treat the subject lightly; but, at the same time, the fact
of the occurrence and that the events as foretold by the Indian prophet
transpired precisely as he stated they would, remains in his narrative.
Mr. Cox, in narrating the escape of Richard Rue, who had become
separated, during his captivity, from Holman and Hinton, says:
"The last few months of Rue's captivity were spent at Detroit.
I shall not attempt to give a full description of the various incidents
of his long and painful captivity, which lasted three years and a half,
and was terminated in the following manner: Rue and two of his
fellow captives, whose names are not recollected with sufficient cer-
tainty to give them a place in these pages, came to the conclusion to
make their escape, if possible. In anticipation of such an event, they
had for some time been secretly preparing for their departure. At the
time, there were three or four different tribes of Indians assembled at
the Trading House on the lake shore, near Detroit. A circumstance
occurred, during the drunken revels of the Indians, which produced
great excitement. One of the Indians lost a purse, containing some
ninety dollars in silver. Search was instituted in vain for the lost
treasure. Who was the thief? Various were the conjectures and
insinuations of the exasperated tribes, who were about to make it
assume a national character, when it was announced that there was
a Soothsayer or Prophet present, who belonged to another tribe from
either of those who were disputing about the lost treasure, and who,
by conjuration, could detect the thief, and tell where the lost money
was secreted, which stopped all wrangling, until the learned seer had
tried his arts of necromancy. The professor of the black art, looking
as solemn as an owl, unrolled a deer-skin upon the ground, with the
flesh side up. He then drew from his belt a little bag of fine sand.
INDIAN PROPHECIES.
401
which he emptied upon the deer-skin. With a magic wand, about the
size and length of an ordinary rifle ramrod, he spread the sand
smoothly over the whole surface of the skin. The eager and deeply
interested crowd, with a solemn awe depicted in their countenances,
encircled the magician, and awaited with breathless silence the result
of his divination. Meanwhile the prophet, as he was termed, silently
gazed at the glittering surface of the sand for many minutes, without
any definite result. Then, after muttering over some half articulated
spell words, and looking awfully wise, he took another long, steady gaze
into the sand. Eureka, Eureka, were not the words uttered by the
venerable seer, but he said, 'I see the thief and the stolen treasure.'
'Who is he? Who?' shouted a dozen voices, 'tell his name, point
him out, be it whomsoever it may.' But the prophet, feeling bound
by a proper spirit of philanthropy for his red brethren, and deeming
that the disclosure might lead to the extermination of a tribe, or per-
haps two or three tribes, before the matter ended, gravely declared the
impropriety of divulging a fact which might terminate so disastrously.
He exonerated all those who had been charged with the theft, and said
that the lost money had been taken and carried away by a different
tribe from any of those embroiled in the quarrel. This important
announcement quieted the dissensions of those who were contending,
and restored harmony and friendship among those who, but a few
hours before, were ready to use the knife and tomahawk upon each
other.
"Eue and his comrades being witnesses of this display of the
prophet's professional skill, concluded at the first convenient oppor-
tunity to interrogate him in regard to the number, age, sex, and con-
dition of their respective families at home; and whether they were all
still alive, and resided where they did when they were captured.
"A private chance occurred within a few days afterwards, the fee
was agreed upon and paid, and the three prisoners and the seer seated
themselves around the outspread deer skin, covered with the enchanted
sand. After a long silence, during which the prophet looked steadily
into the sand, he remarked that he saw Rue's folks passing about
through the door yard, giving the number of males and females, and
their age and appearance with such accuracy, that Eue at once consid
ered him a genuine wizard. The conjurer then lifted his eyes from
the sand and remarked: 'You all intend to make your escape, and you
will effect it soon.' Then gazing into the sand he continued: 'You
will meet with many trials and hardships in passing over so wild a
district of country, inhabited by so many hostile nations of Indians.
You will almost starve to death ; but about the time you have given up
26
all hope of finding game to sustain you in your famished condition,
succor will come when you least expect it. I see dimly the carcass of
some wild animal taken as game. What it is I cannot clearly see. It
will be a masculine of some kind. After that you will find plenty of
game, and you will all arrive safely at your homes.' They stoutly
denied any intention or desire of escaping ; but at the same time told
the wizard, as they had paid him for his professional revelations, that
they had explicit confidence that he would not divulge, except to them-
selves, any shadowings of the future that flitted over his sand covered
deer skin. The old prophet, acting upon the principle of letting every
one attend to his own business, said nothing about the 'coming events
which cast their shadows before ' in regard to the escape of the prison-
ers. Whether his silence proceeded from his not wishing to meddle
with the determinations of the fates, or from the fear that any revela-
tions he might make, affecting the interests of his patrons who had
confided their all to his prophetic skill and honor, might injure his
business, or simply from a sense of moral probity, it was difficult to
judge.
"At length the set time for their departure arrived, and they com-
menced their dubious journey through the wide wilderness, infested
with wild beasts, and wild and bloody minded savages, whose tender
mercies (with a few noble exceptions) they had long since learned
were cruel. They knew that as soon as they were missed they would
be pursued, and they pushed ahead as fast as possible the whole of the
first night, and encamped about daybreak, without fire, in a thicket,
almost surrounded with a swamp. Here they lay concealed the whole
day. Having eaten the scanty amount of victuals they had been able
to stealthily abstract from the camp the morning they left, they began
to feel pressed with hunger, but dare not venture from their conceal-
ment, lest they might be discovered and recaptured by the Indians,
^hom they well knew would hang upon their trail and ferret them out
if possible. They saw no game in their swampy retreat ; and, had they,
the sound of a gun might disclose their hiding place. They crawled
around and tried to catch some frogs which they saw plunging around
in the stagnant waters that surrounded them ; but were unable to catch
even one frog. At dark they ventured out from their lurking-place,
and pursued their perilous journey through the woods, guided by the
stars when they shone, and, when they were obscured, by the moss that
grew on the north side of the treesa fact well known to all woodsmen.
"The morning of the third day found them so weak and exhausted
by travel and hunger, that it was determined that Rue, who was a good
hunter, should venture out in quest of game. He spent the most of
INDIAN TROPHECIES. 403
the day in hanting, but found no game, not even a bird nor a squirrel
to appease their gnawing hunger. By this time they had reached the
streams that led into the Wabash river, which Kue knew abounded
with fine fish, but having no fish hooks with them, nor wire to construct
any out of, they deemed it too hazardous to attempt to spear any by
torch light. So they traveled on all that night without eating, or
stopping to rest, but, with the returning beams of the morning, they
sought a secure hiding place, as usual. Their hunger now commenced
to become insupportable, and, although the woods and streams showed
strong and fresh signs of Indians, it was determined that Rue, their
Nimrod, must go in quest of game at all hazards. He scoured the
woods for miles around, up hill and down dale, but, strange to say, he
could find no game of any description. A jaybird or a woodpecker
would have been a delicious morsel to these starving fugitives; but
birds and beasts appeared to be, like themselves, hid amongst their
woody fastnesses. About the middle of the afternoon Rue returned to
camp, weary, dejected and luckless. Starvation now stared them in
the face.
"At length another one of the fugitives arose from his prostrate
position on the ground, and said :
'
Suppose I try my luck, or lack of
luck, once more.' Then, shouldering the best gun in the company, he
walked slowly off and was soon hid in the darksome forest that sur-
rounded them. But this persistent effort on the part of their comrade
brought no hope to the minds of Bue and the other man, who well
knew the want of skill on the part of the departed hunter. But the
race is not always to the swift, nor the battle to the strong, which was
fully verified by the fact that in less than three hours after he started
from the camp the amateur hunter returned, tottering under a small
three pronged buck, which he had killed and partly dressed. As he
threw it upon the ground the words of the conjurer: 'It is a masculine;
after killing it you will find plenty of game, and your hardships will
mostly be over,' flashed across the mind of Bue, who now felt fully
confirmed in the oracular wisdom of the old Indian, whose prophetic
ken had so far penetrated the future as to see the carcass of that deer
which was so opportunely killed to save them from death by famine.
If it were a mere coincidence or shrewd guess of the seer, they con-
sidered it strange beyond parallel. A fire was soon kindled, and a
small portion of the deer was broiled. The experience and sound
judgment of the prisoners prevented their eating too much of the de-
licious repast. They now had enough to last them several days, until
they could kill more, and the last words of the conjurer threw the rain-
bow hues of hope over the remainder of their toilsome journey. When
night arrived they pursued their journey with reneAved strength and
courage, carrying with them the fleshy portions of the venison, feeling
comparatively safe. Although they had traveled many miles from
where they started and, in all probability, were far out of reach of
their pursuers, yet they relaxed but little in the prudent course they
adopted at the start, of night traveling and lying by in the day time
;
and thus they entirely avoided discovery by the red men of the forest,
who thickly inhabited the region through which they had passed.
Had they been discovered by the Indians Avho inhabited the different
portions of the country through which they passed, they would very
likely not have been recognized as white men, for their dress, gait,
manners and general appearance were completely Indian, from the
painted feathers and porcupine quills that crowned the turban that en-
circled their foreheads, to the beads and ribbons that adorned their
moccasins, and variegated the fanciful belts that surrounded their
waists, bristling with scalping knife and tomahawk. They found game
plenty, and would have had a sufficient quantity of ammunition to enable
them to supply themselves with provisions to the end of their journey,
had not an accident occurred which reduced them again to a state of
great destitution.
"
On the twentieth day after they made their escape from near
Detroit they struck the Ohio river, about fifty miles above the Falls.
The sight of this beautiful river, which they had not seen for over
three years, sent a thrill of joy through their bosoms, and they set to
work to construct a rude raft out of logs to bear them down its spark-
ling current to the village of Louisville, where their toilsome and
dangerous journey would be brought to a close. But before they had
floated half the wây to Louisville their frail raft was dashed to pieces
by the white caps, raised by a stiff gale that swept up the river, and
the three passengers with their guns, blankets and provisions, were
spilt out into the river. With difficulty they reached the Kentucky
shore and crawled up the bank, looking, as they afterward said, like
drowned rats. They lost all their guns but one, the whole of their
provisions, and the most of their ammunition and clothes. In this sad
plight they struck out through the woods for Harrodsburg, where they
arrived in safety, greatly fatigued and worn down by their long and
wearisome journey through the wilderness, and to the surprise and joy
of their friends, who had long mourned them as dead."
Father Charlevoix, in his travels among the Indians in North
America, it seems, also encountered these prophets whom he called
jugglers, and was struck with astonishment at the accuracy with which
he says they foretold future events.
1
INDIAN PROPHECIES. 405
He says it is also true that the jugglers were too often right in
their predictions to make it believed that they always guess by chance
;
and that there passes on these occasions, things that it is scarce possible
to attribute to any natural secret. But he attributes these remarkable
prophecies to a power derived from an evil spirit, concerning which he
says: "The letters of the ancient missionaries are full of facts which
leave no room to doubt that these seducers have a real correspondence
with the Father of deceit and lies."
It appears in the experience of Father Charlevoix that these
prophecies did not proceed alone from Indian men, bat Indian women
also possessed this power, and he gives the following instance of fore-
telling an event by a "woman savage," which he said he had "from
its source."
"
Madame de Marson, wife of M. de Marson, who was command-
ant of a post in Canada, was one day very uneasy about her husband,
who was absent, and the time was past which he had set for his return.
A 'woman savage' who saw Madame de Marson was troubled, asked
her the cause of it, and being told it, she said, after pausing a little on
the matter, 'Don't trouble yourself any longer; your husband will
come back on such a day, and at such an hour (which she named),
wearing a grey hat.' As she perceived that the lady gave no heed to
her prediction, on the day and at the hour she had foretold, she came
again to the lady, and asked her if she would come and see her
husband arrive, and pressed her in such a manner to follow her, that
she drew her to the side of the river. They had hardly got there whea
M. de Marson appeared in a canoe, wearing a grey hat; and being
informed of what had passed, he declared that he could not conceive
how the savage could have foreknown the hour and the day of his
arrival."
Rev. Peter Jones, the Ojibway minister of the gospel, in his book
concerning that people, gives the following, among other instances of
Indian prophecy, which he says he received from a respectable gentle-
man, then government agent in Upper Canada, who had spent most of
his life in the Indian country, and who was, therefore, well acquainted
with their character and pretensions, and thus relates the incident:
"In the year 1804, wintering with the Winnebagoes on the Eock
river, I had occasion to send three of my men to another wintering
house, for some flour which I had left there in the fall, on my way up
the river.
, The distance being about one and a half days' journey from
where I lived, they were expected to return in about three days. On
the sixth day after their absence I was about sending in quest of them,
when some Indians, arriving from the spot, said that they had seen
406
nothing of them. I could now use no means to ascertain where they
were; the plains were extensive, the paths numerous, and the tracks
they had made were the next moment covered by the drift snow.
Patience was my only resource; and, at length, I gave them up for
lost.
'On the fourteenth night after their departure, as several Indians
were smoking their pipes and telling stories of their war parties,
huntings, etc., an old fellow, named Wahicun, who was a daily visitor,
came in. My interpreter, a Canadian named Felix, pressed me, as he
had frequently done before, to employ this conjurer, as he could inform
me about the men in question.
"The dread of being laughed at had, hitherto, prevented my
acceding to his importunities ; but now, excited by curiosity, I gave the
old man a quarter pound of tobacco and two yards of ribbon, telling
him that if he gave me a true account of them I would, when I ascer-
tained the fact, give him a bottle of rum. The night was exceedingly
dark, and the house situated on a point of land in a thick wood. The
old fellow withdrew, and the other Indians retired to their lodges.
"A few minutes after, I heard Wahwun (an
^gg,)
begin a lament-
able song, his voice increasing to such a degree that I really thought
he would have injured himself. The whole forest appeared to be in
agitation, as if the trees were knocking against each other; then all
would be silent for a few seconds ; again the old fellow would scream
and yell, as if he were in great distress. A chill seized me, and my
hair stood on end; the interpreter and I stared at each other without
power to express our feelings. After remaining in this situation a few
minutes the noise ceased, and we distinctly heard the old chap singing
a lively air. We expected him in, but he did not come. After waiting
some time, and all appearing tranquil in the Avoods, we went to bed.
The next morning I sent for my friend, Wahitmn, to inform me of his
jaunt to see the men.
'"I went,' said he, 'to smoke the pipe with your men last night,
and found them cooking some elk meat, which they got from an Ottawa
Indian. On leaving this place they took the wrong road on the top of
the hill ; they traveled hard on, and did not know for two days that
they were lost. When they discovered their situation they were much
alarmed, and, having nothing more to eat, were afraid they would starve
to death. They walked on not knowing which way they were going,
until the seventh day, when they were met near the Illinois river by
the Ottawa before named, who was out hunting. He took them to his
lodge, fed them well, and wanted to detain them some days until they
had recovered their strength; but they would not stay. He then gave
INDIAN PROPHECIES. 407
iliem some elk meat for their journey home, and sent his son to put
them into the right road. They will go to Lagothenes for the flour
you sent them, and will be at home in three days.' I then asked him
what kind of a place they were encamped in when he was there. He
said,
'
they had made a shelter by the side of a large oak tree that had
been torn up by the roots, and w^hich had fallen with the head towards
the rising sun.'
"All this I noted down, and from the circumstantial manner in
which he related every particularthough he could not possibly have
had any personal communication with or from them by any other
IndiansI began to hope that my men were safe and that I should
again see them. On the appointed day the interpreter and myself
watched most anxiously, but without effect. We got our suppers, gave
up all hopes, and heartily abused Wahwun for deceiving us. Just as
we wêre preparing for bed, to my great joy, the men rapped at the
door, and in they came with the flour on their backs. My first busi-
ness was to inquire of their travels. They told me the whole exactly
as the old Indian had before stated, not omitting the tree or any other
occurrence ; and I could have no doubt but the old fellow had got his
information from some evil or familiar spirit."
CHAPTEE XXXII.
ANATOMY AND MEDICAL KNOWLEDGE.
Knowledge, how AcquiredComparison of the Indian and the White ManKnowl-
edge of the Functional Organs of the BodyWhich their Language Indicates
Their Knowledge ComparativePathologyWant of Knowledge through
Scientific ExperimentsLimited Knowledge of Circulation of the BloodKnowl-
edge Derived from the WhitesIncantations
By
Sacrificial RitesPretensions
of Indian Knowledge Compared with the Pretensions of the Medical White Man
Originally, Indians had but Few DiseasesCauses of DiseasesSimplicity of
DietAdminister Simple RemediesSacrifices to Propitiate SpiritsA Practice
Like the JewsFracture or Breaking of a BoneUnderstand Nature of Poison-
ous PlantsKnew Nothing of ParalysisIdeas of Blood Letting.
MO what degree of
knowledge the
American Indian had
^"^
attained in medical
science, at the time he first
came in contact with the
white man and the ways of
his civilization, can not now
be stated with complete accu-
racy. At most, it is a mat-
ter of conjecture; but since
his acquaintance with the
white man it is evident that
the Indian has made consid-
erable progress in his knowl-
edge on this subject; but we
must bear in mind whatever
knowledofe or skill the white
man himself has attained on this subject has been gathered, after a
long period of time, from observation and experience. The Indian
knowledge has been acquired in the same manner.
The only difference between the Indian and the white man, in
this regard, is that the latter has given this subject more attention
than the former. Dr. Pitcher, a surgeon in the United States army
(408)
INDIAN DOCTOK COMPOUNDING MEDICINE.
ANATOMY AND MEDICAL KNOWLEDGE. 409
many years ago, who gave considerable attention to inquiring into
the Indian knowledge on the subject of anatomy and medicine, says:
"
Their ignorance of the pathology of diseases and superstitious observ-
ances are not, in many respects, more extravagant than those entertained
by practitioners in the mediaeval ages. One of the most striking re-
sults of his investigation consists of the scientific determination of
the plants relied on in the Indian materia medica.'''' He says that
strong coincidences are found in the species and properties of the
botanical remedies employed by the original, and by educated phy-
sicians.
It is perceived by the Indian vocabularies furnished by sundry
sources, that the Indians had appropriate and distinct names for dif-
ferent parts of the human system, as the heart, lungs, liver, gall, spleen,
windpipe, and other functional organs. But it is believed to be im-
probable that they possessed an adequate or reliable knowledge of the
true functions performed by these organs. Whatever shadowy no-
tions they may have entertained on this subject, experience obtained by
viewing the vital organs, would seem to inform them that the heart was
the distributing reservoir of the blood and the central point of vitality.
Their language would indicate this, upon examination of the etymology
of the word denoting heart; and their knowledge of the functions of
other parts of the human structure would be indicated, to some extent,
in like manner.
"The Indian knowledge of anatomy," says Dr. Pitcher, "is in a
great measure comparative, having been derived from acquaintance
with the structure of the higher order of animals. By cutting up the
game taken in hunting, the Indian acquires a general knowledge of
the comparative anatomy of animals, the analogies of which, to the
human system, they seem carefully to have noted and clearly compre-
hended."
It is to be noted, however, that they do not understand the changes
which the atmosphere undergoes in the lungs. They are not aware
that the combustion that takes place in the lungs, is the principal source
of animal heat, nor do they know that nitrogen of the changing tissues
is passed out through the kidneys
;
yet they do understand that the
blood is circulated by the agency of heat, that the lungs are the or-
gans of respiration, and that the suspension of the action of the kid-
neys is fatal to animal life.
On the subject of pathology, or that science which has for its
object the knowledge of disease, the Indian, it appears, has no distinct
or definite ideas. He had not, like the physicians of cultivated people,
an opportunity of acquiring pathological information, through agen-
cies of science and scientific experiments, like that of the microscope,
organic chemistry, the stethoscope and autoptic examinations.
Investigations, in later times, indicate that the Indians had a lim-
ited knowledge of the circulation of the blood. Whatever ideas they
possessed on this subject, it is believed, were derived from the whites;
for, while their medicine men say that the blood flows in the veins,
when questioned on the subject, they appear to be wholly ignorant of
the agency of the arteries in producing this current, as well as ignorant
of the agency of the lungs and air, in renovating the blood, and, in
fact, ignorant of the entire economy of the system.
Mr. Fletcher, United States agent among the Winnebagoes, in
speaking of the medical knowledge of the Indians, says: "In view
of the conflicting theories advocated by pathologists among the whites,
and in the absence of a certain and acknowledged standard on this sub-
ject, it is difficult to determine how far the Indian theory of the nature
and causes of diseases is entitled to respect. If the success of their
practice is considered a fair criterion of the correctness of their theory,
the Indian doctor can claim a respectable rank among the disciples of
Esculapius."
Individuals among them have notions of a kind of mythic exist-
ences, as causes of disease, and believe that they are to be driven out by
incantations, or propitiated by sacrificial rites and ceremonies. Others
impute the sufferings of the sick to the presence of bile in the pained
parts, which the inculcator of this theory draws out of the system
through a bone used as a suction-pump, and which the operator works
with his mouth. The spitting out of the juice of a yellow root, which he
carries in his mouth for that purpose, renders the delusion of the
patient complete.
Some Indians ascribe all pain, the causes of which are not obvious
to the senses, to the biting of worms, which they attempt to dislodge
through remedies of their own devices. The speculative notions of
the native Indian tribes were not more obviously observed than the
opinions which prevailed among the physicians who wrote and practiced
during the period in the world's history called the dark ages, and the
century following the era of printing, when the pall of superstition
seemed to hang with a peculiar weight upon the medical mind of
the nations of Europe; and Dr. Pitcher remarks that he knows of
nothing in Indian practice which indicates such grossness of taste, on
the part of the people who used and prepared them, as some of the
formulae for the preparation of remedies which are found in the medi-
cal waitings during the prevalence of the great plague in London, in the
latter part of the seventeenth century, and that the sympathetic treat-
ANATOMY AND MEDICAL KNOWLEDGE. 411
inent of wounds, which was in vogue at the same time, and is still in our
own country practiced in certain cases, although not participating in the
vulgarity of Salmons Septasium, savored none the less of superstition.
But the Indian, from the very nature of things, in his native con-
dition, had but few diseases to deal with. They were a robust and
vigorous people, and their mode of life was such that, as La Hontan
well remarks,
"
they were unacquainted with a great many diseases
that inflict the Europeans." The diseases among them were, in gen-
eral, such as result from overtaxation of the muscular system, and
exposure to the inclemencies of the weather, such as fevers, rheuma-
tism, pleurisy, and the like. Through their simplicity of diet and
<;ustomary bodily exercises, on the hunt and occasional wars, they
-escaped those many diseases of the human system resulting from the
mode of life amongst civilized white men. Thus, in later times, since
the coming of the white man, a large proportion of the diseases with
which the Indian doctor has had to deal are those that have come
among the people since the event aforesaid.
Mr. Fletcher, United States Indian agent, before mentioned,
remarks that the uncultivated Indian knows nothing of the science of
medicine, and in reference to that tribe, which may be taken as a fair
sample of the knowledge and practices of the tribes in general con-
cerning medical knowledge, he says the general character of the theory
held by the medicine men of this tribe, was a compound of quackery,
ignorance and superstition, added to some practical skill derived from
experience and observation. They administer a few simple remedies,
sometimes judiciously, and use incantations, sacrifice dogs, sing, dance,
and fast, to aid in effecting a cure ; and they sometimes set up toads,
turtles and snakes on sticks around the bed of their patient to drive
away the bad spirits.
The mention of setting up sticks around the bed of the patient
is not unlike the brazen serpent set up in the camp of Israel, as related
in the Jewish writings.
The pathology of consumption is little understood by the Indians.
Functional disorders of the liver are not distinguished by them ; as the
kidneys act vicariously in such cases, they direct their remedies to those
symptoms which indicate renal obstructions; and, like many of their
civilized contemporaries, they prescribe for an effect instead of a cause,
consequently use the same remedies in these cases that they do in
those of gravel.
They know nothing of the pathological difference between those
two forms of intestinal disease, dysentery and diarrhoea, but treat them
both in the same way, and by the same remedies.
412
In case of fracture or breaking of a bone, they possess such
knowledge of anatomy as to enable them to apply such efficient reme-
dies as to secure a proper uniting of the bone or fractured part. Ta
this end they make an excellent splint out of the bark of a tree, which
they adapt to the limb, and fasten with bandages, so as to prevent
motion in the fragments of the bone.
They understand the nature of poisonous plants, and effect of
such when introduced into the stomach, for which they have no certain
antidotes. They use such remedies to prevent, as far as possible,
their toxicological effects by the administration of emetics. They
also understand the effect of the bites of venomous reptiles, and stings
of poisonous insects upon the human system.
They know little or nothing of paralysis, not being aware how
generally this disease is occasioned by pressure upon the origin of the
nervesthe brain or spinal marrow. They do not successfully apply
any remedy for its removal.
They seem to have some ideas of blood-letting as a remedy for
diseases, something like that of the physicians of the white man in
former times, that it relieved the system and was beneficial as a remedy
in certain cases ; but this notion the Indian, it is believed, derived from
the white man's pathology; but whether so or not, it simply shows
that the Indian and the white man are alike liable to errors in their
medical remedies and pretended knowledge of medicine.
CHAPTEK XXXIII.
DISEASES AND TREATMENT OF THE SICK.
Originally but Two Fatal Diseases among ThemConsumption Destroyed Many in
Later Times
"The Indian Student's Lament"Diseases among the Ojibways
What La Hontan Says of Diseases among the IndiansSmall-pox Very Fatal
Indian Ideas of SicknessFear Pain and Long Duration of Illness More than
DeathPhysician or Doctor of MedicineVarious RemediesSweat Lodge
Manner of ConstructingVapor Baths not a Matter of LuxuryChickasaws
Doctor Attending the Sick.

^g.
HE early Puritans
inform us that before
the English came
^^
there were two fatal
diseases among the native
Indians, consumption and
yellow fever. They say that
the Indians also suffered
greatly from rheumatism and
toothache. In later times, it
is stated that consumption
destroyed many of the Indian
youths who were being edu-
cated at Harvard and else-
where for the ministry. The
historian says, also, that
"some of them turned from
the path of learning, because they loved more the trail of the hunter."
This circumstance, it would seem, gave rise to that plaintive song of
the "olden time," called "The Indian Student's Lament," wherein
occurs the following:
"
O, give me back my bended bow,
My cap and feather give me back,
To chase o'er hills the bounding roe,
Or follow in the otter track.
I hate these antiquated walls," etc.
Peter Jones says that the diseases most common among the abo-
(413)
INDIAN MEDICINE MAN ADMINISTERING TO A PATIENT.
rigines of America, before the landing of Europeans, were few in com^
parison with those which, in later times, debilitated their constitutions,
and tended so much towards depleting their numbers ; that there was a
saying among his people that their forefathers were so exempt from
sickness, that, like the cedar, w^hich had withstood the storms of ages,
and showed the first signs of decay in its topmost branches, so the aged
Indian, sinking under the weight of many winters, betokens the decline
of life by gray hair and furrowed cheeks.
He says that the diseases most common to the Indians wêre con-
sumption, fevers, pleurisy, coughs, worms, and dysentery. The
measles, small-pox, whooping cough, and other like contagious dis-
tempers were unknown to them before the white man came among
them ; but after which they became subject to all these maladies, suffer-
ing from them much not knowing the nature of such diseases, nor
understanding the manner of treating them. Their mode of life and
exposure to the elements were such as to increase the virulence of dis-
eases of this kind. The Indians die of inflammation of the lungs and
consumption more frequently than from other diseases, which is
attributed largely to insufficient or unwholesome diet, and to exposure
of all kinds of weather.
La Hontan says the Indians were sometimes "seized with mortal
pleurisy;" but such attacks were not frequent. This was the only dis-
temper that their remedies could not reach. Of the diseases of the
white man which were brought among them, the small-pox proved very
fatal. This disease was brought among the Mandans about the year
1837, then about 5,000 in number, and was so destructive and fatal,
that in a short space of time, and before the disease was checked, their
number was reduced to about 250. Mr. Schoolcraft, in referring to
this circumstance, however, says that the tribe, at that time, consisted
of 1,600 persons, living in two villages, which was reduced by this dis-
ease to thirty-one souls. The disease spread from thence, among
various tribes of the surrounding country, with the most appalling
effects and fearful destruction of life.
Kev. Jedediah Morse, in his report to the Secretary of War, in
the year 1822, (as a sort of special commissioner to visit the Indian
tribes), says that in 1802, the small-pox swept off the Indian popula-
tion from the Missouri to New Mexico, in the region of the Pawnees,
and west of the Rocky Mountains; and that the Ottawas at L'Âhre
Croche^ about the jêar 1779, lost half their number by this disease.
La Hontan says, that "in the Illinois country near the Mississippi,
the venereal distemper is very common." La Hontan's assertions, as
a historian, when not corroborated in some manner, are to be taken
I
DISEASES AND TREATMENT OF THE SICK. 415
with some degree of allowance; but if his aforesaid assertion is cor-
rect, the appearance of tliis disease among the Indians in the country
mentioned must be attributed to the Spaniards, who, from their long
occupation of the country in the southwest, had spread their influence
among the tribes extending far into the Mississippi valley. From the
early accounts of the native Indians, concerning their habits and man-
ners and customs, no such disease existed among them in their primi-
tive condition, unaffected by association with the white man. Such is
the opinion expressed by intelligent Indians of the present day.
Hennepin says that generally speaking the Indians have a very
robust and vigorous constitution, and are, therefore, very rarely
troubled with distempers; that they are not afflicted with dropsy or
gravel, nor are they feverish ; and are hardly ever afflicted with any of
those diseases which the Europeans fall into for the want of exercise,
and are seldom troubled with the want of appetite.
The general idea of sickness among the Indians seems to be that
an evil spirit has entered or taken possession of the person, and that
when this is driven away they will be cured of the disease which has
afflicted them. The efforts of their medicine men in treating diseases
are, therefore, principally directed towards casting out this evil and
mysterious power.
La Hontan says the Indians are not at all alarmed by sickness ;.
that they fear death much less than the pain and duration of their
illness. In their sickness they eat sparingly, and seem to observe the
same rules in regard to diet as the white man. If they fall asleep
they think themselves cured. They think that sleeping and sweating
will cure the most stubborn disease.
The Indian idea, in a case of sickness, is that the patient should
be surrounded by pleasant scenes ; that nothing disagreeable or repul-
sive should be admitted to the presence of the sick person. When a
person is so weak that he cannot arise from his bed, his relations or
friends come and dance, and make merry in his presence, in order to
divert him and make him cheerful.
The Indian, like the white man, has his physician or doctor of
medicine. With the white man medicine is considered a science;
with the Indian it is considered in the light of mystery. Among the
Indians there are different classes of medicine men, the same as with
the white man. They are not all healing medicine men, yet the art
of healing may be practiced or included in the calling of the great
medicine man, who is one that is supposed to
"
understand all mystery,"
that of healing as well as that of prophecy or foretelling events.
According to Mr. Schoolcraft there were, among the Indians, two-
classes of doctors of diseases, or medicine men, as that term is under-
stood by the white man. One of these he styles the honest Indian
doctor, Maslxckewinni, and the magical professor or Meda, the latter
being a member of the Mednwin, or Grand Medicine Society, who
aimed to give efficacy to his skill by necromancy. He says that the
Indian physician proper must not be confounded with the Meda or
magician. The former tended to the cure of wounds, and admin-
istered simples culled from the botanical catalogue, whose laxative,
aperient, or other properties, were known to him ; and yet, this honest
Indian doctor, when concocting his liquid vegetable remedies, never-
theless, it would seem, did so upon the theory of mystery, by
invoking the aid of the Great Spirit, that his compounds might possess
the virtue intended in healing his patient.
The Meda or magician also gives attention to healing the sick,
not by material remedies, but by supernatural influences, which he
invokes in various modes, which, perhaps, for a better name, we might
call mesmerism, or magnetism, or, peradventure. Christian science or
faith cure. The idea of the pathology of diseases by this class of medi-
cine men, is that the spirit of something, or some animal, or deceased
person, has entered into the sick person and causes his sickness or dis-
tress. His main efforts are directed to expelling the spirit. This he
attempts by certain incantations and ceremonies, intended to secure
the aid of the spirit or spirits he worships, followed by all kinds of
frightful noises and gestures, or by sucking over the place of pain
with his mouth.
The white man who stands by and mesmerizes or magnetizes his
patients in removing pain, or driving out disease, instead of this rude
Indian proceeding, simply passes his hands over the patient in the
manner of that class of white medicine men of to-day, and thereby,
as he will contend, heals the patient of the disease with which he is
afflicted.
The various remedies of the other class of Indian doctors, or
Maskekeimnni, consist in scarifying the part afflicted with the pain, to
which, after he has drawn what blood He can by sucking with his
mouth, he applies tobacco, red pepper or some of the pulverized roots
or bark of some of their native plants. They also practice annointing
and sometimes steaming and washing the pained part. For pain in
the head they scarify the temples ; for sickness at the stomach they
endeavor to induce vomiting, either by decoctions of certain plants or
by tickling the throat with a feather. For complaints of the bowels
they use certain roots and seeds of native plants, the effect of which is
well understood by them.
1
DISEASES AND TREATMENT OF THE SICK, 417
They are very careful to conceal from each other, except a few
initiated, the knowledge of the plants as medicine, believing, perhaps,
that their efficacy, in some measure, depends on this concealment.
La Hontan says that he found the Indian idea to be that good
air, pure water and contentment of mind were advantages contributing,
in a great measure, to good health.
Charlevoix says that the great Indian remedy, and their great
preservation against all diseases, was by sweating. Another authority
says that they had one hygenic usage that, no doubt, did much to coun-
teract the prejudicial influences of their uncleanly mode of life, which
was the vapor bath, which they resorted to on the slightest indisposi-
tion, and frequently in health. For this purpose a small frame-work
of withes, about six feet in diameter and four feet or more in height
was built. Several of these might, at any time, be seen in every con-
siderable Indian village.
Whenever any one wished to take a bath, several large heated
stones were placed in one of these frames, the frame-work being cov-
ered heavily with blankets or skins. The person then crept within,
taking in a vessel full of water. By sprinkling this slowly upon the
heated stones the interior was soon filled with dense steam, which
might be continued as long as desired. Frequent baths of this kind
have most beneficial results, in maintaining and stimulating activity of
the secretory system.
In describing this process Charlevoix says that, at their coming
out of this sweat lodge, or stove, as called by some, and while the sweat
runs down all parts of the body, they go and plunge into a stream of
water, if any is near enough ; if not, they get some one to pour the
coldest water over them.
Mr. Schoolcraft says that vapor baths are not a matter of luxury
or sensuality among the North American Indians, but that their use
belongs to the medicine rite; they are not authorized but are prohib-
ited to the vulgar, and are used in consecrated cases, according to pre-
scribed forms which must not be departed from.
Whatever number are to enter into the vapor bath lodge, its vaults
can have only four or eight supporting poles, and the construction
must be in a peculiar mode, from which there must be no departure
under any circumstances. In general, every village throughout the
continent had its sweat lodge, which was generally located near the
edge of a stream, for convenience of immersion after the bath was
taken.
Taking a sweat bath was a municipal regulation in eveiy Indian,
village.
Mr. Heckewelder says: "The sweat oven is the first thing
that an Indian has recourse to when he feels the least indisposed." It
was the place where the weary traveler, hunter or warrior looked for-
ward to for restoration from the fatigues he had endured, cure for the
cold he had caught, or restoration of his lost appetite.
The mode of proceeding among the Chickasaws, in case of a doctor
attending the sick, and which seems to have been substantially the
same throughout all the tribes, was as follows:
"
After looking at the
sick person awhile, the family leave him and the sick person alone.
The doctor commences singing and shaking a gourd over the patient,
or beating a small drum of rude manufacture, called by the Ojibways
Ta-wa-gun. This is done not to cure, but to find out what is the mat-
ter or with what disease the patient is afflicted. As the doctor sings
several songs he watches the patient closely, and finds out which song
pleases him, then he determines what the disease is. He then uses
herbs, roots, steaming, and conjuring. The doctor frequently rec-
ommends to have a large feast (which they call Tonsh-pa-shoo-phah)
.
Cf the Indian is tolerably well off, and is sick for two or three weeks,
they may have two or three Toyish-pa-slioo-phahs. They eat, dance,
and sing at a great rate at these feasts. The doctors say that it raises
the spirits of the sick and weakens the evil spirits."
In reference to the Indian drum or Ta-wa-gun, before mentioned,
used for beating in administering to patients, it is said that the Chi-
nese, in case of small-pox, also adopt the like remedy, in which cases
the beating of the drum is in the presence of the patient. Beneficial
results, it is claimed, always follow; and where a patient himself can
beat the drum, the result is much the better. An American traveler,
referring to this custom among the Chinese, in speaking of an instance
wherein this practice came to his attention in that country, says:
"
No sooner did this prescription reach us than we determined to
test its efficiency. One of our friends had a child afflicted with small-
pox. The child had been under the influence of the disease for several
days. It could take no food worth speaking of, and, moreover, the
marks on the skin, instead of coming out, as they should do when the
disease takes a favorable turn, were beginning to disappear, a fatal
sign!
"
We acted on the advice sent us, and proceeded to beat a drum at
the child's
bedside. The results were marvelous. The pock marks
forthwith
began to show, the child's appetite returned, and as the drum-
beating was repeated from day to day, recovery was rapid, and finally
became
complete."
CHAPTER XXXIY.
ASTRONOMICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL KNOWLEDGE.
KnoTvledge from ObservationNorth StarStar that Never MovesGuides Them
by NightSolar Walk or Milky WayIndian OpinionCoincidence -svith An-
cient Behef of the White ManHave Names for Particular StarsSeven Stars
The Great BearDo not Pretend to More Knowledge than Thev Possess
Stars for Which They Have NamesCometsSuperstitious BeliefEclipses-
Indian Theory'EarthquakesMoving of a Great Tortoise
Knowledge of
GeographyDraw Maps CorrectlyCourse of Streams.
^HE Indians had such ideas
^% of astronomy as limited
/^r^l
observation afforded them.
^ They observed that the
star in the fii'mament, which we
call the norih sfar, was con-
stantly to be found in the same
direction. This observation
seemed to be universal amonof
all the tribes. They called the
polar star the star that never
moves. It was this that guided
them in their travels bv ni^ht,
as the sun served them for a
compass to guide them by day.
They had also other marks by
which to distinguish the north
;
they obsei^ved that the tops of
the trees always leaned a little
in that direction, and that the
inward skin of the bark of trees
was always thicker on that side. But it is said they did not always
rely implicitly upon such observations as a guide in traveling, but fre-
quently tested their correctness by yarious other modes.
The
generally conceived opinion of the white man concerning
(419)
"
WISDOM DWELLS WITH COXTEMPLATION.
Indian knowledge of astronomy, is expressed in the words of the great
English poet:
"
His soul proud science never taught to stray,
Far as the solar walk or milky way."
This conclusion as to Indian indifference to science does him
injustice. The solar walk or milky way attracted his attention in
like manner as it has attracted the attention of the white man, and he
reached about the same fruitless conclusion, that it is a problem in
astronomy which nobody on earth can solve; and the Indian, like the
w^hite man, has left this subject about where he found it. The white
man has suggested that it is a confusion of fixed stars, so closely set
as to present the appearance of a common mass. Some Indians had
it that it was the track of a great tortoise ; others were of opinion that
it was the road traveled by departed souls to the land of perpetual
peace.
According to historians, the ancient poets and philosophers of our
own race speak of the milky way as the road by which heroes went to
heaven. This singularly coincides with the American Indian idea
before mentioned, and serves to remind us that even the learned
philosophers of the white man have failed to master that branch of
science in wdiich is involved the
"
solar walk or milky way."
The Indians had names for some particular stars. They observed
the constellation called the Seven stars, and which some of them called
the "great bear," from its fancied resemblance to that animal. Some
Indians gave the name of bear to the first four of those stars which wê
call the Great bear ; the three others which make his tail were, accord-
ing to them, three hunters who pursued the bear, and the little star
that accompanied the middle one was the kettle which the second
carried with him.
Dr. James, the editor of
"
Tanner's Narrative," a man well
acquainted with Indian history and character from much personal
experience, says that the Indians did not pretend to more knowledge
on the subject than they actually possessed. In part second of the
work aforesaid he gives the following short catalogue of stars and
constellations, which shows that the Indians paid some attention to the
more remote of the heavenly bodies. Some old men, he says, had
many more names than these. The Indian names given are in the
Algonquin language, Ojibway dialect:
Waw-hun-an-nung, the morning star; Ke-wa-din-an-nung^ the
north star; Muk-koo-ste-gwon, the Bear's head; three stars in the
triangle; Muh-koo-zhe-gwun, Bear's rump; Seven stars; Oj-eeg-an-
nung-ioug, Fisher stars, the bright stars in Ursa Major, and one beyond.
ASTRONOMICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL KNOWLEDGE. 421
forming the point of the fisher's nose; Mah-io-ie-sun^ the sweating
lodgeone of the poles of this lodge being removed, they say the man
whom they point out near by was so overcome by the heat of the
Mah-io-te-sun, that in his hurried attempt to escape he pulled up this
pole; Mahng, a loon; Nau-ge-maun-gwaif, man in a canoe hunting
the loon; Ah-ivah-to-tvuh-o-moag, the companions sailing; An-mung-
o-skun-na, comet.
The Indians had the opinion, in common with many credulous
white people, that the appearance of a comet was the indication that
war would follow. Of the true causes of the increase and decrease of
the moon, of eclipses and other phenomena which depend on the
motion of the planet, they had no correct conceptions.
If an eclipse happened, they imagined that there was some great
combat in the heavens, and shot arrows into the air to drive away the
enemies of the sun or moon. When the moon was eclipsed they said
it was sick, and, to recover it from its sickness, they made a great noise
with many ceremonies and prayers, and they never failed to fall upon
the dogs with sticks and stones to set them yelping, because they said
the moon loved these animals ; and when they perceived the bright part
of the moon becoming a little larger, they imagined that they had
aided in driving away the sickness by which it was overpowered.
Mr. Heckewelder says the Indians ascribed earthquakes to the
moving of a great tortoise, which they believed bore on its back the
island (continent). They said the motion was caused by the tortoise
moving itself or changing its position.
Charlevoix says "they have no chronological computation, and if
they preserve the epochs of certain remarkable events, they do not
comprehend exactly the time that has passed since; they are satisfied
Avith remembering the facts, and they have invented several ways of
preserving the remembrance of them. For instance, the Hurons and
Iroquois have in their public treasuries belts of porcelain in which are
Avrought figures that revive the memory of transactions. Others make
use of knots of a particular form, and if in these things their imagina-
tion labors,- yet it always leads them to the point proposed. Lastly,
they all reckon from one to ten, the tens by ten to a hundred, the hun-
dreds by ten to a thousand, and they go no further in their calcula-
tions."
La Hontan, on this subject, remarks that the Indians "are as
ignorant of geography as of any other science, and yet they draw the
most exact maps imaginable of the countries they are acquainted with,
for there is nothing wanting in them but the longitude and latitude of.
places. They set down the true north according to the pole star ; the
ports, harbors, rivers, creeks, and coasts of the lakes, the roads, moun-
tains, woods, marshes, meadows, etc., counting the distance by jour-
neys and half journeys of the warriors, and allowing to every journey
five leagues. These geographical maps are drawn upon the rind of
your birch tree, and when the old men hold a council about war and
hunting they are always sure to consult them."
Capt. Carver is also authority for the accuracy with which the
Indians of the interior of the continent drew maps of the country,
showing the course of rivers, location of lakes, and other geographical
information with much accuracy ; but Mr. Heckewelder, speaking for
the Indians of the continent with whom he became acquainted, says
that they had nothing like maps to aid them in traveling over the
country ; at the same time, he says that the geographical knowledge
of the Indian was really astonishing, relying upon their practical
acquaintance with the country they inhabited; that they could steer
directly through the forest in cloudy weather as well as in sunshine, to
the place to which they desired to go, to the distance of 200 miles
or more.
The Indians had an accurate knowledge of all the streams of con-
sequence, and their course. They could tell directly, while traveling
along a stream, whether large or small, which stream it emptied into.
They knew how to take advantage of dividing ridges, where the heads
of the smaller streams were, or from which they took their course.
In traveling on mountains or in hilly countries, they shaped their
course from the views they would take from the tops of mountains and
high hills.
CHAPTEE XXXY.
Intuitive Mode of Reckoning TimeCardinal DivisionsDays and MonthsReckon
Days by SunsMonths by MoonsFour Fixed Points in the DayRising and
Setting of the SunNoon and NightSome Idea of a Solar YearSpring-
SummerAutumnWinterYear Begins With SpringPutting Out of the
Leaves Planting SeasonReckon Ages by WintersCommemorate Events
No Division of Days into HoursRecall Time of Year by Past EventsHow

Mothers Keep Ages of ChildrenTook no Note of TimeNames for Different
MoonsNames of the Four SeasonsLost MoonExamples of Names of Moons
among Different Tribes.
HE Indian had no other mode
;%
of noting time than that intu-
itive or natural method, com-
^"^
inor to him throucrh the mo-
tions of the earth and observations in
the
planetary system, aided by the
chancres in the seasons, observations
of the habits of animals, and the like.
Their cardinal divisions of time
were into days and months, or suns
and
moons. That is, the time from
the rising and setting of the sun vras
a day, and from the first appearance
of what we call the new moon, passing
through its various stages until its ap-
pearance again, was a month.
According
to very general custom among
the Indians they divided the day into two parts, which were marked by
the sun at meridian, the two
parts thus being the forenoon and the
afternoon.
Charlevoix, in speaking of the Indian division of time, says that
they have four fixed points in the day, viz.
:
rising and setting of the
sun, noon, and midnight; and
whatever
weather they happen to have
they are never mistaken in these.
The Indians very generally, and
especially in the more
northern
portions of the American continent,
had some idea of a solar year,
which they divided into four parts in
423)
the manner of our own division of a year, that is, into spring, summer,
autumn and winter. Their year began with the spring, which, with
them, was the youth of the year, the time when man begins to revive,
and so the time when the plants and flowers begin to put forth. This
again is noted in this connection as marking another coincidence in
harmony wdth the custom of the Jews, who also commenced their year
with the season of spring.
A Virginia historian, speaking of the Indian mode of reckoning
time, says they reckon their years by winters, or cohonhs, as they
express it, being a word taken from the note of the wild geese as they
passed over in their flight, intimating so many times of the wild geese
coming to them, which is every winter. According to the same au-
thority, the Indians of that colony distinguished the several parts of
the year by five seasons, viz. : the budding or blossoming of the spring
;
the earing of the corn, or roasting ear time; the summer, or highest
sun ; the corn gathering, or fall of the leaf ; and the winter, or cohonks.
The Indians of the northern latitudes of the corn-growing country
said that when the leaf of the white oak, which put forth in the spring
is the size of the ear of a mouse, it was time to plant corn, and so, like-
wise, the planting season was observed by the returning voice of the
whippoorwill, which they interpreted as admonishing them that the
spring time or planting season had come.
They calculated their ages by some remarkable event which had
taken place in their remembrance, as that of a severe winter, a big
snow, an extraordinary freshet, some gener al or disastrous war, and the
like. But, in expressing the sum total of their ages, they did so by the
number of winters they had passed, instead of designating the same
by years, according to our own custom.
They were noted for having a wonderful memory of events that
had transpired, or anything that depended upon the attention of the mind.
They had no division of days into hours, nor had they any division of
time into weeks, or days of the month, nor did they have any number
of days which comprised a year. The time of the year they recalled
by some particular circumstance, as that of planting, cultivating or
harvesting their corn, the time when the different fruits of the country
were ripe, the croaking of the frogs in the spring, the falling of the
leaves, the events of snow or occasions of extreme cold.
Mothers, it is said, often numbered the days of their children at
the beginning by cutting a notch each day on some part of the child's
cradle, which, however, was seldom kept up beyond two or three
months, reckoning from that time forward by moons and winters. But,
in general, no Indian was expected to know his exact age, from the
425
uncertainty in their mode of keeping time. The habits and customs of
the Indian, and his surroundings, through which the same were influ-
enced, did not impress upon his mind the value of time ; indeed, it was
something of which he took no note in the course of his life. In gen-
eral, he proceeded upon the maxim that
"
sufiicient unto the day is the
evil thereof."
The Indians, the same as our civilized people, had names for the
different moons of the year, which were adopted according to some
natural suggestions ; but these names were not uniform among all the
tribes, as they were in most instances suggestive of the seasons of the
year or events in the course of the season, and these names or signifi-
cations were found to be varied according to particular latitudes.
The names of the four seasons and the signification of the same
among the tribes of the Algonqimi group, were as follows: Seegwun,
"spring," the sprout season; Neebin, "summer," the abundant season;
Tuh-gwuh-gin,
"
autumn," the ending season; and Pehoon, "winter,"
which signifies cold, freezing weather.
Speaking of the great Ojibway nation, Peter Jones says they di-
vided the day into morning, noon and night. Morning commences at
sun-rising and ends at noon, when afternoon begins and ends at sun-
setting. They divided the night into evening and midnight (which
they knew from the position of certain stars), and the dawn of day.
As La Hontan observes, concerning the Algonquins of Canada,
"
all these months have their suitable names. For instance, what we
name March, they call the worm moon, for then the worms quit the
hollow chops of the trees where they shelter themselves in the winter.
April is called the month
of
plants. May, of
flowers,
and so of the
others."
In reckoning time by winters, in referring to events that have
passed, they expressed it by snows, that is, such an event happened so
many snows before. Some Indian nations reckoned their years by
moons, making the year consist of twelve synodical or lunar months,
observing, as Capt. Carver says, when thirty moons have passed to add
a supernumerary one, which they term the lost moon, and then begin
to count as before. They paid a great regard to the first appearance
of every moon, and, on the occasion, always repeated some joyful
sounds, at the same time stretching their hands towards it.
Baron La Hontan gives quite a minute account of the manner in
which the Indians supplied the lost moon. He says that when the lost
moon is supplied, it takes the place of April, and must be over before
they begin their count again. They reckon from the first till the
twenty-sixth of this sort of month, and that contains just that space of
426
time which is between the first appearance of the moon at night, till,
having finished its course, it becomes quite invisible in the morning.
For instance, he says
"
a savage will say I went away the first of the
month of sturgeons (that's August) and returned the twenty-ninth of
the month of Indian corn (the same with our September) and next day
(which is the last) I rested myself. As for the remaining three days
and a half of the dead moon, during which it is impossible to be dis-
cern'
d,
they give them the name of the naked days.^'*
But Charlevoix seriously questions this latter account of astro-
nomical exactness given us by La Hontan, concerning which he says,
"that astronomical exactness in adjusting the lunar with the solar
years. Baron La Hontan does them the honor of contributing to them,
is a mere invention of this writer." At that time, in the waning of
the moon, when it does not shine at night, the Indians say the moon is
dead. The moon's first appearance they term its coming to life again.
In their picture writing the Indians made use of various signifi-
cant hieroglyphics to express the names of the months or moons.
When the Indians first became converted by our missionaries, as they
had never practiced an account of days consecutively, and had no such
thing among them as division of time into weeks, the missionaries had
considerable trouble in instituting some mode by which to have them
know the Christian Sabbath; for this special purpose, therefore, a
system of hieroglyphics was instituted, in reference to which, Peter
Jones says:
"When our Indians were first converted to Christianity, we were
obliged to make a sort of hieroglyphic almanac for them, so that they
might know when the Sabbath returned. We did this by making six
marks alike, to represent working or hunting days, and the seventh
different, thus: 000000 + . These they took with them, and, as each
successive week day returned, they pierced a hole, until it reached the
Sabbath mark. In this way the Christian Indians, far in the wilder-
ness, kept holy the Sabbath day and worshipped the Christian God."
As before remarked, every month or moon had, with the Indian,
a name expressive of its season, varied in designation according to the
circumstances of climate or locality. Thus, according to Peter Jones,
the Ojibways of Canada had the following names:
January; Keche Munedoo Keezis
"The Great Spirit moon."

February; Nuhmabene Keezis
"The mullet fish moon."

March; Neke Keezis
"The wild goose moon."

April; Omuhkuhkee Keezis
"The frog moon."

May; Wahbegwunee Keezis
"Blooming moon."
June; Odoemin Keezis
"Strawberry moon."
427
July; Mesquemene Keezis
"Red raspberry moon."

August; Meen Keezis
"Huckleberry moon."
September; Ahtabuhgah Keezis
"Fading leaf moon."

October; Penahqueewene Keezis
"Falling leaf moon."

November; Kuhshkuhdene Keezis
"Freezing moon."
December; Munedoo Keezis
"Spirit moon."
Among the Ojibways of Lake Superior the months have the fol-
lowing names:
January; Muhnedoo Keezis
"Spirit moon."
February; Nuhmabene Keezis
"Sucker moon."
March; Onahbune Keezis
"The moon of the crust on thb

snow."
April; Bobooquadahgiming Keezis
"The snow-shoe breaking

moon."
May; Wahbegoone Keezis
"The moon of flowers."

June; Odaemene Keezis
"The strawberry moon."

July; Misqueemene Keezis
"The raspberry moon."

August; Meen Keezis
"Bilberry or whortleberry moon."

September; Munomene Keezis
"The wild rice moon."

October; Penahque Keezis
"The moon of the falling leaves."

November; Kushkundene Keezis
"The freezing moon."

December; Muhnedo Keezisoons
"Little Spirit moon."

The Crees or Knistenos, whose country is north of forty-seven
degrees north latitude, divide the year into four seasons. Winter,
A-pe-pook or Pe-poon; Spring, Me-is-ka-mick or Se-gum-uckj Sum-
mer, Nic-pin; Autumn, Tiick-wa-gin,
The Crees give names to the moons as follows:
May; I-ich-e Pes-im
"Frog moon."
June; 0-pin-a-wa-we Pes-im
"The moon in which birds begin

to lay their eggs."
July; 0-pus-ko-we Pes-im
"The moon in which birds cast their

feathers."
August; 0-pa-ko-we Pes-im
"The moon when the young birds

begin to fly."
September; Was-was-kis-o Pes-im
"The moon when the moose

cast their horns; or A-pin-as-koo Pes-im, the moon when the leaves
fall off from the trees."
October; O-no-chi-hit-to-wa-o" Pes-im
"The rutting moon; or

0-ke-wa-ou-o Pes-im, the moon when the fowls go to the south."
November; Ay-e-coop-ay O Pes-im
" Hoar frost moon; or Kus-

kut-te-no-o Pes-im, ice moon."
December; Pa-watch-e-can-a-was O Pes-im
"Whirlwind moon."
428
January;
Kusli-a-pa-was-ti-ca-num O Pes-im
"Extreme cold
moon."
February; Kee-chay O Pes-im
"The moon when small birds

begin to chirp or sing; or Kich-ee O Pes-im, big or old moon."
March; Me-ke-su O Pes-im
"Eagle moon."
April; Nis-ka O Pes-im
"Goose moon, as at this season these

animals return from the south."
The Indians computed the distances from one place to another by
the number of nights or sleeps which they had passed in performing
a journey from one place to another. All the nations employed hiero-
glyphics for the purpose of conveying information to those who were
distant from them.
Capt. Carver, in his book of travels, gives the following names by
which the Indians call the different moons of the year, referring to the
Indian in general terms, without giving the particular tribe or nation
having such names. It is supposed, however, that these names relate
more particularly to New England tribes, who belonged to the Algonquin
group, and were of the same generic stock as the Ojibways. He says
:
"They call the month of March (in which their year generally
begins at the first New Moon after the vernal Equinox) the Worm
month or Moon; because at this time the worms quit their retreats in
the bark of the trees, wood, etc., where they have sheltered themselves
during the winter.
"
The month of April is termed by them the month of Plants
;
May, the month of Flowers; June, the Hot Moon; July, the Buck
Moon. Their reason for thus denominating these is obvious.
"
August, the Sturgeon Moon; because in this month they catch
great numbers of that fish.
"September, the Corn Moon; because in that month they gather
in their Indian Corn.
"October, the Traveling Moon; as they leave at this time their
villages and travel towards the places where they intend to hunt during^
the winter.
"November, the Beaver Moon; for in this month the beavers
begin to take shelter in their houses, having laid up a sufficient store
of provisions for the winter season.
"December, the Hunting Moon; because they employ this month
in pursuit of their game.
"January, the Cold Moon; as it generally freezes harder and the
cold is more intense in this than in any other month.
" February, they call the Snow Moon; because more snow com-
monly falls during this month than any other in the winter."
429
According to John Tanner's narrative, the Ottawas and Menomi-
nees had the following names for moons; the first words being in
Ottawa, and the second in the Menominee dialect:
June; 0-ta-ha-mene kee-zis0-tai-hai-min ka-zlio
"Strawberry
moon."
July; Me-nes kee-zisMain kazho
" Whortleberry moon."

August; Menomonie-ka-we kee-zisPohia-kun ka-zho
"Wild
rice gathering moon."
September; Be-nah-kwaw-we kee-zisPaw-we-pe-muk ka-zho
"Leaves falling moon."

October; Gush-kut-te-ne kee-zisWun-nai-ka-zho
"Ice moon."
November; Ah-gim-me-ka-we kee-zis
"Bright night;" Wa-si-

ko-si ka-zho
"Snow shoes."
December; Mah-ko kee-zis
"Bear moon;" We-mum-nus-so

ka-zho
"Deer rutting moon."

January; Kitche-manito o-kee-zisMa-cha-ti-wuk wa-mun-nuz-
so-wuk
"Longest moon, good for hunting."

February ; Me-giz-ze-we kee-zis or Na-ma-bin kee-zisNa-ma-pin
ka-zho
"Sucker moon."
March ; Ne-ke kee-zis
"Brant moon
;"
Sho-bo-maw-kun ka-zho
"Sugar moon."
April; Maung-o kee-zis
"Loon's moon;" As-sa-bun ka-zho
"Baccoon moon."
May; Sah-ge-bug-ah-we kee-zisPe-ke-pe-muk ka-zho
"Leaves
moon."
Another moon spoken of by the Menominees is Wai-to-ke ka-
zho, the snake moon, which belongs to the spring season.
The Winnebagoes reckon twelve moons for a year. They do not
keep an account of the days in a year, and have made no attempt to
compute a solar year. They divide the year into summer and winter,
and subdivide the summer into spring, summer and fall. They call it
Avinter while there is snow on the ground. The season between the
time of the melting of the snow and commencement of hot weather,
they call spring. During the continuance of hot weather, they call it
summer, and from the first appearance of frost to the falling of snow,
they call it fall. Spring is the commencement of their year. Their
method of dividing the year into twelve moons brings them at fault in
their reckoning, and they frequently have disputes about the matter.
They differ somewhat in the names of their twelve moons. The fol-
lowing, however, is the common almanac among them
:
1st Moon; Me-tow-zhe-raw
"Drying the earth."

2d Moon; Maw-ka-wee-raw
"Digging the ground."

3d Moon; Maw-o-a-naw
"Hoeing corn."
4th Moon; Maw-hoch-ra-wee-daw
" Corn tasseling."

5th Moon; Wu-toch-aw-he-raw
"Corn popping, or harvest

time."
6th Moon
7th Moon
8th Moon
9th Moon
10th Moon
11th Moon
12th Moon
Ho-waw-zho-ze-raw
" Elk whistling."

Cha-ka-wa-ka-raw
" Deer running."

Cha-ka-wak-eho-naw
" Deer's horn dropping."

Honch-wa-ho-no-nik
" Little bear's time."

Honch-we-hut-ta-raw
" Big bear's time."

Mak-hu-e-kee-ro-kok
" Coon running."

Ho-a-do-ku-noo-nuk
" Fish running."

The Winnebagoes take no notice of the summer and winter sol-
stices, or of the vernal and autumnal equinoxes.
They have no name for the year as contradistinguished from
winter; no division of time resembling a week, and no division of the
day into hours. They reckon time by winters, moons and nights.
The Dakotas in general designate their moons as follows
:
January; Witehi
"The moon of the brave, or the cruel moon."

February; Wicata-wi
"The moon of the cats, or of the running

badger, or the raccoon moon."
March; Istawicayazan-wi
" The moon of the snow sickness, or of

sore eyes."
April; Magaokado-wi
" The moon of the game, or of the laying

of the geese."
May; Wozupi-wi
" The moon of the green leaves, or of the plan-

tations."
June; Wazustecasa-wi
"The moon of the turtle, or of the straw-

berries."
July ; Wasunpa-wi
"The moon of the buffalo cows, or of mid-

summer."
August; Wasuton-wi
" The moon of the hind, or of the harvest."

September; Psinhnaketu-wi
"The moon of the crop."

October; Wazupi-wi
"The moon of the wild rice."

November; Takiyuha-wi
"The moon of the deer."

December; Tahecapsun-wi
"The favorable moon, or moon of the

stag that sheds its horns."
The Natchez^ a tribe inhabiting the country on the east of the
Mississippi, in the latitude of about thirty-five degrees, had thirteen
moons instead of twelve. The first corresponded to the month of
March, and was called the moon of the deer; the others were:
April; "The moon of the strawberries."
May; "The moon of the old maize."
MODE OF COMPUTING TIME. 481
June;
"
The moon of the watermelons."
July; "The moon of the peaches."
August; "The moon of the mulberries."
September; "The moon of the new corn."
October;
"
The moon of the turkeys."
November; "The moon of the buffaloes."
December; "The moon of the bears."
January; "The moon of the geese."
February;
"
The moon of the chestnuts."
The Creek Indians who inhabited the country on the east of the
Mississippi, between latitude 30 and 35 degrees, commenced the new
year immediately after the celebration of the husk, at the ripening of
the new corn in August. They divided the year into two seasons only,
to-wit: ivinter and summer, and subdivided it by the successive moons,
beginning the first half with the moon of August, thus:
WINTER.
August; Heyothlucco
"The big ripening moon."

September; Otauwooskochee
"Little chestnut moon."

October; Otauwooskolucco
"Big chestnut moon."

November; Heewoolee
"Falling leaf moon."

December; Thlaffolucco
"Big winter moon."

January; Thlaffochosee
"Little winter moon's young brother."

SUMMER.
February; Hootahlahassee
"The windy moon."

March; Tausautchoosee
" Little spring moon."

April; Tausautcheelucco
"Big spring moon."

May; Keehassee
"Mulberry moon."
June; Kochohassee
"Blackberry moon."
July; Hoyeuchee
"Little ripening moon."

They counted the number of days or years, either past or to come,
by tens. Having no exact method of keeping or reckoning their time,
they could seldom tell, nearer than within one month of the time, when
any remarkable occurrence took place in the preceding year ; but cir-
cumstances or speeches that might have attended such occurrence,
they remembered accurately. There was not one in the whole nation
who knew how old he was.
They knew when the winter or- hunting season approached, by a
change of the face of nature, and they also knew when the summer or
planting season advanced, by the increasing heat and vegetation, but
took little pains to inform themselves further on the subject.
The summer season, with the men, was devoted to war, or their'
432 TRE AMERICAN INDIAN.
domestic amusements of riding, horse hunting, ball plays, and dancing
;
and with the women, to their customary hard labor.
Mr. Heckewelder, in speaking of the names of moons as given by
the Indians, and the circumstances attending, suggestive of the names
adopted, gives an example from the Lenni Lenape or Delaware Indians.
He says that this people, while they inhabited the country bordering
on the Atlantic, called the month which we call March "the shad
moon," because this fish, at that time, begin to pass from the sea into
the fresh water rivers, where they lay their spawn ; but, as there were
no such fish in the country into which they afterwards removed, they
changed the name of that month and called it
"
the running of the sap,^"*
or "the sugar making month," because at that time the sap of the
maple tree, from which sugar is made, begins to run ; April, they called
"the spring month;" May, "the planting month;" June, "the fawn
month," or the month in which the deer bring forth their young, or
again, the month in which the hair of the deer changes to a reddish
color. They called July, "the summer month;" August, "the month
of roasting ears,^'' that is to say, in which the ears of corn are fit to be
roasted and eaten. September, they called "the autumnal month;"
October, "the gathering or harvest month;" December, "the hunting
month," it being the time when the stag dropped his antlers or horns.
January was called "the mouse or squirrel month," for then those ani-
mals come out of their holes; and lastly, they called February "the
fiôg month," because on a warm day the frogs begin to croak.
CHAPTEE XXXYI.
THE INDIANS SOMETIMES NUMBERF.D BY USE OF A BUNDLE
OF STICKS Ok A PROWS.
Perfect System of CountingUniform Decimal System
-
Why Decimal System was
AdoptedUse of Sticks and Other Objects in Counting
Explanation of Mode
of CountingMode among Different TribesList of Indian Numerals among
Various Tribes.
^5
HE American Indian had
a perfect system of
counting, or use of
^"^
numbers, and it has
been regarded by some as a
singular coincidence with our
own system that, in the use of
numbers, there appears to have been among the American tribes in
general a uniform system of noting numbers by decimals, in the same
manner as civilized nations, by beginning at the unit and proceeding
by divisions of ten to one hundred, then proceeding as before to one
thousand, two thousand, three thousand and upwards, until a million is
reached. The more intelligent tribes, we are informed, number to the
extent of one billion, in precisely the same manner as is done by our
own system of numerals.
The Indians of Guiana, however, are noticed as having a some-
what different system of numbering from that prevailing among the
more intelligent tribes ; although they count by use of the fingers, but
this they do in connection with the hand itself, retaining, however,
something like the decimal principle, or idea, in the proceeding. Thus,
when they reach five, instead of saying so they call it a hand. Six is,
therefore, a "hand and first finger;" seven, "a hand and second fin-
ger;" ten is "two hands," but twenty, instead of being "four hands,"
is a "man." Forty is "two men," and thus they go on by twenties.
Forty-six is expressed as "two men, a hand and first finger."
The coincidence in the use of the decimal system, by noting num-
bers by ten, is supposed by some to come from the suggestion of the
number of fingers upon the human hands, and is no doubt the original
suggestion to our own people in the use of the decimal system; but the
(433)
28
434:
system of division into hundreds, thousands and millions, which the
Indians have observed, the same as adopted by civilized nations, must
be regarded as rather a singular coincidence, and it is not irrationally
accepted as some evidence of the connection this people might have
had, at some remote period, with the nations of the Old World ; but it
is noted by all who have had occasion to investigate this subject, that
the native Indian mind had no idea of mental arithmetic. He could
not mentally multiply, nor divide numbers, and, indeed, the like may
be said as to adding and subtracting.
His practical use of numerals was simply to determine the num-
ber of objects brought in question in any way. If numbers were to
be used for any other purpose, as for adding and subtracting, objects
were employed for this purpose, as that of small sticks, pebbles, and
the like. Without some demonstration of this kind, the Indians had
but a vague appreciation of the value of numbers. If it related to
sums of money, in order to appreciate it, the pieces of coin must be
actually spread out before them in order to comprehend the amount.
Mr. Prescott, Indian agent, says that with the Indians, when num-
bers are referred to, unless mentioned in connection with the number
of objects brought in question, they have no kind of an idea of
amounts; that one thousand is as much and more than some of them
can count; that Indians are sometimes heard talking about thousands,
and sometimes a million ; but, at the same time, they can give no cor-
rect idea how much of a bulk any articles represented by these
numbers would make; and he says he believes if a Sioux Indian were
told he could have a million of dollars, if he could count it correctly,
he could not do it.
For the purpose of fixing numbers in their mind, bundles of
sticks or arrows were, in general, used for that purpose, especially
where the numbers in question reached to any considerable extent.
Mr. Schoolcraft thus illustrates the Indian mode of counting." There
are separate words for the digits from one to ten. The nine former
are then added after the latter to nineteen. Twenty is denoted by a
new term. The digits, from one to nine, are then added to this word
till twenty-nine. Thirty is a compound, meaning three tens ; forty is
four tens, and so on to ninety-nine. One hundred is a new term,
in iwaiik. The terms one, two, three, etc., uttered before this, render
the account exact to one thousand, which is quite a great twauk, and
the same pre-fixture for the name of the digits can be repeated to ten
thousand."
This, says Mr.
Schoolcraft, is the Algonquin mode; but it must be
remarked that this or the like mode exists, in general, among all the
NUMERALS AND USE OF NUMBERS. 435
American tribes, with the exception, perhaps, of the Cherokees, who
count as high as one hundred by various numeral names, without
repeating the names comprised in the first nine digits ; whereas, other
nations and tribes, as before illustrated, in giving names, go no higher
than the decimal number ten, adding units in expressing numbers
beyond that. Thus ien and one for eleven, ien and iico for twelve,
icn and ihree for thirteen, and so on until twenty is reached. Then,
proceeding thus, as twenty and one, twenty and two^ tioenty and three,
and so on till one hundred, which is in effect upon the same principle
of our own mode of counting or numbering.
In the Micmac dialect, according to Mr. Schoolcraft, numerals are
expressed in verbs, which are conjugated through all the variations of
gender, mode and tense. Thus: âiooktaieh, there is one. Imperfect
tense, Naiooktaichcus tJiere icas one. Future tense, Encoodaichdedou,
there icill he one. Tahboosee-ek, there are two
of
us
;
second person,
Tahbeoseeyok ; third person, Tahboosijik. Imperfect tense, first per-
son, Tahboosee-egup ; second person, Yocup; third person, Sibunic.
Future tense, Tahboosee-dak, there ivill be tivo
of
them. Negative
mood, Tahboo-seekw, there are not two
of
them; Mahtahbooseekw
theiê ivill not be two
of
them.
In counting, the Dakotas have a practice of using their fingers,
bending them down as they pass on, until they reach ten. They then
turn down a little finger, to remind them that one ten is laid aside,
commencing as before. When the second ten is counted, another
finger is turned down, and so on.
For the purpose of further illustrating the mode of counting,
there is here subjoined a list of Indian numerals, according to the
dialects of various Indian tribes, gathered from various sources, but
principally from Schoolcraft's works. Some of them extend beyond
one hundred, sufficient to show the manner of counting when going
beyond that number, among which, in some cases, several examples are
given from a particular tribe or nation, showing how the names given
to numbers differ among different bands or localities of the same tribe,
speaking the same generic language:
NUMERALS.
Choctaw.
One. Chuffa.
Two. Tuk lo.
Three. Tu chi na.
Four.
,
Ush ta.
Five. Tath la pi.
Six. Han ali.
Seven. XJn tuk lo.
Eight. Un tu chi na.
Nine. Chak ka li.
i36
Choctatv.
Ten.
Eleven.
Twelve.
Thirteen.
Fourteen.
Fifteen.
Sixteen.
Seventeen.
Eighteen.
Nineteen.
Twenty.
Twenty-one.
Twenty-two.
Twenty-three,
Twentv-four.
Twenty-five.
Twenty-six.
Twenty-seven.
Twenty-eight.
Twenty-nine.
Thirtv.
Forty.
Fifty.
Sixty.
Seventy.
Eighty.
Ninety.
One hundred.
One hundred and one.
One hundred and two.
Po ko li.
An ah chufPa.
An ah tuk lo.
An ah tu chi na.
An ah ush ta.
An ah tath la pi.
An ah han a li.
An ah un tuk lo.
An ah un tu chi na.
Abi cha ka li.
Po ko li tuk lo.
Po ko li tuk lo a ku cha
Po ko li tu chi na.
Po ko li ush ta.
Po ko li tath la pi.
Po ko li han a li.
Po ko li un tuk lo.
Po ko li un tu chi na.
Po ko li chak a li.
Tath le pa chuffa.
Tath le pa chuffa chufPa
Tath le pa chuffa tuk lo
chuffa.
tuk lo.
tu chi na.
ush ta.
tath la pi.
han a li.
un tuk lo.
un tu chi na.
chak ka li.
aiana.
aiana.
Dacota.
One.
Two.
Three.
Four.
Five.
Six.
Seven.
Eight.
Nine.
Ten.
Eleven.
Twelve.
Thirteen.
Fourteen.
Fifteen.
Sixteen.
Seventeen.
Eighteen.
Nineteen.
Twenty.
Twenty- one.
Twenty-two.
Twenty-three.
Twenty-four.
Wan chah, or Wa je tah.
Nom pah.
Yah mo nee.
To pah.
Zah pe tah.
Shack coope.
Shack o.
Shah en do.
Nep e chu wink ah.
Wick o chimen ee.
Akka wah ju (ten and one).
Akka nom pa (ten and two).
Ahka yah mo nee (ten and three).
Ahka to pah (ten and four and so on to
twenty).
Ahka zah pe tah.
Ahka shack coope.
Ahka shack o.
Ahka shah en do.
Ahka nep e chu wink ah.
Wick chim ne no pah (20, or two tens and
one, up to thirty, when they say three
tens and one, up to 40; so they keep
adding by saying sampa wah je tah,
which means beyond or one more
than 10, or 20, or 30, as the case may
be).
Wick a chimen ne nopah sam pah wah je
tah.
Wick a chimen ne nopah sam pah nompah.
Wick a chimen ne nopah sam pah yah mo
nee.
Wick a chimen ne nopah sam pah to pah
Twenty-five.
Twenty-six.
Twenty-seven.
Twenty-eight,
Twenty-nine.
Thirty.
Forty.
Fifty.
Sixty.
Seventy.
Eighty.
Ninety.
One hundred.
Dacota.
Wick a chimen ne nopah sam pah zah pe
tah.
Wick a chimen ne nopah sam pah shack
coope.
Wick a chimen ne nompah sam pah shack
ko.
Wick a chimen ne nompah sam pah shah
en do.
Wick a chimen ne nompah sam pah nep e
chu wink ah.
Wick a chimen ne yah mo nee (three tens).
Wick a chimen ne to pah (four tens).
Wick a chimen ne zah pe tah (five tens).
Wick a chimen ne shack coope (six tens).
Wick a chimen ne shack ko (seven tens).
Wick a chimen ne shah en do (eight tens).
Wick a chimen ne nep e chu wink ah
(nine tens).
Opong wa.
Opong wa sam pah wah je tah.
Opong wa sam pah nom pah.
Cherokee.
One.
Two.
Three.
Four.
Five.
Six.
Seven-
Eight.
Nine.
Ten.
Eleven.
Twelve.
Thirteen.
Fourteen.
Fifteen.
Sixteen.
Seventeen.
Eighteen.
Nineteen.
Twentv.
V
Twenty-one.
Twenty-two.
Twenty-three.
Twenty-four.
Twenty-five.
Twenty-six.
Twentv-seven.
Twenty-eight.
Twenty-nine.
Thirty.
Forty.
Fifty.
Sixty.
Seventy.
Eighty.
Ninety.
One hundred.
Sar quoh.
Tar lee.
Chaw ie.
Ner kee.
Hisk skee.
Su tah lee.
Gar le quoh kee.
Choo na lah.
Law na lah.
Ar sko hee.
Lar too.
Tul too.
Chaw i gar too.
Ne gar too.
Skee gar too.
Dar lah too.
Gar le quah too.
Nai lar too.
So na lah too.
Tah lar sko kee.
So i chaw na.
Tah le chaw na.
Chaw i chaw na.
Ner kee chaw na.
Hisk ku chaw na.
Su tah lu chaw na.
Gar le quoh ku chaw na.
Nai lar chaw na.
Lo nai lar chaw na.
Chaw ar sko hee.
Ner gar sko hee.
Hisk skar sko hee.
Su dar lee sko hee.
Gar lee quah sko hee.
Na lah sko hee.
Lo nah lah sko hee.
Ar sko hee choo que.
Ar sko hee choo que sar quoh.
Ar sko hee choo que tar lee.
438
OJibway of
ChegoimegonBy William W. Warren.
One.
Two.
Three.
Four.
Five.
Six.
Seven.
Eight.
Nine.
Ten.
Eleven.
Twelve.
Thirteen.
Fourteen.
Fifteen.
Sixteen.
Seventeen.
Eighteen.
Nineteen.
Twenty.
Twenty-one.
Twenty-two.
Twenty-three.
Twenty-four.
Twenty-five.
Twenty-six.
Twenty-seven.
Twenty-eight.
Twenty-nine.
Thirty.
Forty.
Fifty.
Sixty.
Seventy.
Eighty.
Ninety.
One hundred.
Ba shik.
Neensh.
Nis we.
Ne win.
Na nun.
Nin god was we.
Niush Avas we.
Shous we.
Shang as we.
Me das we.
Me das we ashe ba shig.
Me das we ashe neensh.
Me das we ashe nis we.
Me das we ashe ne win.
Me das we ashe na nun.
Me das we ashe nin god was we.
Me das we ashe ninsh was we.
Me das we ashe shous we.
Me das we ashe shang as we.
Nish tun a.
Nish tun a ashe ba shig.
Nish tun a ashe neensh.
Nish tun a ashe nis we.
Nish tun a ashe ne win.
Nish tun a ashe na nun.
Nish tun a ashe nin god was we.
Nish tun a ashe ninsh was we.
Nish tun a ashe shous we.
Nish tun a ashe shang as we.
Nis e me dun a.
Ne me dun a.
Nan im e dun a.
Nin god waus im e dun a.
Ninsh was im e dun a.
Shous im e dun a.
Shang as im e dun a.
Nin god wac.
Nin god Avac ashe ba shig.
Nin god wac ashe neensh.
V/innehagoBy
Miss Elizabeth Lowrey.
One.
Two.
Three.
Four..
Five.
Six.
Seven.
Eight.
Nine.
Ten.
Eleven.
Twelve.
Thirteen.
Fourteen.
Fifteen.
Sixteen.
Seventeen.
Eighteen.
Nineteen.
Twenty.
Twenty-one".
He zun ke ra.
Noomp.
Taun.
Jope.
Sarch.
Ha ka wa.
Sha ko we.
Ha roo wunk.
He zun ke choo shkoo ne.
Ka ra pa ne za.
Ka ra pa ne za nuka he zun ke ra shun na.
Ka ra pa ne za nuka noompa shun na.
Ka ra pa ne za nuka tan e a shun na.
Ka ra pa ne za nuka jope a shun na.
Ka ra pa ne za nuka sarch a shun na.
Ka ra pa ne za nuka ha ka wa a shun na,
Ka ra pa ne za nuka sha ko we a shun na.
Ka ra pa ne za nuka ha roo wunk a shun ha.
Ka ra pa ne za nuka he zun ke choo
shkoon a shun na.
Ka ra pa ne noomp.
Ka ra pa ne noompa nuka he zun ke ra
shun na.
Winnebago.
Twenty-two.
Twenty-three.
Twenty-four.
Twenty-five.
Twenty-six.
Twenty-seven.
Twenty-eight.
Twenty-nine.
Thirty.
Forty.
Fifty.
Sixty.
Seventy.
Eighty.
Ninety.
One hundred.
Ka ra pa ne uoompa nuka noomp a shun
na.
Ka ra pa ne noompa nuka tan e a shun na.
Ka ra pa ne noompa nuka jopea shunna.
Ka ra pa ne noompa nuka sarch a shun na.
Ka ra pa ne uoompa nuka ha ka wa a
shun na.
Ka ra pa ne noompa nuka sha ko we a
shun ha.
Ka ra pa ne noompa nuka ha roo wunk a
shun na.
Ka ra pa ne noompa nuka he zun kechoo
shkoou na shun na.
Ka ra pa ne taun.
Ka ra pa ne jope.
Ka ra pa ne sarch.
Ka ra pa ne ha ka wa.
Ka ra pa ne sha ko we.
Ka ra pa ne ha roo wunk.
Ka ra pa ne he zun ke choo shkoon e.
Ho ke he za.
Ho ke he za nuka he zun ke ra shun na.
Ho ke he za nuka noomp a shun na.
Ojibway
of
the Upper Mississippi
By
Mr. Fairbanks.
One.
Two.
Three.
Four.
Five.
Six.
Seven.
Eight.
Nine.
Ten.
Eleven.
Twelve.
Thii teen.
Fourteen.
Fifteen.
Sixteen.
Seventeen.-
Eighteen.
Nineteen.
Twenty.
Twenty-one.
Twenty-two.
Twenty-three.
Twenty-four.
Twenty-five.
Twenty-six.
Twenty-seven.
Twenty eight.
Twenty-nine.
Thirty.
Forty.
Fifty.
Sixty.
Seventy.
Eighty.
Ninety.
One hundred.
Oue hundred and one.
One hundered and two.
Ba shick.
Nizh.
Niss wi.
Nl win.
Na nun.
Ning o dwa swi.
Nizh was swi.
Nish was swi.
Shong gas swi.
Mi das SWI.
Mi das swi a shi ba shick or ba jig.
Mi das swi a shi nizh.
Ml das svvi a shi nis swi.
Mi das swi a shi ni win.
Mi das swi a shi na nun.
Mi das swi a shi ning o dwa swi.
Mi das swi a shi nizh wa swi.
Mi das swi a shi nish was swi.
Mi das swi a shi shong gas swi.
Nizh ta na.
Nizh ta na a shi pa shick.
Nizh ta na a shi nizh.
Nizh ta na a shi nis swi.
Nizh ta na a shi ni win.
Nizh ta na a shi na nun.
Nizh ta na a shi ning o dwas swi.
Nizh ta na a shi neezh was swi.
Nizh ta na a shi nis was swi.
Nizh ta na a shi shong gas swi.
Nis si me da na.
Ne me da na.
. Na ni me da na.
Ning o dwas si me da na.
Nish was si me da na.
Nish was si me da na.
Shong gas si me da na.
Ning o dwac, or Ning od wac.
Ning od wac a shi ba jig, or ba shick.
Ning od wac a shi nizh.
uo
Wyandotte
By
William Walker.
One,
Two.
Three,
Four.
Five.
Six.
Seven.
Eight.
Nine.
Ten.
Eleven.
Twelve.
Thirteen.
Fourteen.
Fifteen.
Sixteen.
Seventeen.
Eighteen.
Nineteen.
Twenty.
Twenty-one.
Twenty-two.
Twenty-three.
Twenty-four.
Twenty-five.
Twenty-six.
Twenty-seven.
Twenty-eight.
Twenty-nine.
Thirty.
Forty.
Fifty.
Sixty.
Seventy.
Eighty.
Ninety.
One hundred.
Skot.
Tendee.
Schenk.
N'dauhk.
Oo weehsh.
Wau zhau.
Tsoo tau reh.
Au a ta reh.
Eh en trooh.
Auh sell.
Auh seh scot e skau reh.
Auh seh ten dee ta skau reh.
Auh seh schenk e skau reh.
Auh seh n'dauhk e skau reh.
Auh seh oo weehsh e skau reh.
Auh seh wau zhau e skau reh.
Auh seh tsoo tau reh e skau reh.
Auh seh au a ta reh e skau reh.
Auh seh eh en trooh e skau reh.
Ten dee ta wau seh.
Ten dee ta wau seh scot e skau reh.
Ten dee ta wau seh ten dee ta skau reh.
Ten dee ta wau seh schenk e skau reh.
Ten dee ta wau seh n'dauhk e skau reh.
Ten dee ta wau seh oo weehsh e skau reh.
Ten dee ta wau seh wau zhau e skau reh.
Ten dee ta wau seh tsoo tau reh e skau reh.
Ten dee ta wau seh au a ta reh e skau reh.
Ten dee ta wau seh eh en trooh e skau reh.
Schenk e wauh seh.
N'dauhk e wauh seh.
Oo weehsh e wauh seh.
Wau zhau e wauh seh.
'I'soo tau reh e wauh seh.
Au a ta reh e wauh seh.
Eh en trooh e wauh seh.
Scot ta ma en gau a wee.
Scot ta ma en gau a wee scot e skau reh,
Scot ta ma en gau a wee ten dee ta skau
reh.
1
Hitchittee or Chell-o-kee Dialect.
Spoken by several tribes of the great Muscogee race, by Capt. J. C. Casey,
U. S. A., Florida.
One.
Two.
Three.
Four.
Five.
Six.
Seven.
Eight.
Nine.
Ten.
Eleven.
Twelve.
Thirteen.
Fourteen.
Fifteen.
Sixteen.
Seventeen.
Eighteen.
Nineteen.
Twenty.
Thirty.
Thlah hai.
To kai.
To chay.
See tah.
Chah kee.
Ee pah.
Ko la pah.
Tos nap pah.
Os ta pah.
Po ko lin.
Po ko lin thlah wai kan.
Po ko lin tok la wai kan.
Po ko lin to che na wai kan.
Po ko lin see tah wai kan.
Po ko lin chah kee pa wai kan.
Po ko lin ee pah wai kan.
Po ko lin ko la pah wai kan.
Po ko lin tos na pah wai kan.
Po ko lin OS ta pah wai kan.
Po ko to ko Im.
Po ko to che nin, or to chay nin.
Hitchittee or Chell-o-kee Dialed.
Forty.
Fifty.
Sixty.
Seventy.
Eighty.
Ninety.
One hundred.
Two hundred.
Three hundred.
Four hundred.
Five hundred.
Six hundred.
Seven hundred.
Eight hundred.
Nine hundred.
One thousand.
Mandan.(Catlin)
One. Mah han nah.
Two. Nompah.
Three. Nomary.
Four. Tohpa.
Five. Kakhoo.
Six. Kemah.
Seven. Koopah.
Eight. Ta tuck a
Nine. Mah pa.
Ten. Perug.
Eleven. Auga mahannah.
Twelve. Auga nompah.
Thirteen. Auga namary.
Fourteen. Auga tohpa.
Fifteen. Ag kak hoo.
Sixteen. Ag kemah.
Seventeen. Ag koopah.
Eighteen. Aga tah tucka.
Nineteen. Aga mahpa.
Twenty. Nompah perug.
Thirty. Namary amperug.
Forty. Top pa amperug.
Fifty. Kah hoo amperug.
Sixty. Keemah amperug.
Seventy. Koopah amperug.
Eighty. Ta tuck amperug.
Ninety. Mah pa amperug.
One hundred. Ee sooc mah hannah.
One thousand. Ee sooc perug.
Riccarree.(Catlii
One. Asco.
Two. Pit CO.
Three. Tow wit.
Four. Tehee tish.
Five. Tehee hoo.
Six. Tcha pis.
Seven.
To tcha pis.
Eight. To tcha pis won.
Nine.
Nah e ne won.
Ten.
Nah en.
Eleven.
Ko tehee te won.
Twelve. .
Pit CO nah en.
Thirteen. Tow wit nah en.
Fourteen. Tehee tish nah en.
Fifteen.
Tehee hoo nahen.
Sixteen.
Tcha pis nahen.
Seventeen.
To tcha pis nahen.
Po ko see tah nin.
Po ko chah kee bin.
Po ko lee pah kin.
Po ko ko lo pah kin.
Po ko tos na jjali kin.
Po ko los ta pah kin.
Chok pee thlah min.
Chok pe to ka Ian.
Chok pe to chay nin.
Chok pe se tah kin.
Chok pe chah kee pan.
Chok pe ee pah kin.
Chok pe ko la pah kin.
Chok pe tos na pah kin.
Chok pe OS ta pah kin.
Chok pe chok thlah min.
Blackfoot. (Catlin).
Jeh.
Nah tohk.
No oks kum.
Ne sooyim.
Ne see tsee.
Nah oo.
E kitch ekum.
Nah ne suyim.
Paex o.
Kay pee.
Kay pee nay tehee kopochee.
Kay pee nah kopochee.
Kay pee nay ohk kopochee.
Kay pee nay say kopochee.
Kay pee ne see tehee kopochee.
Kay pee nay kopochee.
Kay pee eh kee chie kopochee.
Kay pee nan esic kopochee.
Kay pee paex sickopochee.
Natchip pee.
Ne hippee.
Ne sippe.
Ne see chippe.
Nah chippe.
O kitch chippe.
Nahne sippe.
Paex sippe.
Kay pee pee pee.
Kay pee pee pee pee.
Sioux.(Catlin).
On je.
Non pa.
Hi ami ni.
Tau pah.
Ze pe tah.
Shah pai.
Shah CO.
Shas en do hen.
Nen ye che once.
Oka che min en.
Oka on je.
Oka nonpa.
Oka hiamini.
Oka tau pah.
Oka za petah.
Oka shah pai.
Oka shahko.
Riccarree.
Eighteen. To tcha pis won nahen.
Nineteen. Nah e ne won nahen.
Twenty. Weetah.
Thirty. Sah wee.
Forty. Nahen tehee tish.
Fifty. Nahen tehee hoo.
Sixty. Nahen tehee pis.
Seyenty. Nahen to tcha pis.
Eighty. Nahen te tcha pis won.
Ninety. Nahen nah e ne won.
One hundred. Shoh tan.
One thousand. Shoh tan tera hoo.
Tuscarora.
One. Euh che.
T^vo. Nak te.
Three. Ah sunk.
Four. Kunh toh.
Five. Weesk.
Six. Oo yok.
Seyen. Che oh noh.
Eight. Na kreuh.
Nine. Ne reuh.
Ten. Wah th' sunk.
Eleven. Euh che skah hah.
Twelve. Nah till skah hah.
Thirteen. Ah sunk skah hah.
Fourteen. Hunk toh skah hah.
Fifteen. Weesk skah hah.
Sixteen. Ooh yok skah hah.
Seventeen. Che oh noh skah hah.
Eighteen. Na kreuh skah hah.
Nineteen. Ne reuh skah hah.
Twenty. Na wah th' sunk.
Thirty. Ah sunk te wah th' sunk.
Forty. Hunk to te wah th' sunk.
Fifty. Weeste te wah th' sunk.
Sixty. Ooh yok te wah th' sunk.
Seventy. Che oh noh te wah th' sunk
Eighty. Na kreuh te wah th' sunk.
Ninety. Ne reuh te wah th' sunk.
One hundred. Hah yok stre.
Two hundred. Nak tih te sfcre.
One thousand. Euh che oo yoh stre.
Two thousand. Nak tih oo yoh stre.
Cayuga.
One. Skat.
Two. Tekni.
Three. Segh.
Four. Kei.
Five. Wis.
Six. Yei.
Seven. Jatak.
Eight. Tekro.
Nine. Tyohto.
Ten. Waghsea.
Eleven. Skatskaie.
Twelve. Tekniskaie.
Thirteen. Aghseghskaie.
Fourteen. Keiskaie.
Fifteen. Wiskaie
Sixteen. Yeiskait).
Seventeen. Jatakskaie.
Eighteen. Tikroskaie.
Nineteen. Tyohtoskaie.
Sioux.
Oka shah en do hen.
Oka nen pe chi on ka.
Oka chiminen non pe.
Oka chiminen hiamini.
Oka chiminen taupah.
Oka chiminen za petah.
Oka chiminen shah pai.
Oka chiminen shahco.
Oka chiminen shah hen do hen.
Oka chiminen nen pe chee on ca.
O poun krai.
Kaut o poun krai.
Mohawk.
Easka.
Tekeni.
Aughsea.
Kieri.
Wish.
Yayak.
Jatak.
Satego.
Tiyohto.
Oyeri.
Easkayaweare.
Tekniyaweare.
Aghseayaweare.
Kaiyeriyaweare.
Wiskyaweare.
Yayakyaweare.
Jatakyaweare.
Sategoyaweare.
Tiyohtoyaweare.
Tewasea.
A ghseaniwaghsea.
Kaieriniwaghsea.
Wiskniwaghsea.
Yayakniwaghsea.
Jatakniwaghsea.
Sategoniwaghsea.
Tiyohtoniwaghsea.
Easkateweanyawe.
Tekeniteweanyawe.
Oyeriteweanyawe.
Teweayawe eghtseraghsea.
Hidatsa.
Duetsa (luetsa).
Dooa.
Dami.
Topa.
Kilin.
Akam.
Sapua.
Dopapi.
Duetsapi.
Fitika.
Alipiduetsa.
Alipidopa.
Alipidami.
Alipitopa.
Alipikilliu.
Alipiakama.
Alipisapua.
Alipidopa.
Alipiduetsapi.
Cayuga. Hidatsa.
Twenty. Tewaghsea. Dopapitika.
Tiiirty. Seniwaghsea. Damiapitika.
Forty. Keiniwaghsea. Topapitika.
Fifty. Wisniwaghsea. Kiliuapitika.
Sixty. Yeiniwaghsea. Akamaapitika.
Seventy. Jatakniwaghsea. Sapuapitika.
Eighty. Tekroniwaghsea. Dopapitika.
Ninety. Tyohtoniwaghsea. Duetsapiapitika.
One hundred. Skateweaniawe. . Pitikictia.
Two hundred. Tekniteweaniawe.
One thousand. Waghseanateweaniawe.
Two thousand. Teweaniaweetsaghsea.
Navajo,
of
New ilfeicico.(Catlin). Assinibohi.(Catlin).
One. Tlah ee Wash ee nah.
Two. Nah kee. Noom pah.
Three. Tanli (nasal). Yah miu nee.
Four. Tee (nasal). To pah.
Five. Es t'lah. Zap tah.
Six. Hustah. Shak pah.
Seven. Soos tsel. Shak ko wee, or u she sah (the
odd number).
Eight. Tsai pee.
Shak kan do ghah.
Nine. Nas tai. Noomp chee won kah.
Ten. Nez nah. Wix chem mee nah.
Eleven. Tlai tsah tah. Ak kai washe, or, one more.
Twelve. Nah kee tsah tah.
Ak kai noom pah (or, two more
etc).
Thirteen. Tanh tsah tah.
Ak kai yam me nee.
Fourteen. Tee tsah tah.
Ak kai to pah.
Fifteen. Es tlah ah tah.
Ak kai zap tah.
Sixteen. Hus tah ah tah.
Ak kai shak pah.
Seventeen. Soos tsah ah tah.
Ak kai shak ka.
Eighteen. Tsai pee ah tah.
Ak kai shak kan do ghah.
Nineteen. Nas tai ah tah.
Ak kai nomp chee won kah.
Twenty. Nah teen.
Wix chem me nee noompah.
Twenty-one. Nah teen tlah ee.
Wix chem i nee noompah sun
wash e nah.
Twenty-two. Nah teen nah kee.
Wix chem i nee noompah sum
noompah.
Twenty-three. Nah teen tanh.
yam minee.
Twenty-four. Nah teen tee.
topah.
Twenty-five. Nah teen es tlah.
zaptah.
Twenty-six. Nah teen hus tah. Wix chem i nee noompah sum
shak pah.
Twenty-seven. Nah teen soos tsel. Wix chem i nee noompah sum
shak ko wah.
Twenty-eight. Nah teen tsai pee. Wix chem i nee noompah sum
shak an do ghah.
Twenty-nine. Nah teen nas tai.
noomp che won kah.
Thirty. Tah teen.
Wix chem i nee yan minnee,
(or, three tens).
Forty. Tis teen.
Wix chem i nee topah.
Fifty. Es tlah teen.
AVix chem i nee zopah.
Sixty. Hus tlah teen.
Wix chem i nee shak pah.
Seventy. Soos tsel teen.
Wix chem i nee shakowee.
Eighty. Tsai pee teen.
Wix chem i nee shak an dogah.
Ninety.
Nas tai teen.
Wix cliemi nee nomp chee Avoon
kah.
One hundred. Nez nah teen. Opah wah ghee.
One hundred ac d one.Nez nah tlah. Opah wah ghee sum was hench.
Opah wah ghee sum washenah.
One hundred and two.Nez nah nah kee. Opah wah ghee sum noompah.
4:U
One.
Two.
Three.
Four.
Five.
Six.
Seveu.
Eight.
Nine.
Ten.
Eleven.
Twelve.
Thirteen.
Fourteen.
Fifteen.
Sixteen.
Seventeen.
Eighteen.
Nineteen.
Twenty.
Twenty- one.
Twenty-two.
Twenty-three.
Twenty-four.
Twenty-five.
Twenty-six.
Twenty-seven.
Twenty-eight.
Twenty-nine.
Thirty.
Forty.
Fifty.
Sixty.
Seventy.
Eighty.
Ninety.
One hundred.
One hundred and
One hundred and
Pueblo, or Zuni, New Mexico.(CaiHin).
To pin tai.
Quee lee.
Hah ee.
Ah wee tai.
Ahp tai.
To pah lik keeah.
Quil lah lik keeah.
Hi ah lik keeah.
Ten ah lik keeah.
Ahs tem hlah.
Ahs tem to pi ahl to.
Ahs tem quee lee ahl to.
Ahs tem hah ee ahl to.
Ahs tem ah wee tai ahl to.
Ahs tai ee ahl to.
To pah lik kee ahl to.
Quil lah lik kee ahl to.
Hi ah lik kee ahl to.
Ten ah lik kee ahl to.
Quil lee kah nahs tem hlah.
Quil lee kah nahs tem to pi ahl to.
Quil lee kah nahs tem quil lee ahl to.
Quil lee kah nahs tem hab ee ahl to.
Quil lee kah nahs tem ah wee tai ahl to.
Quil lee kah nahs tem aph tai ahl to.
Quil lee kah nahs tem to pah lik kee ahl to.
Quil lee kah nahs tem quil lah lik kee ahl to.
Quil lee kah nahs tem hi ah lik kee ahl to.
Quil lee kah nahs tem nah lik kee ahl to.
Hi ee keeah nahs tem hlah.
Ah wee tai keeah nahs tem hlah.
Ahp tai nee keeah nahs tem hlah.
To pah lik keeah nahs tem hlah.
Quil lah lik keeah nahs tem hlah.
Hi ah Ilk keeah nahs tem hlah.
Ten nah lik keeah nahs tem hlah.
Ah see ahs tem hlah.
one.Ah see ahs tem hlah to pi ahl to.
two.Ah see ahs tem hlah quee lee ahl to.
i
I
I
*
One.
Two.
Three.
Four.
Five.
Six.
Seven.
Eight.
Nine.
Ten.
Eleven.
Twelve.
Thirteen.
Fourteen.
Fifteen.
Sixteen.
Seventeen.
Eighteen.
Nineteen.
Twenty.
Twenty-one.
Twenty-two.
Twenty-three.
Twenty-four.
Apache.
Tah se.
Nah kee.
Tai.
To.
Astle.
Kostan.
Gostede.
Zapee.
Gastai.
Sesara.
Ost lah sata.
Tah sata.
Gost ah sata.
Ta sate.
Ast lah sah tee.
Zah pees ah tee.
Gost ees ah tee.
Zah pees ah tee.
Eegost es ah tee.
Nah teen.
Nah teen tase.
Nah teen ake.
Nah teen tai.
Nah teen to.
Micmac.
Naiookt.
Tahboo.
Seest.
Naioo.
Nahn.
Osoo cum.
Eloo igunuk.
Oo gumoolchin.
Pescoonaduk.
M'tiln.
M'tiln chel naiookt.
M'tiln chel tahboo.
M'tiln chel seest.
M'tiln chel nai oo.
M'tiln chel nahn.
M'tiln chel usoocum.
M'tiln chel looigunuk.
M'tiln chel oogumoolchin.
M'tiln chel pescoonaduk.
Tahbooinskahk.
Tahbooinskahk chel naiookt,
Tahbooinskahk chel tahboo.
Tahbooinskahk chel seest.
Tahbooinskahk chel nai oo.
NUMERALS AND USE OF NUMBERS. 4:4:0
Apache. Micmac.
Twenty-five. Nah teen astlee. Tahbooinskahk chel nahn.
Twenty-six. Nah teen kastan. Tahbooinskahk chel usoocum.
Twenty-seven. Nah teen gosteedee. Tahbooinskahk chel looigunuk.
Twenty-eight. Nah teen zapi. Tahbooinskahk chel oogumool-
chin.
Twenty-nine. Nah teen gostai. Tahbooinskahk chel pescoonduk
Thirty. Nah tah teen. Naisinskahk.
Forty. Tos teen. Naiooninskahk.
Fifty. Ah stlastee.
'
Nahninskahk.
Sixty. Ah slento. Usoocum taisinskahk.
Seventy. Ah seet een. Elooigunuk tais inscahk.
Eighty. Zap eet een. Oogumoolchin tais inscahk.
Ninety. Eengostateen. Pescoonaduk tais inskahk.
One hundred. Tasiento. Kuskimtulnahcun.
One hundred and one.Tasiento tase. Kuskimtulnahcun chel naiookt.
One hundred and two.Tasiento nah kee. Kuskimtulnahcun chel tahboo.
Chinook.(Schoolcraft). Nootkian.(Jewitt).
One. Ikt. Sah wauk.
Two. Mox. Att la.
Three. Klone. Kat sa.
Four. Lockot. Mooh.
Five. Quinum. Soo chah.
Six. Tahum. Noo poo.
Seven. Sinimox. At tie poo.
Eight. Sotkin. At lah quelth.
Nine. Quies. Saw wauk quelth.
Ten. Tatilum. Hyo.
Eleven. Tatilum pi ikt.
Twelve. Tatilum pi mox.
Twenty. Sak aitz.
One hundred. Tatilum tatilum or Ikt taka-
monak.
Soo jewk.
One thousand. Ikt hyass takamonak. Hy e oak.
Caddo. Wichita.
One. Whis te. Cherche.
Two. Bit. Mitch.
Three. Dow oh. Daub.
Four. He a wch. Daw quats.
Five. Dis sick kah. Es quats.
Six. Dunk kee. Ke hass.
Seven. Bis sick ah. Ke o pits.
Eight. Dow sick ah. Ke o tope.
Nine. He we sick ah. Sherche kui te.
Ten. Bin nah. Skid o rash.
Eleven. Whiste cut es. She osh te kit uck.
Twelve. Bin nah bit cut es. Mitch skid o rash.
Thirteen. Bin nah dow ah. Daub skid o rash.
Fourteen. Bin nah he aweh. Daw quats o rash.
Fifteen. Bin nah dis sick ah. Es quats o rash.
Sixteen. Bin nah dunk kee. Ke hass o rash.
Seventeen. Bin nah bis sick ah. Ke o pits o rash.
Eighteen. Bin nah dow sick ah. Ke o tope o rash.
Nineteen. Bin nah he we sick ah. Sherche kim te rash.
Twenty. Bin nah bit te. Es tah ets ske she.
Thirty. Bin nah dow o. Es tah ets ske she daub.
Forty. Bin nah he we. Es tah ets ske she daw quats.
Fifty. Bin nah dis sick kah. Es tah ets ske she es quats.
Arapahoe. Cheyenne.
One.
Chas sa. Nuke.
Two.
Neis. Ne guth.
Three.
Nas. Nahe.
Four.
Yeane. Nave.
446
Five.
Six.
Seven.
Eij?ht.
Nine.
Ten.
Eleven.
Twelve.
Thirteen.
Fourteen.
Twenty.
Thirty.
Forty.
Fifty.
Sixty.
Seventy.
Eighty.
Ninety.
One hundred.
Arapahoe.
Yor thnn.
Ne tah ter.
Ne sor ter.
Nail sor ter.
See au tah.
Mah tah tah.
Mah tah tah chas sa.
Mah tah tah neis.
Mah tah tah nas.
Mah tah tah yeane.
Neis sor.
Nas sor.
Yay yoh, or yeane yoh.
Yah thun yah.
Nee tah tus sor.
Nee sor tus sor.
Nah sor tus sor.
See au tus sor.
Neis mah tah tus sor.
Cheyenne,
Noane.
Nah sa to.
Ne so to.
Nah no to.
So to.
Mah to to.
Mah to to aau to noke.
Mah to to a au ne guth.
Mah to to a au to nahe.
Mah to to a au to nave.
Ne ise so.
Nah no.
Nee vo.
Nor no.
Nah so to nor.
Nee so to nor.
Nah no to nor.
So to nor.
Mah to to nor.
The foregoing example in the names of numbers in counting
would indicate a linguistic connection between the Arapahoes and
Cheyennes, notwithstanding it has been insisted by some that the lan-
guage of the Cheyennes was unlike that of any other tribe of the
continent. The similarity in some of the names of numbers in these
two tribes is quite marked, which concurrence could not well be taken
as a mere coincidence of sounds in the dialect of the two tribes.
The following is a list of numerals in the dialects of various
American tribes, collected by Dr. James and added to John Tanner's
narrative of his thirty years' captivity among the Indians, of which
Dr. James was editor
:
If
OttoYvom Say. Yonka.
One. Yon ka. Meakh che.
Two. No wa. Nom pah.
Three. Tah ne. Yah ber re.
Four. To wa. To pah.
Five. Sah tah. Sah tah.
Six. Sha gua. Shahp peh.
Seven. Shah a muh. Pa om bah.
Eight. Kra rah ba na. Pa yah ber re.
Nine. Shan ka. Shank kuh.
Ten. Kra ba nuh. Ker ab bu rah.
Omaha. Yanktong.
One. Meach che. Wan chah.
Two. Nom bah. No pah.
Three. Ra bene. Yah me ne.
Four. To bah. To pah.
Five. Sah tah. Zah pe tah.
Six. Shap pa. Shah kah pe.
Seven. Pa noom ba.
Shah po e.
Eight. Pa rah bene. Sha kun do ah.
Nine. Shoon kah. Nuh pet che wun bah
Ten. Kra ba rah. Week che min nuh.
447
Dakotah, of Upper Mississippi. Minnctahse.
One.
Two.
Three.
Four.
Five.
Six.
Seven.
Eight.
Nine.
Ten.
Wan zhe tab.
No a pah.
Yah min ne.
To a pah.
Xah pe tah.
Shah kah pe.
Shah koan.
Shah han doah.
Neep chew wun kah.
Week chim mah ne.
Le mois so.
No o pah.
Nah me.
To pah.
Cheh hob.
A cah me.
Chap po.
No pnp pe.
No was sap pa.
Pe sah gas.
One.
Two.
Three.
Four.
Five.
Six.
Seven.
Eight.
Nine.
Ten.
Pawnee.
As ko.
Pet ko.
Toil wet.
Shke tiksh.
She oksh.
Shek shah bish.
Pet ko shek sha bish.
Ton wet sha bish.
Tok shere wa.
Tok shere.
Choctaw.
Chaf fab.
To ko lo.
To cha nah.
Osh tab.
Tath lab pe.
Han nah la.
Oon to ko lo.
Oon to die nah.
Chak ah ta.
Po ko la.
One.
Two.
Three.
Four.
Five.
Six.
Seven.
Eight.
Nine.
Ten.
OJibway.
Ning gooj waw or Ba zhik.
Neezh waw, or Neezh.
Nis swaw, or Nis swe.
Ne win.
Nab nun.
Ning good waw swe.
Neezh zbwaw swe.
Shawaw swe.
Shong gus swe, or Shong.
Me dos swe, or Kwaitch.
Miisquake,
Ne kot.
Neesh.
Ne on nen.
Ne kot Avaus keek.
Ne kot wau swa.
Nee swa.
Ne o.
Neesh waus eek.
Shaunk.
Me to swa.
MinsiFrom Heckewelder. AlgonquinFrom Heckewelder.
One.
Two.
Three.
Four.
Five.
Six.
Seven.
Eight.
Nine.
Ten.
Gut ti.
Nis cha.
Na cha.
Ne wa.
Na Ian.
Gut tasch.
Nis choascb.
Cha ascb.
No we li.
Wim bat.
Pe gik.
Nincb.
Nis soue.
Neou.
Na sau.
Nin gon ton as sou.
Nin chou as sou.
Nis sou as sou.
Chan gas gon.
Mil las sou.
DelawareFrom Heckewelder. Menominee.
One.
Two.
Three.
Four.
Five.
Six.
Seven.
Eight.
Nine.
Ten.
Ni gut ti.
Nis cha.
Na cha.
Ne wo.
Pa le nach,
Gut tasch.
Nis chash.
Chascb.
Pes chonk.
Tel len.
Ne kotes.
Neesh.
Nab new.
Ne ew.
Nean nun.
Ne kot was sa tah.
No ba kuu.
Suab sek.
Shaw ka waw.
Me tab tah.
us THE AMERICAN INDIAN.
Cree. Winnebago.
From Say.
One. Paynk. Zhunk he rah.
Two. Ne shuh. Noam pee wee.
Three. Nesh to. Tah nee wee.
Four. Na a wo. Kho a pee wee.
Five. Nean nun. Saut shah.
Six. Ne go to ah sek. Ah ka a way.
Seven. Ta pa coh. Shau koa.
Eight. Aa na nes. Ar waw oank.
Nine. Ta ka to. Zhunke schoonk schoone.
Ten. Me ta ta. Kar ra pun na nah.
Adage. Muskogee.
From Duponceau. From Adair.
One. Nan cas. Hom mai.
Two. Nass. Hok kole.
Three. Colle. Too che na.
Four. Cac ca che. Osh ta.
Five. Sep pa can. Cha ka pe.
Six. Pa ca nan cus. E pah ghe.
Seven. Pa can ess. Ho loo pha ge.
Eight. Pa ca Ion. Chee ne pa.
Nine. . Sic kin ish. Oh sta pe.
Ten. Neus ne. Pa ko le.
Choktah and Chiksah. Cherokee. i;
From Adair. From Adair.
One. Cheph pho. So guo. ,
Two. Too ga lo. Tah ne.
J
-*-
Three. Toot che na. Choch.
*
Four. Oos ta. Nauk ke.
K
Five. Tath la be. Ish ke.

Six. Han nah le. Soo tare.
w
Seven. tin too ga lo. Ka re koge.
.
Eight. Un too che na. Sah nay ra.
,f
r
Nine. Chak ka le. Soh nay ra.
Ten. Po koo le. Skoch.
Eleven. So at too.
?..
Twelve. Ta ra too.
;
Quaddie (Maine). Quaivpaw.
; 1
From Dupoaceau. From Duponceau's MS.
One. Nai get. Milch tih.
Two. Nes. Non ne pah.
Three. Nane. Dag he nig.
Four. Ga mat chine. Tuah.
Five. A lo he gan nah. Sat ton.
Six. Nihi. Schap peh.
Seven. Na ho. Pen na pah.
Eight. Ok muh hine. Pe dag he nih.
Nine. As kwi nan dak. Schunk kah.
Ten. Ney dinsk. Ge deh bo nah.
Penobscot. Miami.
From Duponceau's MS. From Duponceau's MS.
One. Pe suok Ng goo teh.
Two. Neise. Nii jueh.
Three. Nhas. Nisth ueh.
Four. Yeuf. Nu ueh.
Five. Pa le neusg. Ilaan ueh.
Six. Neuk tansg. Ka kat sueh.
Seven. Ta boos. Sueh tet sueh.
Eight. San suk. Po laa neh. 1
Nine. No cle. Ngo te me neh kek.
Ten. Ma ta ta. Mo taat sueh.
One.
Two.
Three.
Four.
Five.
Six.
Seven.
Eight.
Nine.
Ten.
One.
Two.
Three.
Four.
Five.
Six.
Seven.
Eight.
Nine.
Ten.
Shawnee.
From Duponceau's MS.
In gut i, or n'gut i.
Nis chwe.
N'swe.
Ni wi.
Nia Ian wi.
Ka kat swi.
Swach tet swy.
Pal lani.
N' gut ti me pech gi.
Mat tat swy.
Natick.
From Elliott's Bible.
Ne gunt.
Neese.
Nish.
Yau.
Na pan na tah she.
Ne kwut ta tah she.
Ne sau suk tah she.
Shwo suk tah she.
Pa skoo gun tah she.
Pi uk.
Unachog.
From Duponceau's MS.
Na gwut.
Nees.
Nos.
Yaut.
Pa, orna paa.
Na cut tah, or cut tah.
Turn po wa.
Swat.
He one.
Pay ac.
Nousaghauset.
From Elliott's Bible.
Ne guit.
Nase.
Nish.
Yoh.
Na pau na.
Kwut ta.
E na da.
Shwo suk.
Pas kr git.
Piuk.
One.
Two.
Three.
Four.
Five.
Six.
Seven.
Eight.
Nine.
Ten.
Sourikwosiorum.
From John De Laet.
Ne gout.
Tabo.
Chicht.
Ne ou.
Nau.
Ka ma chin.
E r )e kwe sink.
Meg ou ma chin.
Egh ko na deck.
Me tun.
Canadenses.
From John De Laet,
Be gou.
Ni chou.
Nich toa.
Rau.
A pa te ta.
Con tou sai hin.
Ne o va chin.
Nes to va chin.
Pes CO va det.
Me tun.
One.
Two.
Three.
Four.
b'ive.
Six.
Seven.
Eight.
Nine.
Ten.
Saiikikani.
From John De Laet.
Cotte.
Nysse.
Na cha.
Wy we.
Pa re nagh.
Cot tash.
Nys sas.
Ge chas.
Pes chon.
Ter ren.
Algonquin.
From J. Long.
Pay jik.
Ninch.
Na ran.
Nin goot was soo.
Nin choo was soo,
Nis soo.
Neoo.
Nis so was so.
Shon gas soo.
Ni tas soo.
One.
'I
wo.
Three.
Four
Five.
Six.
Seven.
Eight.
Nine.
Ten.
Chippeway.
From J. Long.
Pay shik.
Neesh.
Nees swoy.
Ni on.
Na ran.
Ne gut wos swoy,
Swos swoy.
Shau gos swoy.
Me tos swoy.
New Stockbridge.
From Kao-no-mut, a woman who had
been living on Fox River, 1827.
N'got tah.
Ne shah.
Nah hah.
Nah wah.
No nun.
N'ko taus.
To pau wus.
Khous so.
Nah ne we.
N'tan net.
One.
Two.
Three.
Four.
Five.
Six.
Seven.
Eight.
Nine.
Ten.
Mohegan.
Ug wit toh.
Nes oh.
Nogh hoh.
Nau woh.
Nil non.
Ug wit tus.
Tu pou wiis.
Ghu sooh.
Nau ne weh.
Ne tau nit.
Monsee.
From an Indian at Buflalo.
N' got tah.
Ne shah.
N' hah.
Na ah.
Naw bun.
N' got waws.
Nush waus.
N'haus.
No wa lah.
Wim bat.
One.
Two.
Three.
Four.
Five.
Six.
Seven.
Eight.
Nine.
Ten.
Naudoway,
From Tanner.
Wis ka ut.
Tik ke ne.
Os sah.
Kia nee.
Whisk.
Yah gah.
Shah tuk.
Sah tah gah.
Te unk teuh.
We go ne.
Seneca.
From an Indian at Buffalo, 1827.
Skaut.
Tik thnee.
Suu ah.
Ka ae.
Welsh.
Yah eh.
('hah duk.
Ta ke oh.
Ten tohn.
Wus han.
One.
Two.
Three.
Four.
Five.
Six.
Seven.
Eight.
Nine.
Ten.
Pottaivattamie.
From an Indian at Detroit, 1827.
Ne got.
Neesh
Nees wa.
Naow.
Na nun.
Ne got want so.
No okt so.
Su aut so.
Shah kah.
Kwetch.
Ottaivcto
From Tannor.
Ne goch waw.
Neesh waw.
Nis waw.
Ne win.
Nah nun.
Nin got wau swa.
Neesh wan swa.
Nis wau swa.
Shaunk.
Kwetch.
One.
Two.
Three.
Four.
Five.
Six.
Seven.
Eight.
Nine.
Ten.
One.
Two.
Three.
Four.
Five.
Six.
Seven.
Eight.
Nine.
Ten.
Chippeivyan.
From a German interpreter.
Ish lia.
Nuh ka.
Tah sha.
Taing a.
Sah zhun lah ha.
I ka lah rah.
I ka taing ha.
Ish lah in ding ga.
Kas ka koo un nee rah.
Koo uu uu ah.
Chippeivyan.
From a woman, a native of Churchill.
Ith lia.
Nuk ka.
Krah ha, or Tah rhe.
Shah zet te.
II ket ting.
Ting he.
Sah zun lah ha.
II ket tah rah.
Kah kin ho en er nah.
Ho en er nah.
Chippeivyan,
From McKenzie,
Sta chy.
Na ghur.
Tagh
y.
Dengk
y.
Sas sou Ja chee.
Al ke tar hy
y.
Al ki deing hy.
Ca ki na ha noth na.
Ca noth na.
Chippewyan.
From a Chippewyan.
Eth li ah.
Nuk kur.
Tor ri.
Ding he.
Sos su li he.
El kat har ri.
SI us ing ding he.
El ket ding he.
Kutch e no ner re.
Ho ner no nub.
Cree. Cree.
From McKenzie. From a native.
One. Pey ac. Peak.
Two. Ni sheu. Nees to.
Three. Nish toil. Ne o.
Four. Ne way. Ne ah nun.
Five. Ni an nan. Ning good waw sik.
Six. Ne gou ta woe sic. Ne su.
Seven. Nish wi o sic. Ta be ko.
Eight. Jan na new. E nah ne.
Nine. Shack. Kam me tah tat.
Ten. Mi ta tat. Me tah tat.
Winnebago. Algonquin,
From a Winnebago. From McKenzie.
One. Zhunk kaid. Pe cheik.
Two. Noamp. Nije.
Three. Tarn. Nis wois.
Four. T' joab Neau.
Five. Sarj. Na nan.
Six. Har ker ra. Ni gou ta wa swois.
Seven. Shar goan. Ni gi was wois.
Eight. Kad do unk. She was wois.
Nine. Yunk ked joos koon Shan gwos wois.
Ten Ker reb hon na. Mit as swois.
Mahnesheet (slow tongues), residing on the St. Johns, N. B.
From a native.
One. Na koot. Six.
Two. Tah bo. Seven.
Three.
Sheist. Eight.
Four.
Na oo. Nine.
Five.
Nahn. Ten.
Kah mutch in.
Lo he gin nuk.
O go mul chin.
Aish ko nah daig.
Ko dainsk.
CHAPTEE XXXVII.
North American Indians Excel in HuntingSuperstitionUse of CharmsDili-
genceSnow Shoe RegionThanks to the Great SpiritThe BuffaloThe
BeaverHabits of the BeaverBeaver DamsBeaver HousesMode of Taking
BeaversHunting the BearSingular CustomLongfellow's DescriptionThe
DogHis FaithfulnessThe HorseOrigin among the IndiansComanches
Excel in HorsemanshipMode of Capturmg the Wild HorseGeneral Hunt
Hunting DeerTrapsPrairie FiresSeasons for HuntingAssistance of the

WomenIroquoisDakotasFishingMode of Taking FishIroquois are
Expert Fishermen.
I^RIMITIVE man, in all ages and in
all countries, has been and still
[m
is a hunter and fisher, pursuing
^C these avocations for a subsistence.
The North American Indians excelled
in hunting, though some of the tribes were
far beyond others in this unrivaled sport.
America, next to Africa, offered, as reward
of the chase, the finest game in the
animal
kingdom, and the grandest hunting
grounds in the world. Different localities
were noted for special varieties,
thus giving broad range to hunter
skill and enterprise.
Many writers have taken but a hasty view of Indian life; and,
observing provisions scarce and the need imperative, have assumed
that the aboriginal must have given his whole time to the pursuit of game
for daily food. On the contrary,
effort for such purpose was. looked
upon rather as subordinate, and, to perform an established round of
daily labor, as beneath the dignity of the native red man. He did not
deign to follow any pursuit that did not include excitement, enter-
prise and adventure. Hunting and war were alone considered of
sufficient importance to engage his attention; and these pursuits he
always engaged in with an energetic spirit, worthy of higher results
and nobler aims.
The Indian looked upon all animals as gifted with mysterious or
(J52)
-453
superstitious powers, and that, in some way, they were capable of
influencing the destinies of men ; and superstition entered largely into
the preparation for all hunting expeditions of the aboriginals. The
heavens above, and the earth beneath, fasting, dreams, all are consid-
ered, and exert a mighty influence on the preliminaries of the hunt.
The use of charms is an important feature in Indian preparations
for the hunt. These charms are made of various roots and herbs, a
little of which he puts into his gun that it may make his first shot
take effect. He also places a small portion of it in the track of the
first bear or deer he finds, supposing that, if the animal be two or
three days' journey ahead, he will by this means come in sight of it
in a very short time, the charm possessing the power of shortening
the journey, as he thinks, from two or three days to two or three
hours. To render the medicine more effectual, he will frequently sino-
the hunter song. Peter Jones says he has known many a hunter to
sit up all night beating his taicagun, and then, at daylight, take his
gun and go in quest of the game. This, he says, is generally done
when an Indian imagines that he has displeased the god of the game,
by not paying him that reverence which secures his success in the
chase; thereupon, the first animal he takes he devotes to the god of
game, making a feast and offering a sacrifice, by which he thinks to
appease his wrath.
One charm, it is believed, has power to render the hunter invis-
ible to the object of pursuit; another has power to render the arrow
certain in its flight ; and the Indian's faith is firm that a certain other
charm will keep him safe from harm during the chase.
In the snow shoe regions, a snow shoe hunt was preceded by a
dance, giving thanks to the Great Spirit for the snow which would aid
them in bringing home their game. Snow shoes served well in hunt-
ing the moose and elk, as they could be easily surrounded or overtaken
in the deep snow and captured by the fleet footed hunters.
The buffalo was the most highly esteemed of all the animal kino--
dom ; next in their regard came the beaver, whose wonderful
instinct
and beautiful and valuable fur have made for it a world wide reputa-
tion. The beaver is a native of Asia, Europe and North
America;
but most numerous, by far, on the latter continent.
To the Indians of North America, the beaver was an object of
worship; and some of the most wonderful traditions of Indian folk
lore, concerning this animal, have come down to us, related with the
earnestness and sincerity marking the Indian's faith. They never
wearied of repeating its praises in story and song.
From the advent of the white man upon Indian soil, the fur of tlie
454
beaver became a valuable article of commerce, and gave, for their
pleasure and comfort, to the proudest monarchs of the Old World,
their costliest robes. Its fur has added richness and beauty to the
garments of civilized man in all countries. Its name is a synonym
for the most fashionable hat once worn by Anglo-Saxon men.
Indian tradition tells us that the beavers were a race of intelli-
gences; that they possessed reasoning power; lived in colonies,
having their, chiefs, laws and language; that they worked under
command, and that they built for themselves cabins that gave evi-
dence of skillful designs, and were the very models of neatness and
comfort.
Beavers dwell in houses or habitations of their own construction,
erected in the water of some natural lake or pond, or formed upon
some stream by an artificial dam which they construct with much
ingenuity. When obliged to seek out a place for a home, they
assemble together in a community, sometimes from three to four hun-
dred in number ; and, after reconnoitering, if they can find no natural
lake or still body of v/ater, they search out some suitable place upon
a water course of living water, where there is plenty of building
material near at hand. There, after constructing a dam, thereby
raising the water to a sufficient capacity, they proceed and erect therein
their houses in large numbers, adjacent to each other, making, as
Father Charlevoix says, "a town which might be called a little
Venice."
For the purpose of constructing a dam, dyke or causeway, what-
ever it may be properly called, to stop the current to form a pond of
still water, they go and cut down trees above the place where they
intend to build. Several beavers set themselves about a great tree,
and, by gnawing, cut it down with their teeth. They take the meas-
ure and bearing of a tree so well that it always falls towards the
water. They cut the logs in pieces with their teeth, then roll them
into the stream and guide them to the place desired, where they are
fixed in the proposed dam. These pieces are thicker or thinner, longer
or shorter, as the nature and situation of the place they are fixed in
requires. Sometimes they use large trunks of trees which they lay
flat. Sometimes the dam or causeway is made only of stakes, some of
the thickness of a man's thigh or less, which they drive into the
earth very near each other and interweave with small branches;
and everywhere the hollow places are filled with clay, so well applied
that not a drop of water can pass through. They prepare the clay
for this, with their paws, their tails serving not only for a trowel
to build with, but also for a hod with which to carry the clay or
HUNTING
AND
FISHING.
455
IBOQUOIS HUNTERS IN THE
ADIEONDACKS.
mortar prepared from that substance. They spread the clay where
it is wanted, by the use of their paws, finishing the process with
their tails.
The foundations of the dams are generally ten or twelve feet
thick, diminishing by degrees in thickness upwards, so that the dam
which is twelve feet thick at the bottom, is, perhaps, not over two feet
thick at the top. All this is done in exact proportion, and, as may be
said, according to the rules of art. The sides towards the current of
the water are always sloping, in order to relieve the pressure of the
water, and the other sides perfectly perpendicular to it.
The construction of their houses shows like ingenuity and skill.
These are generally upon piles in the lake or pond of water, formed
by the construction of the dam. Their shape is round or oval and the
roof is arched. The walls are about two feet thick, built with the
same materials as the dam, but so well plastered with clay that the
least breath of- air cannot enter. Two-thirds of the building is above
the surface of the water. Each beaver has a separate apartment,
which he strews with leaves or small branches of evergreen ; and to
each cabin there is a common door, besides convenient openings for
ingress and egress to each tenement. Ordinarily, these cabins are
suitable for eight or ten beavers. Some have been found which held
thirty, but this, it is said, is uncommon. They are all near enough to
each other for easy communication, but the privacy of home is
respected. No two families can communicate together without going
outside of their own cabins. The entrance to their abodes is below
the water; this is for their safety in leaving and returning to them.
Their industry equals their skill. The Indians tell us idlers are ban-
ished from the beaver colonies.
These colonies, when observed in their entirety, present a fine
example of co-operative communities. Equal opportunities are
afforded to all, and equal industry and diligence required. They are
never surprised by winter, and all preparations for the cold season are
completed by the last of September.
There were four different ways in which the Indians captured the
beaver, namely, with the net, with the gun, the trench, and the trap.
The net was spread down the stream, not far from their cabins. The
trap was set on land to capture them as they ventured forth in search
of fresh food. The trench was a cruel decoy, made by cutting a hole
in the ice; and when the beavers came up to it, as they invariably do,
to breathe more freely, they were caught by the hunter, who seized
them by the paws and drawing them out of the water, threw them with
great violence on the ice, where they lay stunned and were quickly
HUNTING AND FISHING. 457
dispatched with a club. Their cabins were sometimes torn down by
the hunters, when they were easily caught by well laid snares.
The beaver of North America is a harmless and beautiful creat-
ure, and has followed closely in the shadow of the retreating footsteps
of the red man; and the places on this continent that once knew this
industrious little economist will soon know him no more forever.
Scarcely less interesting, and far more formidable to the Indians,
was the bear, for which they expressed much sympathy and regard, as
it became their victim. The combined force of the hunters in a tribe
were often engaged in a bear hunt. When the trail of a bear was
struck, he was pursued until he was discovered ; then one of the party
advanced and forced an engagement with the animal, which usually
turned furiously upon his assailant, but was overcome by the united
onset of the hunters.
In celebrating the success of the chase, the Indians sang the
praises of the slain bear and told of those good qualities it would
never more be able to display, and consoled themselves for killing so
good a creature, by recounting the useful purposes to which his flesh
and skin would be applied.
Mr. Heckewelder, in speaking of the peculiar Indian custom when
capturing the bear, as an illustration gives the following instances, at
which he was present:
A Delaware hunter once shot a huge bear and broke its back-bone.
The animal fell and set up a most plaintive cry. The hunter, instead
of giving him another shot, stood up close to him and addressed him
in these words: "Hark ye! bear, you are a coward, and no warrior,
as you pretend to be. Were you a warrior, you would show it by your
firmness, and not cry and whimper like an old woman. You know,
bear, that our tribes are at war with each other, and that yours was
the aggressor. You have found the Indians too powerful for you,
and you have gone sneaking about in the woods, stealing their hogs
;
perhaps at this time you have hog's flesh in your belly. Had you
conquered me, I would have borne it with courage and died like a
brave warrior; but you, bear, sit here and cry, and disgrace your tribe
by your cowardly conduct."
When the hunter had dispatched the bear, Mr. HeckeAvelder
asked him how he thought that poor animal could understand what he
said to it. "O!" said he, "the bear understood me very well. Did
you not observe how ashamed he looked while I was upbraiding- him
?"
At another time Mr. Heckewelder says he witnessed a similar
scene, at a place between the falls of the Ohio and the river Wabash.
A young white man, named William Wells, Avho had been, when a boy,
1
taken prisoner by a tribe of the Wabash Indians, by whom he was
adopted and brought up, and in which he imbibed all their notions,
had so wounded a large bear that he could not move from the spot,
and the animal cried piteously, as in the case before mentioned. The
young man went i\p to him, and, with seemingly great earnestness,
addressed him in the language of his tribe, now and then giving
him a slight stroke on the nose with his ramrod. He asked the
young man, when he had done, what he had been saying to this
)
LOOKING DOWN FROM A HIGH PLACE.
bear. "I have," said he, "upbraided him for acting the part of a
coward; I told him that he knew the fortune of war, that one or
the other of us must have fallen; that it was his fate to be conquered,
and that he ought to die like a man, like a hero, and not like an
old woman; that if the case had been reversed and I had fallen into
the power of 7ny enemy, I would not have disgraced my nation as
he did, but would have died with firmness and courage as becomes a
warrior,
1^
The poet Longfellow, in his
"
Song of Hiawatha," thus describes
this Indian custom:
"
With the heavy blow bewildered,
Rose the Great Bear of the mountains;
But his knees beneath him trembled,
And he whimpered like a woman,
As he reeled and staggered forward,
As he sat upon his haunches;
And the mighty Mudjekeewis,
Standing fearlessly before him,
Taunted him in loud derision.
Spake disdainfully in this wise:
'Hark you, Bear! you are a coward,
And no brave, as you pretended;
Else you would not cry and whimper,
Like a miserable woman
!
Bear ! you know our tribes are hostile,
Long have been at war together;
Now you find that we are strongest,
You go sneaking in the forest,
You go hiding in the mountains
!
Had you conquered me in battle
Not a groan would I have uttered;
But you. Bear! sit here and whimper,
And disgrace your tribe by crying,
Like a wretched Shaugodaya,
Like a cowardly old woman.'
"
In regard to animals, it is generally supposed, by civilized people,
that the dog is a general favorite with all the Indian tribes of North
America. As to this, there is a difference of opinion. Some say that
all Indians do not look forwârd to a reunion with their canines in the
happy hunting-grounds of the hereafter. With the Dakotas and
Algonquins, however, dogs were highly esteemed, and in return were
faithful friends and allies in the chase, and devoted to their masters in
all their adventures.
From the humane methods adopted by the Indians in catching
the wild beasts of the plains, it is noted again how closely these
unlettered sons of the wilds studied nature in her various moods.
The traditions are many and curious among the Avestern tribes in
regard to the origin of the horse ; but the general belief is, that these
animals were introduced upon the American continent by the Span-
iards, at the time of the Spanish invasion of Mexico ; and, having been
left to run wild, thus stocked the plains from Mexico to the far north,
or at least to a distance of from two to three thousand miles.
The horse and his rider are always objects of interest; and a
skillful reinsman has been deemed worthy of admiration through all
time. The Comanche Indians of the Southwest are considered as
CATCHING WILD HOKSES ON THE WESTERN PLAINS.
excelling any horseman ; and liis methods of catching wild horses have
been much adopted by white men. A Comanche Indian hunter, it is
said, will capture and break in a wild horse in the space of one hour
;
and, mounting his animal, will pursue the chase for other horses from
the same herd. In pursuit of a wild horse, he usually rides at full
speed in among the herd, and, selecting the animal he wishes to cap-
ture, throws the lasso with almost unerring skill, and quickly dis-
mounts, and running gradually lets out the lasso to its full length.
When the lasso begins to tighten around the throat of the animal, he
slackens his pace and tightens his grip, and the prize soon lies foam-
ing and struggling at his feet. Then the hunter fastens a pair of
hobbles on the forefeet of the animal ; this demands great caution, and
a slow approach to the horse thus prostrated; but when accomplished,
and tlie brave once gets near enough to place his hand on the nose of
the horse and over its eyes, and finally to breathe into its nostrils, it
soon becomes quiet and is conquered. The Indians claim that the
breathing into its nostrils the breath of man, charms the animal and
makes him forever.the willing servant of man.
Another proof of the red man's close study and knowledge of the
animal kingdom is shown in his manner of hunting the antelope,
which is a strange animal and easily decoyed. The antelope is influ-
enced by color. It is quickly attracted by any red object. A bit of
red cloth attached to a rod is often used as a decoy. This is raised
above the tall grass through which antelopes are known to pass.
When the hunter, lying in wait, perceives an antelope, he waits until
the decoy is observed by the animal, when he lowers it for a moment,
and raises it again; this is repeated until the animal's admiration and
curiosity has led him into the "jaws of death."
Man's superiority above the rest of the animal kingdom is often
painfully apparent in the ways and means employed for capturing the
creatures subject to his power and skill. The Indians are, in no mean
sense, the lords of creation, and are prolific in methods of asserting
their power. When a general hunt is engaged in, a circle is sometimes
formed, when all the animals surrounded are pressed closer and closer,
till they are collected in the center, where they are easily dispatched.
At another time, they are driven to the margin of a lake or river, in
which, if they seek refuge, they are arrested by hunters in canoes.
A favorite method is to have a* narrow opening to a broad space,
which has been enclosed with stakes, then, by cries, shouting and
clamor, the game is driven into the enclosure and thus secured.
In securing deer, in autumn and spring, when the ice is thin, the
animal is induced to venture upon it, and, breaking through, is
462
eiitaDgled and easily caught. In winter, when snow begins to fall,
traps are set in such a way as to spring instant death upon the animal
prowling for the bait. A very effective trap for deer was attached to a
tree, bent over, and so adjusted that the springing of the trap fastened
a loop around the hind legs of the deer, at the same time releasing the
tree, which, assuming its upright position, suddenly raises the animal
by its legs, and holds it suspended in the air, where it is usually slain
by the knife of the hunter.
Another and more enterprising method was engaged in by the
general hunt. A triangular piece of ground was fenced on two sides,
extending from one to two miles in length. The woods were then fired
beyond the open side of the triangular space. The deer would run
from the flames ; hunters outside the line would manage to guide them
through the opening towards the angle formed by the two lines, when
the unseen hunters would bring them down with their arrows or guns.
A hundred deer have thus been taken at one time.
The Indian had still an-
other mode of surprising or
decoying animals, by disguising
himself in the skin of an elk,
or other like animal, in which
he would &x upon his own head
the head and horns of the elk,
and walk on his hands and feet
in the manner of a quadruped,
and pretend to browse or feed
upon the grass around; and by
this and other means so deceiv-
ing herds of animals, that they
would not take alarm by his presence, but suffer him to approach near
enough to kill them with his arrows.
The red men observe the time, seasons and phases of the moon for
the better ordering of their hunting, and though stoical in regard to
death, consider it a great dishonor to be slain by a wild animal, there-
fore they hunt very cautiously.
Wild cats are killed by felling the trees on which they are found,
and then set upon and killed usually by the aid of dogs. Porcupines
are killed by the hatchet. The otter is trapped and then killed.
The Dakotas
have four seasons each year in which they go forth
to the pleasures
and fatigues of the chase. In these expeditions they
are accompanied
by the women, who go to bring in the game. When
a deer is killed, the one who reaches it first gets the best piece. The
HUNTING IN DISGUISE.

463
slayers often get nothing but the hide. If the hunters are hungry,
there is great commotion and scrambling for the meat. The chief
never interferes. The strongest brave is always in favor with the chief
and keeps what he gets. Morning and evening are considered the
best time to engage in hunting.
Among the Iroquois, the hunting season has been observed with
quite as much demonstration as with the Dakotas, though the instances
of a solitary Indian bringing in game for himself and family are
always frequent. The time for serious employment with the Indian is
during the summer and autumn, when the more provident lay by in
store for the needs of the coming winter. In seasons when game i&
scarce, the efforts of the father of a family to secure food for those of
his own household, often amounts to actual heroism and self-sacrifice.
Numerous instances are recorded of Indians hunting for days without
food in order to keep their families from starvation. They have even
died from hunger while in pursuit of game for the famishing ones at
home. The principal game with the tribe of the Iroquois group are
the deer, moose, bear, and wild fowls. At certain seasons of the year,
the females of all animals are spared by the provisions of their game
laws.
The Iroquois do not keep game days, preferring the
''
still hunt."
On this account their study of the habits of the animal creation has
been closer than that of other Indian nations. The trap, as a means
of capture, is largely used by the Iroquois, for the bear as well as
deer and other game. They spread nets for quails, pigeons, grouse,
and other small fowl. With the Iroquois, the bear hunt is the greatest
event of his hunter life. The usual bear dance is engaged in before
setting forth. The custom of the Iroquois is to worry the animal by
a long chase before attacking it. When the animal is fresh and vig-
orous it is considered too formidable even for an Iroquois. When
weary, he is easily overcome.
The usual weapon of the native Indian in killing game, when not
within the reach of his club or stone ax, was the bow and arrow. The
Indians were expert archers, and, probably, as a rule, excelled all other
people who used the bow and arrow. He could draw the bow and
shoot his arrow with inimitable skill, and could with it bring down the
smallest birds by his unerring aim.
Fishing, though demanding lesa courage and bravery than the
sports of the forest and field, was engaged in by numerous tribes of
Indians with consummate skill. The Iroquois and Ojibways were noted
as fishermen. The net was much in favorwith them. They also used
the spear, harpoon and long net with great success. The bow and
464
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02
02
O
O
P
02
DQ
<
M
W
t
HUNTING AND FISHING. 4G5
arrow were sometimes used to shoot sun-fish. Little boys of six years
old were often quite expert in this sport. Upon the shores of Lake
Huron and Lake Superior the white man has established a large
industry in catching and preparing the white fish for the markets of
the world. Here, for generations, the Ojibways merely gained a sub-
sistence. They are now looked upon almost as intruders upon the land
and water which are their own by all the laws of equity and natural
inheritance.
The Iroquois are expert fishermen, especially those tribes that
live around the small lakes of the north. These men use nets of
enormous length, manufactured from a species of nettle. The net is
thrown upon the Avater in an oblong shape. Four men are usually
required to pull it ashore, if laden, as it usually is, with a great
draught of fishes; for the Lidian understands the times and seasons
for successful fishing. A pole, with several sharp pointed barbs, is
sometimes used by the natives with success. This instrument is let
down into the deep with plenty of attractive bait. The pole is kept
constantly whirling, and fish are thus caught upon these barbs.
George F. Emmons, of the United States navy, thus describes
the mode of catching fish in the streams of the northwest coast:
"They catch fish by constructing weirs and dams, by scoop-nets,
spearing, and by firing their arrows into them. In the running sea-
son, several tribes are in the habit of assembling at the Willamette
Falls for the purpose of laying in a supply for the season. They rig
out planks and pieces of timber just below the falls, upon which they
stand and catch the salmon in their scoop-nets as they flirt out of the
water in their attempts to overcome the cascade.
"Their success with the bow and arrow, in this particular, may,
perhaps, be regarded as demonstrating something more than mere
physical skill in the use of this weapon.
"Their spear, or fish-gig, is something like the following:not
always straighta split or crotched pole, from ten to twenty feet long,
armed at the spear end with deer's horn ; which is intended to slip off
the ends of the spear after they have entered the fish, when they are
held by a lanyard attached to the pole just above the crotch, and by
this means secure the fish as by a toggle."
Hennepin tells us that fish were so plentiful that the natives would
lie down on a bridge of trees thrown across the stream, and, thrusting
their arms through the branches, catch prodigious quantities of various
kinds of fish. That the white man's coming has lessened the finny
productions of the lakes and rushing rivers, is no less true than that
the animal that once roamed at will through the forests and over the
25
4G() THE AMERICAN INDIAN.
hills then peopled with red men, have fled or vanished at the approach
of tlie white man. Truly, the Indian is not alone in his retreat; but
the beasts of the forests, the fowls of the air, and the fishes cf the
waters, are his companions there. Observers of the strictest laws for
the preservation of wild animal life will save us the needed existence
of this part of animal creation, many species of which are rapidly
passing away forever.
CHAPTEE XXXVIII.
Rauge of the Buffalo -The Word BuffaloWhence DerivedFormidable Object of
Hunter ProwessDescription of the BuffaloMode of Taking the Buffalo
DescribedInteresting Description by Mr. CatlinInformation on this Point
from Gov. SibleyAn Interesting AccountIndian Buffalo ChaseMr. Catlin's
Thrilling DescriptionHis Eloquent Reflection on the Disappearance of the
Indian and the BuffaloThe National ParkFirst Suggested.
T has been remarked that,
war, hunting is the
prominent fieki of
1 triumph. There is
in this regard, how-
ever, in which his
strength and agility
are more fully dis-
played than in
hunting the bison
or buffalo, from
which source the
subsistence of a
large proportion of the aborigines of North America was derived.
This animal was first noticed in his native range by De Soto, after
he had crossed the Mississippi river and entered over into the present
area of Arkansas and Missouri. Early writers spoke of Florida as the
range within which the buffalo was found. This, however, was when
that country called Florida embraced a greater part of North America.
There is said to be no evidence whatever that this animal ever inhab-
ited the limits of the present state of Florida.
Mr. Schoolcraft says that the term vaca, applied to this animal by
De Soto, and the word boef,
subsequently employed by the French,
who found it plentiful in Illinois, were merely indicative of its identity
with the bos family, and were confined to that signification. Linnaeus
found it a peculiar species, to which he applied the term bison as con-
tradistinguished from the Asiatic buffalo. The term
buffalo
appears
(467)
to have been early applied to it ; and it became so generally in vogue
in America, as a term designating this animal, that an attempt to alter
its use thereafter would have been wholly impracticable.
The Algonquins, who called the bison beezhike, applied the same
term to the domestic cow when it was introduced.
This animal is common to temperate latitudes, and capable of
enduring cold rather than hot climates. It was found in early days to
have crossed the Mississippi river above the latitude of the mouth of
the Ohio, extending its range from the Gulf of Mexico on the south to
the northern extremity of Lake Winnepeg on the north, and westward
into the foot hills of the Kocky Mountains; and, at certain times, it
thronged the country in the present area of Kentucky. It ranged over
the prairies of Illinois and Indiana, and spread over Southern Michi-
gan, and through the western skirts of Ohio. Tradition has it that
this animal was sometimes seen along the southern and extending to
the eastern borders of Lake Erie. The name of the city of Buffalo
perpetuates this tradition, taking its name, however, more directly
from a stream of water called Buffalo creek, which enters Lake Erie at
this point. This animal was also common to the southern parts of
Wisconsin, and crossed the Mississippi into Minnesota above St.
Anthony's Falls, for the last time, as is believed, in 1820.
The buffalo, in its native haunts and condition, is a fierce and
formidable object of hunter prowess, and, Avhen wounded, will turn in
retaliation on his pursuer. It is characterized by a large head car-
ried low, broad convex forehead, wide full chest, large hump between
the shoulders, narrow loins and comparatively slender legs. The
weight of a large full grown male is twelve hundred to two thousand
pounds. The horns, hoofs and hair, except the middle of the back
which is brown, are black. The face front is triangular in shape,
being broad at the top and narrowing toward the nose. It has a thick
mane, which covers the whole neck and breast, and is prominent on
the hump, extending above the shoulders, and beneath the jaws is a
long tuft, which, in the males especially, has the appearance of a large
beard. The loins and hinder portion of the animal are covered with
short hair. The legs, especially the hinder ones, are long and quite
slim for so large an animal. The feet are broad, and in shape are like
those of the common ox. The tail is shorter than that of the ox, and
bears a large tuft at the tip end. The horns are sharp, black, turned
slightly upwards, and are stout and large at the base. The eyes are
of moderate size, very black and brilliant, and seem to be always
open, which, with the low poise of the head, and its unceasing nervous
movements, give it a fierce and menacing air. The buffalo differs in
THE INDIAN AND THE BUFFALO. 409
its anatomy from the common domestic ox in having fourteen pairs of
ribs, while the ox has only thirteen. Unlike the deer, which, in captiv-
ity, becomes tame and gentle even to being affectionate, it seems to be
incapable of domestication, roaming continually and aimlessly from
point to point within the confines of its range.
This species of animal was first seen after the discovery in
a single animal by Cortez and his followers in 1521, in a kind of
menagerie or zoological collection of Montezuma in Mexico, to which
place the animal had been brought from the north by some Indians.
This collection embraced also rare birds and quadrupeds, under direc-
tion of this native monarch. It was not, however, until the expedition
of Coronado north of the Eiver Gila, in 1542, that the natural ranges
of this animal were penetrated. It was not found at all in the high-
lands of New Mexico. The Spanish adventurers had passed the Eiver
Del Norte and entered the region of the great southern fork on the
Arkansas before they encountered the immense herds of this animal
which they describe.
Before the ranges of this animal upon the western plains had been
disturbed by the white man, the numbers in herds over the prairies at
favorable points, as described by explorers, is amazing. Lewis and
Clark, in descending the Missouri river in July, 1806, on passing in
the vicinity of White river, in the present area of Dakota, estimate that
they saw twenty thousand buffaloes on the prairies at one time; at
another place they remark that such was the multitude of these animals,
in crossing the river, that, for a mile in length, the herd stretched as
thick as they could swim from bank to bank, and they were stopped in
their descent till the herd had passed.
One of the modes of taking these animals, at the time of the
passage of the aforesaid adventurers through the Missouri valley,
where there existed rocky banks, is thus described:
An active young man is selected as a decoy, by disguising his
body in the skin of the animal, and putting it on, with the head, ears
and horns. Thus disguised, he fixes himself at a point between the
herd of bison and the cliffs of the river. Meantime, his companions
get in the rear and on the sides of the herd, and press them onward.
Taking the Indian decoy for a real animal, the buffaloes follow him to
the brink and then stop, the decoy meantime concealing himself in some
previously selected crevice, while the herds in the rear, rushing head-
long forwards, push the foremost over the precipice, down which they
are dashed and killed. A hundred carcasses or more were found in a
single locality on the shores of the Missouri river. They are often-
captured by the Indians early in the spring, while crossing that river
in search of fresh grass. It is customary for the natives to fire the
prairies in the spring, which leaves a smooth scorched surface. The
animal is thus driven, in hordes, to cross the river on the ice, in search
of new grass ; and, as the ice breaks under their weight, numbers of
them are left floating on the isolated cakes of ice, sometimes of but a
few feet surface, from which they tumble into the water and are easily
captured by the Indians in their ice-boats. This procedure was wit-
nessed by the travelers before named, in March, 1805, while encamped
at Fort Mandan.
Mr. Catlin, tlie renowned painter of Indian portraits and Indian
scenery, who spent many years among the native tribes of North
America, extending over a vast region of country occupied by the
native red man, says of the American bison:
"These noble animals of the ox species, and which have been so
well described in our books on Natural History, are a subject of
curious interest and great importance in this vast wilderness ; rendered
peculiarly so at this time, like the history of the poor savage, and
from the same consideration, that they are rapidly wasting away at the
approach of civilized man, and like him and his character, in a very
few years, to live only in books or on canvas.
''The word buffalo is undoubtedly most incorrectly applied to
these animals, and I can scarcely tell why they have been so called;
for they bear just about as much resemblance to the Eastern buffalo
as they do to a zebra or to a common ox. How nearly they may
approach to the bison of Europe, which I never have had an oppor-
tunity to see, and which, I am inclined to think, is now nearly extinct,
I am unable to say; yet, if I were to judge from the numerous engrav-
ings I have seen of those animals, and descriptions I have read of
them, I should be inclined to think there was yet a wide difference
between the bison of the American prairies and those in the north of
Europe and Asia. The American bison, or (as I shall hereafter call
it) buffalo, is the largest of the ruminating animals that is now living
in America; and seems to have been spread over the plains of this
vast country, by the Great Spirit, for the use and subsistence of the
red men, who live almost exclusively on their flesh and clothe them-
selves with their skins. Their color is a dark brown, but changing
very much as the season varies from warm to cold; their hair or fur,
from its great length in the winter and spring, and exposure to the
weather, turns quite light and almost to a jet black when the winter
coat is shed off and a new growth is shooting out.
"The buffalo bull often grows to the enormous weight of 2,000
pounds, and shakes a long and shaggy black mane, which falls in great
471
profusion and confusion over his head and shouklers, and oftentimes
falling down quite to the ground. The horns are short, but very
large, and have but one turn, i. e., they are a simple arch, without the
least approach to a spiral form, like those of the common ox, or of the
goat species.
"The female is much smaller than the male, and always distin-
guishable by the peculiar shape of the horns, which are much smaller
and more crooked, turning their points more in towards the center of
the forehead.
"One of the most remarkable characteristics of the buffalo is the
peculiar formation and expression of the eye^ the ball of which is very
large and white, and the iris jet black. The lids of the eye seem
always to be strained quite open, and the ball rolling forward and
down; so that a considerable portion of the iris is hidden behind the
lower lid, while the pure white of the eyeball glares out over it in an
arch, in the shape of a moon at the end of its first quarter.
"
These animals are, truly speaking, gregarious, but not migratory
;
they graze in immense and almost incredible numbers at times, and
roam about and over vast tracts of country, from east to west, and
from west to east, as often as from north to south; which, as has often
been supposed, they naturally and habitually did to accommodate
themselves to the temperature of the climate in the different latitudes.
The limits within which they are found in America are from the
thirtieth to the fiftieth degrees of north latitude; and their extent
from east to wêst, which is from the border of our extreme western
frontier limits to the western verge of the Rocky Mountains, is defined
by quite different causes than those which the degrees of temperature
have prescribed to them on the north and the south. Within these
twenty-five degrees of latitude the buffaloes seem to flourish, and get
their living without the necessity of evading the rigor of the climate,
for Avhich nature seems most wisely to have prepared them by the
greater or less profusion of fur, with which she has clotLed them."
The description of the buffalo as given by Mr. Catlin admits of
some explanation. He describes the eyes as presenting a white appear-
ance, which was probably from observations made while the animal
was in a rage or frigJit, and when the eyes assumed a position dis-
playing a more than ordinary portion of the white of the eye than
when unexcited.
Ex-Gov. H. H. Sibley, of Minnesota, in an article on the subject
of the buffalo and buffalo-hunting, contributed nearly forty years ago
to Mr. Schoolcraft's book of Indian tribes of the United States, part
4,
page 94, after expressing fear that the buffalo or American bison
472
''will soon become extinct as /i denizen of the wilds of the North
American continent," says:
"To what extent this animal roamed over the Atlantic slope of the
Alleghany Mountains, in ages past, is uncertain ; but there are men
yet living who have seen large herds upon the Ohio, and its tributary
streams. Two individuals were killed in 1832 by the Dakota or Sioux
Indians, upon the 'Trempe a I'Eau' river, in upper AVisconsin, and
they are believed to have been the last specimens of the noble bison
which trod, or ever wdll again tread, the soil of the region lying east
of the Mississippi river.*'
Ex-Gov. Sibley further adds, concerning the rapid destruction
and disappearance of the buffalo, which had taken place at that day:
" The multitudes of these animals which have hitherto darkened
the surface of the great prairies on the west of the 'father of waters,'
are fast wasting away under the fierce assaults made upon them by the
white man as well as the savage. From data, which, although not
mathematically correct, are sufficiently so to enable us to arrive at
conclusions approximating the truth, it has been estimated that for
each buffalo robe transported from the Indian country, at least five
animals are destroyed.
"From the Missouri region the number of robes received varies
from 40,000 to 100,000 per annum, so that from a quarter to half a
million of buffaloes are destroyed in the period of each twelve months.
So enormous a drain must soon result in the extermination of the
whole race ; and it may be asserted with much certainty that in twenty
years from this time the buffalo, if existing at all, will be only found
in the wildest recesses of the Rocky Mountains. The savage bands
of the west, whose progenitors have, from time immemorial, depended
mainly upon the buffalo, must, with them, disappear from the earth,
unless they resort to other means of subsistence under the fostering
care of the general government."
Ex-Gov. Sibley, in the article aforesaid, gives the following descrip-
tion as to the manner and perils of hunting the buffalo
:
"
The chase of the buffalo on horseback is highly exciting, and by
no means unattended with danger. The instinct of that animal leads
him, when pursued, to select the most broken and difficult ground over
which to direct his flight, so that many accidents occur to horse and rider
from falls, which result in the death or dislocation of the limbs of one or
both. When wounded, or too closely pressed, the buffalo will turn upon
his antagonist, and not frequently the latter becomes the victim in the
conflict, meeting his death upon the sharp horns of an infuriated bull.
"In common with the moose, the elk, and others of the same family,
nature has furnished the buffalo with exquisite powers of scent, upon
which he principally relies for warning against danger. The inex-
perienced voyager will often be surprised to perceive the dense masses
of these cattle urging their rapid flight across the prairie, at a dis-
tance of two or three miles, without any apparent cause of alarm,
unaware, as he is, of the fact that the tainted breeze has betrayed to
them his presence while still far away. In approaching the" quarry,
whether on foot or horseback, the hunter must take the precaution to
keep well to leeward. The man walks by the side, and as much as
possible under cover of his horse, until within a distance, nearer than
which it would be impolitic to attempt to advance. The buffalo gaze,
meanwhile, at their approaching enemy, uncertain whether to maintain
their ground or take to flight. The hunter vaults into his saddle and
speeds towards his hesitating prey, and then commences the race which
to the latter is one of life or death.
"The bow and arrow, in experienced hands, constitutes quite as
effective a weapon in the chase of the buffalo as the firearms, from the
greater rapidity with which the discharges are made, and the almost
equal certainty of execution. The arrow, which is less than a yard
long, is feathered, pointed with iron, and with small grooves along it to
allow of the more rapid effusion of blood when fixed in the animal.
The force with which an arrow is propelled from the bow, wielded by
an Indian of far less than the ordinary physical strength of white men,
is amazing. It is generally imbedded to the feather in the buffalo, and
sometimes even protrudes on the opposite side. It is reported among
the Dakotas or Sioux Indians, and generally credited by them, that
one of their chiefs, Wah-na-tah, by name, who wâs remarkable up to
the close of his life for strength and activity of frame, and who was
equally renowned as a hunter and warrior, on one occasion discharged
an arrow with sufficient force entirely to traverse the body of a female
buffalo and to kill the calf by her side. For the accuracy of this
statement I do not, of course, pretend to vouch. The arrow is launched
from the bow while the body of the victim is elongated in making his
forward spring, and the ribs being then separated from each other as
far as possible, allow an easy entrance to the missile between them.
"The same instant is taken advantage of by such of the western
Indians as make use of long lances wherewith to destroy the buffalo.
Approaching sufficiently near to the particular cow he has selected for
his prey, the hunter allows the weapon to descend and rest upon her
back, which causes her at first to make violent efforts to dislodge it.
After a few trials, the beast becomes accustomed to the touch and ceases
further to notice it in her great anxiety to escape from her pursuer,
HUNTING THE BUFFALO IN DEEP SNOW.
who then, by a dexterous and powerful thrust, sheathes the long and
sharp blade in her vitals, and withdraws it before the animal falls to
the ground. This mode of slaughter is successful only with those who
have fleet and well-trained horses, and who have perfect reliance on
their own coolness and skill.
"When the alternate
thawing and freezing during
the winter months have formed
a thick crust upon the deep
snows of the far northwest,
the buffalo falls an easy victim
to the Indian, who glides rap-
idly over the surface upon his
snow shoes, while the former
finds his powers of locomotion
almost paralyzed by the break-
ing of the icy crust beneath his ponderous weight. He can then be
approached with absolute impunity, and despatched with the gun, the
arrow, or the lance.
"It sometimes happens that a whole herd is surrounded and
driven upon the clear lake of ice, in which case they spread out and
fall powerless, to be mercilessly massacred by their savage pursuers.
It is a well-known fact, that several years since nearly a hundred buf-
faloes attempted to cross Lacqui Parle, in Minnesota, upon the ice,
which not being sufficiently strong to bear so enormous a pressure, gave
way, and the whole number miserably perished. The meat furnished
a supply of food for many weeks to the people at the neighboring trad-
ing-post, as well as to the Indians and to the wolves and foxes."
Mr. Catlin thus describes the buffalo chase by the native Indians
of the great American plains. He says:
"
In the chase of the buffalo or other animal, the Indian generally
'strips' himself and his horse, by throwing off his shield and quiver,
and every part of his dress which might be an incumbrance to him in
running; grasping his bow in his left hand, with five or six arrows
drawn from his quiver and ready for instant use. In his right hand
(or attached to the wrist) is a heavy whip, which he uses without
mercy, and forces his horse alongside of his game at the swiftest speed.
"These horses are so trained that the Indian has little use for the
rein which hangs on the neck, whilst the horse approaches the animal
on the right side, giving his rider the chance to throw his arrow to the
left, which he does at the instant when the horse is passing, bringing
him opposite to the heart, which receives the deadly Aveapon 'to the
feather.' When pursuing a large herd, the Indian generally rides
close in the rear until he selects the animal which he wishes to kill,
which he separates from the throng as soon as he can by dashing his
horse between it and the herd and forcing it off by itself, where he can
approach it without the danger of being trampled to death, to which he
is so often liable by too closely escorting the multitude.
"No bridle whatever is used in this country by the Indians, as
they have no knowledge of a bit. A short halter, however, which
answers in place of a bridle, is in general use; of which they usually
form a noose around the under jaw of the horse, by which they get
great power over the animal ; and which they use generally to si(yp
rather than guide the horse. This halter is called by the French
traders in the country, Varret, 'the stop,' and has great power in
arresting the speed of a horse ; though it is extremely dangerous to use
too freely as a guide, interfering too much with the freedom of his
limbs, for the certainty of his feet and security of his rider.
"When the Indian then has directed the course of his steed to
the animal which he has selected, the training of the horse is such
that it knows the object of its rider's selection, and exerts every muscle
to give it close company; while the halter lies loose and untouched
upon its neck, and the rider leans quite forward and off from the side
of his horse, with his bow drawn and ready for the deadly shot,
which is given at the instant he is opposite to the animal's body. The
horse being instinctively afraid of the animal (though he generally
brings his rider within the reach of the end of his bow) keeps his eye
strained upon the furious enemy he is so closely encountering; and
the moment he has approached to the nearest distance required, and
has passed the animal, whether the shot is given or not, he gradually
sheers off, to prevent coming on to the horns of the infuriated beast,
which are often instantly turned and presented for the fatal reception
of its too familiar attendant. These frightful collisions often take
place, notwithstanding the sagacity of the horse and the caution of its
rider; for, in these extraordinary (and inexpressible) exhilarations of
chase, which seem to drown the prudence alike of instinct and reason,
both horse and rider often seem rushing on to destruction, as if it
were mere pastime and amusement."
Mr. Catlin, in concluding his remarks upon the buffalo, is led into
a train of reflection as to the impending fate concerning both the buffalo
and the Indian, which he imparts to us in language truly eloquent, as
he contemplates the day when this noble animal, as well as the native
Indian of the forest and the plain, shall have passed from earth, to live
only, as he expresses it, "in books and on canvas." He says:
"Of such 'rudeness and wilds' nature has nowhere presented
more beautiful and lovely scenes, than those of the vast prairies of the
West; and of man and beast, no nobler specimens than those who
inhabit themthe Indian and the
buffalojoint and original tenants
of the soil, and fugitives together from the approach of civilized man
;
they have fled to the great plains of the West, and there, under an
equal doom, they have taken up their last abode, where their race
will expire, and their bones will bleach together."
Mr. Catlin further adds, in the midst of his gloomy reflection, as
a faint hope held out in the future, whereby may be preserved to us
some object or lingering examples of these magnificent scenes in the
life of the red man and the buffalo:
"
What a splendid contemplation,
too, when one (who has traveled these realms and can truly appreciate
them) imagines them as they might in the future be seen (by some
great protecting policy of government) preserved in their prestine
beauty and wildness, in a magnificent j)cirk, where the world could see,
for ages to come, the native Indian in his classic attire, galloping his
wild horse, with sinewey bow and shield and lance, amid the fleeting
herds of elks and buffaloes. What a beautiful and thrilling specimen
for America to preserve and hold up to the view of her refined citizens
and the world, in future ages ! A nation''s park, containing man and
beast, in all the wild and freshness of their nature's beauty! I would
ask no other monument to my memory, nor any other enrollment of
my name amongst the famous dead, than the reputation of having
been the founder of such an institution."
Mr. Catlin was the first to suggest the idea of a national park
for the purposes to which he refers, of which the evidence is here
afforded, and to him should be accorded the honor due for this valuable
suggestion, upon which the United States government has since acted
;
and in the northwestern part of Wyoming territory, a tract of about
3,600 square miles, containing some of the most singular and interest-
ing natural features of the country, has been set apart by an act of
congress as a national park, originally designed, amongst other things,
for the purposes suggested by Mr. Catlin; and the day has arrived
when his melancholy contemplation of fifty years ago, has become
a fact in the history of our country's events. The buffalo has
passed away forever from the domain of his former existence, and
the tribes of Indians who were "joint tenants" with him, no longer
exist in their wild native condition, but have been gathered together
here and there upon parcels of land, called reservations, through
conquest and compulsion, where they are being instructed in the ways
of the white man, which they are imitating with considerable success.
CHAPTER XXXIX
PICTURE WRITING.
Original Mode of Suggesting ThoughtPicture Writing among the American
TribesIn Practice as among Ancient People of the Old WorldMaterial Used
for Picture WritingCharacters Engraved on Rocks and StonesThe Piasa
Man Devouring BirdDescription by MarquetteDescriptioa by Prof. John
RussellPicture Writing on RobesPipe Stone QuarryInstance Noted by
Jonathan CarverIllustration from La HontanSystem of Picture Writing
The Primitive MindAnecdote of President Lincoln's FatherDescription
Quoted From LongfellowDighton RockRocks at Kelley's Island
Caricatures
Indian IdeaAnecdote of the Shawnee Indian and White Man.
HE original
mode o f
c o m mu n i-
^"^
eating indi-
vidual thought and
desires among the
race of mankind
was doubtless by
>^^
signs, motions or
gestures. This
mode of communi-
cation was s u c-
ceeded b
y
utter-
ances of the voice
and articulation of sounds, forming a system of language that became
perfected according to degrees of intelligence. Experience and
increasing wants further suggested a mode of transferring thoughts
and ideas to material substances by characters or symbols, marked or
impressed thereon. As Mr. Armstrong, the author of an interesting
paper on the
"
Piasa,"
so-called,
remarks, that all nations and people
in whatsoever condition,
civilized,
barbarian, or savage, have adopted
and utilized signs, emblems,
symbols and paintings as their primary
and most natural, as well as direct and forcible, methods of communi-
cating, recording and
perpetuating
thought and history ; and that our
(477)
INDIAN PICTURE WRITING ON A BUFFALO ROBE.
478
H
H
D
n
jji
t^
o
o
M
H
W
H
;?;
o
CO
<
M
m
<:
I
I
PU
W
H
P^
O
O
[a
o
Pk
02
PICTURE WRITING. 479
syllabaries or alphabets are but a system of types, symbols and
emblems, which, when put in form by the aid of mechanical skill,
"bristle with thought" and become the means of recording history.
This art of transferring thought by marking or engraving char-
acters and symbols upon material substances was something under-
stood and practiced throughout all the American tribes to a greater or
less degree of perfection. In general, however, the Indian ideas on
this subject were crude, and his designs exceedingly primitive.
It is noted, as a coincidence of method in this regard, that the
mode of writing or manner of transferring individual thought to
material substances among the tribes of America was, in principle, the
same as that in use anciently among the people of the Old World.
In addition to the papyrus, the latter people made use of dressed
skins called parchment; so the American Indians used, for their pic-
ture writing, the bark of such trees as were adapted to this use, and,
in like manner, also used dressed skins for that purpose. The Ameri-
can tribes had also a mode by which they engraved characters or images
upon stones and rocks, as in the case of the noted Piasa, so-called, or
"
man devouring bird," described by the early French travelers, found
emblazoned upon the rocks on the left bank of the Mississippi river,
near its confluence with the Illinois, and generally accepted as the work
of the Indians, although Marquette suggests a doubt on this point.
This is among the most noted objects of the kind of which we have
any account.
It would seem, from what is said by Marquette in his discoveries
of the Mississippi, that inscriptions of this kind were frequently seen
upon the rocks along the banks of this river. He says: "Along the
Rocks I have mentioned, we found one very high and steep, and saw
two Monsters painted upon it, which are so hideous that we were
frightened at the first Sight, and the boldest Savages dare not fix their
Eyes upon them. They are drawn as big as a calf, with two Horns
like a Wild goat. Their Looks are terrible, though their Face has
something of Human Figure in it. Their Eyes are Red, their Beard
is like that of a Tyger, and their Body is covered with Scales. Their
Tail is so long that it goes o'er Their Heads, and then turns between
their Fore legs under the Belly, ending like a Fish Tail. There are
but three Colours, viz.: Red, Green and Black; but those monsters are
so well drawn that I cannot believe that the Savages did it; and the
Rock whereon they are painted is so steep that it is a Wonder to me
how it was possible to draw those Figures; but to know to what pur-
pose they were made is as great a mystery. Whatever it be, our best
Painters wou'd hardly do better."
480
It has been seriously questioned, however, by many experienced
explorers and observers in matters of this kind, whether these sup-
posed extraordinary figures or petrographs upon rocks of the kind
before mentioned, were not largely the result of imagination, drawn
from shadows thrown upon the rocks from different views presented
to the observer, as is frequently the case in views upon the Kocky
Mountains, wîich show a variety of imaginary objects, changing their
appearance according to views that may be taken from diiferent
standpoints.
The existence, however, of the image of the Piasa upon the rocks
on the banks of the Mississippi, at the point before mentioned, which
is understood to be in the vicinity of where is now the city of Alton,
is vouched for by Prof. John Kussell, late of Jersey county, 111., who,
as Mr. Armstrong remarks, was a scholar, poet and writer of consid-
erable repute, who visited the locality of this inscription in March,
1848, and communicated the result of his investigation to an eastern
magazine, in which the same Avas published in that year.
He says: "In descending the river to Alton, the traveler will
observe between that town and the mouth of the Illinois a narrow
ravine through which a small stream discharges its waters into the
Mississippi. The stream is the Piasa. Its name is Indian and signi-
fies in the Illini,
'
the bird that devours men.' Near the mouth of
that stream, on the smooth and perpendicular face of the bluff, at an
elevation which no human art can reach, is cut the figure of an enor-
mous bird, with wings extended."
Here follows a tradition, which Mr. Kussell relates, of the cir-
cumstances attending the origin and occasion of this inscription, con-
cluding which he says: "Such is the Indian tradition. Of course I
do not vouch for its truth. This, however, is certain, the figure of a
large bird cut in the rocks is still there, and at a height that is per-
fectlv inaccessible."
Mr. Catlin, who investigated this subject quite thoroughly, says
he was unable to find anything like a system of hieroglyphic writing
among these Indian inscriptions. Yet their picture writings on the
rocks and on their robes approach somewhat towards it. He says that
he might himself have subscribed to the theory that many of these
inscriptions found in this country, apparently of remote origin, were
the work of the Northmen, who were supposed to have discovered this
continent at an early period, had he not, at the Eed Pipe Stone quarry
in Minnesota, and at other places, also, where there are vast numbers
of these inscriptions cut in the solid rock, seen the Indian at work
recording his totem among those found there of more ancient date.
y i
PICTURE WRITING. , 481
which convince him that they had been progressively made at different
ages, and without any particular system that could be called hiero-
glyphic writing.
Capt. Jonathan Carver, in speaking on this subject, remarks that
whilst the Indians cannot communicate their ideas by writing, yet they
formed certain hieroglyphics, which, in some measure, served to per-
petuate any jneasure or uncommon event; of which he gives aninstance
as an illustration, coming under his own observation, which happened
while he was proceeding up the Chippewa river, on his way to Lake
Superior. His guide, who was a chief of the Chippewas, fearing that
some parties of the Naudoivessies (Sioux), with whom his nation were
perpetually at war, might incidentally fall in with them, and before
they were apprised of his being in their company, do them some mis-
chief, took the following steps:
"He peeled the bark from a large tree, near the entrance of a
river, and with wood-coal, mixed with bear's grease, their usual substi-
tute for ink, made in an uncouth, but expressive manner, the figure of
the town of the Outtagamies. He then formed to the left a man
dressed in skins, by which he intended to represent a Naudowessie,
with a line drawn from his mouth to that of a deer, the symbol of the
Chippewas. After this, ho depictured, still further to the left, a canoe
as proceeding up the river, in which he placed a man sitting with a
hat on. This figure was designed to represent an Englishman, or
myself, and my Frenchman was drawn with a handkerchief tied round
his head, and rowing the canoe. To these he added other significant
emblems, among which the Pipe of Peace appeared painted on the prow
of the canoe."
The meaning herein intended to be conveyed to the Naudowessies
was that one of the Chippewa chiefs had received a speech from some
Naudowessie chief, at the town of the Outtagamies, desiring him to
take the Englishman, who had lately been among them, up the Chip-
pewa river, and that they thereby required that the Chippewa, not-
withstanding he was an avowed enemy, should not be molested by
them in his passage, as he had the care of the person whom he
esteemed as one of their nation.
An illustration of Indian hieroglyphics or picture writing, as
given by La Hontan, is here reproduced, with the mode in which he
explains the same, as follows:
"A. Opposite this letter will be noticed the arms of France with
an ax above. The ax or hatchet being a symbol of war among the
Indians, this imports that the French have taken up the ax or have
made a Avarlike expedition, with as many tens of men as there are marks
81

4^ ^
^
(^
K?
^
^
-
^ ^
4* r L
^
4 ^
^ ^
4'
^ "^^^^^^
4> ^
^
# ^ ^
"
FAC-SIMILE OF INDIAN HIEROGLYPHICS OR PICTURE WRITING.
(From La Hontan, 1689.)
I
K
or points round the figure. These marks, it will be noticed, are eigh-
teen in number, and so that signified 180 warriors.
"B. Against this letter is a mountain that represents the city of
Montreal (according to the savage), and the bird on the wing at the
top, signifies departure. The moon upon the back of the deer or stag,
signifies the first quarter of the July moon, which is called the Stag
moon.
"
C. Opposite this letter is a canoe, importing that they have
traveled by water as many days as there are huts in the figure, i. e.,
twenty- one days.
"
D. Upon the same parallel with this letter is seen a foot,
importing that, after their voyage by water, they marched on foot as
many days as there are huts designed, that is, seven days' journey for
warriors, each day's journey being as much as five common English
leagues, or five of those which are reckoned to be twenty in a degree.
"E. Against this letter is a hand and three huts, which signifies
that they have arrived within three days' journey of the Seneca tribe
of the Iroquois, whose arms are a hut with two trees leaning down-
wards. The sun imports that they are just east of the village.
"F. Opposite this letter are twelve marks, signifying so many
times ten men, like those at the letter A. The hut with the two trees
are the arms of the Senecas, and shows that they were of that nation,
and the man in a lying posture denotes that they were surprised.
"G. In the row opposite this letter there appears a club and
eleven heads, importing that they had killed eleven Senecas, and the
five men standing upright upon the five marks, that they took as many
times ten prisoners of war.
"H. Opposite this letter is an arch, the meaning of which is that
nine of the aggressors, or of the victorious party, which are supposed
to be French, are killed, and the twelve marks underneath signify that
as many were wounded.
"1.
Opposite this letter w411 be seen arrows flying in the air,
some to one side and some to the other, importing a vigorous defense
on both sides.
"K. At this letter will be seen arrows, all pointing one way,
which denotes that the defeated party are either flying or fighting
upon a retreat in disorder."
"The meaning of the whole, -briefly stated, being as follows:
180 Frenchmen set out from Montreal in the first quarter of the July
moon, and sailed twenty-one days, after which they marched thirty-
five leagues over land and surprised 120 Senecas on the east side of
their village, eleven of whom were killed and fifty taken prisoners.'
The French sustained the loss of nine killed and twelve wounded, after
a very obstinate enâ^êment."
As to the question raised by Mr. Catlin, whether the Indians have
anything like a sysiem of hieroglyphic writing amongst them, it must
be answered that they evidently have a regular system in this regard,
or else their hieroglyphics were of that nature prima
facie that they
naturally conveyed to the mind the idea intended. Mr. Schoolcraft,
in his narrative of the exploring expedition of Gen. Cass to the source
of the Mississippi, in 1820, and which he accompanied, notes an
instance where a pictograpliic letter correspondence was conducted
between a party of Sioux Indians at Fort Snelling and a party of
Ojibway Indians attached to Gen. Cass' expedition, in the country of
the Upper Mississippi, in which those of each tribe, although speaking
entirely different languages, could easily read and understand, and
whereby a meeting was brought about between the two hostile parties
at Fort Snelling, under direction of Col. Leavenworth, the commandino-
officer.
William Greene, of Menard county, 111., the historic friend of the
late President Lincoln and the intimate friend of his early youth, relates
an incident showing how a system of hieroglyphics naturally springs
from the untutored mind. Having occasion to visit Kentucky during
early life, on his route he called on Mr. Lincoln's father, then living
in southern Illinois, and who had charge of a grist-mill erected by a
large landed proprietor for the convenience of those to whom he was
selling off his lands in parcels for homesteads. Mr. Lincoln's father,
he says, could neither read nor write, but he had a mode of keeping
accounts with customers who had transactions at the mill, bv means of
hieroglyphics, which Mr. Greene thus explains:
The joists of the upper floor of the primitive dwelling of Mr.
Lincoln's father projected downward from the ceiling, each of which
was sufficiently deep or wide to afford a surface on which these hiero-
glyphics could be written in keeping these accounts. The mode was
by drawing parallel lines, of a given number, something like the scale
or lines in written music. Where the transaction consisted of a
bushel of grain, he marked one round dot on the first line; where it
consisted of a half bushel, he marked a like dot on the next line,
which would indicate one-half ; and a peck Avas indicated by a dot sig-
nifying one-fourth, and so the whole mode was indicated by a svs-
tem of hieroglyphics, well understood by Mr. Lincoln, and which Mr.
Greene says he explained to him as being sufficient for all purposes,
and much more convenient than if it were in the usual mode by "men
of larning.''
The poet Longfellow, in his graphic description of Indian art and
manners and customs in his "Song of Hiawatha," thus aptly refers to
Indian hieroglyphics and mode of writing them:
"From his pouch he took his colors,
Took his paint of different colors,
On the smooth bark of a birch-tree
Painted many shapes and figures,
Wonderful and mystic figures,
And each figure had a meaning,
Each some word or thought suggested."
Picture writing upon the skins of animals, or slips from the bark
of treesj or other like material, was the usual mode by which the
Indians preserved and perpetuated their poetry or numerous songs in
use by them on festive or ceremonial occasions.
Among the most noted instances of these aboriginal inscriptions
on stone, are those on Dighton Rock, so called, and on some rocks at
Kelley's Island, in Lake Erie, concerning Avhicli much has been
written.
With the white man, according to our modern experience, picture
writing, or illustrations by pictures, especially those in the nature of
what is called caricature, convey to the mind ideas more forcible than
can be done under our mode of written descriptions. This, it seems,
was also the Indian idea, and he often used picture writing to illustrate
or present ideas he wished to convey, rather than resort to oral expres-
sion, as shown in the following anecdote from Mr. Heckewelder:
"
A white man in the Indian country saw a Shaiuanos riding a
horse, Avhich he recognized for his own, and claimed it from him as
his property. The Indian calmly answered: 'Friend! after a little
while I will call on you at your house, when we shall talk of this mat-
ter.' A few hours afterwards the Indian came to the white man's
house, who insisting on having his horse restored, the other then told
him: 'Friend! the horse which you claim belonged to my uncle,
who lately died; according to the Indian custom, I have become heir
to all his property.' The white man not being satisfied, and renewing
his demand, the Indian immediately took a coal from the fire place and
made two striking figures on the door of the house, the one represent-
ing the white man taking the horse, and the other himself in the act
of scalping him ; then he coolly asked the trembling claimant
'
whether
he could read this Indian writing?' The matter was thus settled at
once, and the Indian rode off."
CHAPTEE XL.
THE PIPE OF PEACE.
Generally Called CalumetNot au Indian WordNot Strictly an Appropriate Term
A Norman French WordIts SignificationDescription of the Pipe of Peace
Its Sacred CharacterOther Classes of PipesMode of UseNotices by the

Early FrenchSecured Them a Friendly ReceptionCustom of Smoking
Mysterious Seal of ReligionCustom the Same among all the TribesCere-

monies of SmokingMode of Making PeaceA Symbol in Ratification of
TreatiesTobacco a Gift of the Great SpiritFrom Stone of the Pipe Stone
QuarryLegend of this Mysterious QuarryDescription from Longfellow.
J^:^MONG
the most promi-
^
nent things of which
^
we learn and speak in
Indian life, is the pipe
of
peace^ Avbicli we have been instructed to designate by the term
Calumet, being impressed with the idea that it is an Indian word.
But first of all, it must be explained that the word Calumet is not an
Indian word ; neither is it a word in any way recognized or understood
by the Indians themselves; and neither is it an appropriate term for
the pipe
of
peace, except it may be by usage.
La Hontan says:
^^
Calumet is a Norman Word, deriv'd from
Chalumeau. The Savages do not understand the word, for 'twas
introduc'd to Canada by the Normans when they first settled there;
and has still continued in use amongst the French Planters. The
Calumet or Pip>e is call'd in the Iroquese Language Ganondaoe, and
by the other Savage Nations Poagan.^^
Charlevoix says: ^^ Calumet is a Norman Word, which signifies
Reed, and the Calumet of the Savages is properly the Tube of a Pipe,
but they comprehend under this Name the Pipe also as well as its
Tube."
From this it would seem that the Normans constructed their pipes
by fixing a reed, which was a hollow tube, into the bowl of the pipe,
thereby constructing their pipes upon the same principles as the
Indians did theirs, by inserting a tube into the bowl of the pipe. So
the Normans designated their pipes in the same manner that we do,
but referred only to the tube.
(486)
THE PIPE OF PEACE. 487
The French did not, however, as is originally supposed, use the
word Calumet solely in reference to the pipe of jieace. They spoke of
the pipe of peace as the Calumet
of
peace or Calumet for ceremony;
whereas we are in the habit of using the word Calumet alone, to
signify the Indian pipe of peace, which, as we have seen, the term
does not of itself signify.
La Hontan gives the following accurate description of the Indian
pipe of peace:
''The Calumet
of
Peace is made of certain Stones, or of Marble,
whether red, black, or white. The Pipe or Stalk is four or five foot
long ; the body of the Calumet is eight Inches long, and the Mouth or
Head in which the Tobacco is lodg'd is three inches in length; its
figure approaches to that of a Hammer. The red Calumets are most
esteem'd. The Savages make use of 'em for Negotiations and State
Affairs, and especially in Voyages; for when they have a Calumet in
their hand, they go where they will in safety. The Calumet is trimm'd
with yellow, white and green Feathers, and has the same effect among
the Savages that the Flag of friendship has among us ; for to violate
the rights of this venerable Pipe, is among them a flaming Crime, that
will draw down mischief upon their Nations."
The descriptions of the pipe of peace among the early travelers
are somewhat varied, from which it would seem they differed in their
ornaments to some extent among different nations, yet the use and
purposes and general construction was the same throughout the whole.
Hennepin says: "This Calumet is the most mysterious Thing
in the World among the Savages of the Continent of the Northern
America; for it is us'd in all their important Transactions. However,
it is nothing else than a large Tobacco Pipe made of Red, Black or
White Marble. The Head is finely polish'd, and the Quill, which is
commonly two foot and a half long, is made of a pretty strong Reed
or Cane adorn'd with Feathers of all Colors, interlac'd with Locks of
Women's Hair. Thev tie to it two Wina^s of the most curious Birds
they find, which makes their Calumet not much unlike Mercury''s
Wand, or that Staff Embassadors did formerly carry when they went
to treat of Peace. They sheath that Reed into the Neck of Birds they
call Huars, which are as big as our Geese and spotted with Black and
White ; or else of a sort of Ducks who make their Nests upon Trees,
though Water be their ordinary Element, and whose Feathers are of
many different Colors. However, every Nation adorns the Calumet
as they think fit, according to their own Genius, and the Birds they
have in their country."
Charlevoix, in remarking on this subject, says: "
Tlie Calumet is
not less sacred among these people than the necklaces of porcelain,
meaning wampum. If you believe them, it is deriyecl from heaven,
for they say it is a present which was made them by the sun." He
further adds: "In the Calumet made for Ceremony, the Tube is very
long; the Bowl of the Pipe is commonly made of a kind of reddish
Marble, very easy to work, and which is found in the country of the
Ajoucz (lowas), beyond the Mississiijpi. The Tube is of a light
Wood, painted of different Colors, and adorn'd with the Heads, Tails
and Feathers of the finest Birds, wdiich is in all Appearance merely
for Ornament."
It would seem that the Indians not only had a class of pipes used
on occasions of peace, but they had other classes of pipes, compre-
hended under the general term of pipes of ceremony, each being
designated in some particular manner. Thus they had a class of pipes
used on occasions of declarations of wâr, or planning wars or liostile
invasion upon an enemy. As Hennepin remarks: "All their Enter-
prises, Declarations of War, or Conclusions of Peace, as well as all
the rest of their Ceremonies, are sealed, if I may be permitted to say
so, with this Calumet."
They filled the pipe with the best of tobacco they had, and then
presented it to those Avith whom they had concluded any great affair,
and smoked out of the same after them. The pipe of peace was a pass
and safe conduct among all the allies of the nation who had given it,
and in all embassies the embassadors carried it as a symbol of peace,
which was always accepted, for the Indians were generally persuaded
that a great misfortune would befall them if they violated the public
faith of the pipe of peace.
When the occasion concerned war, the pipe for such purposes was
designated accordingly. Not only the tube, but the feathers, also, that
adorned it, were painted or colored red. Each nation had a peculiar
manner of ornamenting their pipes of peace or ceremony, so that when
a pipe of this kind was presented, it served to distinguish the nation
from which it came.
The efficacy of this mysterious symbol was early noted by the
French in their voyages of discovery through the North American con-
tinent, and of it they at once availed themselves, and studiously
applied it on all occasions of going among a strange people; and there
are no instances on record among these explorers where this proffered
emblem of peace was disregarded by the native red man. According
to Hennepin, throughout all the period of La Salle's expedition, it
everywhere secured them a friendly and hospitable reception, and pre-
served them from all threatened harm. Indeed, according to the
THE PIPE OF PEACE. 489
history of this remarkable expedition, guided by this harbinger of
peace and good will, it was not the savage tribes which La Salle had
most to fear, but his danger lay in another direction, that of the
treacherous spirit of his own people, by whom he was afterwards
assassinated.
The custom was to smoke the pipe of peace when accepted by the
party to whom it was tendered, and there is no instance recorded
where the agreement thus consummated, by smoking a pipe of peace
offered them, was ever violated. If, in the midst of a battle, the enemy
presented a pipe of peace, the rule admitted of its being refused; but,
if it was accepted, the rule was that the party accepting it must
instantly lay down their arms. The pipe of peace was also used in
trades or exchanges agreed upon, where it was presented to confirm
the transaction, which the Indians considered in some way rendered it
sacred. The opinion is expressed that the Indians in smoking the
Calumet with parties with whom they had concluded a transaction, in
council or in trade, intended to take the sun for witness, and in some
measure for a guaranty of their treaties, for their uniform custom was
to blow the smoke in the direction of that orb.
The opinion of this people seems to have been that they could not
find any signs more natural, to mark a strict union or pledge of faith,
than to smoke the same pipe, especially when the mysterious seal of
religion was added to it, by offering to Diety the smoke drawn from it.
To smoke the same pipe, therefore, in token of alliance, was the same
as to drink from the same cup by many other nations of the earth.
Indeed, among our own people, in common transactions, we have, as
viewed by many, that not very commendable practice of taking a
mutual drink of intoxicating liquor to confirm an ordinary trade or
financial transaction, each touching the glass of the other to signify
mutuality.
The custom of smoking a pipe of peace at councils seems to have
been essentially the same among all the native tribes, although differ-
ing in detail in some respects, according to the difference in notions
and various superstitions ; a very good description of which is given by
Capt. Carver, in his travels through the interior parts of North America.
On occasions of this kind, after those of the council were seated, some
person designated or duly authorized from the position he held, took
the pipe, and, after filling it with tobacco, procured a thoroughly
kindled coal from a fire, which was generally kept burning in the midst
of the assembly, and which he placed on the tobacco. As soon as it
was sufficientlv lig-hted, he threw off the coal. He then turned the
stem of the pipe towards the heavens, after this, towards the earth, and
490
then, holding it horizontally, he moved himself around till he had com-
pleted a circle. By the first action, he is supposed to present it to the
Great Spirit, whose aid was thereby supplicated; by the second, was
averted any malicious interposition of the evil spirits; and, by the
third, the protection of the spirits inhabiting the air, the earth and the
water was gained. Having thus secured the favor of those invisible
agents, whose assistance or forbearance were considered important, he
presented it to the hereditary chief, who, having taken two or three
whiffs, blew the smoke from his mouth towards the sun or the heavens,
and then around him upon the ground. The pipe was then, in the
same manner, put into the mouths of embassadors or strangers, who
observed the same ceremony ; then presented to the chief of the war-
riors and to all the other chiefs in turn, according to grade or rank,
during which time the person who executed this honorable office at
such ceremonies, held the pipe slightly in his hand, as if he feared to
press the sacred instrument ; nor did any other person presume to touch
it but with his lips, it being held all the time, while being presented to
each person, in the hands of this master of ceremonies.
When it was desired to make peace with an enemy, chiefs or
embassadors were sent out to so unite them, bearing in front of them
the pipe of peace. On approaching the town or camp of the enemy,
they commenced to sing and dance, appropriate to the occasion, as
a warning or signal of their approach, at the same time extending
or displaying the pipe of peace to mark the intention of their
coming.
The parties thus apprised of their arrival, at the sight of the pipe
of peace, divested themselves of their enmity, and invited the visitors
to the habitation of the great chief; and, during the negotiations fol-
lowing, furnished them with the hospitality at their command, where-
upon a council was held, speeches were made, and negotiations were
concluded, in smoking the pipe of peace. The painted hatchet was
buried in the ground, as a memorial that all enmities between the con-
tending parties had ceased, and that peace had taken place.
Mr. Catlin, in speaking of the uses of the pipe of peace, after
his extensive experience among the wild tribes of America at that day,
says that, after the terms of a treaty in council were agreed upon, as
the means of solemnizing or signing by an illiterate people, who had
no knowledge of the means of writing, according to usual custom,
they adopt this method of smoking the pipe as a mode of signing their
names to their agreements, in place of the manner adopted by civil-
ized people, and that the passing of the sacred stem to each chief, who
draws from it a breath of smoke, is the passing of an inviolable pledge,
IV
'li
THE PIPE OF PEACE.
491
the most sacred which can possibly be given them, observing the terms
of their treaty, agreement, or treaty stipulation.
The Indian regarded tobacco as a gift of the Great Spirit, and it
was, therefore, ever considered a sacred plant; and it must be noted,
also, that from this fact there followed the further superstition that the
act of smoking was a communion with the Great Spirit or Master of
Life, in which were mingled sentiments of gratitude for this highly
appreciated favor, and from this probably followed the further super-
stition of the sacredness of this ceremonial pipe.
These peace pipes were supposed to come originally from one
source, the quarry of a peculiar stone in the southwestern part of
what is now the state of Minnesota, and called the "Pipe Stone
Quarry." According to Indian tradition, Mr. Catlin says: "Here
happened the mysterious birth of the red pipe, which has blown its
fumes of peace and war to the remotest corners of the continent,
which has visited every warrior, and passed through its reddened stem
the irrevocable oath of war and desolation, and here also the peace
breathing Calumet was born, and fringed with the eagle's quills, which
has shed its thrilling fumes over the land and soothed the fury of the
relentless savage."
According to this tradition, at an ancient period, the Great Spirit
here called the Indian nations together, and, standing on the preci-
pice of the Bed Pipe Stone rock, broke from its wall a piece, and, by
turning it in his hand, made a huge pipe, which he smoked over them
to the north, south, east and west, and told them that this stone was
red, that it was their flesh, that they must use it for their pipe of
peace, that it belonged to them all, and that the war club and scalping
knife must not be raised on its ground. At the last whiff of his pipe
his head turned into a great cloud, and the whole surface of the rock
for several miles was melted and glazed. Two great ovens were opened
beneath, and two women, guardian spirits of the place, entered them
in a blaze of fire, where they have ever remained, answering to the
invocations of the high priests or medicine men, who have consulted
them when visiting this sacred place.
This legend or tradition is the one which Longfellow so beautifully
relates to us in his "Song of Hiawatha," in the style of Indian poetry:
"
Oil the mountains of the prairie,
On the great Eed Pipe Stone Quarry,
Gitche-manito, the mig-hty,
He, the master of Hfe, descending,
On the red crags of the quarry
Stood erect and called the nations,
Called the tribes of men together.
From the red stone of the quarry
With his hands he broke a fragment,
Molded it into a pipe head,
Shaped and fashioned it with figures;
From the margin of the river
Took a long reed for a pipe stem,
With its dark greea leaves upon it:
Filled the pipe with bark of willow,
With the bark of the red willow;
Breathed upon the neighboring forest,
Made its great boughs chafe together,
Till in flame they burst and kindled;
And erect upon the mountains,
Gitche-manito, the mighty,
Smoked the Calumet, the peace pipe.
As a signal to the nations.
*S^ *^ ^1* >!'
'S* *|* ^r 'V*
Then upon the ground the warriors
Threw their cloaks and shirts of deer skin, H
Threw their weapons and their war gear,
f]
Leaped into the rushing river.
Washed the war paint from their faces.
#1^ ^^ wj^ wp^ 0j^
From the river came the warriors.
Clean and washed from all their war paint;
On the banks their clubs they buried,
Buried all their warlike weapons.
5J> 5(* *(^ #j* 3|v
And in silence all the warriors
Broke the red stone off the quarry.
Smoothed and formed it into peace pipes.
Broke the long reeds by the river,
Decked them with their brightest feathers.
And departed each one homeward,
While the master of life, ascendmg,
Through the opening of cloud-curtains.
Through the door-ways of the heaven,
Vanished from before their faces,
I
In the smoke that rolled around him,
,,
The Pukwana (smoke) of the peace pipe!" ]
*l
CHAPTER XLL
WAMPUM.
Meaning of Word WampumMassachusetts DialectAs Described by Palfrey
Kinds of WampumDescription of MakingNot Originally Used in Commercial
TransactionsWhen First Used as SuchValueWorn as an OrnamentÂs a
Symbol in Preserving Memory of EventsAs a Eatification of TreatiesPledge
of FriendshipNot Common among Some Tribes.
v^wm, kimit-Mmmmni: mmmmv mmm
!^f??2!*?^^^''-***''''***'*W-fr!.rili(lil|ffs;?iWii||.M.
||tr!rîllltr^l^'^f%ifrli;in^/ti^^lifl(lfi'^î'^l!lfl(r'.ii
mfmmmmm&amimiMMl
:AMPUM [ov wompam)
is a word in the dialect
of the Massachusetts
Indians from icompi,
signifying "white." The word in
this form is an abbreviation from
wamp-iim-pe-ag, meaning
"white shells," having reference
to the material from which it is
made.
This article is well described
by Palfrey, who says
"
it con-
sisted of cylindrical pieces of the
shells of testaceous fishes, a quar-
ter of an inch long and in diam-
eter less than a pipe stem, drilled
lengthwise so as to be strung
upon a thread."
Wampum was of two kinds,
one being clear white and the
other black, or of a dark purple
color. The word itself would indicate that originally it was made
only of white substances. Indeed, Roger AVilliams informs us that
the Indians called that only which was made of white substances
loampiim; and that which was made of black or dark colored material
they called siickahook or sulci, signifying "black;" but it seems that
this distinction was lost sight of, and the general term ivampum was
applied to this article without regard to color.
(493)
f^f^tllN^f:l!,Sl''M{ll^?F.^fl^^?g^v*|)p|!if:?>/(,MlgllPl!!M.ls)|.?|if
mil antu:mmrA :;f 'fumrmmm\ntifiiti\ î
Ni?i:rffsii.iiriiii?6i'iifi,;5iT!iiiiiifr,gffRirfm*{|ye^rM?
mrm-rmimi''nmmmmnufpmBmvimwmr
ti'>r^ri>:i'M;f^îi*lm:lftfirt|iriiiiiiu$îiii^r.iii^'iii!imn''p:fiiJii
itfrfKinsuiri:tMif:iiiirEnifiiiiiiMieiUiî:m^Kii;H'irrii{Eii.ir
!ii|.iiilia'i|iiiii|:iiisii:iftr.peHifiiKsiii!siiirnfDiEi'5i,{.i?Er
StM!feiii?tttc*fcfc-Riir6i'iuisi/,iiiiiirH'.;jFteiii)f.Rtr;iiH;>r-i.;i
fcs.r.iriif,tt-mrpiî;c*[.s.ffj|KSiiiRi:tii.EC!rtk.i;friJgfeii.f
BMtiri?rfeuiii!i.iYiiisctiiiK.itifM:r.Eri?*r.ii*ir?.^s.siî
*fEs'\iii!s>wt*iiSKm-tiir.t:riMiBiirvtiftRpr=ij
9 rflt'im'<ii.n><it\ iimitiniiiEnt.iiuinni mil m
iSiiii'iimiiiMiv.tMiiit
PIECE OF WAMPUM BEL 1 BELONGING TO THE
ONONDAGAS.
A traveler, in the year 1760, in giving an account of his journey
from Newark, N. J., to New York, by the way of Staten Island, gives
the following concerning the information he derived on the way in
regard to the mode of making wampum. He says: ''In my way I
had an opportunity of seeing the method of making wampum. It is
made of the clam-shell ; a shell consisting within of two colors, purple
and white, and in form not unlike a thick oyster shell. The process
of manufacturing it is very simple. It is just clipped to a proper
size, which is that of a small oblong parallelopipedon, then drilled and
afterwards ground to a smooth round surface and polished. The pur-
ple wampum is much more valuable than the white, a very small part
of the shell being of that color.''
On the subject of making wampum and its use, the following is
from Lafitau:
"All affairs are conducted by means of branches (strings) and
necklaces (belts) of porcelain (wampum), which, with them, take
the place of compacts, written agreements and contracts.
* *
*
The shell, which is used for affairs of state, is worked into little cylin-
ders of a quarter of an inch in length, and large in proportion. They
are distributed in two ways, in strings and in belts. The strings are
composed of cylinders threaded without order, one after another, like
the beads of a rosary; the beads are usually quite white, and are used
for affairs of little consequence, or as a preparation for other more
considerable presents."
Mr. Gookin, an early Puritan writer, says of wampum, that it
was made artificially of a part of the wilk's shell, and made principally
by the "Marraganeet" and Long Island Indians, upon the sandy flats
and shores of those coasts where the wilk shells are found.
It would seem, on the authority of Peter Jones, that wampum
was not used among the Indians as an article of commerce, or as a
medium in commercial transactions, until after the Europeans came
among them. He says that wampum was first introduced at Plymouth,
New England, as an article of commerce, by Isaac De Pazier, a Dutch
merchant, in the year 1627, when the Dutch, then residing on the
sea coast, manufactured the article themselves after the style of
Indian manufacture. Its value, when it became a medium of exchange,
was regulated by the color, the black or purple being double the value
of the white.
On this subject Mr. Palfrey says: "The beads of a white color,
rated at half the value of the black or violet, passed each as the equiv-
alent of a farthing in transactions between the natives and the
planters."
I,
i1
WAMPUM. 495
Roger Williams says that wampum was considered as the Indian
money; one fathom of this thin-stringed money being worth five
shillings.
Not only were these strings of wampum used as money, or a
medium of exchange in financial transactions, but the Indians, both
male and female, wore them about the neck freely, and in profusion.
They also wove them ingeniously into belts, which were used as sym-
bols on various occasions, as well as an article of apparel. The style
in which these belts were made, however, indicated the manner in
which they were intended to be used.
There was one style which was intended to preserve the occurrence
of events in their history, and another which was used on the occasion
of treaties between nations or tribes. La Hontan, who speaks of
these belts as Colter, savs:
"
Thev are certain swathes of two or three Foot in lenj^fth and six
Inches in breadth ; being deck'd with little Beads made of a certain
sort of shells that they find upon the Sea shore, between New York
and Virginia. These Beads are round, and as thick as a little Pea;
but they are twice as long as a grain of corn. Their color is either
blue or white; and they are bor'd thro' just like Pearl, being run after
the same manner upon strings that lie sideways one to another.
AVithoui the intervention of these Coliers, there's no business to be
negotiated with the Savages ; for being altogether unacquainted with
writing, they make use of them for Contracts and Obligations. Some-
times they keep for an Age the Coliers that they have receiv'd from their
Neighbors; and in regard that every Colier has its peculiar Mark,
they learn from the old Persons the circumstances of the time and
place in which they were deliver'd; but after that age is over they are
made use of for new Treaties."
Charlevoix, in speaking of wampum, its signification and uses,
says: "By the Mixture of Beads of different Color they form what
Figures and Characters they please, which often serve to express the
Affairs in Question. Sometimes also they paint the Beads; at
least it is certain they often send red Necklaces, when it concerns
War. These Necklaces are preserved with Care, and they do not only
make a Part of the public Treasure, but they are also as it were Rec-
ords and Annals which are laid up in the Cabin of the Chief: When
there are in one Village two Chiefs of equal Authority, they keep the
Treasure and Records by Turns for a Night ; but this Night at present
is a whole Year."
Capt. Carver, in speaking of Indian councils between tribes or
nations, for the purpose of adjusting differences between them, says a
"
belt of wampum is given on such occasions to serve as a ratification of
peace, and records to the latest posterity, by hieroglyphics into which
the beads are formed, every stipulated article in the treaty; and these
belts are composed of ten, twelve, or a greater number of strings,
according to the importance of the affair in agitation, or the dignity
of the person to whom it is presented.
From time immemorial among the native tribes, the wampum belt
passed as a pledge of friendship, and was sent to hostile tribes as a
messenger of peace, when such was desired; or passed at so many
fathoms length, as tribute to conquering enemies and Indian kings;
but as to how general this custom originally prevailed among Indian
nations is not known. It has been assumed, however, like all other
USE OF WAMPDM BELT IN INDIAN COUNCIL.
Fac simile ol' an old print fiom Lafitau.
Indian customs, that it was general throughout all native Indian tribes
and nations.
Mr. Catlin, however, who entered upon his long experience among
the wild tribes, about the year 1833, says that, after passing the Mis-
sissippi river, he saw but very little wampum used, and on ascending
the Missouri, he does not recollect of seeing it worn at all by the Upper
Missouri Indians, although the same materials for its manufacture
were found in abundance through those regions; and that he met but
very few strings of it amongst the tribes north and west of them. But
below the Sioux, and along the whole of the eastern frontier, the dif-
ferent tribes were found loaded and beautifully ornamented with it.
WAMPUM. 497
which they could well afford, for it was not then a very expensive
article, as the fur traders had ingeniously introduced a spurious
imitation (manufactured by steam, or otherwise, of porcelain or some
composition closely resembling it), with which they flooded the whole
country and sold it at so reduced a price as to cheapen, and, conse-
quently, destroy the meaning and use of the original Avampum.
It is certain, however, that the great Sioux nation had a knowledge
of this article, as they had a name for it in their original language,
viz.: Wa-mnu-ha-daii,, meaning "large beads;" "snail shell."
In the second annual report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the
Smithsonian Institution, in an article contributed by William H.
Holmes, the following, compiled from Beauchamp's notes, is given,
showing the use of strings of wampum among the modern Iroquois:
"Six strings of purple beads, united in a cluster,
represent the six nations. When the tribes meet
the strands are arranged in a circle, which signi-
fies that the council is opened. The Onondagas
are represented by seven strings, which contain a
few white beads; the Cayugas by six strands, all
purple, and the Tuscaroras by seven strands, nearly
all purple. The Mohawks have six 'strings, on
which there are two purple beads to one white.
There are four strings in the Oneida cluster; these
contain two purple to one white bead. The Senecas
have four strings, with two purple beads to one
white. The three nations which are brothers are
represented by similar clusters.
"When a new chief is installed, the address
delivered on the occasion is -talked into' ten very
long strings of white wampum. Three strings,
mostly white, represent the name of the new chief.
When a chief dies he is mourned on ten strings of
black wampum. If he has merely lost his oflice,
six strings are used."
According to Mr. Beauchamp, "possession of
beavds gives authority, and they are also used as
credentials, or, as the Indians express it, 'Chief's
wampum all same as your letter.' Such of these strings as remain iu
existence are still in use among the Iroquois, and are considered very
precious by them, being made of antique hand-made beads."
STRINGS OF WAMPDM.
32
CHAPTER XLII.
INDIAN ELOQUENCE.
Indiau Elotiiieuce a Native TalentNot Acquired by Book EducationRetort of Red
Jacket"I was Born an Orator"Power of Indian EloquenceIndian Elo-
quence Superior to the White ManSimiles and Metaphors Drawn from Natuie
Speech of the Indian Chief LoganElements of Indian Eloquence- -Indian
Ideas Gathered from SurroundingsThe TempestsThe WoodsThe Water-
fallsThe SkyInjustice to the Indian LanguagesAdapted to Eloquent
Expre sionsEnthusiastic Description by Caleb AtwaterHis Experience
Indian Eloquence m CouncilNo Violent GesticulationsNo Overwrought

EnthusiasmThe Voice is Loud, Clear, Distinct and CommandingExalted
Opinion from a Public JournalistSome of the Great Indian Orators Enum-
erated -Speech of Capt. Pipe, a Delaware Chief, at Detroit, in 1801Speech of
Grangala, the Iroquois ChiefAs Reported by La HontanExamples of Indian
Eloquence.
UCH has been said of
Indian eloquence, glow-
ing accounts of which
come to us through
travelers and historians, justly
excitiner our admiration and tend-
ing to further affirm the axiom
that orators are born such, and
that the white man's education
alone cannot make orators. To
be an orator is to possess a
native talenta talent which can-
not be acquired
yet, through
proper means, this accomplish-
ment may, nevertheless, in many
respects be aided or improved.
The Indian had no system of book education by which to improve
liis mind and faculties, but whatever he possessed in this regard was
born in him; and, if he improved in the same during his life, it was
simply through experience and practice, without regard to any system
of education from books. The retort of the celebrated Seneca chief,
Ked Jacket, when referred to as a "warrior," on some public occasion,
(49S)
SPEAKING TO THE COUNCIL.
INDIAN ELOQUENCE. 499
is in point as to the Indian idea in this respect. "A warrior," said he;
"I am an orator. I was born an orator."
The Indian was advanced to position and influence among his
people through his power of eloquencethrough his talents of
expressing ideas in a manner captivating and convincing to his hearers.
This power the Indian orator possessed in the highest degree. In-
stances of oratorical powers among the native Indians were hot rare,
but were possessed by individuals to a marked extent, and in a larger
proportion among their numbers tlian with the civilized and educated
white man.
His similes and metaphors were drawn from nature, and he pos-
sessed the true elements of an orator. Mr. Heckewelder says: "The
eloquence of the Indian is natural and simple; they speak what their
feelings dictate without art and without rule. Their speeches are
forcible and impressive; their arguments few and pointed; and when
they mean to persuade as well as convince, they take the shortest v/ay
to reach the heart."
He refers to the fact that the oratorical powers of the Indian have
been strongly controverted, which he considers not astonishing when
we are reminded of the prejudice that exists among our own people as
to their languages, which are, in general, believed to be poor and inad-
equate to anything beyond the expression of the most common ideas.
Hence, the specimens of their oratory which have been given to the
world, have been viewed with suspicion as to their genuineness; as
in the case of the celebrated Indian chief Logan, the authorship of
whose celebrated speech has been by some attributed to Thomas
Jefferson, but which we are informed was first communicated to the
world by Col. John Gibson, to whom the speech was made by Logan
himself, and which Col. Gibson declared to be correct as he had given
it out. Good authority on this subject declares that this speech was
delivered precisely as it is related to us at this day, with only this
difference, that it possessed a force of expression in the Indian lan-
guage which it is impossible to translate into our own.
There is much force in this assertion. The Indian languao-e,
which is a language of nature, and peculiarly adapted to the illustra-
tion of eloquent sentiments, is one which cannot, in its interpretation,
be brought to our own, retaining the same force and beauty it possesses
in the original tongue. The natural similes and metaphors, in which
the Indian orator indulges from want of skill or capacity in the inter-
preter, or from the deficiency in our own language in expressing ide^s
with that force and beauty that may be expressed in the native lan-
guage, are lost in their interpretation into our language.
-^
500
The force of this remark must be concurred in by intelligent
persons, who have had an opportunity to be present at Indian councils,
where speeches of tlieir great orators have been made. Historians of
experience in Indian life express regret that the character and genu-
ineness of the Indian languages have not become better known among
people of our own race, that proper justice might be done the native
red man in respect to his language, that it might be decided upon a
proper basis of information as to whether or not it is adequate to the
purpose of oratory.
It would be exjDected that Mr. Schoolcraft, who spent thirty years
of his life in an ojB&cial position among the native Indians in the
vicinity of Lake Superior, and who mastered the Algonquin language
as spoken by the Ojibways, would have something to say on the sub-
ject of Indian eloquence, and would afford us some light concerning
this subject. He has satisfied our anticipation in this regard to some
extent in his book entitled
"
Thirty Years with the Indian Tribes,"
Avhich is made up largely of notices of passing events in the form of
a journal or diary. In this book, under date of November 29th, 1826,
he says:
'Professor Charles Anthon, of Columbia college, writes for speci-
mens of Indian eloquence. The world has been grossly misled on this
subject. The great simplicity and occasional strength of an Indian's
thoughts, have sometimes led to the use of figures and epithets of
beauty. He is surrounded by all the elements of poetry and eloquence
tempests, woods, waters, skies. His mythology is poetic. His
Avorld is replete with spirits and gods of all imaginable kinds and hues.
His very positiona race falling before civilization, and obliged to
give up the bow and arrow for the ploughis poetic and artistic. But
he has no sustained eloquence, no continuous strains of varying
thought. It is the flash, the crack of contending elements. It is not
the steady sound of the water-fall. Such was the eloquent appeal of
Logan, revised and pointed by Gibson. Such was the more sustained
speech of the Grangula to La Barre, the Governor General of Canada,
witli La Hontan as a reporter. Such were the speeches of Pontiac and
the eloquent Sagoyawata, or Red Jacket, the readiest reasoner of them
all, which were diluted rather than improved by admiring paragraph-
ists. Many persons have proposed to write a volume of Indian
eloquence. Mr. Conant's design on this subject is fresh. The present
request is to supply Mr. Barker, the publisher of
'
Stephens' Greek
Thesaurus,' Cambridge, England. What under the sun do the learned
world suppose the Indians are made of? A man spending his time
painfully to catch a beaver, or entrap an enemy, without stores of
thought, without leisure, with often nothing to eat, and nothing to put
on but tatters and rags, and, withal, with the whole Anglo-Saxon race
treading on his toes, and burning out his vitals with ardent spirit.
Such is the Indian."
In this paragraph Mr. Schoolcraft well portrays to us the causes
or the surrounding circumstances from which springs or emanates
Indian eloquence, in which those well acquainted with Indian charac-
ter wall, in general, concur; but the fault of Mr. Schoolcraft in his
conclusions in general as to the Indian, is that he is continually
inclined to view him as he has become since the advent of the white
man, and after imbibing the evils and vices incident to our civilization.
There is some force, however, in his suggestion that the Indian had
no continuous strains of varying thought; that his eloquence was a
flash, the crack of contending elements, and herein consists one of the
beauties of Indian eloquence which has called forth so much admiration.
The enthusiastic, well-informed admirer of Indian eloquence has
never contended for anything more than contained in this suggestion
of Mr. Schoolcraft. He was not born and reared, nor did he move in
the field of science or literature. Whatever ideas he gathered, as well
remarked, were from surroundings, the tempests, the woods, the water-
falls, and the sky. All these afforded him ample sources for the native
eloquence he maintained.
Speaking of the poverty of his language, as many have done,
whereby it is ill adapted as a means of eloquence in expression, great
injustice is done to the Indian languages; which are languages that fire
rich in those words or parts of speech called verbs, which express
action, and in which regard, no element in a finished language for the
purposes of expression of thought was wanting; and as for nouns and
substantives, his language was not wanting in any respect as to those
objects w4th which he was surrounded.
When we speak of the Indian in this connection, we refer to him
as the untutored man in his native condition of life, in whicli it must
be admitted, from the examples transmitted to us, that, in the scale of
intelligence and general character, he has much to commend him to
our admiration and respect; and when we search into our own antece-
dents and view the character of our ancestors at the earliest period,
coming dowî even to the time when William the Conqueror invaded
England, we may fail to find any such high order of examples in the
scale of intelligence as were found by the early invaders of this conti-
nent among the native tribes of North America.
Caleb Atwater, one of the commissioners on the part of the United
States government, in making a treaty with the various Indian tribes
502
for the purchase of a large tract of land in Northern Illinois and
Southern Wisconsin, at Prairie du Chien, in August, 1829, where
speeches were made by the great chiefs of that day among the various
tribes assembled, in a book giving an account of the proceedings at the
council at which this treaty was made, takes occasion to remark at con-
siderable length on the beauties and force of Indian oratory as exhib-
ited on the occasion of that council. He says that their persons are
the finest forms in the world. Standing erect, with eyes flaming with
enthusiastic ardor, and a mind laboring under an agony of thought,
the Indian is a most impressive orator. When he speakn before his
assembled nation on some great national subject, he shows most mani-
festly that he feels an awful responsibility in what he attempts to
advocate in behalf of his people.
He relates that he has seen a chief, when he approached the sale
of his country in his speech, turn pale, tremble with fear, and sit down
perfectly exhausted in body from the effect.
In council, on such occasions, on each side of him sit all the chiefs
and warriors of his nation, while behind him sit, in full hearing of his
voice, all the women and children of his people. His subject is one,
then, of the highest conceivable importance to himself and his whole
nation. Placed in such a situation, the character of his eloquence is
easily conceived. It abounds with figures drawn from every object
which nature presents to his eye. He thanks the Great Spirit that he
has given them a day for holding their council without or with few
clouds, as the case may be; that their several paths between their
homes and the council-fire have been open and unattended with danger
;
that the storm is passed away and gone, and he hopes that during the time
he may be detained from home, the beasts may not destroy his corn,
nor any bad bird be suffered to fly about the council with false stories.
All this is uttered without much gesticulation and without enthu-
siasm. But should he touch upon the subject of a sale of his country,
his whole soul is in every word, in every look, in every gesture. His
eye flashes fire, he raises himself upon his feet, his body is thrown in
every attitude, every muscle and nerve being strained to its utmost
power. His voice is loud, clear, distinct and commanding. He
becomes, to use his own expressive phrase, a Than,
He recalls to the minds of those around him the situation and
circumstances of his ancestors, when they inhabited the whole conti-
nent; when they, and only they, climbed every hill and every moun-
tain; cultivated in peace the most fertile spots of earth; angled in
every stream ; hunted over all the vast hunting-grounds of the forest
and the plains, and glided along in their canoes on every lake and
river. He refers to the days of his ancestors, who had their lodges
in the coolest shades in summer, and beside tlie purest fountains,
where an abundance of food was always at hand and easily obtained.
There, he says, that the labor they had to perform was only what the
white man calls sport and pastime; and that in winter they lived in
the thickest forests, where they Avere protected from the chillijig and
piercing winds. He refers to the coming of the white man, how he
was small and weak ; how he begged for a few acres of land, which was
given him ; and how, when he became strong, and so great in size that
his head reached the clouds, and, with a large tree for his staff, step
by step, he drove the red man before him, from river to river, from
mountain to mountain, until the red man seated himself on a small
territory as a final resting place, and now the white man wishes even
this small spot.
The novelist Cooper, whilst advancing proofs supporting the
theory that the American Indian is of Oriental origin, in connection
with the same thus incidentally refers to Indian eloquence:
"The imagery of the Indian, both in his poetry and in his ora-
tory, is Oriental, chastened and, perhaps, improved by the limited
range of practical knowledge. He draws his metaphors from the
clouds, the seasons, the birds, the beasts, and the vegetable world. In
this, perhaps, he does no more than any other energetic and imagina-
tive race would do, being compelled to set bounds to fancy by experi-
ence
;
but the North American Indian clothes his ideas in a dress which is
different from the African, and is Oriental in itself. His language has
the richness and sententious fullness of the Chinese. He will express
a word in a phrase and he will qualify the meaning of an entire sen-
tence by a syllable ; he will even convey different significations by the
simplest inflections of the voice."
A writer on Indian eloquence, in a public journal of many years
ago, closes with the following enthusiastic tribute to native Indian
character and eloquence:
"
Their actions may outlive, but their
oratory, wê think, must survive their fate. It contains many attributes
of true eloquence. With a language too barren, and minds too free,
for the rules of rhetoric, they still attained the power of feeling, and
a sublimity of style which rivals the highest productions of their
more cultivated enemies. Expressions apt and pointedlanguage
strong and figurativecomparisons rich and bolddescriptions cor-
rect and picturesqueand gestures energetic and gracefulwere the
most striking peculiarities of their oratory. The later orations,
accurate mirrors of their character, their bravery, immovable stoicism^
and a native grandeur, heightened as they are in expressiveness by
the melancholy accompaniment of approaching extermination, will be
as enduring as the swan-like music of Attica and Roman eloquence,
which were the funereal song of the liberties of those republics.""
Indeed, there is not an instance in Indian history, from the earliest
time, even as written by the white man, but where Indian superiority
in eloquence and mental capacity is made to appear. How much the
historian may have been inclined to withhold the fact of superiority
on the part of the Indian, still his native intelligence is everywhere
made to appear, both in peace and war, in which examples are afforded
us in the character of those illustrious chiefs coming down to us in
history, such as Powhatan, Massasoit, King Philip, Tammanend, Pon-
tiac, Theyendenagea (Brant), Tecumseh, Red Jacket, Osceola, Black
Hawk, Red Cloud, and others.
SPEECH OF THE DELAWARE CHIEF, CAPT. PIPE.
Mr. Heckewelder, whose long experience as a missionary afforded
him an opportunity to judge correctly on this subject, and who is high
authority on Indian character, declares that the enthusiastic admira-
tion of Indian oratory, so much indulged in, is no exaggeration, and
refers to an Indian speech at an important council at which he was
present, of which he gives what he says is a correct translation taken
by himself, he being proficient in the language in which it was spoken.
He says:
"
This speech was spoken at Detroit, on the frontier of Canada,
on the 9th of November, 1801, by Capt. Pipe, a chief of the Delaware
nation, and was addressed to the commanding officer of that post, then
in possession of the British. The Delawares, it will be recollected, had
been the steadfast friends of the French in the war of 1756. The peace
which was concluded in 1763, between the tAvo great nations, who then
contended for the supremacy of this continent, was not, for several
years, regarded by the Indians, and they continued their hostilities
against the subjects and government of Great Britain. They were
obliged, however, to submit to superior force ; not without hopes that
their father, the King of France, would soon send over a powerful
army to retake Canada. They were in this situation when the war of
the revolution broke out. It is well known that it was a part of the
system of the British administration to employ the savages to subdue
those whom they called their revolted subjects. The Delawares, in
general, having in vain endeavored to remain neutral, took part with the
Americans. Capt. Pipe, however, with a party of the Wolf tribe,
joined the English in the beginning of the war, and soon after repented
it. But it was too late. He was now reluctantly compelled to go out
aofainst the Americans with those men under his command. On his
return from one of those expeditions he went to make his report to
the British commandant at Detroit, by whom he was received in state,
at the council house, in the presence of a great number of Indians,
British officers and others. There were several missionaries present,
among which was I. The chief was seated in front of his Indians,
facing the commandant. He held in his left hand a human scalp,
tied to a short stick. After a pause of some minutes, he rose, and,
addressing the governor, delivered the following speech:
"Father!" (Here the orator stopped, and turning around to the
audience, with a face full of meaning and a sarcastic look, which I
should in vain attempt to describe, he went on in a lower tone of
voice, as addressing himself to them). "I have said father, although,
indeed, I do not know why I am to call him so, having never
known any other father than the French, and considering the English
only as brothers. But as this name is also imposed upon us, I shall
make use of it and say: (here he fixed his eyes on the commandant).
"Father! Some time ago you put a war hatchet into my hands,
saying: Take this weapon and try it on the heads of my enemies, the
long Jcnives, and let me afterwards know if it was sharp and good.
"Father^! At the time when you gave me this weapon, I had
neither cause nor inclination to go to war against a people who had
done me no injury; yet in obedience to you, who say you are my father
and call me your child, I received the hatchet, well knowing that if I
did not obey, you would withhold from me the necessaries of life,
without which I could not subsist, and which are not elsewhere to be
procured, but at the house of my father.
"Father! You may perhaps think me a fool for risking my life
at your bidding ; in a cause, too, by which I have no prospect of gain-
ing anything, for it is your cause and not mine. It is your concern to
fight the long Jcnives]' you have raised a quarrel amongst yourselves,
and you ought yourselves to fight it out. You should not compel your
children, the Indians, to expose themselves to danger for your sakes.
"Father! Many lives have already been lost on your account;
nations have suffered, and been weakened; children have lost parents,
brothers and relativeswives have lost husbands. It is not known
how many more may perish before your war will be at an end.
"Father! I have said that you may perhaps think me a fool for
thus thoughtlessly rushing on your enemy! Do not believe this,
father; think not that I want sense to convince me that, although you
noiv pretend to keep up a perpetual enmity to the long knives, you may
before long conclude a peace with them.
"Father! You say you love your children, the Indians; this you
have often told them, and indeed it is your interest to say so to them,
that you may have them at your service. But, father! who of us can
believe that you love a people of a different color from your own
better than those who have a icliite skin like yourselves ? Father ! pay
attention to what I am going to say. While you, father, are setting
me (meaning the Indians in general) on your enemy, much in the
same manner as a hunter sets his dog on the game ; while I am in the
act of rushing on that enemy of yours, with the bloody, destructive
weapon you gave me, I may, perchance, happen to look back to the
place from whence you started me; and what shall I see? Perhaps I
may see my father shaking hands with the loyig knives
\
yes, with
these very people he now calls his enemies. I may then see him
laugh at my folly, for having obeyed his orders, and yet I am now
risking my life at his command. Father! keep what I have said in
remembrance.
"Now, father! here is what has been done with the hatchet you
gave me (handing the stick to the commandant, with a scalp upon it).
I have done with the hatchet what you ordered me to do, and found it
sharp. Nevertheless I did not do all that I might have done. No, I
did not my heart failed within me; I felt compassion for your
enemy. Innocence (helpless women and children) had no part in
your quarrels, therefore I distinguishedI spared, took some live
flesh,
which, while I was bringing to you, I spied one of your large
canoes, on which I put it for you. In a few days you will receive the
flesh,
and
find
that the skin is
of
the same color with your own.
Father! I hope you will not destroy what I have saved. You, father,
have the means of preserving that which with me would perish for
want. The warrior is poor, and his cabin is always empty; but your
house, father, is always full."
"Here," says Mr. Heckewelder, "we see boldness, dignity and
humanity, happily blended together and most eloquently displayed.
I am much mistaken if the component parts of this discourse are not
put together much according to the rules of oratory which are taught
in the schools, and which were certainly unknown to this savage.
The peroration at the end is short, but truly pathetic, and I would
even say sublime ; and then the admirable way in which it is prepared.
I wish I could convey to the reader's mind only a small part of the
impression which this speech made on me and on all present when it
was delivered."
By the term loncj knives, in the aforesaid speech, was meant the
people of the United kStates, which comes from the term which the
Indians of the Atlantic coast originally applied to the English, when
first appearing among them, from the fact of their carrying swords, a
weapon the Indians had never seen before then, which attracted their
special attention.
THE FRENCH AND THE IROQUOIS.
A very noted instance, giving an example of Indian oratory, native
intelligence and Indian sagacity, is given by Baron La Hontan, in his
work entitled "New Voyages to North America," Letter
7,
being an
account of the expedition of De La Barre, the Governor General of
Canada, against the Iroquois, occurring in 1684. At this time the
French of Canada were contending with the English upon the Hudson
river for the trade of the Iroquois Five Nations, inhabiting the country
on the south of Lake Ontario. The French were watching the prog-
ress of the English in this regard with spirited jealousy, it being found
that the Iroquois were inclining in favor of the English in regard to
their trade. The French kept a considerable military force along the
border of the Iroquois country to hold them in awe of their power.
In November of the year before mentioned a military expedition
under De La Barre proceeded by boats along the coast of Lake Onta-
rio to the country of the Iroquois, landing at the mouth of what was
then called the Biver De La Famine, or what was afterwards called
Hungry Bay. Whilst the real object of this expedition was, as before
intimated, to overawe the Iroquois and thereby influence them to
withdraw their trade from the English and give exclusive preference
to the French, their pretended object was to require the Iroquois to
desist from their alleged raids on the more Western tribes, with whom
the French had secured amicable relations for purposes of trade.
At this time the Iroquois were a confederacy of five nations,
bound together for the purposes of defense against other tribes and
nations, their seat of government being at Onondaga Hill, where the
principal chief of the five nations resided, and who, in the absence of
general council meetings, was the representative in all affairs of the
government of the five nations, and authorized to speak for them.
Hence the object of De La Barre was to secure a conference with the
ruling chief at that place; but instead of making the journey to his
seat of government he assumed the position of superiority and dis-
patched a messenger to this chief, requiring his appearance at his
camp at Hungry Bay. But the French commander evidently under-
rated the native Indian sagacity ; and, in the interview which followed,
he ranks in history as unequal in debate and dijDlomacy to the wild
Indian chief, whose presence he had so haughtily commanded, as is
508
cleaily shown by the official account of the occasion as given by La
Hontan himself, the historian of the occasion, which is here set out in
his own words for the purpose of better illustrating what is here
alleired in re<?ard to native Indian talent:
"As soon as Mr. de la Barre had dispatched this Canoe, he sent
Mr. le Moine to the village of the Onnotagues, which lay about eigh-
teen leagues up the river. This Mr. le Moine was a gentleman of
Normandy, and highly esteemed by the Ii'oquese, who called him
AkouessaJi, i. e., the Partridge. His orders were to endeavor by all
means to bring along with him some of the old standers of that nation
;
and accordingly he returned in a few days, accompanied with one of
their most considerable grandees, who had a train of thirty young war-
riors, and was distinguished by the title of the Grangula. As soon as
he debarked Mr. de la Barre sent him a present of bread and wine,
and of thirty salmon trouts, which they fished in that place in such
plenty, that they brought up a hundred at one cast of a. net; at the
same time he gave the grandee to understand that he congratulated his
arrival, and would be glad to have an interview with him after he had
rested himself for some days. You must know that he had used the
precaution of sending the sick back to the colony, that the Iroquese
might not perceive the weakness of his forces; and to favor the strata-
gem, Mr. le Moine represented to the Grangula that the body of the
army was left behind at Fort Frontenac, and that the troops he saw in
our camp were the General's guards. But unhappily one of the Iro-
quese that had a smattering of the French tongue, having strolled in
the night time towards our tents, overheard what we said, and so
revealed the secret. Two days after their arrival, the Grangula gave
notice to Mr. de la Barre that he was ready for an interview ; and,
accordingly, an hour being appointed, the whole company appeared."
La Hontan says the Grangula sat on the east side, being placed
at the head of his men, with his pipe in his mouth, and the great Calu-
met of peace before him, and that he was very attentive to the harangue
which De La Barre pronounced by our interpreters.
A description of the pipe of peace before mentioned, it will be
remembered, is given in a preceding chapter, and the Colier hereinbe-
fore mentioned, is also described in a preceding chapter concerning
Wampum.
La Hontan says
"
Mr. de la Barre'' s harangue was to this purpose:
'The King, my Master, being informed that the Five Iroquese
Nations have for a long time made infractions upon the measures of
peace, ordered me to come hither with a guard, and to send Alcouessan
to the Canton of the Onnotagues, in order to an interview with their
principal leaders, in the neigliborhoocl of my camp. This great Mon-
arch means that you and I should smoke together in the great Calumet
of Peace, with the proviso that you engage in the name of the Tson-
nonfouans, Goyoguans, Onnotagues, Onnoyoutes, and Agnies, (Senecas,
Cayugas, Onondagas, Oneidas and Mohawks), to make reparation
to his subjects, and to be guilty of nothing for the future that may
occasion a fatal rupture.
'The Tsonnontouans, Goyogoiians, Onnotagues, Onnoyoutes and
Agnies have stripped, robbed and abused all the forest-rangers that
traveled in the way of trade to the country of the lUinese, of the
Onmamis, and of several other nations, who are my Master's children.
Now this usage being in high violation of the treaties of peace con-
cluded with my predecessor, I am commanded to demand reparation,
and at the same time to declare, that in case of their refusal to comply
with my demands, or of relapsing into the like robberies, war is posi-
tively proclaimed.
'
This Colier makes my words good.''
'The warriors of these Five Nations have introduced the English
to the Lakes, belonging to the King, my Master, and into the country
of those nations to whom my Master is a father. This they have done
with a design to ruin the commerce of his subjects, and to oblige these
nations to depart from their due allegiance, notwithstanding the
remonstrance of the late Governor of New York, who saw through the
danger that both he and the English exposed themselves to. At
present I am willing to forget those actions , but if ever you be guilty
of the like for the future, I have express orders to declare war.
'
This Colier ivarrants my words.''
'
The same warriors have made several barbarous incursions upon
the country of the Illinese and the Oumamis. They have massacred
men, women and children; they have taken, bound and carried off an
infinite number of the natives of those countries, who thought them-
selves secure in their villages in a time of peace. These people are
my Master's children, and therefore must hereafter cease to be your
slaves. I charge you to restore 'em to their liberty, and send 'em
home without delay ; for if the Five Nations refuse to comply with
this demand, I have express orders to declare war.
'
This Colier makes my icords good.''
'This is all I have to say to -the Grangula, whom I desire to
report to the Five Nations, this declaration, that my Master com-
manded me to make. He wished they had not obliged him to send a
potent army to the Fort of Cataracouy, in order to carry on war that
will prove fatal to them. And he will be very much troubled if it so
falls out, that this fort, which is a work of peace, must be employed for
a prison to your militia. These mischiefs ought to be prevented by
mutual endeavors. The French, who are the brethren and friends of
the Five Nations, will never disturb their repose, provided they make
the satisfaction I now demand, and prove religious observers of their
treaties. I wish my words may produce the desired effect ; for if they
do not, I am obliged to join the Governor of New York, who has
orders from the King, his Master, to assist me to burn the five vil-
lages, and cut you off.
^This Colier confirms my words.
^
"AVhile Mr. de la Barre's interpreter pronounced this harangue,
the Grcmgiila did nothing, but looked upon the end of his pipe. After
the speech was finished, he rose, and having taken five or six turns in
the ring that the French and savages made, he returned to his place,
and, standing upright, spoke after the following manner to the Gen-
eral, who sat in his chair of state:"
SPEECH OF THE IROQUOIS CHIEF.
'
Onnontio, I honor you, and all the warriors that accompany me
do the same. Your interpreter has made an end of his disccurse, and
now I come to begin mine. My voice glides to your ear, pray listen
to my words.
'
Onnontio, in setting out from Quebec, you must needs have fan-
cied that the scorching beams of the sun had burnt down the forests
which render our country inaccessible to the French; or else that the
inundations of the lakes had surrounded our cottages and confined us
as prisoners. This certainly was your thought; and it could be noth-
ing else but the curiosity of seeing a burnt or drowned country that
moved you to undertake a journey hither. But now you have an
opportunity of being undeceived, for I and my warlike retinue come
to assure you that the Tsonontouans, Goyagouans, Onnotagues, Onno-
yontes and Agnies, are not yet destroyed. I return you thanks in their
name for bringing into their country the Ccdtimet of Peace, that your
predecessors received from their hands. At the same time I congrat-
ulate your happiness in having left under ground the bloody ax, that
has been so often dyed with the blood of the French. I must tell you,
Onnontio, I am not asleep, my eyes are open; and the sun that vouch-
safes the light gives me a clear view of a great Captain at the head of
a troop of soldiers, who speaks as if he were asleep. He pretends
that he does not approach to this lake with any other view than to
smoke with the Onnotagues in the great Calumet; but the Grangida
knows better things; he sees plainly that the Onnontio meant to
knock 'em on the head, if the French arms had not been so much
weakened.
'I perceive that the Onnoniio raves in a camp of sick people,
whose lives the Great Spirit has saved by visiting them with infirm-
ities. Do you hear, Onnoniio, our women had taken up their clubs,
and the children and the old men had visited your camp with their
bows and arrows, if our warlike men had not stopped and disarmed
them, when Akouessan, your embassador, appeared before my village.
But I have done. I'll talk no more of that.
'You must know, Onnoniio, we have robbed no Frenchmen but
those who supplied the Illinese and the Oumamis (our enemies) with
fusees, with powder and with ball. These, indeed, we took care of,
because such arms might have cost us our life. Our conduct in that
point is of a piece with that of the Jesuits, who stave all the barrels
of brandy that are brought to our cantons, lest the people getting
drunk should knock 'em in the head. Our warriors have no beavers
to give in exchange for all the arms they take from the French ; and
as for the old superannuated people, they do not think of bearing arms.
^This Colier comprehends my ivords.''
'We have conducted the English to our lakes, in order to traffic
with the Outaoiias, and the Hiirons; just as the Algonkins conducted
the French to our five cantons, in order to carry on a commerce that
the English lay claim to as their right. We are born free men, and
have no dependence either upon the Onnoniio or the Corlar (Corlar is
the title of the Governor of New York). We have a power to go
where we please, to conduct whom we will to the places we resort to,
and to buy and sell where we think fit. If your allies are your slaves
or children, you may 'een treat them as such, and rob 'em of the
liberty of entertaining any other nation but your own,
'
This Colier coniains my tcords.''
'
We fell upon the Illinese and the Oumamis, because they cut
down the trees of peace that served for limits or boundaries to our
frontiers. They came to hunt beaver upon our lands; and contrary to
the custom of all the savages, have carried off whole stocks, both male
and female. They have engaged the Chaouanons in their interest,
and entertained 'em in their country. They supj^lied 'em with fire-
arms, after the concerting of ill designs against us. We have done
less than the English and the French, who withstood any rights, hav-
ing usurped the grounds they are now possessed of ; and of which they
have dislodged several nations, in order to make way for their building
of cities, villages and forts.
'
This Colier coniains my words.^
512
'
I give you to know. Onnontio, that my voice is the voice of the
five Iroquese cantons. This is their answer, pray incline your ears,
and listen to what they represent.
'
The Tsonontouans,
Goyoyoiums, Onnoiagnes, Onnoyoides and
Agnies, declare that they interred the ax at Catarucoiiy, in the pres-
ence of your predecessor, in the very center of the Fort; and planted
the tree of peace in the same place, that it might be carefully pre-
served; that 'twas then stipulated that the Fort should be used as a
place of retreat for merchant, and not a refuge for soldiers ; and that,
instead of arms and ammunition, it should be made a receptacle of
only beaver skins, and merchandise goods. Be it known to you,
Onnontio, that for the future you ought to take care, that so great a
number of martialmen as I now see being shut up in the small Fort,
do not stifle and choke the tree of peace. Since it took root so easily,
it must needs be of pernicious consequence to stop its growth, and to
hinder it to shade both your country and ours with its leaves. I do
assure vou, in the name of the five nations, that our warriors shall
dance the Calumet dance under its branches; that they shall rest in
tranquility upon their mats, and will never dig up the ax to cut down
the tree of peace, till such time as the Onnonfio and the Corlar, do
either jointly or separately offer to invade the country that the Great
Spirit has disposed of in the favor of our ancestors.
'
This Colier contains my words, and the other comprehends the
power granted me by the Five Ncdions.''
"Then the Grangula addressed himself to Mr. le Maine, and
spoke to this purpose:"
Âlwuessan, take heart, you are a man of sense; speak and ex-
plain my meaning ; be sure you forget nothing, but declare all that thy
brethren and thy friend represent to thy chief, Onnontio, by the voice
of the Grangula, who pays you all honor and respect, and invites you
to accept of this present of beavers, and to assist at his feast im-
mediately.
'This other present of beavers is sent by the Five Nations to the
Onnontio.^
"As soon as ih.^ Grangula had done, Mr. le Maine and the Jesuits
that were present, explained his answer to Mr. de la Barre, who there-
upon retired to his tent and stormed and blustered, till somebody came
and represented to him that Iroca Progenies nescit habere modos, i. e.,
the Iroquese are always upon extremes. The Grangula danced after
the Iroquese manner, by way of prelude to his entertainment; after
which he regaled several of the French. Two days after he and his
martial retinue returned to their own country, and our army set out for
Montreal. As soon as the general was on board, together witii the
few healthy men that remained, the canoes were dispersed, for the
militia straggled here and there and every one made the best of his
way home."
SPEECH OF A DELAWARE CHIEFWHITE EYES.
At the commencement of the war of the American Kevolution,
the Delaware Indians were urged by the Senecas to join them in tak-
ing up the hatchet in the interest of the British and against the Ameri-
can colonists. In a council betweea the two tribes, the following is
the speech of Kognethagecton, or White Eyes, a noted Delaware chief,
to the Senecas:
"I know well," said he, "that you consider us a conquered nation
as women, as you inferiors. You have, say you, shortened our legs,
and put petticoats on us. You say you have given us a hoe and a
corn-pounder, and told us to plant and pound for you
your men
your warriors. But look at me, am I not full grown? And have I
not a warrior's dress? Ay! I am a man, and these are the arms of a
man, and all that country is mine.
"But if you will go out in this war, you shall not go without me.
I have taken peace measures, it is true, with a view of saving my tribe
from destruction. But if you think me in the wrongif you give
more credit to runaway vagabonds than to your own friendsto a
manto a warriorto a Delawareif you insist upon fighting the
Americans
go, and I will go with you. And I will not go like the bear
hunter who sets his dogs upon the animal, to be beaten about with his
paws, while he keeps himself at a safe distance. No ! I will lead you
on. I will place myself in the front. I will fall with the first of you.
You can do as you choose. But as for me, I will not survive my
nation. I will not live to bewail the miserable destruction of a brave
people, who deserved, as you do, a better fare."
SPEECH OF RED JACKET, SENECA CHIEF.
The following prophetic speech of Red Jacket to his tribe during
the closing days of his life, is another marked example of Indian
eloquence
:
"
Brothers, at the treaty held for the purcha3e of our lands, the
white men, with siceet voices and. smiling
faces, told us they loved us,
and they would not cheat us, but that the king's children on the other
side of the lake would cheat us. When we go on the other side of the
lake the king's children tell us your people will cheat us. These
things puzzle our heads, and we believe that the Indians must take care
33
of themselves, and not trust either in your people or in the king s
children. Brothers, our seats were once large, and yours very small.
You have now become a great people, and we have scarcely a place
left to spread our blankets. True, and soon their graves will be all
they shall retain of their once ample hunting-grounds. Their strength
is wasted, their countless warriors dead, their forest laid low, and their
burial places upturned by the plough-share. There was a time when
the war-cry of a Powhatan, a Delaware or an Abenaquis struck terror
to the heart of a pale-face; but now the Seminole is singing his last
song."
SPEECH OF INDIAN LOGAN.
Among the noted examples of Indian oratory which have been
brouofht to us, none is more famous or more commended as a marked
example of such, than that of the celebrated speech of Logan, the
Mingo chief, so-called, to Lord Dunmore, then governor of Virginia.
In the spring of the year 1774, a robbery was committed by some
Indians on certain land adventurers on the Ohio river. The whites in
that quarter, according to their custom, undertook to punish these out-
rages in a summary manner. One Michael Cresap and a companion,
leading on these parties, surprised, at different times, traveling and
hunting parties of Indians having their women and children with
them, and murdered many, among whom, unfortunately, were the
family of Logan, a chief celebrated in peace and war, and long dis-
tinguished as the friend of the whites. This, as might well be
expected, provoked his vengeance. He accordingly joined in the
Indian war of the northwest which ensued. In the fall of the same
year a desperate battle was fought at the mouth of the Great Kanawha,
between the combined forces of the Shawnees, Mingos and Delawares,
and a detachment of the Virginia militia, in which the Indians were
defeated and sued for peace. Logan, however, disdained to be seen
among those of his race who pursued such policy ; but to prevent any
disadvantages to his people from his absence in council, to the end of
an attempt to secure peace, he sent, by a messenger who had come to ask
his presence, the following speech, to be delivered to Lord Dunmore
:
"I appeal to any white man to say, if he ever entered Logan's
lodge hungry, and he gave him not meatif he ever came cold and
naked, and Logan clothed him not. During the course of the last
long and bloody war, Logan remained inactive in his lodge, an advo-
cate for peace. Such was his love for the stranger, that his country-
men pointed as they passed, and said, Logan is the friend of the white
man.
I had thought to have lived with you, but for the injuries of
one man, Col. Cresap, the last spring, in cold blood, and unprovoked,
murdered all the relations of Logan, not sparing even his wife and
children. There runs not a drop of his blood in the veins of any
living creature. This called on me for vengeance. I have sought it.
I have killed many. I have fully glutted my vengeance. For my
country, I rejoice at the beams of peace. But do not harbor a thought
that mine is the joy of fear. Logan never felt fear. He will not
turn on his heel to save his life. Who is there to mourn for Logan?
Not one."
Of this speech, Mr. Jefferson, in his "Notes on Virginia," says:
"I may challenge the whole of the orations of Demosthenes and Cicero,
and of any more eminent orator, if Europe has furnished more eminent,
to produce a single passage superior to this speech of Logan, the
Mingo chief, to Lord Dunmore."
SPEECH OF BLACK HAWK.
The following is the speech of the Sac Indian Chief Black
Hawk, made to General Street, the United States Indian agent at
Prairie du Chien, in the forepart of September, 1832, after his defeat
and the destruction of his forces at the battle of Bad ax
:
"You have taken me prisoner with all my warriors. I am muck
grieved, for I expected, if I did not defeat you, to hold out mucii
longer and give you more trouble before I surrendered. I tried hard
to bring you into ambush, but your last general understands Indian
fighting. The first one was not so wise. When I saw that I could
not beat you by Indian fighting, I determined to rush on you, and
fight you face to face. I fought hard. But your guns were well
aimed. The bullets flew like birds in the air, and whizzed by our
ears like the wind through the trees in the winter. My warriors fell
around me; it began to look dismal. I saw my evil day at hand.
The sun rose dim on us in the morning, and at night it sunk in a dark
cloud, and looked like a ball of fire. That was the last sun that
shone on Black Haivk. His heart is dead, and no longer beats quick
in his bosom. He is now a prisoner to the white men ; they will do
with him as they wish. But he can stand torture, and is not afraid of
death. He is no coward. Black Hawk is an Indian.
"He has done nothing for which an Indian ought to be ashamed.
He has fought for his countrymen, women and children, against white
men, who came, year after year, to cheat them and take away their
land. You know the cause of our making war. It is known to all
white men. They ought to be ashamed of it. The white men
516
despise the Indians, and drive them from their homes. But the
Indians are not deceitful. The white men speak bad of the Indian,
and look at him spitefully. But the Indian does not tell lies; Indians
do not steal.
"An Indian, who is as bad as the white men, could not live in
our nation ; he would be put to death and eaten up by the wolves.
The white men are bad schoolmasters; they carry false looks, and
deal in false actions; they smile in the face of the poor Indian to
cheat him ; they shake them by the hand to gain their confidence, to
make them drunk, to deceive them and ruin our wives. We told them
to let us alone and keep away from us, but they followed on and beset
our parties, and they coiled themselves among us like the snake.
They poisoned us by their touch. We were not safe. We lived in
danger. We were becoming like them, hypocrites and liars, adulterers,
lazy drones, all talkers and no workers.
"We looked up to the Great Spirit. We went to our great father.
We were encouraged. His great council gave us fair words and big
promises; but we got no satisfaction. Things were growing worse.
There Avere no deer in the forest. The opossum and beaver were fled
;
the springs were drying up, and our women and children without
victuals to keep them from starving. We called a great council, and
built a large fire. The spirit of our fathers arose and spoke to us to
avenge our wrongs or die. We all spoke before the council fire. It
was wârm and pleasant. We set up the war-whoop, and dug up the
tomahawk; our knives were ready, and the heart of Black Hatvk
swelled high in his bosom, when he led his warriors to battle. He is
satisfied. He will go to the world of spirits contented. He has done
his duty. His father will meet him there, and commend him.
^^ Black Hawk is a true Indian, and disdains to cry like a woman.
He feels for his wife, his children and friends. But he does not care
for himself. He cares for his nation and the Indians. They will
suffer. He laments their fate. The white men do not scalp the head,
but they do worsethey poison the heart ; it is not pure with them.
His countrymen will not be scalped, but they will, in a few years,
become like the white men, so that you can't trust them, and there
must be, as in the white settlement, nearly as many ofiicers as men, to
take care of them and keep them in order.
"Farewell, my nation! Black Hawk tried to save you, and avenge
your wrongs. He drank the blood of some of the whites. He has
been taken prisoner, and his plans are stopped. He can do no more.
He is near his end. His sun is setting, and he will rise no more.
Farewell to Black Haioky
The foregoing speech of Black Hawk is given here for its many
points of native eloquence, as well as for its apt allusions to the con-
duct of the whites towards his people, and as revealing a spirit of
patriotism worthy of the
"
Noblest Eoman." It will be noticed that
this speech is much in the style and possesses many of the features of
the celebrated speech of the Indian chief, Logan.
After Black Hawk's defeat at the battle of the Bad Ax, so called,
he with Weapepi fled to the interior of Wisconsin. The AVinne-
bagoes, DeCorie and Chaetar, were engaged and dispatched by
General Street to pursue and capture them, which they did, and
surrendered them at Prairie du Chien.
It seems by the speeches these two Winnebagoes made to
General Street on their return, that much was promised the Winne-
bago nation in the event that they should capture Black Hawk.
Amongst other things, showing the flattering promises of the author-
ities of the government, DeCorie says: "Fatlier, you told us to get
these men, and it would be the cause of much good to the Winne-
bagoes. We have confidence in you, and' you may rely on us. We
have been promised a great deal if we would take these men, that it
would be much good to our people. We now hope to see what will be
done for us." Th^ speech of Chaetar discloses the like promises.
y
The historian, however, must record, with regret, the subsequent
^
bad faith of the government towards the Winnebago nation.
CHAPTEK XLIII.
INDIAN
METAPHOR.
Indians are Fond of Metaphors Were Like Ornaments to their PersonPowerful
Similes Drawn from Nature -Added a Charm to their SpeechesAppropriated
by Euo-lish WritersMetaphorical
Expressions in Common Use Borrowed from
the Indians -'-Eivers Kun With Blood"
"To Bury the Hatchet "" You Keep
Me in the Dark""Singing Birds""I Will Place You Under My Wings"--
"SufPer no Grass to Grow on the War Path"Are of Indian OriginExamples
of Indian Metaphorical Expressions.
HE Indians," says the de-
voted Moravian missionary,
Mr Heckewelder,
"
are
fond of metaphors. They
are to their discourses what feathers
and beads are to their persons."
Metaphorical expressions and power-
ful similes, drawn from nature, add a
peculiar charm to their speeches, so
much admired by observers of Indian
character. Many of these, it will be
noticed, have been appropriated by
English writers, and pass among the
classic expressions of English litera-
ture. Terse utterances, familiar as
"
household words," coming from In-
dian scmrces, are heard daily without even a reflection that so much of
beauty and dignity has been added to our own language through a
ready assimilation of the rich and glowing rhetoric of the red man.
The following metaphorical expressions, many of which are
derived from the writings of Mr. Heckewelder, wall serve as examples
in this connection, and sliow with what facility the Indian reads the
great book of nature
:
"
The skv is overcast with dark blusterins^ clouds." We shall
have troublesome times; we shall have war.
(518)
SINGING BIRDS.
INDIAN METAPHOR. 519
BLACK CLOUDS.
"A black cloud has arisen yonder." War is threatened from that
quarter, or from that nation.
"Two black clouds
are drawing towards each
other
.
" Two
p
o w^ e r f u 1
enemies are in march
against each other.
"The path is already
shut up." Hostilities have
commenced. The war is
begun.
"The rivers run with
blood." War rages in the
country.
"To bury the hatch-
et." To make or conclude
a peace.
"To lay dow^n the
hatchet, or to slip the
hatchet under the bedstead." To cease fighting for awhile, during a
truce; or, to place the hatchet at hand, so that it may be taken up
again at a moment's warning.
"The hatchet you gave ma to strike your enemies proved to be
very dull, or not to be sharp; my arm was wearied to little purpose."
You supplied me so scantily wdth the articles I stood in need of, that
I wanted strength to execute your orders. The presents you gave me
were not sufficient for the task you imposed upon me, therefore I did
little.
"
The hatchet you gave me was very sharp." As you have satis-
fied me, I have done the same for you; I have killed many of your
enemies.
"You did not make me strong." You gave me nothing, or but
little.
"Make me very strong." Give me much; pay me well.
"The stronger you make me, the more you wdll see." The more
you Avill give me, the more I will do for you.
"I did as you bid me, but see nothing." I have performed my
part, but you have not rewarded me ; or, I did my part for you, but
you have not kept your wôrd.
"You have spoken with your lips only, not from the heart." You
endeavor to deceive me
;
you do not intend to do as you say.
"You now speak from the heart." Now you mean what you say.
520
"You keep me in the dark." You wisli to deceive me; you con-
ceal your intentions from me; you keep me in ignorance.
"Yôu stopped my ears.'' You keot the thing a secret from me;
you did not wish me to know it.
"Now I believe you." Done. Agreed. It shall be so.
"Your words have penetrated into my heart." I consent. I am
pleased with what you say.
"
Yôu have spoken good words." I am pleased; delighted with
what you have said.
"You have spoken the truth." I am satisfied with what you have
said.
"Singing birds." Tale-bearers; storytellers; liars.
"Don't listen to the singing of the birds which fly by." Don't
believe Avhat stragglers tell you.
"What bird was it that sung that song?" Who was it that told
that story; that lie?
Longfellow, in his "Song of Hiawatha," thus refers to the Indian
metaphor of the singing birds:
'*
Singing birds that utter falsehoods,
Story tellers, mischief makers,
Found no eager ear to listen."
(To a chief) : "Have you heard the news?" Have you been
officially
informed?
"I have not heard anything." I have no
official
information.
"
To kindle a council-fire at such a place." To appoint a place
where the national business is to be transacted; to establish the seat
of government there.
"To remove the council fire to another place." To establish an-
other place for the seat of government.
"
The council fire has been extinguished." Blood has been shed
by an enemy at the seat of government, which has put the fire out;
the place has been polluted.
"
Don't look the other way." Don't lean to that side; don't join
with those.
"Look this way." Join us, join our party.
"I have not room to spread my blanket." I am too much
crowded on.
"Not to have room enough for an encampment." To be too
much confined to a small district ; not to have sufiicient range for the
cattle to feed on, or sufficient hunting-ground.
"
To open a path from one nation to another, by removing the
logs, brush and briers out of the way." To invite the nation to which
INDIAN METAPHOR.
521
"under my wing."
the path leads, to a friendly intercourse ; to prepare the way to live on
friendly terms with them.
"The path to that nation is again open!" We are again on
friendly terms ; the path may again be traveled with safety,
"
I will place you under
my wings." (Meaning under
my arm pits) I will protect
you at all hazards! You shall
be perfectly safe, nobody
shall molest you!
'
' Suffer no grass to grow
|
on the war path!" Carry on
the war with vigor!
"Never suffer grass to
grow on this war path!" Be
at perpetual war with the
nation this path leads to;
never conclude a peace with
them.
"
I hear sighing and sobbing in yonder direction!" I think that
a chief of a neighboring nation has died.
"
I draw the thorns out of your feet and legs
;
grease your stiffened
joints with oil, and wipe the sweat off your body." I make you feel
comfortable, after your fatiguing journey, that you may enjoy your-
self while with us.
"I wipe the tears from your eyes, cleanse your ears, and place
your aching heart, which bears you down to one side, in its proper
position." I condole with you; dispel all sorrow, prepare yourself for
business. (This is said when condoling with a nation on the death of
a chief).
"
I have discovered the cause of your grief." I have seen the
grave (where the chief was buried).
"
I have covered yon spot of fresh earth ; I have raked leaves
and planted trees thereon." Literally, I have hidden the grave from
your eyes; figuratively, "you must now be cheerful again."
"
I lift you up from this place, and set you down again at my
dwelling place." I invite you to rise from hence, and come and live
where I live.
"
I, am much too heavy to rise at this present time." I have too
much property, (corn, vegetables, etc.)
"I will pass one night yet at this place." I will stay one year yet
at this place.
522
THE AMEIilCAN INDIAN.
"
AVe have concluded a peace which is to last as long as the sun
shall shine, and the rivers flow with water." The peace we have made
is to continue as long as the world stands, or to the end of time.
"
To bury the hatchet beneath the root of a tree." To put it
quite out of sight.
"To bury deep in the earth," (an injury done). To consign it to
oblivion.
"To throw the hatchet to the sky." To wage open and terrible
war.
"To plant the tree of peace on the highest mountain of the
earth." To make a general pacification.
Embassadors coming to propose a general and full treaty say : "We
rend the clouds asunder and drive away all darkness from the heaven,
that the sun of peace may shine Avith brightness over us all."
The Iroquois, in expressing a desire that there might be no duplic-
ity or concealment with the French, said: "We wish to fix the sun
in the top of the heaven immediately above that pole, that it may beat
directly down and leave nothing in obscurity."
AVhen discussing the subject whether or not wâr shall be declared,
if no cause of war is found to exist, they say:
"
The hatchet is buried.
The bones of my warriors are also buried. The blood of my women
and children, which has been spilt, is also covered."
If there must be war, they say:
"
The tomahawk is raised. The
blood of my women and children smokes from the ground. The bones
of my warriors and old men lie uncovered, whitening the earth."
When peace is preserved with another tribe, they say: "The
path between us must be kept clean. No weeds must be suffered to
grow on it."
When a good understanding is to be maintained between them
and white people, the phrase is:
"
The chain which binds us together
must be kept bright and never be permitted to rust."
AYhen differences arise, they say "A weed grows in the path."
"
The chain is beginning to rust." When this is perceived and the
cause of difference known, they say "The weed must be plucked from
the path. The dust must be rubbed from the chain, else the path will
soon be covered with weeds, or the chain will rust."
The happy manner in which the Indians incorporate into their
discourse striking and instructive metaphor, is only equaled by their
love of oratory, which, with them, is a native accomplishment. With
a language strong, comprehensive, smooth and grammatical, with
natures that never espouse a cause in which they have not a faith as
absolute as truth itself, it is not strange that we find their utterances
INDIAN METAPHOR. 52
Q
unequaled in powerful argument, pathos or soul-stirring eloquence,
improved in its effect by apt Indian metaphor and gems of native
similes.
The grace with which metaphor is used is finely illustrated in the
numerous speeches, biographies and personal incidents recorded of this
remarkable people.
Skenandoah, a celebrated chief of the Oneida tribe of the Six
Nations, who lived to a great age, in his last oration in council, opened
with the following sublime sentiment: "Brothers, I am an aged hem-
lock. The winds of a hundred winters have whistled through my
branches, and I am dead at the top." Every one who has seen a tall
hemlock, with a dry and leafless crown surmounting its dark green
foliage, will feel the force of this simile. His memory, his vigor, and
his powers of youth had departed forever.
Another instance of apt Indian metaphor is contained in a com-
munication sent by the great Seminole chief to the commanding general
of the United States forces, in the famous Florida war, in which he
says: "Your men will fight, and so will ours, till the last drop of Semi-
nole blood has moistened the soil of their hunting-grounds.*'
At the celebrated Indian council held at Vincennes, Indiana,
between General Harrison and Tecumseh, the latter, on concluding his
speech to General Harrison, found that no chair had been provided
him. He was highly affronted at the seeming neglect. As soon as
the mistake was discovered. General Harrison ordered a chair brought
and offered Tecumseh, with the words, "Your father requests you to
take a chair." Still considering the neglect intentional, the great
chief haughtily declined it with the words: "My father? The sun is
my father; the earth is my mother, and on her bosom will I recline."
Then calmly disposed himself on the ground.
The sublimity of Indian metaphor in Indian oratory is well illus-
trated in the closing Avords of a speech by Pushmataha, a venerable
chief of a western tribe, at a council held at Washington many years
ago. In alluding to his extreme age and the probability that he might
not survive the journey back to his tribe, he said: "My children will
walk through the forests, and the Great Spirit will whistle in the tree-
tops, and the flowers will spring up in the trail, but Pushmataha will

hear not. He will see the flowers no more. He will be gone. His
people will know that he is dead.
*
The news will come to their ears as
the fall of a mighty oak in the stillness of the woods."
The following is from a speech of the Stockbridge Indian,
IThpaunnouwaumet, in 1774. On being solicited by Avhite men of the
New England colonies, to have his tribe join on the side of the colo-
iiists in case of war with England, their mother country, to maintain
an independent government, he said: "Brothers, we have heard you
speak by your letter, we thank you for it, and now we make answer.
Brothers, you remember Avhen you first came over the great waters ; I
was great and you were very little, very small. I then took you in for
friends and kept you under my arms, so that none might injure you.
Since that time we have ever been true friends. There has never been
a quarrel between us. Now our conditions are changed. You have
become great and tall. You reach the clouds. You are seen all
around the world. I am become small, very little. I am not so high
as your heel. Now you take care of me, I look to you for protection."
The folloAving is an allegorical account of the first arrival of the
English in America, and an allusion to a murder committed by an
Iroquois, in a speech by Thenayieson, an Iroquois chief, at a council
with the* English in 1748, which further illustrates Indian metaphor
as used in their public speeches:
"Brothers: When we first saw one another at your arrival at
Albany, we shook hands together, and Ave became brethren. We tied
your ship to the bushes. After we had more and more dealings Avith
you, and finding that the bush would not hold your shij^, Ave tied it to
a big tree; and ever since, good friendship has continued betAveen us.
"Afterwards you told us, a tree may happen to fall, and the rope
by which it is tied may rot. You then proposed to make a silver
chain, and tie your ship to the great mountain in the Five Nations'
country; and that chain was called the chain of friendship.
"We were all tied by our arms together Avith this sihêr chain, and
made one ; ever since a good correspondence has been kept up between
us. But we are sorry that at your coming here we are obliged to talk
of the accident that has lately befallen you in Carolina, where some of
our warriors, by the instigation of the evil spirit, struck a hatchet into
our bodyfor our brothers, the English, and we are of one body.
What was done Ave utterly abhor as a thing done by the evil spirit
himself.
"We never expected any of our people Avould do this to an
Englishman. We, therefore, remove the Aveapon, Avhich, by an evil
spirit's order, was struck into your body, and we desire that our broth-
ers, the Governor of NeAv York, and Onas (William Penn, or the Gov-
ernor of Pennsylvania), may use their utmost endeavors that the thing
may be buried in the bottomless pitthat it may never be seen again
;
that the silver chain, which is of long standing, may be preserved
bright and unhurt."
CHAPTEK XLIV.
INDIAN
MUSIC AND POETRY.
Origin of MusicVocal and InstrumentalIndians are Naturally MusiciansSing
on Devotional Occasions Like the White ManSongs of Praise to Diety Like
the JewsSongs Consisted of Few WordsShort PhrasesMany Times
RepeatedLanguage of ExcitementExpression of CompassionAbsence of
Measure or RhymeVoices Often FineWords Preserved by Picture Writing-
Indian Music Noted for its SimplicityScale of Music LimitedThe Chorus in
High Strain of VoiceHave Various Instruments of MusicSome Instruments
Like those of the White ManThe DrumGourd ShellRattling Sounds-
Description of Indian Implements of MusicLongfellow's Hiawatha an Imita-
tion of Indian PoetryWhite Man's Old Fashioned SongsRobert Kidd
Coincidence with Indian SongsSamples of Indian MusicDog Dance of the

Dakotas and others.
PHERE has been an at-
tempt amongst those
who have sought to class-
^'^
ify history, and reach
back to the origin or source of
its branches, to discover the
origin of music, both instru-
mental music or that produced
by artificial means, and as well
the practice of vocal music pro-
duced by tones or modulations
of the voice. Vocal music, so
called, it may be said, origin-
ated with the sound of the
human voice, and is common
among all the races as are the utterances of speech by the means of
the vocal organs. Many, however, insist that the idea of vocal music,
from the human voice, was derived from the example of the singing
of birds. Zarlino ascribes it to the sound of water; but it seems to
be agreed that music was first reduced to rules by Jubal, who is
spoken of in Jewish history as "the father of all such as handle the
harp and organ."
(525)
IROQUOIS DRUM.
526
Lucretius ascribes the invention of instrumental music, or mode
of producing "sweet sounds" by artificial means, to the whistling of
the winds in the hollow reeds. Another writer supposes the inven-
tion to have arisen from the sounds produced by the hammers of Tubal
Cain.
The American Indian and the native African are naturally musi-
cians. Yocal music, or the practice of singing, after the manner of every
race, is supposed to be coeval with man's existence, or at least with his
power of speech. In regard to vocal music, in the art of singing, the
same coincidence occurs, between the Indian and the races of the Old
World, that is found in various other respects. The singing of psalms,
as a devotional manifestation, was a very ancient custom among the
Jews, and so the like custom of singing on devotional occasions and
for the purposes of praises and fidelity to the Great Spirit, prevailed
among the American Indian tribes. In all their religious feasts and
ceremonies they addressed their prayers and praises to superior beings
in songs.
As with us, their singing was accompanied with the utterance of
words set to their peculiar music; and, as is customary with us, so they
had their fixed or standard songs composed for their feasts and dances
and their festive or solemn occasions. They had their stated songs
accompanying every important undertaking, and among them for
solemn occasions, to be particularly noted, was their death song, which
every Indian sung, whenever he was warned of approaching death, or
suspected that death was about to overtake him.
Their songs, in general, for whatever purpose, consisted for the
most part of a few words or short phrases many times repeated, dwell-
ing long and vehemently on the same idea. The poetry of the Indians,
or the words of their songs, was the language of excitement and the
expression of passion; and, although measure and rhyme were wanting,
they accompanied the utterances of their words by some modulation
of the voice, like that which we call singing. Their voices were often
fine, and the sentences they uttered were the language of sincerity,
divested of art.
The words of their songs, which they preserved, in general, by
picture writing, are in many cases of considerable antiquity, and have
much merit as native poetical compositions. Their mode of preserving
their songs, or aiding the memory in retaining them, exhibits one of
the earliest steps towards a written language.
Indian music is noted for its simplicity. In general, it consists
of a scale comprising about four notes; indeed, it has been very truth-
fully remarked that the choruses are about all there is of the Indian
INDIAN MUSIC AND POETRY. 527
song-. They have first one line of a few words expressing a sentiment,
which is followed by a chorus. The choruses are regular, and many
of them are sung in the highest strains of the voice.
The Indians had, also, various instruments of music; one some-
thing like a flute, which was made of two pieces of cedar, half round,
and then hollowed out quite thin, Avith four holes in it, and then glued
together, so as to form a perfect tube. Thfi music was produced by
blowing at the end. Whether the plan of this instrument was bor-
rowed from the whites is not known: but, amono^ many tribes, it was
known to be improved from the example of other like instruments
amongst the whites. The Indians had, also, a kind of drum, much
like the tambourine. It was constructed from a skin drawn over a keg
or hollow vessel of the kind. This they used on various occasions,
as an instrument for keeping time with vocal music, or for marking
time without other music.
The Indian naturally had a good perception of time, and meas-
SHE-SHE-QUOYINDIAN BATTLE.
ured it in his music and dances with much exactness ; in tune, he was
sadly deficient, knowing little or nothing, it is said, of the natural
intervals of tones and semi-tones. There was, through all his music,
one prevailing and constantly recurring sound, from which the others
varied by all kinds of irregular intervals and fractions of intervals.
His music, as well as accompanying words, were often impromptu.
The Indian voice, especially that of the female, was musical and capa-
ble of cultivation.
They had also an instrument of music constructed of a gourd-
shell, called by the Algonquins she-she-quoy, wherein beans were
placed to produce a rattling sound when shaken. Sometimes this
instrument wâs made of birch barjv. They also had an instrument
used for the like purpose, but differently constructed, called a rattle,
composed of the hoofs of the deer or some other animal. They were
constructed by taking a large number of these hoofs, through
which they bored a small hole in the narrow end of each, and tied
tliem to a short stick. The rattling was produced by jerking them
suddenly up and down.
The Iroquois and many other eastern.tribes had also a rattle made
of turtle shell, used as an instrument of music or to accompany vocal
singing in their dances. This instrument was made by removing the
animal from the shell, and, after drying it, placing within it a hand-
ful of flint corn, and then sewing up the skin, which is left attached
to the shell. The neck of the turtle being stretched over a wooden
handle rendered the instrument quite complete for the purposes
designed.
Among the Ojibways and many other tribes were two kinds of
drums, one called Mah-divauh-ko-quon, made from the trunk of a
hollow tree about two feet long, having one end headed with a board,
and the other covered with undressed deer skin, on which to strike.
These drums -were used principally for sacred purposes. The other
kind, called Ta-wae-gun, was rudely made in the form of a common
snare drum. These are used at festival occasions and at amusements.
Mr. Catlin thus describes the Indian drum: "Their drums are
made in a very rude manner, oftentimes with a mere piece of rawdiide
stretched over a hoop, very much in the shape of a tambourine; and
at other times are made in the form of a keg, with a head of rawhide
at each end; on these they beat with a drum-stick, which oftentimes
itself is a rattle, the bulb or head of it being made of rawhide filled
with pebbles. In other instances the stick has, at its end, a little
hoop wôund and covered with buckskin, to soften the sound, with which
they beat on the drum with great violence, as their , chief and heel
inspiring sound for all dances, and also as an accompaniment for their
numerous and never-ending songs of amusement, of thanksgiving, and
medicine^ or metaiy
Mr. Catlin also speaks of another instrument of music among
the Indians, which he refers to as the mystery whistle, concerning
which he says: "The mystery whistle is another instrument of their
invention, and very ingeniously made, the sound being produced on a
principle entirely different from that of any wind instrument known
in civilized inventions, and the notes produced on it, by the sleight of
trick of an Indian boy, in so simple and successful a manner as to
baffle entirely all civilized ingenuity, even when it is seen to be played.
An Indian boy would stand and blow his notes on this repeatedly, for
hundreds of white men who might be lookers on, not one of whom could
make the least noise on it, even by practicing with it for hours.
When I first saw this curious exhibition, I was charmed with the
peculiar sweetness of its harmonic sounds, and completely perplexed
(as hundreds of white men have, no doubt, been before me, to the great
amusement and satisfaction of the women and children) as to the
mode in which the sound was produced, even though it was repeatedly
played immediately before my eyes and handed to me for vain and
amusing endeavors. The sounds of this little simple toy are liquid
and sweet beyond description; and though here given only in har-
monies, I am inclined to think might, by some ingenious musician or
musical instrument-maker, be modulated and converted into something
very pleasing."
In regard to the peculiar style of Indian poetry, as shown by
their songs, this has been well imitated by the poet Longfellow, in his
celebrated "Song of Hiawatha," which, on its first publication, attracted
so much attention from its peculiar style, the public not understanding
that the attempt of the author in this poem was to imitate the char-
acter of Indian songs. This, indeed, is one of the peculiar features
in this masterly production of the famous poet, not generally under-
,stood, as will be noticed in the example of the following lines, when
compared wdth the Indian examples which follow
:
"Should you ask me, whence these stories?
Whence these legends and traditions,
With the odors of the forest,
With the dew and damp of meadows,
With the curling smoke of wigwams,
With the rushing of great rivers,
With their frequent repetitions.
And their wild reverberations,
As of thunder in the mountains,
I should answer, I should tell you, etc.
EXAMPLE OF NATIVE INDIAN SONGS.
The following specimens of Indian songs, here given to further
illustrate the peculiarity of Indian poetry, are taken from Schoolcraft
and other reliable Indian authorities.
The following is an address of a war-party to the women on leav-
ing their village:
WAR SONG.
Kbago! Kaago! moweemizhekain,
Neen deekway meedoag neeboyaun;
Keenahwau aatah keedau moweendim;
Keenahwaa kee gideemaugizim,
Eekwaaweeyaig kee gideemaugizim.
II.
Nee nundonaawaug nee nundonaawaug,
Ainuhwaagraungig kau nissinjig;
Nindowee tibbisheemaugtibbisheemaug,
Ainuhwaagmunjigkau nissindjig.
34
III.
Naudowaasee! naudowaaseewug!
Guyaa weenahwau tibbishko
Guyaa weenahwau meesugo,

Kaadowee eezbishee mugwaueezhisheemug.
Kaago, Kaago, etc.
Translation
of
the foregoing.
Do not, do not weep for me
Loved woman, should I die;
For yourself alone should you weep.
Poor are ye all, and to be pitied,
Ye women ye are to be pitied.
I seek, I seek our fallen relations;
I go to revenge, revenge the slain;
Our relations, fallen and slain.
And our foes, our foes, they sha'l lie,
Like them, like them shall they lie.
I go, I go, to lay them low, to lay them low.
Do, do not, etc.
The sentiments excited by the absence of a person beloved are
expressed in the following lines. They are usually sung in a measured
and pensive strain, which derives much of its effect from the peculiar
intonation and pathos, which render the music an echo of the sense:
INDIAN maiden's LAMENT.
Neezh ogoone, neezh ogonee;
Kau weesinissee.
Neezh, etc.
Aazhee gushkaindumaun;
Neenemooshain, weeyea.
Aazhee, etc.
II.
Kee unee bubbeeshkobee;
Kau enee inausheepun.
Kee unee, etc.
Neenemooshain, weeyea,
Waindwee gushkaidumaun.
Neenemooshain, etc.
Translation.
I.
'Tis two days, two long days,
Since last I tasted food;
'Tis for you, for you, my love,
That I grieve, that I grieve.
'Tis for you, for you, that I grieve.
II.
The waters flow deep and wide.
On which, love, you have sailed
^
Dividing you from me.
'Tis for you, for you, my love,
'Tis for you, for you, that I grieve.
Indian war songs are highly figurative, and sometimes a very
abstract mode of expression is employed. Each warrior sings a single
verse, which is generally complete in itself. These verses generally
consist of one or two lines, which are several times repeated, and
several times transposed. In singing, the most exact time is kept;
and, where the number of syllables in a line is not sufficient to com-
plete the measure, short interjections as he, ha, heh, etc., having no
definable meaning, are uttered to supply this deficiency. These inter-
jections serve also as a chorus, in the recital of which all the voices
join, and of which the following are examples:
I. WAKEIOK.
Aubeetuh geezhig, ne bau bainwaawaa
Ne bau baimwaawaa, aubeetuh geezhig.

Aubeetuh, etc.
II. WAKRIOR.
Ainduh so geezhiguk gauguno waubomin,
Ainduh so geezhiguk ke gauguno waubomin.
Ainduh, etc.
III. WARRIOR.
Aubeetuh geezhiguk abbeeaun peenaaseswug
Peenaaseewug, peenaaseewug.
Aubeetuh, etc.
IV. WARRIOR.
Peemiskwausheewug, peenaaseewug, aubeetuhgeezhigoang,
Peemishwausheewug, etc.
V. WARRIOR.
Auzhauwaush e wug, peenaaseewug,
Aushauwaush e wug peenaaseewug.
Peenaaseewug, etc.
VI. WARRIOR.
Aupitshee Monetoag, ne mudwaa wauweeneegoag;
Auspitshee Monetoag, ne mudwaa wauweeneegoag.
Aupitshee, etc.
VII. WARRIOR.
Kaagate neeminwaindum, naubunaatumig,
tsheebaubee
wishenaun,
Kaagate neeminwaindum, etc.
Translation.
I. VOICE.
I singI sing, under the center of the sky,
Under the center of the sky;
CJnder the center of the sky, I sing, I sing,
Under the center of the sky, etc.
II. VOICE.
Every day I look at you, I look at you,
Thou morning star.
Every day I look at you, I look at you,
Thou morning star, etc.
III. VOICE.
The half of the day I remain, ye war-like birds,
Ye war-like birds;
The half of the day I remain, I remain.
The half of the day I remain, etc.
IV. VOICE.
The birds of the brave take a flight round the sky,
A flight round the sky
;
The birds of the brave take a flight, take a flight.
The birds of the brave take a flight, eic.
V. VOICE.
They cross the enemy's linethe birds,
They cross the enemy's line.
The birdsthe birdsthe ravenous birds.
They cross the enemy's line, etc.
VI. VOICE.
The spirits on high repeat my name.
Repeat my name.
The spirits on highthe spirits on high
Repeat my name, etc.
VII. VOICE.
Full happy am I, to be slain and to lie.
On the enemy's side of the line to lie! I
Full happy am Ifull happy am I,
On the enemy's side of the line to lie, etc.
ii
The foregoing simple production of the native Indian mind finds
its counterpart in character and simplicity in the celebrated old song
of Capt. Kidd, emanating from some New England bard in the more
primitive days of the white man's society and learning, of which the
following is a sample:
OLD SONG OF CAPT. KIDD.
You captains brave and bold, hear our cries, hear our cries,
You captains brave and bold, hear our cries;
You captains brave and bold, though you seem uncontroll'd.
Don't for the sake of gold lose your souls, lose your souls,
Don't for the sake of gold lose your souls.
My name was Robert Kidd, when I sail'd, when I sail'd,
My name was Robert Kidd, when I sail'd;
My name was Robert Kidd, God's laws I did forbid,
And so wickedly I did, when I sail'd.
INDIAN MUSIC AND
TOETRY.
533
SONG OF AN INDIAN
MOTHER.
There is
something
peculiarly
attractive
in the following
rude and
literal
translation of the song of an
Indian
woman of the
Blackfeet
tribe to the spirit of her son, who was
killed on his first war party.
The words were
accurately
translated and written down at the time, and
we are assured were not in any respect
changed or smoothed
from the
sentiment
of the original:
"O, my son, farewell!
You have gone beyond the great river,
Your spirit is on the other side of the sand buttes,
I will not see you for a hundred winters;
You will scalp the enemy in the green prairie.
Beyond the great river,
When the warriors of the Blackfeet meet.
When they smoke the medicine-pipe and dance the war-dance,
They will ask,
'
Where is Isthumaka?
Where is the bravest of the Mississippi?'
He fell on the war-path.
Mai-ram-bo, Mai-ram-bo.
"
Many scalps will be taken for your death;
The Crows will lose many horses,
Their women weep for their braves.
They will curse the spirit of Isthumaka.
O, my son! I will come to you,
And make moccasins for the war-path.
As I did when you struck the lodge
Of the House Guard with the tomahawk.
Farewell, my son. I will see you
Beyond the broad river.
Mai-ram-bo, Mai-ram-bo."
Sung in a plaintive minor key, and in a wild, irregular rhyme, the
dirge was far more impressive than the words would indicate.
The following are samples of Indian music used in some of their
dances
:
cW
-^
r^
#_
P'r
f^pp
f
r
3
l
r^<^
^r
îi ^'^-IjljjiîM
<i< *>
iî
pT
t
rjrrrrjr^.j
=;
i^
z
<n^.
DOG DANCE OF THE DAKOTAHS.
534
^, rr/Tf'rr-^
p ' */
r
rr
'
r
1^
tr'
-f^
f>=-
'i)
\>
ff'r
/
~
CJ
J. J J , J. ij-.
1
'*'
U^
^
OJIBWAY SCAIiP DANCE.
The notes marked with accents are performed with a tremulous voice, sounded
High-yi-yi, etc.
CHAPTEE XLV.
SECRET SOCIETIES.
Two Institutions among the North American IndiansFrom the Atlantic to the
PacificFrom the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic OceanMedawinJeesukawin
Art of Medical MagicMysteryProphecyAncient OriginThe Term Meda
Necromantic InfluencesExerted in SecretMedawininne, a MagicianMeda-

win, the Art of MagicFormed into Societies or AssociationsAdmitting Candi-
datesWho May be AdmittedCeremony of AdmissionArt of Prophecy-
Ceremonies of the WabenoMedawin, DefinitionWabeno, Definition.
HE impression has pre-
vailed to a considerable
extent, especially among
"^"^
members of the older
secret societies of this country,
that secret orders, or secret
organizations of some kind,
existed among the American
Indians, many referring to this
as some evidence to establish
the claim that the essential
elements of the Masonic order
were universal and of great
antiquity, extending through-
out all the nations of the earth.
Investigation shows that
so far as the existence of secret
societies, or societies having
secrets or dealing in mysteries
among the American Indians,
are concerned, the claim is not
without some foundation. Mr.
Schoolcraft, who had much
individual experience in this
regard, and who seems to have given this subject thorough attention,
says there were two institutions among the North American Indians,
(535)
THE SILENT FOREST.
530
which were found to pervade the whole body of the tribes from the
Atlantic to the Pacific, and from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic
ocean ; however, the term by which they were denoted might differ, or
the minor rites of the institution might be modified. They were
called in the language of the Algonquins, as spoken by the Ojibways,
the stock tribe of that group, the Me-da-win and the Jee-su-ka-ioin.
In other words, they were the art of medical magic, or mystery, and
of prophesy ; both are very ancient in their origin, and are very gen-
erally diffused, practiced and believed in among the American tribes.
The term Meda, in its original signification, became obscure by
its later application to medical influences, supposed to be exercised by
certain mineral or animal matter, as small bits of metal, bone, feathers
and other objects kept in the arcanum of the medicine bag of the Meda
or medicine man ; but no physical application to these articles was pre-
tended by the operators, as they relied wholly on a subtle, invisible,
necromantic influence, to be exerted in secret, and at distant as well as
contiguous points.
According to Mr. Schoolcraft, the Meda or Medaivininee (mystery
man or medicine man) was in all respects a magician. He was dis-
tinct in his profession from their strictly medical practitioner. To
Meda was therefore to perform magic ; and Medawin was the art of
magic. Its professors were simply and definitely magii or magicians.
Men who professed this art were formed into societies or associa-
tions. They were admitted by public ceremony, after having been
instructed in private, and having given evidence of their skill and fit-
ness. Any one might become a follower and practicer of the Meda;
all that was necessary was to adduce proofs of his skill.
The art of prophecy, or the Jeesiikaivin, differed from the Meda-
idn in its being practiced alone by distinct and solitary individuals,
who had no direct associates. Prophets started up at long intervals,
and far apart, among the Indian tribes. Prophecy, however, was an
art resembling that of the Medawin, and founded upon a similar prin-
ciple of reliance, differing chiefly in the object sought. The Meda
sought to propitiate events; the Jossakeed aimed to predict them.
Both appealed to spirits for their power; both exhibited material sub-
stances, as stuffed birds, stones, and other objects, by, and through
which, the secret energy was to be exercised. The general modes of
operation were similar, but varied. The drum was used in both, but
the songs and incantations differed. The rattle was confined to the
ceremony of the Meda. The Jossakeed addressed himself exclusively
to the Great Spirit. His office and mode of dress were regarded
Avith greater solemnity and awe. His choruses were peculiar, and
SECRET SOCIETIES. 537
deemed by the people to carry an air of higher revereiieG and
devotion.
In the society of the Medawin. the object was to teach the higher
doctrine of spiritual existence; their nature and mode of existence,
and the influences they exercised among men. It was an association
of men who professed the highest knowledge known to the tribes.
The term Meda is rendered a noun of multitude by the inflection win.
There is apparently some difference in common speech between a
secret society and a society having secrets. If the distinction may be
made in the two, the society of the Medawin may be classed with the
latter. Their ceremony of initiation being public, the society was not
in this regard strictly a secret society ; but there were secrets or mys-
teries pertaining to the order, with which each candidate or party initi-
ated was invested; so that, like many other societies of the present
day, this society would not improperly be called a secret society.
The ceremony of initiation into this order was performed in a
lodge or wigwam constructed for that purpose, in locating which it
seems the points of the compass were observed, the structure being placed
east and west, singularly corresponding, as many have noted, with that
ancient tabernacle of the Jews, which was erected after their deliver-
ance from the bondage of the Egyptians, and which it is said was
placed due east and west to commemorate to the latest posterity that
miraculous east wind which wrought their mighty deliverance.
Mr. Schoolcraft, in his ethnological researches respecting the red
man of America, gives an illustration representing the lodge and mode
of initiation into a society of the Medawin, a copy of which is here
reproduced. He also, in the same connection, gives in detail the mode
of initiation into this society, from which the following is derived:
The lodge of initiation is generally at or near some Indian village.
On the day of initiation all the village is in motion; and the Indians
begin early in the day to assemble from all quarters. In the mean-
time, the faculty and the candidates are assembled in a lodge wdiere
they have passed a part of the night, and where the instruction is con-
tinued. The candidate here presents gifts composed of pots, blankets,
utensils, and the like, in quantities sufficient to make eight parcels, for
the eight members of the faculty. There is, besides, a dish which
contains eight moutlifuls of something to eat ; this dish is called mecla-
onagonthe dish of the ceremony- of medicine.
A large enclosure or lodge of initiation called lledaivigomik,
being prepared, all the Medas, men and women, proceed thither and
take the stations assigned them. There is some difference among the
Indian nations in the ceremonies. According to the Ojibways aiid
538
cognate tribes, when
everything is ready the Mizhinaiveg (stewards)
give notice to the faculty, who go out, walk gravely one by one, the
candidate being at the head, carrying a stick upon which the presents are
suspended, and the last in the file carrying the medaonagon; all sing:
"
Behold me, Behold me, Behold me," etc.
"
How I am prepared," etc.
They enter the lodge by the east gate, making the circuit by the
south, west, and north ; and returning, place themselves along the east
side of the lodge, fronting the center. The Mizhinaweg take the
presents from the hands of the candidates, and suspend them by two
INITIATION INTO THE SOCIETY OF THE MEDAWIN.
cords at a certain height. The faculty make another circuit in the
same direction, singing another song, with these words alone:
"
I have them, the goods of the whites," etc.
The song being finished with the tour of the lodge, the candidate
and the eight exclaim loud enough to be heard by everybody Kanage-
kana. Na is responded in chorus; upon which the faculty proceed to
take their i)laces at the north, at the places reserved for them, and
the candidate seats himself before the faculty.
At the south is a post which they call Medewatig,
three or four
?eet high, and painted according to the taste of the Mizhinaweg.
SECRET SOCIETIES.
539
At the south, in front of the faculty, are the singers with the
drum Mittigwakik and the Sheshequoy (rattle) for accompaniment,
with a little mallet to beat the drum.
One of the eight delivers a harangue upon the power of the Mani-
dos to cure or to make sick, a power given to the Medals, and trans-
mitted to them from age to age. After the harangue the candidate
rises and makes the circuit of the lodge, stopping to look at all the
members of the Meda, one after the other, offering to each one a word
of salutation, which is accompanied by a movement of his hand as if he
were counting them, or giving them his blessing, like a family saluta-
tion addressed to each according to age or sex or relationship to the
candidate, as my father, my uncle, my aunt, my sister, and so on ; and
he says to each Shawenimishim
"Have pity upon me; give me some-

thing." The faculty rise, and sing:
"
I could kill a spirit with my medicine-bag, made of the skin of a male bear."
Here follows a peculiar part of the ceremony, in which the mys-
terious effect of the medicine-bag is tried upon the candidate, in which
the candidate is overcome and falls prostrate, whereupon he is raised
up by the orator.
His first act is to recognize all the members of the Medawin as his
fellows. Hitherto he has called them father, uncle, cousin, brother,
and other like family appellations. Now he salutes them by the title
Nikamug, my fellows or colleagues, whereupon the ceremony of
marching around the lodge is continued, and the candidate places
himself at the west, where he sings:
"
I also, I am like as are the Medais."
After further experiment with the medicine-bag, the candidate
seats himself and is admitted to the right of joining in che feast of the
Medais. After some further ceremony, during which the initiated
expresses thanks to the eight members of the faculty, he gives a feast
to close the medicine-bag.
The whole ceremony, when properly observed, is very impressive
and somewhat lengthy, consuming the greater part of a day. Mr.
Schoolcraft remarks that, among the wild and rude Dakota tribes,
many primitive notions, which no longer exist with the Ojibways,
remain, as that the candidate is entirely naked to his middle and below
to his feet; whilst the Ojibways prohibit the nakedness of the candi-
date.
It seems from the account given by Mr. Kohl, in his travels in
Northwest America, that this society of Medawin, was not confined
strictly to persons of mature age, or solely in connection with the
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I
SECRET SOCIETIES. 541
medical magic; but persons were admitted as honorary members; in-
deed he speaks of a case where an infant was received into the Meda
order, which he considers as a sort of christening of the child.
Medaivin, he says, is the Indian term for Great Medicine, that is the
great frate^'nity among the Indians for religious purposes. The lodge of
initiation, he says, the Indians called Meda-gamig, translated, temple
wigwam, or house of the brethren, and remarks that the temple wig-
wam reminds him of the bowers built by the Jews for their feast of
tabernacles.
Members of some of the secret orders among the white people of
the present day will doubtless discover in the ceremony of the Meda-
loin, some coincidence of features occurring in the ceremonies of their
own secret orders.
On this subject Mr. Schoolcraft remarks: "Gentlemen of the
Masonic fraternity have discovered unmistakable evidence that there
is a similarity between the secret signs used by the members of this
society and those of Free Masons ; like them they have a secret in com-
mon with societies of the same order wherever located; and like them
have different degrees, with secrets belonging to each respectively, in the
same society; but unlike Free Masons, they admit women and chil-
dren to membership."
Among the Winnehagoes^ according to Mr. Fletcher, United
States agent, candidates for admission into this society are required
to fast three days previous to being initiated; and, at some period dur-
ing this fast, they are taken by the old medicine men to some secluded
spot where they are instructed in the doctrines and mysteries of this
society.
The ceremonies of initiation are conducted in a lodge or bower
prepared for that purpose, the width being about sixteen feet, varying
in length from ten to seventy-five yards. The members of the society
sit on each side of the lodge, the center being reserved for dancing.
The ceremony of initiation is thus described by Mr. Fletcher:
"
Before the candidates are brought forward, the ground through
the center of the bower is carpeted with blankets, and broadcloth laid
over the blankets. The candidates are then led forward and placed
on their knees upon the carpet, near one end of the bower, and facing
the opposite end. Some eight or ten medicine-men then march in
single file round the bower wath their medical bags in their hands.
Each time they perform the circuit they halt, and one of them makes a
short address; this is repeated until all have spoken. They then
form a circle and lay their medicine bags on the carpet before them.
Then they commence retching and making efforts to vomit; bending
5-42 THE AMERICAN INDIAN.
over until their heads come nearly in contact with their medicine
bags, on which they vomit, or deposit from their mouth, a small white
sea-shell about the size of a bean; this they call the medicine stone,
and claim that it is carried in the stomach and vomited up on theso
occasions. The stones they put in the mouth of their medicine bags,
and take their position at the end of the bower opposite to and facing
the candidates. They then advance in line, as many abreast as there
are candidates; holding tlieir medicine bags before them with both
hands, they dance forward slowly at first, uttering low gutteral sounds
as they approach the candidates, their step and voice increasing in
energy, until with a violent
'
Ough ' they thrust their medicine bags
to tlieir breast. Instantly, as if struck with an electric shock, the can-
didates fall prostrate on their faces, their limbs extended, their mus-
cles rigid and quivering in every fibre. Blankets are now thrown
over them, and they are suffered to lie thus a few moments ; as soon as
they show signs of recovering from the shock, they are assisted to
tlieir feet and led forward. Medicine bags are then put in their hands,
and medicine stones in their mouths ; they are now medicine men or
women, as the case may be, in full communion and fellowship. The
new members, in company with the old, now go round the bower in
single file, knocking members down promiscuously by thrusting their
medicine bags at them. After continuing this exercise for some time*
refreshments are brought in, of which they all partake. Dog's flesh
is always a component part of the dish served on these occasions.
After partaking of the feast, they generally continue the dance and
other exercises for several hours. The drum and rattle are the musical
instruments used at this feast. The most perfect order and decorum
is observed throughout the entire ceremony. The members of this
society are remarkably strict in their attendance at this feast; nothing
but sickness is admitted as an excuse for not complying with an in-
vitation to attend. Members sometimes travel fifty miles, and even
further, to be present at a feast, when invited."
Mr. Fletcher notes the fidelity with which members preserve and
keep the secrets with which they are invested at their initiation, and in
reviewing the matter of these societies among the Indians, he is inclined
to accord to them sincerity of purpose, and says that from a careful obser-
vation of the ceremonies of this order here referred to, during six years
among this people, he has been unable to detect the imposition, if
there be one, with which they are so frequently charged by the whites.
He says that the tribe have implicit confidence in their medicine men,
and firmly believe that they possess great power.
CHAPTEE XLVI.
INDIAN TREATIES.
Popular Idea of an Indian TreatyThe Notion of the Spanish InvadersThe
English IdeaThe PuritansTreaty with MassasoitWilliam PennTreaties
of United StatesAt Fort PittGreenvilleChicagoPrairie du Chien
Broken CovenantsProverbial DeceptionBlack Hawk War.

^T this day the term
Indian ireaiy seems
$
to imply a negotia-
tion between our na_
tional government a n cl
some Indian tribe or na-
tion for the conveyance
or cession of lands; but
originally, upon the first
settlement of this country
bv the whites, these treat-
ies between the latter and
the Indian natives had no
such purpose in view.
The Spanish invaders
of the newlj^ discovered
country, it would seem, considered it as a vast waste, in which rights
were to be acquired by assertion, coupled with the ability to maintain
them by force; and the English idea likewise rested much upon the
same principle, as is shown by the various grants of territory at first
made by the English kings to favorite individuals and corporations.
Even the Mayflower Puritans, in their selection of a place of
settlement upon the coast of New England, seem to have possessed the
notion that there was no one having any lawful authority to dispute
their claim to so much of the country as they should choose to assert
their right to occupy. Title to the soil, and the right of alienation
in any one, does not appear, so far as light on the subject is revealed
in history, to have entered their heads, and this is apparent from the
(543)
WM. PENN'S treaty with the LENNl LENAPES
544: THE AMERICAN INDIAN.
course they pursued, with reference to the natives they found in the
vicinity of the country where they took up their abode.
As some one in a vein of humor has expressed it, the Puritans,
when they landed, first fell upon their knees, and then they fell on the
aborigines.
The Puritans, having landed in December, had no intercourse with
the Indians until March following, when they were visited by the his-
toric Samoset, of the tribe of Wampanoags, of which 3Iassasoit was
the principal chief, and from whom they derived information concern-
ing the natives of the vicinity. This, as it will appear, suggested to
the Pilgrims that it would be for their interests to have an interview
with this great chief of the people they had fallen amongst, which
was brought about by the agency of Squanto, of the Pawtucket tribe,
introduced by Samoset, who spoke some English, and through whom
the great chi^f Massasoit was invited to visit the English for purposes
of acquaintance and mutual friendship. At the interview which fol-
lowed, and it seems was held with much ceremony, a treaty was con-
cluded between Massasoit and the governor of the English colony, the
stipulations of which were to the following effect:
1 "That neither he (the governor) nor any of his (Massasoit)
should injure or do hurt to any of their people. f
2. That if anything were taken away from any of theirs, he
should cause it to be restored, and they should do the like to his.
3. That if any of his did any hurt to any of theirs, he should
send the offender that they might punish him.
4. That if any did unjustly war against him, they would aid
him, and if any did war against them, they should aid them.
5. That he should send to his neighbor confederates to inform
them of this, that they might not wrong them, but might be likewise
comprised in these conditions of peace.
6. That when his came to them upon any occasion, they should
leave their arms behind them.
7. That by so doing, their sovereign lord. King James, would
esteem him as his friend and ally."
In this, it will be observed that no right to the title of the soil,
or even occupancy, is recognized as existing in any one, nor is the
right of occupancy, assumed by the English, disputed by the chief
Massasoit. The Avhole object of the conference appears to have been
to secure and perpetuate friendly and peaceful relations between the
parties.
This is the first treaty of which we have any account between the
white invader and the Indian native. But as time went on, and immi-
I
INDIAN TREATIES. 545
gration of the white man increased, the Indian found his grounds
becoming sadly encroached upon, and his means of subsistence impaired
in like proportion. The expedient to which the white man resorted to
allay the uneasiness thus arising on the part of the Indian, was the
purchase of his land in parcels, giving some trifling consideration
therefor.
Although the Indian entered into contracts of this kind, yet he
never in fact fully understood the nature of such transactions. The
principle of alienating land, whereby his right of occupancy ceased,
was something his mind could not comprehend, and as the immigration
of the white man continued to increase, and his presence became sen-
sibly felt by the Indian, the wars and massacres between the races^
which have so darkened the pages of our early history, naturally fol-
lowed
;
and which suggested to the benevolent mind of William Penn>
in taking possession of his grant of land on the Delaware, in
1682,
that memorable treaty which he entered into with the natives, whom he
found occupying the country comprised within his grant.
This treaty is the first instance on record of substantial recogni-
tion, by the white man on this continent after the discovery, of the
rights of the Indian; and all subsequent treaties between the parties,
which aimed at justice, have had in view, as a precedent, this famous
and equitable treaty of William Penn.
The assumption of the English kings, as to their title to the soil
of America, which they claimed the right to traîsfer by grant to their
subjects, is illustrated by the anecdote of Charles II. and William
Penn, on the occasion of an interview, as the latter was about leaving
for America to take possession of the lands the King had granted him.
The King inquired of Penn as to whether he did not feel some uneas-
iness concerning his safety in going upon the lands granted him among
the wild natives of America; to which Penn responded that he
intended to cultivate friendly relations with them ; and, moreover, said
he, "as I intend equitably to buy their lands, I shall not be molested."
"Buy their lands," said the King, "why, is not the whole land mine?"
"No, your Majesty," said Penn, "we have no right to their lands.
They are the original occupants of the soil." "What," continued
King Charles, "have I not the right of discovery?" "Well," said
Penn, "just suppose that a canoe full of savages shall by some acci-
dent discover Great Britain, would you vacate or sell?"
But King Charles had a precedent for his position. William the
Conqueror, a predecessor, when he stepped on the English shore, said
"he took seizin of the land."
The first treaty between the United States, as then formed, and
35
54:6
the Indiaiis within its territory, was concluded September 17th,
1778,
by "articles of agreement and confederation" between commissioners
named, "for and in behalf of the United States of America," and the
"deputies and chief men of the Delaware nation," at Fort Pitt, now
Pittsburg. This treaty, however, had no relation to ceding lands, but
was rather for the purpose of amity between the parties, fully recog-
nizing the right of the Delawares to the country they then occupied.
The objects of which treaty will more fully appear by the following
extract from the preamble:
"Whereas, the United States are engaged in a just and necessary
war in defense and support of life, liberty and independence, against
the King of England and his adherents ; and as said King is yet pos-
sessed of several posts and forts, on the lakes and other places, the
reduction of which is of great importance to the peace and security of
the contracting parties, and, as the most practicable way for the troops
of the United States, to some of the posts and forts, is by passing
through the country of the Delaware nation, the aforesaid deputies, on
behalf of themselves and their nation, do hereby stipulate and agree
to give a free passage through their country to the troops aforesaid;
and the same to conduct, by the nearest and best ways, to the posts,
forts or towns of the enemies of the United States, affording to said
troops such supplies of corn, meat, horses, or whatever may be in their
power, for the accommodation of such troops, on the commanding
officers, etc., paying, or engaging to pay, the full value of whatever
they can supply them with. And the said deputies, on behalf of their
nation, engage to join the troops of the United States aforesaid, with
such a number of their best and most expert warriors, as they can
spare, consistent with their own safety, and act in consort with
them."
Subsequent treaties made between the United States, or Federal
Union, and the Indian tribes, up to the time of the treaty at Green-
ville, August 3d, 1795, contained no stipulation for the cession of
lands; but such of them as partook of the nature of ceding lands were
in the phraseology of settling boundaries, and however the provisions
might operate in ceding lands, the expression of settling boundaries
between the parties is observed throughout. But all the treaties
between the United States government and the Indians, after the last
mentioned, are profuse with stipulations for ceding Indian lands.
It is not the purpose here, neither is the space allowed to a single
chapter of this book adequate, to give anything like a satisfactory
account of the dealings of the white man with the Indians, through
the medium of what are termed treaties. What is here undertaken is
to show, ill general terms, under this head, the injustice which has
been done the Indian, in this regard, bj the white man.
There is probably no dispute as to the original design of our race.
It was to supersede the Indians in the occupation of their country
;
and in this we have completely succeeded. So much of that race as
have not been exterminated, have been so far merged or assimilated
with the white man as practically to have lost their existence as Indians.
Those that survive have been forced to accept our condition of life as
a dernier resort, however much it may have been against their wishes
and instincts.
An examination of the colonial records and the treaties of the
Indian tribes with the United States government, from its foundation
to the present time, will disclose the fact to the impartial mind, that
not a single treaty of the government, or engagement of the colonial
authorities, possessed the elements of justice towards the Indians,
with the exception of the famous treaty at Shakamaxen, on the Dela-
ware river, between William Penn and the tribes in that locality.
Bishop Whipple, on this subject, says it may be doubted whether
one single treaty has ever been fulfilled, as it would have been if it
had been made with a foreign power. He continues: "Pledges,
solemnly made, have been shamelessly violated. The Indian has had
no redress but war. In these wars ten white men were killed to one
Indian, and the Indians who were killed have cost the government a
hundred thousand dollars each. Then came a new treaty, more violated
faith, another war, until we have not a hundred miles between the
Atlantic and Pacific w^hich has not been the scene of an Indian
massacre."
A history attending the making of one treaty will serve to mark
the character of them all; and the more important the subject of the
treaty became, the more extraordinary and unwarrantable were the
measures and expedients resorted to, to overreach the Indians and
consummate the work designed.
Among those in earlier times, of this character, which particu-
larly attract our attention, is the treaty at Chicago, concluded August
29th, 1821, by Lewis Cass and Solomon Sibley, commissioners for the
United States, with the Ottawa, Pottawattamie and Ojibway nations of
Indians.
The council of the tribes named, at which this treaty wâs made,
was convened by request of the United States government. The
object sought was to extinguish the claim of the Indians to all the
lands in which their claim had not already been extinguished, east of
Lake Michigan and south of Grand river.
548
The disturbances incident to the war of 1812 had all been
adjusted ; the work of the Erie canal through the state of New York
was Avell under way, and its completion was soon to give an impetus to
western emigration,
demanding an extension of the public domain for
the benefit of those seeking homes in the West. The acquisition of
the territory in question by the United States government had, there-
fore, become important.
A full account of the proceedings attending this treaty is given
by Mr. Schoolcraft, who wâs secretary to the commissioners, in his
book of travels in the central portion of the Mississippi valley, pub-
lished in 1825, from which it appears that the Indians were surprised
that the government should ask from them a cession of the lands in
question ; and in which it further appears that the chiefs absolutely
refused to concur in the application of the government for more of
their lands.
The Pottawattamie chief Metea, the orator and master mind of
this occasion, in addressing the council, speaks thus firmly in answer
to the application of the commissioners:
"We have sold you a great tract of land already, but it is not
enough. We sold it to you for the benefit of your children, to farm
and to live upon. We have now but little left. We shall want it all
for ourselves. We know not how long we may live, and we wish to
leave some lands for our children to hunt upon. You are gradually
taking away our hunting-grounds. Your children are driving us
before them. We are growing uneasy. What lands you have you
may retain forever, hut we shall sell no more.^''
But, notwithstanding the declaration of Metea that they would
sell no more land, the object of the, mission of the commissioners was,
nevertheless, in the end, accomplished, and the careful readei of the
report of the proceedings attending this treaty, can come to no other con-
clusion than that it Avas consummated by fraud and imposition upon
the tribes, in which, although there is a studious attempt to hide it,
whiskey figured largely in the fraud. The Indians were intimidated,
and, by means aforesaid, unduly influenced. The transaction was of
that character, at least, that it attracted special attention in England,
and the action of our government was severely commented upon, and
criticised by the London Times, as noticed by Mr. Schoolcraft in his
work before mentioned, to the following effect:
"The United States have driven a bargain, and a hard bargain it
is, with the miserable Indians. For forty-five thousand dollars in
merchandise, a little more than five thousand pounds in money, as valued
by those who furnished it, and an annuity of less than two thousand
pounds per aunum, Governor Cass, whose diplomatic talents appear on
this occasion to have been highly applauded by his countrymen, has
prevailed upon the helpless aborigines to surrender five millions of
fertile acres, to the westward of the lakes, and equal in surface to
about one-fourth of Ireland. Yerily, Governor Cass may be said to
understand his business."
The great chief Metea, who was at the time the most influential
chief of his tribe, firmly, yet cautiously, insisted that they would sell
no more lands, until near the close of the council, when the principal
chief of the Ottawas, Keewaygooshkum, taking a more favorable view
of the matter, evidently having had some influence brought to bear
upon him, made a speech tending to influence the minds of the tribes
favorably to the proposed purchase, which produced a marked effect
upon the Indians.
A favorable termination was finally reached on the 29th of August,
and a treaty ceding the lands described by General Cass, in his appli-
cation to the Indians therefor, was concluded and signed by the com-
missioners and principal chiefs of the several tribes; but discontent
and dissatisfaction with what had been done, on further reflection, ever
after continued among the Ottawas and Pottawattamies. The chief of
the Ottawas before mentioned, on his return home, was persecuted by
his tribe, and his son secretly poisoned, in revenge for the part he
took in consummating the treaty. And it was this discontent, on the
part of the Pottawattamies, which nearly resulted in leading them to
join Black Hawk in his raid into Illinois in 1832, and they would
have done so but for the earnest appeals and influence of the half-
breed chiefs, Billy Caldwell and Alexander Bobinson.
Considering the flattering promises made by General Cass to the
Indians, as to the adequate price that would be paid them for these
lands, the consideration as finally stipulated, as show^n by the treaty
itself, sinks into insignificance, and becomes ridiculous. As remarked
by one of the chiefs, in his speech at this council, in answer to Gov-
ernor Cass' promise of large consideration, their experience was that
the money they received in payment for lands when obtained seemed
to amount to nothing, and gave them no substantial relief. For in-
stance, the consideration in this case, paid to the Pottawattamies,
amounted to about a dollar for each person in the tribe annually for
the limited term of twenty years. This application of figures to
actual facts shows how it was, as their chief well remarked, that the
amount paid them seemed to do them no good. The consideration
was inadequate, and a valid defense can scarcely be made against the
bold charges of the London Times, before quoted.
550
The criticism indulged in by the London Times in regard to tlie
part borne by General Cass in the transaction in question, strikes us
with much force, especially when we consider the reasons put forth by
him to the Indians, which, in his opinion, should operate to hasten
their willingness to part with these lands as proposed. He says:
*'The quantity of game you now kill in that part of the country is
very little, almost nothing."
Did it ever occur to General Cass that this circumstance of scarc-
ity of game, operating to depreciate these lands to the Indians, had
arisen solely from acts of the white man himself in his invasion of
the country; that his people, having by continued encroachments
depreciated the value to them of the Indian's domain, the white
man was not at liberty now, in equity ai:d good conscience, to
expect to profit from the injury, and assign it as a reason why the
Indian should be willing to part with it, and leave it to the party who
had despoiled it, on the terms the white man proposedmuch on the
principle that if a person sets up a nuisance upon his neighbor's
premises, whereby the value becomes reduced, he may claim the right
to purchase the same at the reduced value he himself caused. This
would certainly be condemned as law for the white man, and why not
the same for the Indian ?
The proceedings, called a treaty, by which the United States
government claimed to have acquired all the right of the Sacs and
Foxes to the country in the western part of the state of Illinois, is
another glaring example in the line of overreaching the Indians by
pretended negotiations.
This is the treaty purporting to have been made at St. Louis,
between William Henry Harrison, Governor of the Indiana territory,
and commissioner plenipotentiary of the United States for concluding
any treaty or treaties which may be found necessary with any of the
Northwestern tribes of Indians, and the chiefs and head men of the
united Sac and Fox tribes, Avhereby said tribes ceded (as is claimed)
to the United States, for a nominal sum, all their rights in a vast tract
of land in the western part of the state of Illinois, according to bound-
aries fixed in the articles of said treaty.
This treaty purports to have been concluded at St. Louis on the
3rd of November,
1804, and is signed by William Henry Harrison, on
the part of the United States government, and by the following persons
representing the Sacs and Foxes: Layauvois, Pashepaho, Qiiash-
quame, Ouichequaka, Hahshequarhiqua, whose several marks are
affixed.
It is this so called treaty that Black Hawk contended against, and
INDIAN TKEATIES. 551
insisted was not binding upon his tribe, and which he repudiated, and
upon wliich followed what is known as the Black Hawk War. In the
making of this treaty there was no assembly of the tribe, and no con-
sultation with them whatever. These so called chiefs and head men,
being at St. Louis together, at the date mentioned, were induced to put
their marks to the treaty as drawn up under the direction of Governor
Harrison, without any authority from their tribe whatever; and w^hich
the government subsequently enforced by its military arm, at the
expense of much blood and considerable treasure.
But among the most ingenious work in overreaching the Indians,
and one of the most glaring examples in this regard next to that last
mentioned, is the treaty at Prairie du Chien, concluded July 29tli,
1829, and followed by that concluded afterwards at Chicago, Septem-
ber 29, 1833, by which was acquired the country of southern Wiscon-
sin, south of the AVisconsin river, and the country of northern Illinois,
comprising Avhat was equal to about one-third of the area of the state,
and being the most valuable tract of land ever acquired from the
Indians through a single scheme. Although it may have been com-
posed in two transactions, it was, nevertheless, the subject of one
scheme; and, as the writer derived his information concerning this
transaction from what may be considered inside sources, he will speak
more particularly as a narrator in the "first person singular."
Measures had been adopted for the construction of the Illinois and
Michigan canal, and emigration had commenced to advance into Michi-
gan and Indiana. The lead mines of Galena had commenced to
attract the attention of miners and others, which called for action to
further extinguish the Indian title to the country wêst of Lake Michi-
gan. The greater, and most valuable portion of the land sought,
belonged to the Pottawattamies, their consent to parting with which
had therefore to be obtained; for this purpose, therefore, this tribe,
with their allies, the Ottawas and Chippeways (Ojibways), were
requested to meet with the commissioners of the United States govern-
ment at Prairie du Chien, in August, 1829, in council, to negotiate for
the cession of a portion of land about the lead mines at Galena.
The master spirit in concocting this scheme, on the part of the
United States government, it would appear, was Dr. Alexander AYol-
cott, then Indian agent at Chicago, and whose expert hand in schemes
of this kind is seen in the background in the consummation of the
purchase by the treaty at Chicago of August 29, 1821.
In the before-mentioned spring of 1829, President Jackson appointed
Gen. John McNeal, of the United States army. Col. Pierre Menard,
of Illinois, and Caleb Atwâter, of Ohio, commissioners to treat with
the Indians for the cession of the country covering the lead mines
before mentioned.
Gen. McNeal was a native of New Hampshire, and was, at this
time, colonel of the first United States infantry, with the rank of brevet-
brigadier general.
Col. Menard was a Frenchman, who settled at Kaskaskia, in Illi-
nois, long before it became a state, and whose name is so prominent in
its early history.
Mr. Atwater was an Ohio politician of that day, and an ardent
supporter of President Jackson, otherwise called a "Jackson man,"
from whom he had received the favor of this commission as some recog-
nition for his political services. He was a man of learning and promi-
nence in his own state, where he was much respected. He was also an"
author of some note, and wrote a very excellent book on the subject of
"Western Antiquities." He was the historian on the occasion of this
treaty at Prairie du Chien, and we are greatly indebted to him for
many historic facts relating thereto, which he preserved.
The commissioners left St. Louis, on the 30th of June, for Prairie
du Chien, arriving there about the middle of July, when they
proceeded to complete arrangements for the council.
The tribes assembled here to meet the agents of the United States
government in this council, Mr. Atwater says, were the Winnebagoes,
Pottawattamies, Chippeways, Ottawas, Sioux, Sacs and Foxes, and
Menominees. In addition to these there were in the assembly, Mr.
Atwater says, "half-breeds and the officers from Fort Crawford at that
place, the Indian agents, sub-agents, interpreters, and a great concourse
of strangers from nearly every city in the Union, and even from Liver-
pool, London, and Paris. What occasioned the presence of these
strangers, and especially those from far distant points, does not appear,
but it must have been the great interest, at that day, centered in the
lead mines in the country, which were the subject of the proposed
treaty."
From Mr. Atwater's description, it seems much, ceremony was
observed in arranging and constituting the council, the object being
to make the occasion as imposing and impressive upon the Indians as
possible, in which the commissioners Avere quite successful. Mr. At-
water says "the spectacle was grand and morally sublime in the highest
degree."
The Winnebagoes were first addressed, then the Chippeways,
Ottawas, and Pottawattamies. The last three tribes were rather mild
in their demands, but with the Winnebagoes it was otherwise. They
were always a turbulent people, at least not very passive in their
nature; on the contrary were considered aggressive, constantly resist-
ing demands made upon tiiem by the United States government.
They insisted that the United States had not kept faith with them in
the past; that a large amount was then due them on agreements at
former councils, and they would listen to no propositions until the
amount in arrears was paid them. Their answer to proposals was:
"Wipe out your debt before you run in debt again to us."
There was such an uneasiness of feeling among the Winnebagoes
that the commissioners were advised by Naivkcnu, their principal
chief, to go into the fort for safety. They were told by the AVinne-
bagoes that "they would use a little switch upon them;" in plain
English, that they would assassinate the commissioners and all persons
connected with them. By this time 200 warriors, under Keokuk and
Morgan, chiefs of the Sacs and Foxes, Avho were friendly to the whites,
arrived and began their war dance for the United States, and quietly
spread among the Indians the story that thirty steamboats, with can-
non and United States troops, and 400 warriors of their own, were
near at hand. The Winnebagoes were silenced by this intelligence
and by demonstrations not misunderstood by them. Mr. Atwater says
that the arrival of Keokuk was a season of great joy with them ; that
he placed more reliance on his friendly warriors than on all the United
States forces then stationed at that place. Good as the officers were,
the soldiers, he says, were too dissipated and worthless to be relied on
for a moment.
Taking Keokuk aside and alone, he expressed to him in plain
English what he wanted of him and what he would do for him, to
Avhich Keokuk answered in good English: "I understand you, sir,
perfectly, and it shall be done." It was all done faithfully, and he
turned the tide favorably. The treaty was successfully concluded with
the Pottawattamies and their allies, the Ottawas and Chippeways, on
the 29th of July. That with the Winnbeagoes was concluded August
1,
following, whereby about eight million acres of land Avere acquired
and added to the domain of the United States government.
Upon setting out, at this council, the representations to the
Indians, on joining it, were that the United States government desired
only to acquire land enough to aiford complete privileges for digging
or working ilie lead mines, but it ended not only in acquiring the
whole country of the lead mines, but in acquiring a strip of country
extending along the Wisconsin river, opening a communication in that
direction from the Mississippi to Lake Michigan; also a strip of
country on the east side of the Mississippi, extending from the lead
mines to Rock Island, and a strip of country on the north, of the pur-
chase of 1816, reaching up above Eock Island from the south, leaving,
however, a tract of country untouched on the east of the Mississippi,
extending to Lake Michigan, still belonging to the Indians, comprising
about five million acres of land, now the richest portion of northern
Illinois and southern Wisconsin.
The personal narrative of Alexander Robinson, a leading chief of
the Pottawattamies, in regard to this treaty, reveals to the inquisitive
mind some very interesting facts, of which Mr. Atwater's account
gives no intimation, and we must conclude was not, in the nature of
things, in any way made known to him. This treaty was entirely a
blind. It availed the United States little or nothing for practical pur-
poses at that time, beyond possession of the lead mines, except that it
served as an entering wedge for the treaty at Chicago, which followed
in September, 1833. It would have been very difficult for the United
States government, at that time, or within any reasonable time there-
after, to have negotiated with the Indians to acquire at one time all
their lands then remaining in Illinois and Wisconsin. But, having
acquired a strip of land along the east side of the Mississippi and
along the Wisconsin river, the Indians became completely hemmed in,
or surrounded, by the grants of the Prairie du Chien treaty. Their
attention being: called to this fact, some three or four Aêars thereafter,
it became an easier matter, upon their realizing the situation, to nego-
tiate with them for the balance of their lands remaining, under such
circumstances. To use a common saying, in playing that interesting
game called checkers, the Indians were driven into a single corner
before they were aware of it.
In 1857, I became personally acquainted with Alexander Robin-
son, the half breed Pottawattamie chief, before mentioned, having some
business transactions with him, which extended over a considerable
period of time. He was then living on his reservation on the Des-
plaines river, just above the present crossing of the Galena branch of the
Chicago & Northwestern Railway. At the outbreak of the Black Hawk
disturbance in 1832, Robinson was a volunteer in one of the four
companies raised in Chicago and the settlements around, called Major
Bailey's battalion, which took possession of Fort Dearborn, it then
being unoccupied, where the battalion remained until tlie arrival of
the United States forces under Major Whistler.
A feAv years thereafter I made him a visit at his residence on the
Desplaines river, and took from him full notes of the history of his
life, which, it seems, had never before received the attention of any
one save his own family, and with them, even, he was never very com-
municative on the subject.
My impression of Indian government and usage, at that time, was
that their chiefs were born into, or inherited, their positions as such,
and I set out, in obtaining Mr. Robinson's narrative, with that impres-
sion. After proceeding at considerable length, showing his birth at
Michilimacinac, his service as an Indian trader, and so on, I soon dis-
covered that he was not one of those chiefs who had become so by
inheritance or birth. I therefore stopped short and asked 1 "Mr.
Eobinson, when and how did you become a chief?" He answered (he
spoke English imperfectly)
:
"Me made chief at the treaty at Prairie du Chien."
"How did you happen to be made chief?"
"Old Wilmette, he come to me one day and he say: Dr. Wolcott
want me and Billy Caldwell to be chiefs. He ask me if I will. Me
say yes, if Dr. Wolcott want me to be."
At this time there were two vacancies in the number of the chiefs
of the Pottawattamie tribe, occasioned by recent deaths. Here the
work of Dr. Wolcott, the agent for the Pottawattamies, Ottawas and
Chipjêways at Chicago, to acquire the title tc the remaining lands in
Illinois, first appears. From the facts I learned of Mr. Eobinson, it
l)ecame evident that the chiefs of the tribe, at that time, having these
two vacancies, would be opposed to parting with these lands, although
Mr. Eobinson seems to have had no conception of the situation, nor of
the design of Dr. Wolcott.
Dr. Wolcott was a native of Connecticut, and, judging from his
record as Indian agent, was a specimen Yankee of the genuine type.
He was a diligent public officer, who pursued his instructions faith-
fully, and was fully up to the standard of Yankee character in driving
a goodc bargain. It is due to him, however, to say that he has never
been accorded that position in local history which his valuable services,
in aiding the settlement of the Northwest, justly entitles him to. While
General Cass was prominent in most of these early negotiations with
the Indian tribes, yet it is believed, indeed, a careful review of local
history indicates, that Dr. Wolcott was the master spirit in carrying
out the early policy of the government in extinguishing the Indian
title to their lands in Michigan, Illinois and southern Wisconsin, after
the close of the war of 1812. He was Indian aiênt at Chicaofo at
the time of the treaty of 1821, in which General Cass appears as the
principal negotiator for the government, but in which Dr. Wolcott was
an important factor, as before mentioned, and who, it appears, at that
early day, was impressed with the great future of Chicago.
It became the policy of the government to extinguish the Indian
title to the lands about Chicago, especially in northern Illinois, as
556
early as possible. This policy was, no doubt, inspired largely from
the influences and representations of Dr. Wolcott. After the treaty
of 1821, he seems to have addressed his attentions and energies
specially in the direction aforesaid.
In 1829, the chiefs of the Pottawattamies, with perhaps one single
exception, were wild Indians, having no sympathies with the interests
of the Avhite man, and it seems that Dr. Wolcott became
convinced
that success was at least doubtful unless measures were taken to brinar
some special influence to bear upon these chiefs. His plan, therefore,
was to add Eobinson and Caldwell to their number.
This was a very
happy idea, and became eminently successful, and to him must be
accorded the real credit of so shaping the negotiations at Prairie du
Chien as to lead to the success of the treaty at Chicago, which fol-
lowed in 1833, and by which the extinguishment of the title to all the
Indian lands in northern Illinois and southern Wisconsin was com-
pletely accomplished.
The lands which the government desired to acquire being occu-
pied mostly by the Pottawattamies, and the Ottawas and Chippeways
having no interest therein, except under their agreement of alliance
with the Pottawattamies, the protest, or policy of the latter tribe in
relation to parting with this land, would naturally be concurred in by
the other two tribes, so that all that had to be done by Dr. Wolcott
was to obtain the favorable action of the chiefs of the Pottawattamies.
There could be no other object for the interference of Dr. Wolcott to
obtain the admission of Kobinson and Caldwell as chiefs of the Pot-
tawattamies, except in connection with the desire of the government
concerning their lands, and there were probably no other two persons
in existence who possessed that influence among the three allied tribes,
and especially with the Pottawattamies, as did these two men.
They were both men of integrity, Hobinson a half blood Chippe-
way, and Caldwell a half blood Pottawattamie. While in their instincts
they were essentially white men, yet the history of their lives shows
that they had been ever faithful to their Indian relatives. Robinson
had been, during a large proportion of his life, an Indian trader,
whereby he had occasion to grant the Indians many and imjôrtant
favors. Caldwell had espoused the cause of the allied tribes of the
Indians of the Northwest, in the war of 1812, and was with Tecumseh
as one of his aides at the battle of the Thames. The decision of this
battle being disastrous to the Indian cause, Caldwell cordially gave
his adherence thereafter to the United States government; and, being
a man of liberal views, as well as good English education, he com-
menced to throw his influence in favor of the advance of civilization
INDIAN TliEATIES. 557
in tlie Northwest, recognizing the fact that its accomplishment was a
matter of but a short time. In other wôrds, in common saying, "the
Indian must go."
The known sentiment of these two men, in this regard, induced
Dr. Wolcott to set an influence at work to thrust upon the Pottawat-
tamie tribe these two very influential men as chiefs, to supply the two
vacancies existing. In aid of this purpose, it seems, he secured the
services of Antoine Wilmette, a Frenchman, who had married an
Indian wife of the Pottawattamie tribe, one of the oldest residents at
Chicago and a man of much influence with the Indians, and a particu-
lar friend of Robinson.
Robinson and Caldwell were, at this time, both living at Chicago,
on the West Side, at what was then called the Point, just north of
where Lake street now crosses the South Branch of the Chicago river.
Proceeding with my inquiries, I asked Mr. Robinson: "After
the Indians had met together at Prarie du Chien for the treaty, what
was the first thing done
?"
"The first thing they do they make me and Billy Caldwell chiefs."
"How were you made chiefs? What was done?"
"First, all the chiefs they met together, and they say they have
us for chiefs. Then the tribe meet in council, and the chiefs tell them
they have us for chiefs; then the tribe all say they want us for chiefs,
and then we be chiefs, and then we all go and make the treaty.
''''
Thus it will be seen that no chances were taken in carrying out
the programme, as laid out by Dr. Wolcott. The very first business
in hand, as shown by Mr. Robinson, was that of making him and Billy
Caldwell chiefs; that being done, in other words the jury being suc-
cessfully packed, the verdict was awaited as a matter of form. Dr.
Wolcott accompanied the Pottawattamies to Prairie du Chien, and saw
his plans fully accomplished, just as he had laid them, and was after-
ward duly complimented upon the result, in the same manner as was
General Cass for his adroitness at the treaty at Chicago of 1821.
While Mr. Atwater discovered much turbulence of spirit, on the
part of the Winnebagoes, at this council, it is inferred from what he
says that a different and more friendly spirit prevailed among the three
tribes of Chippeways, Ottawas and Pottawattamies. If Mr. Atwater
could have known of the ingenious diplomacy on the part of Dr.
Wolcott, he would have had less anxiety as to the results than he did
have, in the absence of any know^ledge concerning the same.
In this treaty the following, among other reservations of land,
were made:
"For Wauponehsee (Waubanse), five sections of land at the
558
Grand Bois on Fox River of Illinois," (Big AVoods), being near
where Aurora now stands.
"
For Shabehnay two sections at his village near the Paw Paw
Grove." And there was granted, among other lands, as follows:
"To Alexander Robinson, for himself and children, two sections
on the Riviere Aux Pleins."
"To Billy Caldwell, two and one-half sections on the Chicago
River, above and adjoining the line of the purchase of 1816."
Thus
were Robinson and Caldwell properly remembered in the distribution
of favors.
Waubanse was subsequently driven off from his reservation, for
which he never received anything, and the same is true of Shabbona
in regard to his two sections near the Paw Paw Grove. He left his
reservation temporarily, and went out to visit his tribe in their new
home west of the Mississippi, and, on his return, found that the gov-
ernment had surveyed and sold his land to white settlers, refusing to
give him any compensation therefor whatever.
The land granted to Billy Caldwell he subsequently disposed of,
and followed his tribe west of the Mississippi, where he died about
the year 1848. Alexander Robinson disposed of a considerable por-
tion of his reservation ; the balance remaining descended to his heirs,
who are now in possession of the same.
The misleading point in this treaty, and the hope held out to the
ear, is shown in article 2, wherein it is stipulated that, in consideration
of the lands thus ceded, the United States
"
agree to pay to the afore-
said nation of Indians the sum of $16,000 annually, forever, in specie,
said sum to be paid at Chicago; and further, to deliver to said Indians
at Chicago fifty barrels of salt, annually, forever; and further, the
United States agree to make permanent, for the use of the Indians,
the blacksmith's establishment at Chicago." This is an assurance to
the Indians that no further cessions of land will be expected of them.
Thus it will be noticed, by the terms of this treaty, that the
money consideration agreed upon is to be paid annually^ forever^ at
Chicago^ and that fifty barrels of salt are to be delivered to the Indians
annually, forever, at the same place, and the natives are assured that
they will find in running order for their use forever "the blacksmith's
establishment at Chicago," which is hereby made permanent.
Verily, one would be led to believe that Dr. Wolcott, who
evidently dictated these stipulations, had not a very far seeing vision
as to the future of the country, if he expected Chicago, as this would
indicate, to permanently remain a point for delivering salt to these
three tribes of Indians, and a place where they would be accommo-
dated with a permanent blacksmith's establishment for mending their
steel traps and repairing their gun locks; or else it must be admitted
that these undertakings were inserted solely for the purpose of over-
reaching the Indians by representations and promises of this kind,
which, in the nature of things, would not be fulfilled.
In the spring of 1832, came what is called the Black Hawk War,
from a noted chief of a band of the Sac tribe of Indians, which being
ended in the latter part of the summer by the destruction of a large
portion of his band, the country of Illinois commenced to attract the
favorable attention of immigration; whence followed the treaty of the
United States government with the Indians at Chicago, in September,
1833, at which the plan of the final extinction of the Indian title in
the remaining lands of Illinois and a portion of Wisconsin, as con-
templated by the treaty at Prairie du Chien in 1829, was accomplished
by an exchange of lands with the Pottawattamies, assigning them a
district of country on the west of the Mississippi of equal extent,
adding an annuity in money and goods during a term stipulated.
Thus ended, through these several schemes, the last of the supremacy
of the Algonquin race in the country of their fathers.
Billy Caldwell and Alexander Bobinson, and their immediate
friends, were not only liberally remembered in the treaty at Praire du
Chien; but, at the treaty at Camp Tippecanoe, Indiana, concluded
October 20th, 1832, just after the Black Hawk War, the following
stipulation occurring:
"
$600 shall be paid annually to Billy Caldwell;
$200 to Alexander Bobinson ; and $200 to Pierre Le Clerc, during
their natural lives;" and in the treaty at Chicago, September 27th,
1833, occurs the following stipulation: "$400 a year to be paid to
Billy Caldwell, and $300 a year to be paid to Alexander Bobinson for
life, in addition to the annuity already granted them." By the same
treaty there is given to Alexander Bobinson and Billy Caldwell
$10,000 each, instead of reservations of land, which they asked, but
which the commissioners refused to grant.
The inside history of every treaty with the Indians, for the sale of
their lands, as far as the same has come to our knowledge, reveals the
fact that the transaction was consummated by undue pressure upon their
unsuspecting minds, aided by flattery and misrepresentation.
A missionary among the Shawnee Indians refers to an instance
occurring at a treaty between the United States and the aforesaid tribe
in Kansas, at which they ceded the remainder of their lands in that
state in li6u of lands lying further upon the frontier, Avhich it was stipu-
lated they should hold forever, which may be referred to as illustrating
a point in this connection.
After much persuasion, the principal chief proceeded to sign the
articles of the treaty, when he remarked: "This is the third time I
have signed a treaty with the whites, in Avhicli lands have been reserved
to ourselves, and every one of them has had in it the words to hold
forever, but I find these words mean nothing,"
When the Indians were called upon to treat with the whites for
the ceding of their lands, in the simplicity of their minds, they could
not, in the nature of things, realize the fact that they were ultimately
to vacate the country in question. As the white settlements crowded
upon their domain, game usually became scarce, and they would be
driven more and more into a condition of want, in the midst of which
it was natural that they could realize only the fact of receiving the con-
sideration offered them, of which they stood greatly in need, to relieve
them in their present want. The matter of this consideration would
be pressed so ingeniously upon their minds, in the midst of their
pressing needs, as to suddenly influence them in their action, and there
is scarcely an instance on record that, w4ien the time arrived for the
Indians to vacate the country they had ceded, they did not leave it Avith
demonstrations of deep regret, indeed, if they were not actually com-
pelled to vacate by means of force on the part of the government.
The following paragraph in Van Tassel's journal in the Mission-
ary Herald, December, 1831, shows the reluctance with which the
Indians left the Maumee country, to which the allied tribes were so
much attached, after a treaty with them for ceding it to the United
States
:
"Since the treaty, some of the Indians have said they will never
leave this country ; if they can find no place to stay, they will spend
the rest of their days walking up and down the Maumee, mourning
over the wretched state of their people."
A philanthropist, in referring to this subject, contributed the fol-
lowing beautiful and touching lines upon the occasion, to the American
Pionee?" for January, 1843:
"I stood, in a dream, on the banks of Maumee!
'Twas autumn, and nature seem'd wrapp'd in decay;
The wind, moaning, crejjt thro' the shivering tree
The leaf from the bough drifted slowly away;

The gray-eagle screamed on the marge of the stream,
The solitudes answered the bird of the free;
How lonely and sad was the scene of my dream,
And mournful the hour, on the banks of Maumee!
"
A form passed before mea vision of one
Who mourned for his nation, his country and kin;
He walked on the shores, now deserted and lone,
Where the homes of his tribe, in their glory, had been;
INDIAN TREATIES. .
561
And thought after thought o'er his sad spirit stole,
As wave follows wave o'er the turbulent sea;
And this lamentation he breathed from his soul,
O'er the ruins of home, on the banks of Maumee:
"
I was in the country and saw the Pottawattamies leave the lands
they had ceded to the United States government at the treaty at Chi-
cago, September, 1833, and can speak from actual knowledge of the
reluctance with which they departed from the country of their fathers
and the land of their nativity. Waubanse, the head war chief of the
tribe, notwithstanding he had signed this treaty, wherein he had
relinquished all claims to his former reservations, when the time
arrived for him to leave, seemed to be insensible of the fact that he had
made any agreement by which he was obliged to leave his possessions
to the white man, and made stubborn resistance to being removed from
his village on Fox river, where the city of Aurora now stands.
Col. C. B. Dodson, who was one of the contractors for removing
these Indians to the country allotted them on the west of the Missis-
sippi, having influence with this great chief, was assigned the mission
of prevailing on him to depart with the rest of his tribe ; but, in order
to accomplish this result, he was compelled to resort to strategy,
executed with considerable ingenuity.
The Black Hawk War, so called, was but the act of resistance,
under the lead of that great chieftain, to the demand of the United
States government to quit the country, which he claimed belonged to
his tribe, on the east of the Mississippi, declaring the treaty under
which the government was acting to be fraudulent and void, which, it
must be confessed, the inadequacy of consideration expressed in the
articles of the treatybeing merely nominaland the circumstances
attending, before referred to in this chapter, quite clearly show; and,
indeed, inadequacy of consideration might, perhaps, be urged in equity
against the claim of validity of the treaties, in general, made between
the United States government and the Indians in ceding their lands.
CHAPTEE XLYII.
The Position the Indian OccupiesThe Object of the SpaniardsRight of Dis-
coveryEarly ColonistsIdea of EliotRecognition by United States Govern-
mentChief Justice Taney's View
" State of Pupilage

"
Winnebago Indians
Ponca IndiansThe Negro Race as Compared with the IndianThe Conclusion.

if^/HE status of the American
Indian, or position he occu-
pies in the white man's gov-
W^ ernment, with which he finds
himself encompassed, is a matter
affording us a peculiar and interest-
ing field for reflection.
So far as the Spaniards were
concerned, they had no other object
in view, in regard to the natives of
the country of which they took pos-
session, than that of conquest and
subjugation. The French came
with a somewhat different purpose,
that of pecuniary profit to themselves and their king through a policy
of friendship and conciliation. To this end they treated the natives
more as equals, marrying into their families and meeting them more
on equal terms of social intercourse.
But the English, out of whose course, it would appear, has grown
our whole Indian policy, came with entirely different notions and
objects from those of the Spanish or French. All grants of land by
English kings, or letters patent, assumed exclusive title in the grantor,
based on the right of discovery, in which no provision is made for
the political or civil rights of the native inhabitants. The English
intention in this regard is best illustrated by the conduct and course
pursued by the Puritan fathers in landing on the coast of New England.
These early colonists who were non-conformists or dissenters from
the church of England, came as exiles, fleeing from the wrath of an
ecclesiastical tyranny, whose displeasure they had incurred, cast out
(n62;
H

503
as public offenders,
"
as profane out of the mountain of God." They
came
against the law, or, perhaps, more properly speaking, without
law; hence, there arose a necessity for the establishment of law among
them for their mutual protection ; but this necessity was not fully real-
ized until the occurrence of threatened dissensions among tliemselves,
before quitting the ship in which they had embarked. There were
among them persons of various grades of rank, both in intelligence
and social position, as well as in regard to wealth, which gave rise to
jealously and suspicion as to what the designs of the stronger might be
with reference to those whom they considered inferior to themselves.
This led to a mutual agreement between all parties, defining more
particularly what the rights of all should be in the community which
they were about to form ; and the result was that the following written
compact or constitution was drawn up and signed by all the male
adults on board the Mayflower, before disembarking, as she lay off
Plvmouth Rock:
"In the name of God, Amen. We, whose names are underwritten,
the loyal subjects of our dread Sovereign King James, by the grace
of God, etc., having undertaken, for the Glory of God and advance-
ment of the Christian faith, and honor of our King and Country, a
voyage to plant the first Colony in the Northwestern parts of Virginia,
do, by these presents, solemnly and mutually, in the presence of God,
and one another. Covenant and combine ourselves together into a
Civil body politic, for our better ordering and preservation, and
furtherance of the ends aforesaid; and by virtue thereof to enact, con-
stitute and frame such just and equal laws, ordinances, acts, constitu-
tions, and offices, from time to time, as shall be thought most meet
and convenient for the general good of the colony, unto which we
promise all due submission and obedience.
"In witness whereof we have hereunto subscribed our names, at
Cape Cod, the 11th of November, in the year of the reign of our
Sovereign Lord, King James of England, France and Ireland, the
eighteenth, and of Scotland the fifty-fourth. Anno Dom. 1620."
Thus a civil body politic, or municipal corporation, was formed
by mutual compact of the persons composing it, for purposes of civil
government in the new country, in which they were about to settle
and take control, which, it will be observed, is to be a government
whose benefits are designed exclusively for the people who have con-
stituted it; from which the Indian, it would appear, is entirely
excluded, in other words, altogether ignored, and there seems to have
been no intention, in forming the government of the colonists, which
subsequently followed, of admitting the Indians as belonging to the
50-1: THE AMERICAN INDIAN.
same, or as having any political or civil rights whatever therein, and,
in the course of subsequent events, have been regarded as holding the
like position with reference to the civil government of the white man,
which is assigned by Chief Justice Taney, in the celebrated Dred
Scott case, to those of the African race, in which he says: "It was
too plain for argument that they (the African race) had never been
regarded as a part of the people or citizens of the state, nor supposed
to possess any political rights which the dominant race might not
withhold or grant at their pleasure."
The Indians were regarded as barbarians, and were, from the
earliest time, so treated and referred to by the English colonists, and
a constant barrier, socially and otherwise, was set up by these people
against them. When a commission was issued by colonial authority
to Mayor Gibbons, in 1645, to aid the Mohegans, who were regarded
as allies of the colonists, whilst he was instructed "to make good use
of our confederates," he was at the same time cautioned to have "due
regard to the honor of God, who is both our sword and shield, and to
the distance which is to be observed between Christians and bar-
barians, as well in wars as in their negotiations."
It would seem that the minds of the colonists did not reach out
in advance in contemplation of a time when the Indian race would
become extinct, nor when the white man would so far completely
encompass him, on this continent, that he must necessarily cease to
live in his wild native condition; but the continued thought seems to
have been that the Indian would continue for all time to find space
enough on the continent to which he could recede from the advance of
the white man, where he could continue to live, unmolested in his
tribal relations, subject to his own peculiar form of government; and
this idea is well supported in what is said by Chief Justice Taney in
the case aforesaid, in comparing the difference in the status between
persons of African descent in our government and the American
Indian, in which he says:
"The latter, it is true, formed no part of the colonial communi-
ties, and never amalgamated with them in social connection or in gov-
ernment. But, although they were uncivilized, they Avere yet a free
and independent people, associated together in nations or tribes, and
governed by their own laws. Many of these political communities
were situated in territories to which the white race claimed the ulti-
mate right of dominion. But that claim was acknowledged to be sub-
ject to the right of the Indians to occupy it as long as they thought
proper, and neither the English nor colonial governments claimed or
exercised any dominion over the tribe or nation by whom it was occu-
STATUS OF THE INDIAN. 565
pied, nor claimed the right to the possession of the territory, until the
tribe or nation consented to cede it."
The idea of the so called Indian apostle, Eliot, and his co-workers,
seems to have been, however, that these barbarians, as the Puritans at
first styled them, could be reclaimed through the Christian religion,
which they diligently sought to have them adopt, whereby they could
be admitted, ultimately, into our society and to equal political privi-
leges
;
but, after the death of the good Eliot, there seems to have been
no one left to carry forward this benevolent idea ; whereupon it appears
to have been abandoned, and the Indian was left to paddle his own
canoe, at least so far as acquiring any rights in the society and gov-
ernment of the white man was concerned.
There are instances, however, in the colonial days of New En-
gland, where Indians that had become educated and had assumed the
habits of white men, were admitted to political privileges by being
elected to local public offices, on the idea, heretofore suggested, that
where, in individual cases, any of this people should assume the habits
of white men, they should be admitted to the privileges of their gov-
ernment. But the policy has been steadily kept in view, running
through the colonial government down to the present time, that, where
Indians kept up even a semblance of their tribal relations, they will not
be considered as a part of the body politic in the affairs of government.
Upon the formation of the government of the United States,
under the constitution as first adopted, in 1787, the Indian, for the
first time, obtained a kind of recognition in the government of the
white man, in regard to his civil status; although, it may be said, no
substantial rights were conferred upon him thereby, yet the recogni-
tion may be to him some consolation, and ultimately result to his
advantage. By section
2,
article 1,
of the Constitution of the United
States, it is declared that
"
Representatives and direct taxes shall be
apportioned among the several states wlifich may be included within
this union, according to their respective numbers, which shall be
determined by adding to the whole number of free persons, including
those bound to service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not
taxed, three-fifths of all other persons."
This provision was changed by late amendments to the constitution,
so that it now reads as follows :
*
' Representatives shall be apportioned
among the several states according-to their respective numbers, counting
the whole number of persons in each state, excluding Indians not taxed^
The converse of this proposition is that Indians who are taxed
shall be counted in the enumeration of persons for purposes of repre-
sentation in Congress, thus counting them as persons in the body
566
politic, SO that there woukl seem to be, under such circumstances,
especially in the view taken of the status of the Indian by Chief
Justice Taney, in the Dred Scott case, no constitutional objection in
the way of granting to the Indian full political rights enjoyed by his
white fellow citizens. There is no provision making, any further
qualitication necessary for their being admitted to full privileges, than
that contemplated in the foregoing provision of the constitution, that
they shall be taxed. But, judging from the spirit of the present age,
the time is far distant when the Indian can expect to realize any such
event as that of conferring upon him equal political privileges with
wdiite citizens, even although he may desire it.
The Indian mind, notwithstanding the strenuous pressure which
had been brought to bear upon him, under various circumstances, and
for various purposes, is inclined to continue in his tribal condition and
relations. He adheres with much tenacity to the traditions of his
fathers in this respect, and as these tribes have been crowded west-
ward, encompassed by civilization, and huddled together on reserva-
tions, the status of the Indian, in the white man's government, has con-
tinued to present new phases accordingly as freaks or exigencies of
the white man's policy might bring about.
Chief Justice Taney, in the celebrated case before mentioned, in
further discussing the relation of the two races, the African and the
Indian, to the white man's government, points out the status of the
Indian in general terms in the following language, as recognized at
that day:
"
These Indian governments were regarded and treated as foreign
governments, as much as if the ocean had separated the red man from
the white; and their freedom has constantly been acknowledged, from
the time of the first emigration of the English colonies to the present
day, by the different governments which succeed each other. Treaties
have been negotiated Avith them, and their alliance sought for in war
;
and the people who compose these Indian political communities have
always been treated as foreigners not living under our government.
It is true that the course of events has brought the Indian tribes,
within the limits of the United States, under subjection to the white
race; and it has been found necessary, for their sake as Avell as our
own, to regard them as in a state of pupilage, and to legislate to a
certain extent over them and the territoiy they occupy. But they
may, without doubt, like the subjects of any other foreign government,
be naturalized by the authority of Congress, and become citizens of
a state, and of the United States ; and if an individual should leave his
nation or tribe, and take up his abode among the white population, he
i
would be entitled to all the rights and privileges which would belong
to an emigrant from any other foreign people."
The decision of the Supreme Court of the United States, in which
the foregoing rule in regard to the relation of the Indian to our gov-
ernment is announced, was rendered something over thirty years ago,
and was received as the proper status of the Indian at that time, as
viewed by the highest judicial tribunal. The general principles of
the rule, thus expressed, have been continued to the present time,
with sundry and various modifications, during the progress of adjudi-
cated cases that have arisen under various circumstances. The whole
line shows an endeavor, or a policy on the part of the courts, to avoid
receiving the Indian into our social or political communities; that for
certain purposes he has a government, foreign and independent of our
own; that for certain other purposes he has no government at all, and
individually is in no sense a foreigner, but is under the pupilage or
guardianship of the United States government ; that whilst the Indian
governments have been regarded and treated as foreign governmenis^
with whom treaties have been negotiated and alliances sought for in
war, the course of events brings the Indian tribes, within the limits of
the United States, under subjection of the white race, whenever it is
found necessary, in the opinion of our government, for the Indians'
sake as well as our own, to do so, whereby they are regarded as in a
state of pupilage^ and the right is claimed to legislate to a certain
extent over them and the territory they occupy; so that the grand
summing up of the case, is that the Indian really never had, and does
not now possess, any rights whatever in our government, which Ave are
in the least bound to respect, anything further than what present
policy may dictate. And a general review of the subject through the
history of our transactions with the Indians, leads us to confess that
we are, to-day, no nearer a solution of what is called the Indian prohlem,
than when our national government was first formed, and when it was
supposed that the Indian problem would take care of itself, or that at
least, "sufficient unto the day was the evil thereof."
This uncertainty in our policy, and apparent reluctance to assign
to the Indian anv definite status whatever, would seem to arise from
the fact of the increasing value of the lands which have, in professed
good faith, been assigned or set apart to that people as reservations to
hold forever. This valuable domain, as it has become, would appear
to be the "milk in the cocoanut," which adds to the importance of' the
continual strife between the white man and the Indian, and is throw-
ing uncertainty upon our whole so called Indian policy.
The term,
"
state of pupilage," in which Chief Justice Taney
says it has been found necessary to regard the Indian, is the touch-
stone in this whole case, and robs him of every right whatever n the
white man's government, especially when we consider that our govern-
ment assumes to itself the province of determining, in its discretion,
as to the necessity of its application ; and this is well illustrated in the
assumption of the government of the state of Wisconsin, as repre-
sented by the governor of that state not many years ago, in the case
of the removal of the Winnebago Indians from within its boundaries.
These Indians had parted with their lands in that state by treaty
with the United States government, under which it was understood
that, having parted with their lands, they would remove from the state
to lands which had been assigned to them in the negotiation, beyond
the Mississippi. But as there continued to be vast tracts of unoccu-
pied country in that state, a large number of the tribe continued to
roam over it as before, gradually assuming the habits of white people,
some engaging in their services, and pursuing various occupations.
Meanwhile, many of the tribe, who had gone to their lands west of
the Mississippi, returned and joined those who had remained, where-
upon these facts were brought to the attention of the governor of the
state, to whom application was made to cause these Indians to be
removed out of the state.
The governor, accordingly, took measures to accomplish that end,
upon which legal counsel was employed by the chiefs, who had become
educated in the ways of the white man, whereby the governor's order
for removal of the Indians was resisted, and the governor was asked
by what right he sought the removal of this people from the state.
To this he set up the general claim that they wêre Indians, and not a
part of the political community ; that they had no lands in the state,
and no pecuniary interest in any property whatever. To this he was
answered that they were natives of the state of Wisconsin, and, whilst
it might be true that they possessed no property in the state, yet they
had assumed the habits of the white man, and were in the same condi-
tion with reference to being non-property holders that thousands of
other people of the white race, then inhabiting the state of Wisconsin,
who were not only not property owners, but were not natives of the
state, but many of whom had been born in a foreign country ; and it
was urged to the governor that nativity, which seemed, in part at least,
to enter into this case as a disqualification, instead of being such, was
one of the best of reasons why this people should have the right to
remain in the country in which they were born, especially when they
were not charged with crime, vagrancy nor any offense whatever against
the laws of the state, and when no reason was assigned why they were
not juBt as orderly, peaceable and industrious inhabitants as those of the
white race then living, or coming into the state, from foreign countries.
Whether this argument was received by the governor of Wiscon-
sin as conclusive, in support of the position assumed in behalf of these
Indians, does not appear. Suffice it to say, that no further action was
taken in the case, and this people, with reference to whom this qûes-
tion arose, still continue residents within that state, as peaceable,
orderly and quiet inhabitants, but who are denied any privileges of
political community beyond that of mere existence.
But there are isolated cases in which the lower courts of the
United States judiciary have recognized the Indians as having some
rights which they will respect, as in the case of the Ponca Indians
whom the government sought to remove from their original country
to a locality assigned them in the Indian territory. These Indians
resisted the order of the United States government for their removal,
and applied to the District Court of the United States in Nebraska, by
proceeding under a writ of habeas corpus, in which the court decided
that the United States government had no such right of control over
the members of this tribe of Indians as they were seeking to enforce.
It will be noticed in what is said by Chief Justice Taney, in giving
the opinion of the Supreme Court of the United States, hereinbefore
quoted, that he places the African and the Indian race in this country
in juxtaposition, or refers to them somewhat in the same category,
regarding neither of them as having any civil rights under the gov-
ernment of the United States; in other words, that our government
was formed by, and exclusively for, the white man, suggesting, how-
ever, that the Indian might, under certain circumstances, by favor of
Congress, become a citizen; but, according to the view taken by the
learned chief justice, and sustained by a majority of the court, there
seemed to be no possible way, in the light of the law of the case,
whereby a person of African descent could acquire any political or
civil rights. And yet, strange as it may appear, in the course of
human events, the impossible thing of that day has happened to the
fullest extent, and that which was suggested as possible, the enfranchise-
ment of the Indian, and admission to full privileges in the political
community, have not only not happened, but are indefinitely postponed
to the far distant future. Those of the African race have become
favorites, and the Indian is still regarded as a barbarian and relentless
savage. Both started in the country of their nativity, from the like
condition of native life, but whilst the one Avho has succeeded to full
privileges in the white man's government is regarded as the inferior in
race, yet the other continues to be repudiated as
"
a man and a brother.'*
CHAPTER XLYIII.
INDIAN BIOGRAPHY.
How Indians Attained Prominence among their PeopleCivil and Military Affairs
in Separate DepartmentsIllustrious MenRoad to Fame Open to AllThe
Word SachemProminent Indians Since the Settlement of the ContinentBrief
Biography of Noted Chiefs.
'HE Indian attained yjrominence and renown
among his people in like manner as the
white man does among the people in his
^''
country
by
wisdom in council, and by
bravery and success in war. In this, however,
there is this difference in their customs: The
white man who attains success in war is marked
more particularly for favors and distinction by
promotion to position in the civil government,
while among the Indians the rule was that a war-
chief, however he might be marked for his brav-
ery, and however great may have been his
success in war, was not eligible to a ruling posi-
tion in civil affairs.
The aim of the Indian policy was to keep their civil and military
affairs in separate departments ; at least, that the military should not
dominate over the civil chiefs. Red Jacket, the renowned chief of
the Senecas, who belonged to the civil department of their govern-
ment, scorned the appellation of warrior. He was the great orator
of their tribe, and asked for no other distinction.
Indian history, since the discovery of America, abounds in the
mention of their illustrious men, their great chiefs and warriors, many
of whom occupy an important place in our own history; some as allies,
and others as those who are admired for their superior intelligence, as
well as for their skill and courage as warriors.
Whilst with the Indian as with the white man "the paths of glory
lead but to the grave," so with him, "honor and shame from no con-
dition rise." The road to fame and glory was open to all alike, to the
extent that the order of things in his society would admit of his attain
-
(570)
4
PONTIAC.
INDIAN BIOGRAPHY. 571
ing. An obscure hunter could attain rank and distinction among his
tribe, in accordance with what, in Indian estimation, was considered
merit. A cliieftainship could be attained in this manner by such as
merited it, according to Indian estimation of merit.
In this connection, speaking of Indian chiefs or positions of dis-
tinction in Indian tribes, it is, perhaps, proper to speak more particu-
larly of the word chief itself, or the term by which Indians holding this
rank are generally known, in their language.
We have in some way accepted the word sachem as a general
designation for Indian chief, considering it as an Indian word of gen-
eral application, without reference to the tribe or nation in question,
the same as we have erroneously accepted the word Calumet as an
Indian word, and as we use the Avords canoe, ^papoose, and other like
local Indian words, as if they were of common application among all
Indian tribes.
We must bear in mind, however, that these various words, so far
as they are Indian words, are limited to the language or dialect of some
particular Indian, nation or tribe. As before intimated, there is no
one word or term in any Indian language that is applicable to the
whole Indian race, and if we will use Indian words at all, for purposes
of designation in Indian matters, we should use them in the language
or dialect of the tribe or nation concerning which we are speaking.
According to Capt. John Smith, the term for
chief among the
AbenaJdes, or, as Mr. Schoolcraft terms them, the Northeast Algon-
quins, was sachemo, pronounced, it seems, sackamo, and from this came
by mispronunciation the word sagamore^ and from this word also, by
omitting the sound of o, appears to have come the word sachem.
The writings of Capt. John Smith appear to have been the origi-
nal source of information for English people concerning the North
American Indians, hence the aforesaid Indian terms through their
various changes, by omission and mispronunciation, came into general
use among the English, and from this the word sagamore and sachem,
both erroneous, became adopted, and have been applied in our writings
as the designation for Indian chief,
without reference to their tribe or
dialect.
The word for chief in the Algonquin language, Ojibway dialect,
is Ogema; in some dialects of that stock it is Okama. In the Dela-
ware dialect it is Sa-ki-ma; in the Creek language, Micco; Mohawk
dialect, Rackawanna. The Iroquois used the term Atotarho, for the
presiding officer of their league. Pecarahoga, a word which has been
exhibited by writers on the Iroquois as an eqniyalentior geiieralissimo,
was the term for a tribal war-captain, and did not denote an officer of
572
the confederacy. M'ishinoica, in the Algonquin language, signifies a
hringer. For further information in this direction see Chapter LV,
entitled "Vocabularies."
An attempt has been made here to give a list of all such prominent
Indian chiefs and personages as have become celebrated among the
whites from the earliest time, with such general reference to their lives-
as the space allotted to this chapter will admit of ; which may serve as
a source of convenient reference to the reader in connection with
investigation into Indian history.
Abraham or Little Abraham, a Mokawk chief, who succeeded
King Hindric (so called) after the battle of Lake George, in 1755,
was of a mild and pacific character, and noted as an orator. He
espoused the cause of the mother country in the American Revolution.
He was present at the last pacific meeting of the Mokawks with the
American Commissioners at Albany, in September, 1775, and drops
from notice about that time He was succeeded by Brant.
Adario was the leading chief and counselor of the Wyandots,
and much of the Wyandot history might be thrown about his life.
He is spoken of by La Hontan in 1686. His character drawn by
Charlevoix is: "A man of great mind, the bravest of the brave, and
possessing altogether the best qualities of any known to the French in
Canada." He died in the year 1701. Kondiaronk, Sdstaritsi and The
Rat are also names by which he was known.
Agariata was an Iroquois chief, who, having gone on an embassy
of peace, about 1688, to Canada, the governor, Monsieur Coursel, being
exasperated against him on account of bad faith and a violation of a
treaty by his tribe, caused him to be hanged in the presence of his
countrymen.
Ahyouwaighs, the fourth and youngest son of Brant, succeeded
his father as chief of the Iroquois or Six Nations. He was born in
the year 1791, and received a good English education.
Akosa, was chief of a band of Chippeways, living on the penin-
sula of Grand Traverse Bay, Lake Michigan, in 1840.
Alexander Wamuseets, Wamsitto, Wamsutta, chief of the
Wampanoags, was born in the beginning of the seventeenth century,
and died in 1662. He was the eldest son of Massasoit.
Alexander M'Gillivary, is said to have been one of the mosr
conspicuous, if not one of the greatest chiefs, that ever bore that title
among the Creeks. He flourished during the latter part of the 18th
century, and was styled by his countrymen the "king of kings."
Amisquam, or the Wooden Ladle, was a very noted leader of the
Winnebagoes. His mother was a woman of that nation, and his father
INDIAN BIOGEArHY. 573
a Frenchman, named Descarrie, He led many war parties against
the Chippeways. He flourished in the forepart of the present cen-
tury.
Amos, commonly called Captain Amos, was a Wampanoag, whose
residence was about Cape Cod. Mention is made of him at the time
of King Philip's war, at which time he was entirely devoted to the
service of the English.
Anacoana was queen of the Caribs, at the era of the discovery
by Columbus. She ruled on the island of Hayti, or St. Domingo.
Mr. Irving represents her as being beautiful, and endowed with virtu-
ous attractions; but the cruelty of the cold-blooded Ovando, led alone
by the thirst of gold, did not spare her life.
Anawan, a Wampanoag chief, famous as one of King Philip's
chief counsellors and captains, was born early in the 17th century.
He was put to death by the English in 1676.
Appanoose, "a chief when a child," was a chief of the Sacs. He
visited Washington in 1837.
AssACUMBUiT was a great Tarratine chief, and first spoken of in
1696. He was as faithful to the French as his own nation, and ren-
dered great service to them. He died in 1727.
AsPiNET, a chief of the Nauset Indians, is supposed to have made
the first attack upon the New England settlers.
Atotarho, is put down in history as the first presiding chief or
ruler of the Iroquois confederacy. He was renowned for his wisdom,
valor, and secret powers of necromancy. The reptiles were deemed
to be at his command. The Mohawk delegates, Avho had been sent in
search of him, it is affirmed, found him seated in a swamp, calmly
smoking his pipe. His garment was covered with rattlesnakes, whose
hissing heads protected him in every direction. They offered him the
government; the ruling magistrate of which has ever since been called
Aiotarho.
AwASHONKS, a squaw sachem of Sogkonate, was the wife of an
Indian called Tolony, but of him we learn very little. From her
important standing among the Indians, few deserved more particular
attention. The first notice we have of Aiuashonks is in 1671, when
she entered into articles of agreement with the court of Plymouth.
She was a conspicuous figure during King Philip's war.
Ayanemo was a chief of the Niantics, at the era of the settlement
of Rhode Island.
Babesakundiba, or the Curly Head, was a chief of the Chippe-
way band of Sandy Lake. He exerted his influence to preserve
peace between them and their hereditary enemies, the Dakotas. He
lived respected by his people and the whites, reaching- an advanced
age. He died about 1830.
Beshike, was a Cliippeway chief of note at La Pointe, on Lake
Stq;)erioi', during the forepart of the present century.
Big Kettle, was a chief of the Seneca nation, who died on the
Indian reservation near Buffalo, in the summer of 1839, aged 55. He
adhered to the policy and counsels of the distinguished orator of his
nation. Red Jacket, and opposed the further cession of their territory.
Big Mouth, a chief of the Brule Sioux, was the peer of Spotted
Tail in most manly and war-like, qualities. In the constant applica-
tions arising, of late years, from the more direct contact of Indians
and whites, Big Mouth steadily gained in power and influence. A
few years ago Spotted Tail made a visit to Washington, New York
and other eastern cities, and was much feted on his return in conse-
quence of changed views and new fangled notions as to the policy of
the Indians. Big Mouth eagerly seized the opportunity of increasing
his power by disparaging the honesty and good sense of his superior
in position. Finding matters inclined to go against him. Spotted Tail
one day called at the door of Big Mouth's lodge, and asked to speak
with him. On his appearance, he was seized by two warriors, who
held him fast, while Spotted Tail drew a pistol, placed it against his
body, and shot him dead. Nothing was ever said or done about the
murder; and, as may well be supposed, there has not since been
much political log-rolling or wire-pulling in that Indian tribe.
Bigotes was a noted chief, who, in 1541, visited Coronado, in the
present area of New Mexico. He was
seized and imprisoned by Alvarado in a
moment of disappointment.
Black Bird or Mukapenaise, a Pot-
tawattamie chief, was conspicuous at the
massacre of the garrison at Fort Dear-
born, Chicago, in August, 1812.
Black Hawk or Ma-ka-tai-me-she-
kai-kiak, chief of the Sacs and Foxes, led
his people in a war against the United
States in 1832. He was born at the princi-
^- pal village of his tribe, on Rock river, in
Illinois, about the year 1767, and was the
great grandson of a chief called Nana-
makee, or Thunder. Black Hawk was
small in stature, and his figure not striking; nor did his features
indicate a high grade of intelligence. He died at his village on the
BLACK HAWK.
Des Moines river, on the 3d of October, 1838. His body was disposed
of, at his special request, after the manner of the chiefs of his tribe.
He was placed upon the ground in a sitting posture, his hands grasping
his cane. A square enclosure made of sapplings is all the monument
that marks the spot where rest the remains of this far-famed chief.
Black Kettle, whom the French called La Cliaudiere Noire, was
brought upon the records of history at the time of the war with France
in 1690. He was treacherously murdered in 1697.
Blacksnake was chief of the Seneca tribe of Indians, living at
Teoneguno, on the Alleghany river. New York. He had, in 1856,
reached the advanced age of 96, agreeably to the best accounts. He
was present, with the British auxiliaries, in the severe and hard con-
tested battle of Oriskany, in 1777. He was present at the so called
massacre of Wyoming, with a detachment of warriors of his tribe.
Black Thunder, or Mackkatananamakee, was a celebrated patri-
arch of the Fox tribe. He made himself famous by an excellent
speech to the American commissioners, who had assembled at Portage,
July, 1815, to hold a conference with the Indians.
Blue Jacket was a distinguished chief of tlie Shawnees, and we
hear of him at Fort Industry, on the Miami of the lake, as late as 1805.
BoMAZEEN was a sachemo or chief of a tribe of the Canibas or
Kennebecks. We hear of him in 1710 when he fell upon Saco with
sixty or seventy men and killed several people and carried away some
captives.
Buckongahelas was a Delaware chief, said to be a more noted
personage in his time even than Logan. He took part in the American
Revolution on the side of the British, and died in the year 1804.
Byainswa, a celebrated chief in Chippeway history, as a war
leader and counselor of that tribe, carried their conquests against the
Sioux to Sandy Lake, on the sources of tlie Mississippi. The precise
era of his life is uncertain.
Billy Caldwell, or Sag-au-nash (Englishman), wps born in
Canada (but what place is not known), about the year 1780. His
father is said to have been an Irish officer in the British army ; his
mother an Indian woman of the Pottawattamie tribe. He was edu-
cated in Roman Catholic schools, and acquired a facility in writing
both the English and French languages, and was master of several
Indian dialects. From the year 1807, down to the battle of the
Thames, in which he was engaged on the side of the British, Caldwell
was intimately connected with Tecumseh ; indeed, he was often called
"
the secretary of Tecumseh." He thereafter adhered to the United
States government. He came west and fixed his residence in Chicago
I
about the year 1820. In the spring of 182G he held the office of
justice of the peace, while Chicago was in Peoria county. During the
Winnebago Indian excitement in 1827, the services of Caldwell, in
connection with Shabonee, were of great value to the whites of this
region. He died at Council Bluffs on the 28tli of September, 1841,
in the OOth year of his age.
Cannassatego, a chief of the Six Nations, was of the tribe of
Onondago. He is spoken of, in 1713, as taking part in the disputes
which arose between the Delawares and the government of Pennsyl-
vania, relative to a tract of land in the forks of the Delaware.
Canonicus, chief of the Narragansetts, was born about 1562. He
was a wise and peaceable ruler and died in 1647.
Cattahecassa, or Black Hoof, was one of the greatest warriors of
the Shawnee tribe ; and it is supposed that few individuals have ever
been engaged in so many battles. He was present at the defeat of
Braddock in 1755, and fought through all the subsequent wars until
the treaty of Greenville, in 1795. He was the orator of his tribe
during the greater part of his long life, and was an excellent speaker.
He died at Wapakonnetta in 1831, at the age of from one hundred and
five to one hundred and twelve years.
Caunbitant, Corbitant or Caubatant, was one of the most renowned
captains within the dominion of Massasoit, whose residence was at
Mettapoiset. He came into prominence about 1621, when the Narra-
gansetts were plotting to overthrow Massasoit.
Chickataubut, or Ohikkatabak, in English "House-afire," was a
sachemo or chief of considerable note, and supposed to have had
dominion over the Massachusetts Indians about the year 1621.
Chocorua, pronounced Cheh-curimah, was the last chief of the
Pequakets, then wandering in the woods in the country of what is now
New Hampshire. It has been handed down to us by tradition that
he was killed by a white man named Campbell. The story of this
Indian and his melancholy fate, indeed like that of thousands of others
of his race, as it comes to us from local historians, is one of touching
interest. His family consisted of his wife and little boy, the former
of whom died. One day, at the house of Campbell, before mentioned,
the boy was poisoned, apparently by something he had eaten, and went
home to his father's wigwam and died. Chocorua thought he was
poisoned purposely. Soon afterwards, Campbell, on returning home
from a day's absence, found his family all dead in the house. The
white inhabitants around, attributing the act to Chocorua in retaliation
for the death of his son, pursued him to the mountain which now
bears his name, some distance north of what is now Albany, where he
INDIAN BIOGEAPHY. 577
Avas discovered by Campbell on the pinnacle of the mountain cliff, and
commanded by him to jump off. "Ah," said the Indian, "the Great
Spirit gave Chocorua his life, and he will not throw it away at the
bidding of the white man." Whereupon they shot him; and while he
was dying he pronounced awful curses upon the English. In describ-
ing the scene, Mrs. L. Maria Childs, in a vigorous legend, gives the
following as the words of Chocorua's curse upon the white man:
"A curse on ye, white men! May the Great Spirit curse ye
when he speaks in the clouds, and his words are fire ! Chocorua had a
son; and ye killed him when the sky looked bright. Lightnings blast
your crops ; winds and fire destroy your dwellings ! The Evil Spirit
breathe death upon your cattle; your graves lie in the pathway of the
Indian; panthers howl and fatten on your bones."
It is said that ever since that day, the want of vegetation in and
about this mountain, all its dearths, and all the diseases upon the cattle
and upon the inhabitants of that region, have been attributed to this
curse of Chocorua.
CoLOROW, whose full name was Magnus Colorow, was a principal
chief of the Apaches, during the present century.
Corn Planter, or Ki-on-twog-ki, was
a Seneca chief. His father was a white
man, said to have been an Irishman ; but
nothing is now known of him, except what
may be gathered from a letter of Corn
Planter to the governor of Pennsylvania.
Corn Planter was one of the parties to
the treaty at Fort Stanwixin 1784, when a
large cession of territory was made by the
Indians. At the treaty at Fort Harmer,
five years after, he took the lead in convey-
ing an immense tract of country to the
American government, and became so un-
popular that his life was threatened by his
incensed tribe. He imbibed, in the feebleness of age, the superstitions
of the less intellectual of his race. His conscience reproached him for
his friendship towards the whites; and, in a moment of alarm, fancying
that the Great Spirit had commanded him to destroy all evidence of
his connection with the enemies of his race, he burned an eleofant
sword and other articles which he had received as presents. A favorite
son, who had been carefully educated at one of our schools, became a
drunkard, adding another to the many discouraging instances in which
a similar result has attended the attempt to educate the Indian youth.
CORN PLANPER.
578
AVheii, therefore, the aged chief, was urged to send his younger sons
to school, he declined, remarking in broken English: "It entirely
spoil Indian." He died on his reservation, on the Alleghany river,
some time in the winter of 1836supposed to have been over ninety
years of age.
Cornstalk, chief of the Shawnees, remarkable for many great
and good qualities, was born early in the 18tli century, and murdered
by the whites in 1777.
Dekanisora was a great Iroquois chief, first mentioned by
Charlevoix, in 1682. He was on good terms with both the French and
English. Colden speaks of him as having a great reputation
among the Five Nations, for speaking, and was employed as their
speaker, in their negotiations with both the French and English. He
says: "His person was tall and well made, and his features, to my
thinking, resembled much the busts of Cicero." He is supposed to
have died about 1730.
Dekkerre Avas a celebrated Winnebasô chief durin"- the Winne-
bago War in 1827. He was taken prisoner at Prairie du Chien, but
was subsequently released.
DoNACONA was a chief whom James Cartier, the voyager, met on
the River St. Croix, and by whom and his people he was well received
and treated; to repay which Car-
tier, "partly by stratagem and
partly by force," carried him to
France where he soon after died.
DuQuiON, or Dncoign, was a
chief of the Kaskaskia Indians,
a French half breed, whose father,
it is believed, was among the
French settlers at Kaskaskia, on
the river of that name in Illinois,
who was given the name of Bap-
tiste Ducoign.
Ellskwatawa, Indian proph-
et, was born on the Sciota river,
near what is now Chillicothe, about
1770. The date of his death is
unknown. He was the son of
Pukeesheno, a chief of the Shaw-
nees, and a brother of the famous
Tecumseh. He was present at the battle of Tippecanoe in 1811,
and directed the attack. The Indians regarded him as possessing
'v'
.)'
ELLSKWATAWA.
INDIAN BIOGRAPHY. 57U
the gift of prescience in an eminent degree. In his fiftieth year,
while in the act of lighting his pipe, he fell back upon his bed
and became apparently lifeless. Preparations were made for his inter-
ment, but during his removal for that purpose, he revived. His first
words were: ''Don't be alarmed. I have seen heaven. Call the nation
together, that I may tell them what has appeared to me." When the
people had assembled, he told them that he had been conducted to the
gates of heaven by two young men sent by the Great Spirit, and that
the Great Spirit was angry with them, and would destroy them unless
they refrained thenceforth from drunkenness, lying and stealing.
Ensenore was a noted Virginia chief. He died about 1585.
EsHTAHUMLEAH, or Sleepy Eyes, a Sioux chief, was one of the
hereditarv chiefs of the Teton tribe of the Dakota nation.
Farmer's Brother, a chief of the Senecas, was born in 1718, and
died in ISl-t, just after the battle of Lundy's Lane, and was buried
with military honors by the fifth regiment of the United States infantry.
Geronimo, a chief of the Apaches, was a son of Magnus Colorow.,
whose mother was a captive slave squaw.
Grand-Sun, chief of the Natchez Indians, was particularly dis-
tinoruished in the first war with the French. The desisfn of Grand-Suii
and his allies was to drive the French out of Louisiana, and on the 30th
of November, 1729, a massacre of 700 people took place at Natchez.,
being all the French of that place.
Grangula wâs a great orator among the Iroquois. He is noted
in history for the address he made to M. De La Barre, Governor Gen-
eral of Canada, about the year 1684. He was at this time a very old
man, a very Nestor of his nation, whose powers of mind would not
suffer in comparison with those of a Roman, or a more modern Senator.
He was born the last of the fifteenth century and died in 1685.
Great Mortar, or Yah-yah-tus-ta-na-ge, was a celebrated Musco-
gee chief, who, before the Revolutionary War, was in the Frencli interest.
HoBOMOK, or Hobbamock, was a great war captain among the
Wampanoags. He came to Plymouth about the end of July, 1621, and
continued with the Eno;lish as lono^ as he lived.
Hoowanneka, the Little Elk, a chief of the Winnebagoes, served
with some reputation on the side of the British in the last wâr between
the United States and Great Britain. The Little Elk was descended
from the Caramanie family, the most distinguished band of his nation.
Hornotlimes, or, as General Jackson called him, Homattlemico,
was a principal Seminole chief, whose residence was at Foul Town at
the beginning of tiie war of 1812.
Joseph, known as Chief Joseph, was a chief of the Nez Perces
580
tribe, in the country on the head waters of the Columbia river, who
received missionaries among them at an early day, and made consid-
erable progress in the ways of civilized life ; but ill treatment by the
whites caused an outbreak among them several years ago, under the
lead of this celebrated chief, in which he had the sympathy of those
who properly understood the justice of the claims of this people.
Kaxebuck, called also the Prophet, a chief at the head of the
Kickapoos, was a Christian Indian, and very much devoted to the wel-
fare of his tribe; and, through his influence, the band then remaining
in Illinois had become strictly temperate, and many of them were pro-
fessing Christians. He lived at Danville, Illinois, about the year 1831.
Katawabeda, a chief of the Chippeway tribe, was an orator of no
small repute. He was the principal village chief of a band of the
Chippeway nation, avIio resided at Sandy Lake, among the head springs
of the Mississippi river.
Keewagoushkum, a chief of the Ottawa nation, was a party to the
treaty made between the United States and the Pottawattamies, Chippe-
ways and Ottawas, ceding to the United States the southern part of the
peninsular of Michigan, containing upwards of 5,000,000 acres of land
Keokuk, or the Watchful Fox, a chief of the Sac tribe, and one of
the most distinguished Indians of his time, was born at the mouth of
Rock river. He Avas a prominent figure at the time of the Black Hawk
War, so called, but refrained from joining in that movement; on the
contrary, under his influence a large proportion of the Sacs and Foxes
refrained also from joining Black Hawk.
Kewaunee was a Pottawattamie chief, as appears from a treaty
with that tribe concluded October 16th, 1826.
King Paine Avas a chief of the Seminoles. Early in 1812, at the
head of sundry bands of Seminoles and negroes, Avho had run away
f]*om their American masters. King Paine issued forth in quest of
blood and plunder.
KiSHKALWA, a Shawnee chief, was the brother of Black Hoof, who
died in 1831. In 1849 he was living on the Kansas river,
KiSHKEKOSH, or the man with one leg, Avas a noted Fox brave.
KoNKAPOT, John, a Stockbridge Indian chief, was grandson to
Hendrick ; his grandfather was son of the Wolf, a Mohegan chief, and
his mother Avas a Mohawk. He is also referred to as Captain Kunka-
pot. He died during the forepart of the present century, and had
been, for many years, the oldest man in his tribe.
KuMSKAKA,
"
Tiger that flies in the air," was the brother of
Tecumseh, and Avas born on the banks of the Scioto river, near what is
noAv Chillicothe.
KusTALOGA was a noted Delaware chief, mentioned in the expedi-
tion of Washington to the French on the Ohio, in 1753.
Lappawinsoe was a Delaware chief. The act by which he is
chiefly known is that of signing, at Philadelphia, the celebrated treaty
of 1737, commonly called the Walking Purchase.
Little Crow was a Sioux chief. His name in his own language
is Chatonwahtooamany, or the "Sparrowhawk that comes to you walk-
ing." He was the leader of his people in what is known as the Sioux
massacre of Minnesota, in 1862.
Little Turtle, Me-che-kan noh-quoh, was chief of the Miami
tribe of Indians. His mother was a Mohegan ; his father a Miami.
He was born at his village on Eel river, 1752. He commanded the
allied Indian forces against the United States army under General
Harmer; also that commanded by St. Clair, and the success of the
Indian forces is due to his military
skill. He was faithful to his tribe
and their Indian allies to the last in
the effort to save their country north
of the Ohio river; but, being van-
quished under the superior force of
General Wayne, he gave in his ad-
hesion to the proposed treaty at
Greenville in 1795, saying, as he
signed the articles of this treaty:
"I am the last to sign it, and I will
be the last to break it." Faithful
to his words, he remained passive
and counseled peace on the part of
his people until his death, which
occurred at Fort Wayne on the 14th
of July, 1812. A writer, referring to the occasion of his burial, says:
"
His body was borne to the grave with the highest honors by his
great enemy, the white man. The muffled drum, the solemn march,
the funeral salute, announced that a great soldier had fallen, and even
enemies paid tribute to his memory." He is described as being short
in stature, well built, with symmetrical form, prominent forehead,
heavy eyebrows, keen black eyes, and large chin.
Logan, Tah-gah-jute, chief of the Cayugas, was born on the
banks of the Susquehanna, in 1725. He was given the name of Logan
by his father, in honor of James Logan, secretary of the colony of
Pennsylvania. He was the second son of Skikellimus, who died in
1791. Chief Logan was known as "the friend of the white man."
LITTIiE TURTLE.
His entire family were slain by the treachery of those whom he had
befriended. His famous speech was made after this tragic event. He
died at the hands of an Indian assassin in 1780. Some say he was
assassinated by the Avhites.
Madokawondo, a chief of the Penobscot tribe, was an enemy of
the English, as they spoiled his corn and did him many other
injuries.
Magnus was a squaw sachem of some parts of the extensive
country of the Narragansetts. Slie was known by several names, as
Old Queen, Sunk Squaw, Quaiapen, and Matantuck. Magnus married
a son of Canonicus, and Avas, in 1675, one of "the six present sachems
of the whole Narragansetts country." She was captured and put to
death by the English during the time of King Philip's war.
Mahaska, or White Cloud, was an Iowa chief, who visited Wash-
ington in 1824.
Massasoit, a noted chief of the Wampanoags, was born about
1570, near Pokanoket, now Bristol, Rhode Island, and died of fever
in 1662.
McIntosh was a half breed chief of the Muscogee or Creek
nation. His father was a Scotchman, his mother was a native of
unmixed blood. He was intelligent and brave ; and in person he was
tall, finely formed, and of graceful and commanding manners. To
these qualities he probably owed his elevation to the chieftainship of
the Coweta tribe. The first notice we have of him is after his junction
with the American forces in 1812. Mcintosh died, as he lived, bravely,
at about forty years of age.
Menatonon was chief of the Chowanocks, and Okisko of tne
Weepomeokes,
"
a poAverful nation possessing all that country from
Albemarle Sound and Chowan river quite to the Chesapeake," and
prominent in early Virginia history.
Menawa, or Great Warrior, was a half blooded Creek chief of
the Oakfuskee towns, which lie on the Tallapoosa river, in Alabama.
He was a great wârrior among his people, and showed great hostility
towards the whites. On leaving his native home, this chief said to a
highly reputable gentleman, presenting him at the same time with his
portrait: "I am going away. I have brought you this picture. I
wish you to take it and hang it up in your house, that when your chil-
dren look at it you can tell them what I have been. I have always
found you true to me, but, great as my regard for you is, I never wish
to see you in that new country to which I am going ; for, when I cross
the great river, my desire is that I may never again see the face of a
white man."
INDIAN BIOGRAPHY.
583
METEA.
Metea, a Pottawattamie chief, was distinguished as an orator and
warrior. He was a prominent speaker at the council hekl at Chicago
inl821, and died about the year
1827, at Fort Wayne.
MiANTUNNOMOH was a nephew
of Canonicus, and was associated
with that chief in his rule over the
Narragansetts. He was killed in
1643.
MoNKAUSKA was a Sioux
chief, who was sent to Washington
in 1837, by his tribe, as a delegate.
He died very soon thereafter.
MoNCACHTAPE was a Yazoo,
\
w^hose name signifies in the lan-
guage of that people, "killer of
pain and fatigue." He is spoken
of by the historian Du Pratz, and
wdio, about 1760, aided him by
valuable information to his work.
MoNOCO was a Nipmuk chief, called by the English, One Eyed
John. He wâs engaged in King Philip's war. An early writer says
"he w-as a notable fellow."
MoNONOTTO w-as a noted chief of the Pequots, next in consequence
to Sassacus. He lived in the forepart of the seventeenth century.
MoNTOWAMPATE was sagamore of Lynn and Marblehead, known
more generally among the whites as Sagamore James. He died in
1633, of the small-pox.
MoYTOY wâs called Emperor of the Creeks, and presided over seven
towns in 1730. His residence was at Telliquo.
MuGG was a chief among the Androscoggins, and very conspicu-
ous in the eastern wâr of 1676-7, into wdiich, it seems, he had been
brought by the ill-treatment of the English. He had, before this
time, been on very friendly terms wdtli them.
MusHALATUBEE was a Clioctaw chief, born in the last half of the
eio^hteenth centurv, and died in 1838.
Nanepashemet was a Nipmuk chief of great fame in New En-
gland history. He was killed about the year 1619, and his widow, who
was a female sachem, continued the government.
Nanuntenoo was a chief sachem of all the Narragansetts. He
was captured by the English and shot at Stonington about the year
1676.
Nawkaw was a chief of the Wiiiiiebagoes. He was a sagacious
man, of firm, upright deportment, and pacific disposition, who filled
his station with dignity and commanded respect by his fidelity to his
engagements. When in Washington, in 1829, Nawkaw, in speaking
of his own age, called himself ninety-four winters old. He died in
1833, at the advanced age of ninety-eight, and was succeeded in his
rank and honors by his nephew, who was worthy to inherit them.
Nawkaw was a man of large stature and fine presence.
Neamatha, one of the most distinguished of the Seminoles, and,
at one time, their head man and principal chief, was, by birth,
a Creek. Mr. Duval, governor of Florida, in a dispatch to the govern-
ment at Washington, dated March, 1824, describes him as a man of
uncommon abilities, of great influence with his nation, and as one of
the most eloquent men he ever heard. He was a warrior of note and
renown before the war of 1812.
Neapope, a Sac chief, was second in command to Black Hawk
in the noted disturbances between that tribe and the whites, and in all
the expeditions against the whites; he was taken prisoner in a fight
with the Sioux.
Nesquaquoit, "Bear in the forks of a tree," was a chief of
the Fox Indians, and son of the famous chief Chemakasee, or the
Lance. He is, perhaps, the only Indian of whom it can be said that
he never tasted a drop of spirituous liquor nor smoked a pipe. It is
said of him that he was known to be as brave an Indian "as ever
made a moccasin path between the Missouri and Mississippi rivers."
Job Nesutan was a valiant warrior of the Nipmuk tribe, and
went with the English of Massachusetts in the first expedition to Mount
Hope, where he was slain in battle. He was very proficient in the
English tongue, and was Mr. Eliot's assistant and interpreter in his
translations of the Bible and other books in the Indian language.
Netawatwees was head chief of the Delawares. He was a
signer of the treaty at Conestoga, in the year 1718, being then about
twenty-five years of age. He died in 1776, at Pittsburgh, nearly ninety-
nine years old.
Ninegret, was often called Ninicraft, and sometimes Nenekunat,
sachem of the Niantiks, a tribe of the Narragansetts. He lived about
the year 1642.
Notchimine was a chief of the lowas, who resided at Snake Hill,
on the Missouri river, about five hundred miles above the confluence
of that river with the Mississippi. He was born about the year 1797.
OccuM, a Mohegan, was the first pupil who, about the middle of
the eighteenth century, attended Mr. Wheelock's school for Indian
youth at Lebanon, where he received the rudiments of a good educa-
tion. He was baptized by the name of Sampson. About 1786 he
went to the country of the Oneidas, in central New York, taking with
him several Indians of kindred blood, who clung to him as their leader.
He obtained a cession of fertile lands from the Oneida tribe, which
became a place of refuge of the Indians, chiefly of the Mohegans of
the sea coast of New England, and a few Nanticokes, Narragansetts
and Pequots. Here he became their first pastor, and continued to
devote himself to their interests until incapacitated by old age. He
died in 1792.
OcKONOSTOTA, a renowned Creek chief, took part in the Cherokee
war when Fort London was taken and the garrison massacred.
-
Ongpatonga, or Big Elk, was a chief of the Mahas or Omahas,
whose residence in 1811 was upon the Missouri river. He was a party
to several treaties made between his nation and the United States
previous to 1821.
Opecacanough, a chief of the Powhatan confederacy, and brother,
of Powhatan, was born about 1545 and died in 1644. He was a
leader in a fearful massacre of the English, provoked by their ill-
treatment.
Osceola, or Asseola, was a chief
or leader of the Seminole Indians of
Florida. He was known to the public
under the various appellations of
Powell, Osceola, Oceola, Asseola, Ossi-
niola, and Assini Yahola. Whilst he
was generally known as Osceola, and
is quite universally spoken of in his-
tory as such, his true name, it seems,
was Asseola. Powell was the surname
of a white man who married his mother
after the death of his father, and whose name was very naturally
given to him in youth, as he continued to live in the family after the
marriage of his mother to Powell.
The name Asseola is derived from asse, "the black drink," and
ola,
"
a waterfall." By a custom of the Creek Indians, previous to
entering into council, they would assemble in groups, and drink freely
of a decoction of a certain herb of "their country, which would operate
as an emetic, the effect of which they imagined would purify and
invigorate both the body and mind, so as to prepare them for the busi-
ness of thought and debate.
This beverage, which is taken warm ana in large quantities, is
OSCEOLA.
called the hlaclx drink, from its color, and among the several names
applied to it to express its quality or effects, are those of Assa, Assini-
ola and Assini Yahola. The name Asseola, freely translated, signifies,
"the plentiful drinker of the black drink," or
"
one who imbibes this
iluid in torrents."
Osceola was born on the Tallapoosa river, in the Creek nation,
about the year 1803. His paternal grandfather was a Scotchman, and
his European descent was marked in his features and complexion to a
considerable extent. He was not born a chief, but his position as such
was acquired in that noted struggle of his people with the United
States government, called the Seminole or Florida Indian War, which
broke out in 1835, brought on largely, if not entirely, from the
resistance made by this single individual of the tribe, at first holding
no position of rank among them, but who immediately grew into the
position of a chieftain and consummate leader.
At the termination of this war he was, among other chiefs, taken
prisoner, while holding a conference under a flag of truce, an act which
has been condemned as inexcusable treachery, though represented by
some as one of retaliation, and confined in Fort Moultrie, where he
died in January, 1838, from an attack of inflammation of the throat.
This war, which occupies such an important place in Indian history,
Avas not one brought on by the Indians themselves, but was rather the
result of their resistance to the United States government against its
attempt to remove them without their consent from the country in
which they lived. In proof of this many instances of their conduct
are referred to during that war, amongst others, that coming from evi-
dences of the battle field, where Major Dade and his detachment were
completely destroyed in a conflict with the Seminoles. The army of
General Gaines, in visiting this fatal field some time thereafter, to
bury the dead, it is said, were struck with the greatest surprise on
finding that the dead were in no instance pillaged. Articles the most
esteemed by the savages remained untouched. The ofiicers' breast
pins remained in their places ; their watches were found on their bodies
;
and money, including silver and gold, was left to decay or waste with
its owner; a lesson to all the world, and a testimony that the Indians
were not fighting for plunder.
"
Nay," says the historian,
"
they were
fighting for their rights, their country, their homes, their very exist-
ence."
Ouray, chief of the Uncompahgre Utes, whose specific title is
probably a corruption of the Spanish un compadre, was born in
Colorado in 1820; died in that state, August 27th, 1880. He was the
special friend of the whites, with whom he always kept faith, and pro-
INDIAN BIOG.RArHl. 587
tected their interests as far as possible, setting an example to his
tribe by living, in a measure, a civilized life. He had a fair educa-
tion, spoke Spanish, and wrote in that language in his correspondence
witli the president and the Indian department. At the time of his
death he resided in a comfortable house on a farm which he owned and
cultivated, and it is said took much pleasure and pride in driving a
carriage presented to him by the governor of Colorado.
OuREQUHARE, a Cayuga chief, died in Quebec in 1097. He was
one of the Iroquois chiefs that were treacherously seized and sent to
the galleys in France in 1687, after being invited to a conference at
Fort Frontenac by Denonville, the Canadian governor. He was allowed
to return to Canada in 1689, and advised the French to release the
other Indian captives, which advice was followed.
Pakanke was a powerful Delaware chief, whose residence, in
1770, was at a place called Kaskaskunk, about forty miles north of
Pittsburgh.
Passaaconaway, "Child of the bear," a Merrimac chief, held
sway over a large section south of Lake Winnepesogee. He was born
the last of the sixteenth century and died about 1663.
Paugus was a chief of the Pequakets. He was slain in the
memorable battle with the English under Capt. Lovewell in 1725.
Fryeburg, in Maine, now includes the principal place of the former
residence of this tribe and the place where the battle was fought.
Peksuat was a noted Wampanoag, cruelly murdered by Capt.
Miles Standish in 1623.
Peshkewah was born on the St. Mary's, Indiana, some few miles
from Fort Wayne, about 1761. After the death of Little Turtle, who
had been their counselor, leader and war captain, the chieftainship
being in the female line, fell into the hands of Peshkewah, or the
Lynx, a man better known upon the frontier as John B. Richardville.
Inheriting French blood of the metif cast, from his father's side, he
was a man well adapted to conduct the affairs of the Miamis during
this peculiar period. He spoke both the French and Ei'glish lan-
guages as well as his native tongue; and for a long series of years,
his house, which was eligibly situated on the banks of the St. Mary's,
about four miles from Fort Wayne, was known as the abode of hos-
pitality. Peshkewah, at the time of his death, is believed to have
been the most wealthy man of his native race in America, the estimate
of his property exceeding a million of dollars. He died on the 13th
of August, 1841, aged 80 years. He took part in the American Revo-
lution.
Peskelechaco was a noted war chief of the Pawnees. He lived
m
during the latter part of the 19th century, and was killed in an
endeavor to take a scalp.
Pessacus was a noted Narragansett chief, born in 1623. He was
killed by the Mohawks iu 1677.
Philip, the younger son of Massasoit, became chief of the Wam-
panoags in 1662. He was shot by one of his own tribe in 1676.
This great chief inaugurated what is recorded in history as King
Philip's war.
Capt. Pipe was chief of the Wolf tribe among the Delawares,
during the period of the American Revolution. He was a prominent
character in the memorable trouble among the frontier settlements at
the breaking out of the war.
Capt. Polard was a Seneca chief mentioned by Jedidiah Morse
in 1812.
PoNTiAC, a chief of the Ottawas, was born in 1712. He became
an ally of the French, and entered into a conspiracy to attack the set-
tlements and garrison of the English. He made an unsuccessful
siege of Detroit, in 1763. In character, Pontiac is described as
patient, subtle and cruel. He was killed in Illinois in 1769.
PoTOK, a Narragansett chief, took part in the famous King
Philip's war.
Powasheek, "To dash the water off," was a Fox chief, and, at
one time, the most influential man among them.
Powhatan, the most famous chief of his time, is often referred to
as "The great Virginia chief." He was born in the vicinity of Appo-
matox, about 1547, and died in 1618. He formed a confederacy of
several tribes of the Algonquins, known as the Powhatan confederacy.
Pu-GO-NA-KE-SHiCK, or "Hole in the Day," was a chief of the
Chippeways about the year 1830. He was well known in the vicinity
of St. Louis, during the forepart of the present century. His son of
the same name, who succeeded him, was assassinated by some one of
his tribe near Crow Wing, Minnesota, a few years ago.
Pushmataha was a distinguished warrior of the Choctaw nation.
He was born about 1764, and, at the age of twenty, was a captain, or
a war chief, and a great hunter. The celebrated John Randolph, in a
speech upon the floor of the Senate, alluded thus to this forest chief-
tain :
"Sir, in a late visit to the public grave-yard, my attention was
arrested by the simple monument of the Choctaw chief, Pushmataha.
Hewas, I have been told by those who knew him, one of nature's nobility
;
a man who would have been adored by society. He lies quietly by
the side of our statesmen and high magistrates in the regionfor
i
there is one suchwhere the red man and the white man are on a level.
On the side of the plain shaft that marks his place of burial, I read
these words,
'
Pushmataha, a Choctaw chief, lies here. This monument
to his memory is erected by his brother chiefs, who were associated
with him in a delegation from their nation, in the year 1824, to the
government of the United States. Pushmataha was a warrior of great
distinction. He was wise in council, eloquent in an extraordinary
degree, and on all occasions, and under all circumstances, the white
man's friend. He died in AVashington on the 24th of December,
1824, of the croup, in the 60th year of his age.' Among his last
words were the following: 'When lam gone, let the big guns be
fired over me.'
"
QuATAWAPEA, or "The man on the water who sinks and rises
again," a Shawnee chief, was born at the Pickaway Plains in Ohio.
He was, for many years, the chief of that band of the Shawnee tribe
which resided at Lewistown, on the sources of the Great Miami, of the
Ohio. Quatawapea was more familiarly known as Colonel Lewis. He
died in 1826, in the country allotted to the Shawnees by the American
government.
QuiNNAPiN was by birth a Narragansett. He was one of the
chiefs who directed the attack on Lancaster the 10th of February,
1675. He was killed by the English at Newport, in Rhode Island,
August, 1676.
Red Bird was a chief of the Winnebagoes. He was arrested for
the murder of a white person, and died in prison of crushed hopes
and a broken heart, in 1827.
Red Cloud, head chief of the Ogalla Sioux, and an hereditary
chief, owes his prominence to his persistent hostility to the whites.
The United States government determined to open a road to Montana
by way of Powder river. It must necessarily pass through a favorite
hunting-ground of the Sioux. Treaties were made with prominent
hereditary chiefs of the Sioux bands, by whom the right of way was
granted. So great was the dissatisfaction among the Indians that
Red Cloud saw his opportunity and denounced the treaties and their
makers; he declared war to the knife against every white man who
came over that road, or ventured into that country. Clouds of war-
riors, the ambitious and disaffected of all tribes and bands of that
country, flocked to his standard. The hereditary chiefs found them-
selves deserted and powerless; and, in some instances, they were only
too glad to preserve their control over their bands by acknowledging
Red Cloud as master. A long and tedious war ensued, in which Red
Cloud made a great reputation, and constantly received accessions to his
590
power, at the expense of the hereditary chiefs. Avoiding any gen-
eral or even serious engagement, he so harassed all trains and expedi-
tions that the few troops then in his country could scarcely be said to
hold even the ground they actually stood upon. Several forts were estab-
lished, but they protected only what was inside the palisades. A load
of wood for fuel could not be cut outside without a conflict. This at
last culminated in the terrible massacre of Fort Phil Kearney, in which
half the garrison (gallantly, though unwisely, meeting the enemy out-
side) perished to a man. Instead of sending more troops, and
promptly and terribly punishing the Indians, a "humane" commission
was appointed to treat with them. The garrisons were withdrawn, the
road abandoned, and, in their opinions, the Indians were unconquer-
able, and Ked Cloud the greatest warrior of the world.
Eed Jacket, Sa-ga-ye-wat-ha, or
"He keeps them awake," chief of the
Wolf tribe of the Senecas, was a man
of rare talent. He delighted in ora-
tory, in which he was master, and held
powerful sway in the councils of his
nation. Red Jacket was born in 1750,
and died in 1828. He is referred to
by writers of Indian history as
"
the
last of the Senecas."
Ridge, Major, a Cherokee chief,
was born about the year 1777, at a
Cherokee town called Highwassie. He
was one of the Indians who, being
reared in savage life, adopted the em-
ployments and ways of our civilization.
Robinson, Alexander, commonly known among the whites as
"Indian Robinson," whose Indian name was Chee-chee-bing-way,
"Winking eye," was born at Mackinaw, probably about the year 1775.
His mother was a woman of the Ojibway tribe ; his father was a British
officer stationed at Mackinaw, and a Scotchman by birth. After he
grew to manhood, he was, for many years, engaged in trading with the
Indians, first on the St. Joseph's river, in Michigan, and, afterwards,
coming to Chicago, in the year 1816, where he continued the business
for some years thereafter. He was made a chief in the Pottawattamie
tribe of Indians, at Prairie du Chien, in August, 1829. For particu-
lars in this regard see Chapter XLVI of this work, entitled "Indian
Treaties." Although he became an Indian chief, and was a great
favorite with the Indians, yet he always wore the dress and pursued
RED JACKETSENECA CHIEF.
the habits of the white man, to whose destiny he was always inclined;
so much so, that latterly he grew into disfavor with his tribe. His
advice to them always was to leave their Indian habits and take up
those of the white man, and his tribe were, no doubt, in the end much
influenced in this direction by his example. He died at his reservation
on the Desplaines river, April 22nd, 1872.
Round Head was a Wyandotte chief, and fought against the
Americans in the war of 1812. He was very conspicuous in the battle
at Frenchtown, upon the Kiver Raisin.
Samoset, noted in early Neiv England history, accompanied Mas-
sasoit in his first visit to the New England colonists in 1627.
Sassacus, chief of the Pequots, was born near the mouth of tlie
Connecticut river, about 1568. He was slain by the Mohawks, to whom
he had fled for safety from the English, in 1637.
Shabonee, or Chamblee, was a
Pottawattamie chief, born in the
country of the Maumee river, Ohio,
about the year 1775. His father
was an Indian of the Ottawa tribe,
and fought under Pontiac in the
wars in which that chieftain engaged.
His friend, the late Gurdon S. Hub-
bard, of Chicago, says of Shabonee:
"He was, I thought, the finest look-
ing man I had ever seen. He was
fully six feet in height, finely pro-
portioned, and with a countenance
expressive of intelligence, firmness,
and kindness. He was one of
Tecumseh's aids at the battle of the
Thames, being at his side when Tecumseh was shot. Becoming
disgusted with the conduct of General Proctor, he, with Billy Caldwell,
( the Sauganash
)
, withdrew their support from the British and espoused
the cause of the Americans."
Shabonee, it is believed, came to Chicago in the latter part of the
year 1816. He brought with him a certificate from Billy Caldwell,
the original of which is now in possession of the Chicago Historical
Society ; but exactly for what purpose it was written is not known.
He carried it many years, when, in 1858, he gave it to his friend,
AVilliam Hickling, of Chicago, by whom it was presented to said his-
torical society, of which the following is a copy:
"This is to certifv, that the Bearer of this name Chamblee, was a
SHABONEE.
faithful companion to me, During the Late war with the United States.
The Bearer Joined the Late celebrated warrior Tecumthe of the
Shawnee Nation,in the year 1807,on the Wabash river, & remained
with the above warrior from the commencement of the Hostilities with
the U. S. until our Defeat at Moravian Town, on the Thams, 5th Octo-
ber, 1813I also have been witness To his intrepidity & courageous
warrior on many occasion & show'd a great deal of Humanity to those
unfortunate Sons of Marswho fell into his Hands
"
Amherstburg 1st August 1816.
"B. Caldwell,
"Captain I. D." (supposed to mean
Indian Department).
[Amherstburg is understood to be the same as Fort Maiden, on
the Detroit river, in Canada.
]
This certificate, it will be noticed, gives his name as Chamhlee.
The Pottawattamies, like most other tribes of the Algonquin stock,
could not pronounce the sound of Z, and had no such sound in their
dialect. They substituted in place of this the sound of n, and in their
endeavor to speak this name called him Chamb?2ee, and from this have
come the successive misnomers Shabhonee, Shaubena, Shabhona.
Chamblee was the name of a distinguished French official during the
early settlement of Canada under the auspices of that government,
from whom, it is supposed, Shabonee took this name. Shabonee was
the orator of his tribe at the last council on this side of the Mississippi,
held with the agents of the United States government at Chicago, in
August, 1836, to whose speeches, on that occasion, the writer of this
wôrk was an attentive listener. He was a fluent and graceful speaker,
presenting his points with clearness and force. He died at the age of
eighty-four, at his home in Morris, Grundy county. 111., July 17th,
1859.
Shauhaunapotinia, "The man who killed three Sioux," or, as he
is sometimes called, Moanahonga, "Great Walker," was an Iowa chief,
born about the year 1816.
Sharitahrish was principal chief or head man of the Grand
Pawnees. He was a brave and enterprising leader, and a person of
fine form and noble bearing. He was succeeded by his brother Ishca-
tape, "The wicked chief," a name given him by the Omahas, or Pawnee
Mahas.
Shahaska was a Mandan chief, spoken of in the travels of Lewis
and Clark.
Shingis, a noted Delaware chief, was the first chief whom General
Washington visited in his expedition to the French on the Ohio, in
INDIAN BIOGRAPHY. . 593
1753, to enlist him in the cause of the English, but in which he was
not successful. He is considered the greatest warrior of his time.
Skikellimus, the father of the celebrated Logan, a Cayuga chief,
was born in the last half of the seventeenth century and died in 1749.
Shingaba WOssin, or "Image Stone," was a Chippeway, and first
chief of his band. He was one of the most influential men in the
Chippeway nation, and was deservedly esteemed, not only by the
Indians, but by the whites also, for his good sense and respectful and
conciliating deportment. In 1813, during the last war with Great
Britain, Shingaba WOssin went to York, in Canada, and had an inter-
view with Proctor and Tecumseh. Nothing is known of the subject or
result of this interview except that one of his brothers joined the
British, and fought and fell in the battle of the Thames in Upper Can-
ada. His death was deeply lamented by Shingaba WOssin, so much
so as to induce the belief that he counseled, or, at least, acquiesced in
his joining the British.
SiLOUSE was a Cherokee chief, spoken of by Mr. Jefferson in his
"
Notes on Virginia."
Sitting Bull is known as a great chief among the Sioux nation,
over which he exerted a powerful influence, and whom he led in sev-
eral successful conflicts against the whites, especially that memorable
battle in the vicinity of the Little Big Horn river, June 25th, 1876, in
which General Custer's command, engaged in the action, was entirely
destroyed.
Shenandoah, agreeable to tradition, was born of Oneida parent-
age, at Conestoga, in the quasi Iroquois military colony, which that
confederacy maintained for the purpose of surveilance over the south-
ern tribes, on the banks of the Susquehanna. He was one of the
ablest counselors among the American Indians, and, though terrible
as a tornado in war, he was bland and mild in peace. He died at
Oneida Castle, March 11th, 1816, aged 110. He was born in the year
1706.
Squando, a Tarratine sachem, commonly called Sagamore of Saco.
Hubbard says he was
"
the chief actor, or, rather, the beginner," oi
the eastern war of 1675-6. It is stated that his reason for commenc-
ing this war was on account of a rude act on the part of some seamen,
who, either for mischief overset a canoe in which was Squando's wife
and child, or to see if young Indians could swim naturally like animals
of the brute creation, as some had reported. The child went to the
bottom, but was saved from drowning by the mother's diving down
and bringing it up, yet "within a while after the said child died."
The historian says "the said Squando, father of the child, hath been
38
SO provoked thereat, that he hath ever since set himself to do all the
mischief he can to the English." The most memorable exploit in
which Squando was engaged was the burning of Saco, in 1675. He
was also a great pow-wow among his people.
Squanto was a chief noted in the early history of New England.
He died in December, 1622.
^
Spotted Tail, a Sioux chief, like Bed Cloud, rose from the ranks.
When a boy of nineteen or twenty years, he incurred the implacable
enmity of a sub-chief for daring and ferocity, by aspiring to a girl on
whom the chief had set his eye. One day, meeting accidentally a
short distance from the camp, the chief peremptorily demanded of
Spotted Tail a renunciation of the girl under penalty of instant death.
Drawing his knife. Spotted Tail defied him to his worst. A long and
bloody conflict ensued. Some hours after a straggler from camp found
the two bodies locked in a death grip, and each gaping with innumer-
able wounds. The chief was dead. Spotted Tail recovered to step at
once into prominence; and when, a few years after, the hereditary
chief died, he was almost unanimously selected as principal chief, in
spite of the most determined opposition of the sub-chief, who by reg-
ular succession should have obtained the position. Spotted Tail proved
an able and judicious ruler, and has well justified the choice of his tribe.
Tadeuskund, or Tedeuskung, was a noted chief among the Dela-
wares. He was known among the English previous to 1750 by the
name of "Honest John." He was a conspicuous person in the history
of Pennsylvania, previous to the Revolution, and particularly towards
the commencement of the war of 1756. In the spring of 1763, when
the European nations had made peace, but the Indians were still at
war, he was burnt up with his house, while he was asleep in his bed.
Tamany, or Tamanend (beaver likeamiable), was chief of the
Delawares, of whom it is said
"
he never had his equal." The date of
his birth is not known, but he died about the year 1690. He is said
to have been among the number of chiefs who made the celebrated
treaty with William Penn in 1682.
Tame King, whose residence was among the upper Creeks in 1791,
is noticed in our public documents of that year as a conspicuous chief in
matters connected with the establishing of the southern boundary.
ToTOSON was a great captain in the war of 1675. It seems
uncertain whether he was a Narragansett or a Wampanoag. He is
first spoken of 1666.
Tecumseh, Tecumt or Tecumthe, a famous Shawnee chief, was
born near the Sciota river in 1770. The highest conception of Indian
character found a counterpart in this heroic chieftain. We are told
INDIAN BIOGEAPHY. 595
that he was of an open countenance and noble bearing. With intense
loyalty for the land of his fathers, he formed an alliance with western
tribes to regain their lost inheritance. They met defeat at the battle
of Tippecanoe. In 1812 he joined the English against the Ameri-
cans. He held the rank of brigadier general, and was killed in 1813
while commanding the right wing of the British army.
Teyoninhokerawen was a Mohawk chief, who was also known as
John Norton. He took part in the war of 1812.
Thayendanegea, commonly
called Joseph Brant, and knoAvn
as the captain of the Six
nations, was born on the banks of
the Ohio, in 1742, during the
excursion of his parents to that
region. In 1785 he visited En-
gland, where he was received by
the people with great honor. He
died in November, 1807, at the age
of nearly sixty-five years, near
Burlington, on Lake Ontario, and
was buried at the Mohawk village,
on Grand river, in Canada, by the
side of the church he had built
there. His last words to his
adopted nephew were :
'
' Have pity
on the poor Indians; if you can
get any influence with the great, endeavor to do them all the good
you can."
TiMPOOCHEE Barnard was the son of an Uchee woman. His
father was a Scotchman, whose name was said to be Timothy Barnard.
He was first known in public life in J 8 14, when he took part with the
American forces against the hostile Creeks, and commanded about one
hundred Uchee warriors, with the commission of major. He was at
the battle of Callabee, under General Floyd, and distinguished him-
self by an act of gallantry.
TiSHCOHAN, "He who never blackens himself," was a Delaware
chief. He was a signer of the celebrated Walking Purchase in 1737.
ToKACON, or
"
He that inflicts the first wound," was a chief of the
Sioux nation.
TooAN TuH, or "Spring Frog," a Cherokee chief, was born near
the mouth of Chickamauga creek, in the vicinity of Lookout Moan-
tain, about the year 1754, in the state of Tennessee.
JOSEPH BEANTAGE 43.
From a miniature taken from life
59() THE AMERICAN INDIAN.
TusTENNUGGEE Emathla, a Creek chief, was born on the Tallapoosa
river about 1793. He was also known by the name of "Jim Boy."
Uncas, war chief of the Mohegan Indians in Connecticut, was a
Pequot by birth. He was born near the last of the sixteenth century,
and died in 1G76.
Waapasha, AVabashaw, was a chief of the Keoxa tribe of the
Dakota nation. He lived on the Mississippi river, in the vicinity of a
town in Minnesota bearing his name.
Waymboeshkaa, a Chippeway chief, was one of the most remark-
able chiefs at the treaty of La Fond du Lac, Superior, in 1826.
AYakaun Haka, a Winnebago chief, was of mixed blood. His father
was a Frenchman and his mother a woman of the Winnebago nation.
AVakawn, The Snake, was a AVinnebago chief, born on St. Mary's
river, near Green Bay, and died in 1838, at the age of nearly sixty years.
AValk-in-the-water, Miere, a chief of the tribe of Wyandotts
in 1817, resided on a reservation in Michigan, at a village called Magu-
aga. He was conspicuous as a commander of the Indian forces at the
battle of the Thames.
AVabokieshiek, AVhite Cloud, a great prophet, noted at the time
of Black Hawk's war. He was on one side a AVinnebago and on the
other a Sac.
Wanata, or AVanatuk, was a chief of the Sioux, whose residence
was on the river St. Peter.
AAÂPELLA, or Wapello, "He that is painted white," head man of
the Musquakee, or Fox tribe.
AVatchemonne, or the orator, the third chief of the lowas, was born
at the old Iowa village on the Des Moines river, at that time occupied
by Keokuk, and in 1838 is spoken of as about fifty-two years of age.
AAîUBUNSEE, AVaubanse, Wauponsie, the principal war chief of
the Pottawattamies of the Prairie, resided on the Kankakee river, in
Illinois, afterwards on Fox river at the Big Woods. In the war of
1812, this chief and his tribe were among the allies of Great Britain.
He united with his tribe in the sale of their lands, and migrated with
them in 1836 to Council Bluffs, on the Missouri river, where he died a
few years thereafter.
AAÂUB Ojeeg, "AVhite Fisher," was born at Chegoimiegon, a few
years prior to the capture of Quebec. He was early regarded as a suc-
cessful leader of war parties, and the nation looked on him to defend if
not to enlarge their borders against the Sioux. During a period of
twenty years, beginning about 1770, he was the ruling and governing
spirit of his tribe. He was seven times a leader against the Autogamies
and Sioux. His parties were all made up of volunteers ; the first con-
sisted of forty men, the last of three hundred. The war-song, which
Waub Ojeeg composed for this expedition and which he chanted in its
formation, and which so impressed his countrymen, has been preserved
and repeated in modern times. John Johnston, an Irish gentleman,
struck with its heroic strain, made the following version from these
verbal traditions, more than forty years ago:
"
On that day when our heroes lay low, lay low,
On that day when our heroes lay low
I fought by their side, and thought ere I died,

Just vengeance to take on the foe, the foe,
Just vengeance to take on the foe," etc.
Waub Ojeeg died in his family lodge at Chegoimiegon, surrounded
by his children and relatives, in 1793.
Wahnahton was a bold and fearless chief of the tribe of Yank-
tons, whose name translated is, "He who charges the enemy." He was
considerably noted in the last war Avith Canada, at which time he was
about thirty years of age.
Weatherford, one of the conspicuous war chiefs of the Creek
nation, is spoken of in history as the "Corner stone of the Creek con-
federacy," and commanded the Creeks at the capture of Fort Mimms,
in 1813.
Weschcubb, "The Sweet," was a chief of Red Lake, north of the
sources of the Mississippi. He was a son of Le Sucre, a chief who is
mentioned by General Pike, in his narrative of his voyage up the
Mississippi in 1806.
White Cloud, known among the Indians by the name of Wi-e-
wa-ha, or "Good disposition," Avas the first chief of the Iowa tribe.
His father is spoken of as a great man among the lowas, noted for
his courage and generosity. He has no particular trait, except an
insatiable thirst for spirits.
White Eyes, or as some write it, "White Eye," was the first
captain among the Delawares. While accompanying General Mcin-
tosh with his army to Muskingum, in 1778 or 1779, he took the small-
pox and died.
WiTTUWAMET was a Massachusetts chief, prominent in the history
of New England, about 1623.
YahA HaJO, a Seminole war-chief, was slain on tlie 29th of
March, 1836, by General Joseph Shelton.
Yoholo Micco was principal chief of the Eufalo town, between
Tallassee and Oakfuskee, in the Creek nation. In the war of 1813-14
he served with Mcintosh against the hostile Indians, and shared
largely and honorably in all the battles that were fought. He was the
speaker of the Creek nation, and opened the councils on all occasions.
CHAPTEK XLIX.
ELIOT'S INDIAN
BIBLE.
Remarkable Literary ProductionConsisted of the Old and New Testament
Trans-
lated into the New England DialectsIndians under Eeligious
Instructions
at
Martha's Vineyard" Praying Indians
"Number
Curious
Circumstances Lead-
ing to Conversion of IndiansQuestions
Asked by Indians
Concerning Eliot's
Religious TeachingsDifficulties He
Encountered in
TranslatingDeath of
Eliot.
pT would seem as if no
work claiming to encom-
pass the whole Indian
^ subject, for the reader
of this day, could be consid-
ered complete without some
account of the remarkable
literary production or mis-
sionary effort, styled, "Eliot's
Indian Bible." This book
consists of the Old and New
Testaments, translated by
Eliot from the English into
the dialects of the New England tribes, prevailing in that portion of
the country over which his labors were extended.
Rev. John Eliot, who has been very properly styled the Apostle
of the Indians, came from England to New England in 1681. He
had been well educated at Cambridge, and in 1632, then twenty-eight
years old, was settled as a preacher at Roxbury near Boston. Although
charged with the duties of a pastor, and taking a part in the ecclesias-
tical government of the New England churches, he at the same time
turned his attention, very earnestly, to the conversion of the Indian
tribes in the vicinity, to the Christian religion of the sect to which he
belonged. To this end he employed native teachers, and himself
learned the Indian language; in the study of which he made great
proficiency, and soon began to preach to them in their own dialect.
Others joined him, and, by their co-operation, native evangelists were
(598;
ELTOT PREACHING TO THK INDIANS.
ELIOT's INDIAN BIBLE. 599
raised up, under whose labors, superintended by Eliot, Indian churches
were established at various points. Fifteen hundred Indians, it is
said, were under religious instruction at Martha's Vineyard alone.
The work of this Indian Bible which, under the circumstances at
that day, appears stupendous, we are informed was done at the expense
of a society in London, for the propagation of the gospel among the
Indians of New England. The New Testament appears to have been
first printed in 1661. This was repeated by a new edition in 1680.
The work, including the Old and New Testament, was printed in 1685.
This translation of the Bible into the Indian language constitutes an
era in American philology, and preceded, it is believed, any missionary
effort of equal magnitude in the way of translation, in India or any
other part of the world; and remains a monument of New England
zeal and active labors in the conversion of native tribes.
The following is the title of the book, Natick or Massachusetts
dialect:
Mamusse
WUNNEETUPANATAMWE
UP-BIBLUM GOD.
Naneeswe
Nukkone Testament
Kali wonk
Kusku Testament.
Ne Quoshkinnumuk Nashpe wuttinnemoh Christ
Noll Asoowesit
John Eliot,
Cambridge.
Printeuoopnashpe Samuel Green kah Marmaduke Johnson,
1663.
Translation.The Bible of God, containing the Old and New
Testament, translated by the Reverend John Eliot, Cambridge, printed
by Samuel Green and Marmaduke Johnson, 1663.
It is stated (Gookin Arch. Amer. Vol. II,
p. 44)
that Eliot's
principal assistant, in the translation of the Scriptures, was a Massa-
chusetts Indian named Job Natsuan, one of the praying Indians, who
had been instructed and converted by hima man who, agreeably to
this testimony, was well esteemed for piety and knowledge, both in the
Indian and English tongues. But- it is stated in a history of New
England, by Chas. AV. Elliott, 1857, Vol. I,
p. 325, that one day in
October,
1646, Eliot went out into the wilderness to seek and con-
vert heathen Indians. He was met by a grave man (attended by five
or six others) whose name was Waban, and to them he preached in a'
wigwam at Nonantum, near Watertown, on the south side of the Charles
000
river. He preached from the 37th chapter of Ezekiel,
"
Then said he-
unto me, prophesy unto the wind
(
Wahan in their dialect, it is
said, meant wind) prophesy, son of man, and say to the wind, thus
saith the Lord God; Come from the four winds, O breath, and
breathe upon those slain that they may live; so I prophesied as he
commanded me, and the breath came unto them, and they lived and
stood up upon their feet, an exceeding great army." This discourse
lasted for an hour, and Wahan thought and seriously reflected upon
it all, whereupon he became converted. He was one of the principal
men in the Indian town of Natick, to which the Nonantum Indians
removed. (1651).
Eliot could get but little assistance in his work at the outset, one
reason for which seems to have been that the colonists were too poor
to aid him. But, in the year 1649, an act of parliament was passed
intended to promote the spread of the Christian gospel among the
Indians. Large collections were also made in England, stimulated by
the action of parliament, yielding a revenue of five or six hundred
pounds, which became increased by those made in New England, and
a society to aid in the work aforesaid was incorporated in 1662, after
which much effort was made with encouraging results.
The Puritan historian remarks, with much satisfaction, in connec-
tion with this subject, that during the progress of civilizing the Indians
through their conversion to Christianity, they were in some cases made
into magistrates and teachers in the towns of
"
praying Indians."
It is said that the number of "praying Indians," as they were
called, amounted to some 3,600, collected in various settlements,
mostly in Martha's Vineyard, Nantucket, Plymouth and Massachusetts
;
but few of the number, however, were admitted to communion, the
strictness of the examination being too great for these ignorant and
uncivilized men.
It is understood that the foregoing astonishing progress in Eliot's
work of reclaiming the Indians, if such it may be called, was accom-
plished through the aid of his Indian Bible. The Indians having been
taught to read, to a considerable extent, were able to search the Scrip-
tures for themselves, and to read to one another.
In the history of Eliot's progress in missionary work, some curi-
ous incidents are related of circumstances which led to conversion in
individual cases. It is recorded that the first Indian converted in the
new colonies was Hobamock (in the settlement of Plymouth), who
was transported
with great wonderment of the power the English had
with their God, "because," he said, "when they prayed to him for rain,
it did rain, and he concluded to join them and their God."
ELIOT's INDIAN BIBLE. 601
It appears that Eliot found at the outset that he had many, and
some apparently insurmountable, difficulties to overcome in his work
of reclaiming the Indians, inducing them to accept his religion. The
Indians were ignorant and undisciplined; they were accustomed to
idleness and a wandering life ; they were vitiated with rum, and were
despised or feared by the whites. Their chiefs opposed the new relig-
ion
;
and their sachem, Ninegret, resolutely and persistently declined
having the white man's God and religion introduced among his peo-
ple, saying: "For what reason? Let me see that your religion
makes you better than us, and then we may try it." Uncas, sachem
of the Mohegans, went to Hartford, and told the commissioners his
extreme dislike to having Christianity introduced among his people.
Philip, chief of the Wampanoags, holding the button of one of the
commissioners, said: "I care not more for your religion than for this
button."
After his work had progressed for considerable time, and had
begun to attract the attention of the Indians, he became frequently much
annoyed from anxious questioners among them, by whom he was con-
fronted with the repeated inquiry:
"
If Christianity be necessary,
why, for so many years, have you done nothing in proving it to us?"
and not only this, but instead of responding favorably and cordially to
Eliot's appeal to accept the Christian religion, they would put him
subtle questions, which each man finds it hard to answer, to the
following effect, being, indeed, but an example in the experience of the
early missionaries among the Indians in general:
"Why did not God give all men good hearts, that they might be
good?" and "Why did not God kill the devil that made all men so
badGod having all power?" "If an Indian had two wives before
he was converted, which should he put away?"
"Whether all the Indians who had died heretofore had gone to
hell, and why only a few now at last were put in the way of going to
heaven?"
"How can we reconcile the scriptures which say: 'Save your-
selves from this untoward generation,' with
'
We can do nothing of
ourselves?'
"
"Why did Judas sin in giving up Jesus, when it was what God
had appointed?"
"
What is the effect of your religion? We have no contentions
about property, and no man envies his neighbor?"
"Whether the good child of a bad man would be punished,
because the second commandment says: 'He visits the sins of the
father upon the children?'
"
"If I do that which is a sin, and do not know that it is a sin,
what will God say to that?"
"Why must we be like salt?"
"Why doth God say, 'I am the God of the Hebrews; ' why?"
But Eliot's labors never ceased. Although many of his converts
were backsliders, yet he continued patiently and worked on. His
salary paid by the society was fifty pounds. He continued to preach at
Boxbury, at the same time extending his missionary work in all direc-
tions. He preached, he taught, catechised, established towns and
instituted agriculture. In addition to these, he stirred the ministers
of the colony to action, and it was mostly through his efforts that
others devoted themselves actively to the work. November 4, 1680,
he wrote to his friend, Eobert Boyle, saying: "Oar praying Indians,
both in the islands and on the main, are, considered together, num-
erous. Thousands of souls, of whom some true believers, some learners
and some are still infants, and all of them beg, cry and entreat for
Bibles."
As he grew old, and near his end, his urgency to complete the
Bible, was so great, that he writes his patron Boyle, to "change the
subject of your bountiful charity from their bodies to their souls."
"
My age makes me unfortunate," says he, "and'my heart hath much
ado to hold up my head, but both daily drive me to Christ." The
sturdy old apostle stood by his darling work; yet he wished Sir Robert
to draw a curtain of love over his failures, if he shall have been too
urgent. He acknowledged the receipt of 460 pounds, towards the
work, and says: "The work goeth on, I praise God." Again he
acknowledged (April 22d, 1684),
the receipt of 400 pounds "which
doth set a diadem of beauty upon all your former acts of pious
charity."
Again he says, "The great work that I travail about is in the
printing of the Old Testament, that they may have the whole Bible. I
desire to see it done before I die, and I am so deep in years that I can-
not expect to live long; besides we have but one man (viz., the Indian
printer) that is able to compose the sheets, and correct the press, with
understanding."
From this, it seems that Eliot's principal assistant and right hand
man was an Indian.
Eliot's Indian Bible has well been styled "a wonderful monument
of patience, industry and faith." In producing it he labored under
every difficulty and overcame all. The first edition consisted of the
New Testament of 1661 and the Old Testament of 1685. Of the first
edition between one and two thousand copies were printed, and of the
ELIOT'S INDIAN BIBLE. 603
second edition, two thousand copies were printed, at the cost of one
thousand pounds.
To illustrate the difficulty of making the first translation, it was
told that when Eliot read to the Indians, and described the verse,
"
The Mother of Sisera cried through the lattice," they gave him the
word for "lattice;" he afterwards discovered that it read "The Mother
of Sisera cried through the Eel-pot,'^'' that being as near his descrip-
tion of "lattice," as they could get.
Mr. Eliot did not deem the Indian word for God^ in the dialect
into which his translation was made, sufficiently pure and free from
superstitious notions to be introduced into his translation as an equiva-
lent, nor did he employ it in the sense of Lord; but universally ren-
dered it by the term "Jehovah." And there were, apparently, prior
to the arrival of Europeans, difficulties in speaking of objects
unknown to the Natick vocabulary, such as cow, sheep, oxen, and the
like; and yet further difficulties were encountered in speaking of objects
known only to the oriental world, in which the Bible abounds, such as
camel, dragon, and the like. In all of these he employed the English
word in our own version. Neither does ho nor his Indian assistant
appear to have been an adept, or well instructed in natural history, which
considerably affected his work in this respect ; but in all cases of trees,
plants, fish or quadrupeds, where a doubt existed, they simply employed
the English word, with proper Indian inflections to denote the geni-
tive, or to mark the preposition or pronominal sense to the word
employed.
Eliot died peacefully while sitting in his chair. May 20, 1690.
His last words were,
"
WelcomeJoy."
CHAPTER L.
INDIAN CIVILIZATION.
Reduced
Possessions
Insignificant ProportionsThe Indian QuestionPreliminary
Agencies to CivilizationExtinction, or CivilizationWhat is Civilization
A
Matter of OpinionVarious Forms of CivilizationThe European FormWhich
the Indian is Expected to AdoptWork of the PuritansRev. John Eliot in
New EnglandMissionary WorkCivilizing Influence of WhiskeyDiscordant
Examples of PuritansDistrust of the White Man's ReligionExtermination of
the New England TribesExample of the BrothertownsThe Iroquois Six
NationsTheir Progress in Our CivilizationInfluence of William PennGood
Work of QuakersAgricultural InstructionThe Five Civilized Tribes of the
Indian TerritoryTo Become Civilized the Indian Must Become a White Man
The Indian Disappearing by AmalgamationReports of Indian Agents to that

EffectThe Indian ProblemThe White Man Problem.
\=^=r-wHE
Indian having finally been reduced
in his possessions to insignificant pro-
fl\
^
portions, our government has on hand
^"^
what is called the Indian question,
being a problem of how to divest the Indians
of the remaining remnant of their domain with-
out consideration. The first step in tliis pro-
ceeding is to teach him the ways of our civili-
zation, thrusting upon his adverse nature its
burdens and enormities, to which we ourselves
have become accustomed after centuries of ex-
periment; and to which end experienced poli-
ticians, out of a job, have been graduated
through partisan machinery in zealous localities,
and appointed to take charge of the Indian question and the
execution of the policy of the government in regard to the same, whose
practical knowledge of the Indian may, perhaps, have no deeper foun-
dation than that derived from the study of Indian effigies set
up
in the
front of tobacco stores to invite in the wayward youth, that he may learn
the habit of smoking tobacco like Indians.
Extinction or civilization, it is said, is the alternative for the
Indian race of America. In approaching the subject of civilization of
(604)
REMNANT OF FORT DEARBORN,
CHICAGOTHE BLOCK HOUSE.
INDIAN CIVILIZATION. 005
the Indian, we are first to dispose of the question as to what is here
meant by the term civilization. By standard authority it is defined to
be "the act of civilizing, or the state of being civilized; refined; cul-
tured." "To civilize: to reclaim from a savage state; to educate; to
refine." "Civilized: reclaimed from savage life and manners; in-
structed in the arts, learning, and civil manners; refined; cultivated."
The Indian has been called a savage; his life has been called a
savage life, and his manners, it is considered, correspond to such con-
dition of life ; and yet, those well acquainted with Indian character can
truly say, that in his nature and instincts he is no more savage than
those of other races. His life is one of simplicity; and, as many
writers have it, he is living in his primitive condition in accordance
with the order of nature.
As to the latter branch of the definition aforesaid, "instructed in
the arts, learning, and civil manners," it must be conceded that the
Indian had but a limited knowledge of the arts as existing at this day
among the more enlightened nations; and the same may be said in
regard to learning in general. But as to his civil manners, the Indian
would never suffer in comparison with the manners encountered in
promiscuous society under our own civilization. So the Indian was as
refined in his instincts as the civilized white man ; so he was cultivated,
in conduct, in all those things that pertain to his native condition.
When we speak of the civilization of the Indian in the common
acceptation of the term, it must be understood that we have refer-
ence to our own civilization, or civilization as understood and accepted
by us at this day. Mr. Ellis, in his work on the "Ked Man and the
White Man," says: "The term civilization, and the state which it
describes, are both of them wholly arbitrary. It involves a question,
not only of more or less, in its conditions, but of varieties in its type.
There are various forms of civilization ; the Oriental and the Western,
the Asiatic and the European. The rudest boors may not be outside
his range; and the excesses of luxury, conventionality, and ceremony
in courtly circles, prompt the use of the word artificial, for the most
advanced range of society."
The East Indians, the Turks, the Chinese, and, indeed, the whole
Mongolian race, are civilized; but their civilization differs materially
from ours. They are averse to accepting our civilization, and we cer-
tainly would not accept theirs. Sothat, in approaching this subject of
civilization, it is understood that we have in view our own European
standard, which we are compelling the native red man to accept.
The first attempt at bringing the Indians into our civilization was
by the Puritans in the New England colonies. But their notions of
civilization seemed to have been judged by the notions of their religion;
in which centered their ideas of civilization, which they considered
themselves specially commissioned to impart to the Indians. Their
idea was, that when the Indian had fully accepted their religion, their
religious faiths and beliefs, he was civilized. In other words, when he
became Christianized, according to their interpretation of the term,
it was synonymous with civilization.
This great work was, therefore, by common consent, assigned to
the so called "Indian apostle," Eliot, who set about learning their dia-
lect, and the work of imparting to the benighted natives in that vicinity
the religion of the Puritans, until the number of converted Indians, or
those who had accepted his religious teachings, amounted, as is said,
to something over 3,500. But it was soon found, says the historian,
that
"
the Indians had more to fear from civilization than from barbar-
ism. Cupidity and rum were, from the beginning, more potent forces
than the tomahawk and scalping knife."
Subsequently, Rev. Mr. Hawley of Boston set about continuing
the work so well commenced by Mr. Eliot. As the Indians were
removed westward, to give place to the invading white man, Mr. Haw-
ley pursued his missionary work of civilizing them into the colony of
New York, where he was enabled to make a good beginning, but the
results, according to his own account, seem not to have been very flat-
tering, for he says: "There is rarely a male professor of the gospel
who will not falsify his word, drink to excess, and commit other immor-
alities. There are two instances in the whole Six Nations, and two
only, of persons who, since their conversion to Christianity, have not
been intoxicated."
It is said concerning Mr. Hawley's experience as a missionary,
that "on one occasion (July 1st, 1753),
he was in great danger, for
the Indians had got rum, and were proceeding to hold a drunk. The
women and children were skulking about, secreting hatchets and guns,
well knowing what must be the result. Mr. Hawley and Deacon
Woodbridge, with their interpreter, were pursued, but escaped, after
being well frightened, and with reason, for a drunken savage is as
dangerous as a drunken white man."
The examples of the Puritans set the Indians at discord among
themselves. Intolerance, religious persecution, and various quarrels
on doctrinal points in their religion, tended to distract the Indian
mind, and led him to doubt the white man's sincerity, and they nat-
urally inquired, as Mr. Gookin informs us,
"
How is it, then, that Mr.
"Wilson is ready to drive Mr. Wheelwright into the sea, and Mr. AVil-
liams is hunted from his home among Christian men, and Mrs. Hutch-
iiison's body is shut up in prison and her character blackened? Why
is this, for do not all appeal to the Bible, and stand fast upon it?"
The disastrous wars, ending in the destruction of the Pequots
and sympathizing tribes, who had made their last stand to hold pos-
session of their country against the English aggression, so disheart-
ened the remnants of the Indian tribes of New England that they
accepted the terms proposed for quitting, and leaving the country to
the civilized conquerors. These remnants were, therefore, gathered
up and consolidated into a kind of brotherhood, consisting of the
Pequots, Mohegans, Narragansetts, and the relics of various other
tribes, who became known as Bi'othertoivns, or the Broihertoicn Indians.
A township of land was finally procured for them in the state of New
York, adjoining or near to the Oneida Indians, who had already
assumed habits of civilization. From thence, about the year 1828,
they were removed to lands on the Fox river of Wisconsin, near Green
Bay, where their situation was made so uncomfortable by the land
speculators that they abandoned their possessions there, and procured
lands on the east side of Winnebago lake, where they have become
citizens of Wisconsin, and still remain to the number of about 350, as
prosperous and industrious inhabitants. About seventy-five years ago
they had so far advanced in our civilization that they had abandoned
their own language, and adopted that which we are speaking, their
original dialect becoming, at length, obliterated from their recollection.
The Iroquois, or Six Nations of New York, accepted civilization
under peculiar circumstances. The Mohawks were early turned in
this direction through the influence of Col. William Johnson, unac-
companied by any special religious effort. The Oneidas were induced
to accept our civilization through the efforts of the devoted missionary,
Bev. Samuel Kirkland, who also exerted an influence in that direction
by his constant labors and teachings, not only as to his religion, but
as to the benefits of our civilization in general, over the Onondagas,
Cayugas and Senecas ; through which, in connection with their own
efforts, the whole Six Nations ultimately assumed the habits, manners
and customs and civilization of the white man, so far as their nature
would admit.
But the Iroquois or Six Nations were, when first encountered by
the whites, an intelligent people, having a strong and perfect civil
government, of which no better example exists in the history of civil-
ized man. It can hardly be said of them that they became a reclaimed
people, so far as intelligence and moral conduct is concerned; but it
was simply a change from one condition to another.
Far different is the example of the commencement of the course
(JOS THE AMERICAN INDIAN.
of civilization which began, or had its germ, at the treaty of William
Penn with the assembled tribes at Shackamaxen, on the Delaware
river, in 1682. The Quaker influence which followed among the east-
ern tribes, and which attended them in their advancing migration
westward lo the wilderness of Ohio, had greater influence over the
Indian mind in bringing him into our civilization, through the work
of succeeding generations, than all other efforts of that period com-
bined. The Quaker did not go with the Bible in one hand and fire-
water in the other; or religion on one side and the scheming spirit of
the trader and speculator on the other, through which to dispossess
the Indians of their lands ; but went out on the pure principles of their
faith and love to all mankind. The mission of the Quakers is well
expressed in the following letter of the secretary of war, carried by
the persons therein named, who were Quaker representatives, sent by
their people to visit the Indians of Ohio and Indiana, and instruct
them in the arts of civilization, which mission they performed faith-
fully and well:
"
War Department, February 20, 1804.
"Gentlemen:This will be handed you by Messrs. George Elli-
cott, Joel Wright and Gerald T. Hopkins, who are a deputation from
the Society of Friends in Maryland, for visiting the Indians in the
western country, for the laudable purpose of affording them assistance
in the introduction of the arts of civilization.
"They are men of high respectability, are actuated by the best
motives, and are entitled to all the civilities in your power to bestow.
You will please to afford them all necessary aid, and treat them with
such marks of respectful attention as are due to citizens whose disin-
terested services deserve the plaudits of every good man.
"I am, very respectfully, your humble servant,
"Henry Dearborn.
"
To the commanding officer at Fort Wayne.
"
Mr. John Johnson, Indian Factor.
"Mr. William Wells, Indian Agent."
These Quakers furnished to the Indians implements and supplies of
agriculture and husbandry, and continued among them, instructing
them in developing the soil, and in bettering their condition in life
generally, without the expectation of any pecuniary reward whatever,
assuming that the Indians were continually to remain upon the lands they
then occupied, and take on the habits and ways of our civilization.
The Indians accepted this offering, and commenced to make prog-
ress in agriculture and education, but the spirit of the white man
has continued to invade their country, and to press them to the west-
ward, where they have at length made their final stand, continuing
their endeavors to adopt and conform to our civilization.
The southern Indians, or Indians of the more southern colonies,
were, at the beginning, a different class of people from those occupy-
ing the country further north, and were further advanced in the direc-
tion of our civilization; hence, it was easier for them to conform to the
requirements of the coming era. Their advanced and homogeneous
condition, led the United States government to adopt the measure of
setting apart a territory of land on the west of the Mississippi, now
called the Indian Territory, to which these several tribes were removed
at an early day, and where they still remain. Five of these, the Chero-
kees, Choctaws, Chickasaws, Creeks and Seminoles, have become
known as the five civilized tribes. Many other tribes have, in later
times, been removed and assigned lands within this territory, all of
whom are making progress in our civilization, through missionary
work and schools for educational purposes.
The Indian problem, to the close observer, has long since been
solved. To him it never was a problem. The Indian, as an Indian, can
never fully accept our civilization. Its inconsistencies, incongruities,
and false pretenses, are repulsive to a nature like his. He sees it in
its true light. It is destructive to that harmonious principle in native
life, to which he has been bred and reared, and which pervades all his
instincts. The Indian, to accept our civilization, must become a white
man ; in other words, his nature must be changed to become like our
own. This is being done as rapidly as time can accomplish it.
When we say that the Indian is becoming extinct, we speak figur-
atively, or in a qualified sense. His population is not being essen-
tially decreased; but, from the circumstances attending him, he is
intermingling and amalgamating with the race that surrounds him,
and, in this manner, is becoming extinct as an Indian.
Among the tribes called civilized tribes, or among those who have
thoroughly adopted our civilization, the original Indian stock is dis-
appearing, and giving place to mixed blood, of which the Pottawatta-
mies, now in the Indian territory, afford an example. The report of
the Indian agent, having charge of this people, to the Indian Com-
missioner at Washington, dated August 16, 1886, says of them:
"
About seventy-five per cent, are mixed bloods, the remainder are
apparently whites, mainly French descent ; all live in houses and speak
the English language."
The Indian agent at Union township, Indian Territory, under
report to the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, September 20, 1886,
bays of the Cherokees: "Among Cherokee citizens we find full blood
S9
C)10 THE AMERICAN INDIAN.
Cherokees, Cherokees of half blood, quarter, eighth, sixteenih, etc.,
till the Cherokee blood disappears to flaxen hair and blue eyes. The
larger part of the nation is of Cherokee stock, 7,000 or 8,000 full
bloods; mixed bloods, 9,000 to 10,000." These are fair samples of the
proportion of mixed bloods among all the civilized tribes, and illus-
trates the progress to be made in all the tribes, in proportion as they
adopt our civilization. Thus it will be seen that the race, as Indians,
is soon to become extinct, by this process of amalgamation.
As the white man has had his Indian problem, so the Indian has
on hand his problem ; which is the loliite man problem, whose civiliza-
tion first cast its shadow upon him in North America, when De Soto
marched through his country, murdering his people and destroying
his property, the beneficent influence of which he could not just then
well understand. It afterwards appeared upon him at Plymouth
Eock, when the Puritans pilfered his property, and made war on his
people. He was told that the white man had a religion which instructed
mankind to live peaceably, quietly and charitably, and to love his
neighbor as himself. When the same people drove him from his
country, murdered his people, robbed him of his lands, and cast among
them destruction by his fire-water, they lost faith in white man's pro-
fession of friendship, and became reluctant to accept his religion and
his civilization; and the Indian wonders how it is, if the white man's
civilization tends so much to better the condition of mankind, that the
white man has, in his society, so many crimes and offenses, and that he
has been compelled to put forth so much exertion to resist these evils.
He wonders how it is that the Avhite man's society, according to his
own. account, is so thoroughly permeated with crime and sin, and how
it is, if his civilization is so good and beneficial to mankind, and effect-
ive in its good purposes, that all these evils are not held in check by
its beneficent influences.
He notices that, when he commences to enter upon the white
man's civilization, the first things he is warned against, are the sins
and crimes of the white man, or the attempt of the white man to over-
reach him through the influence of his fire-water or other modes. To
the Indian, the white man's civilization is a series of inconsistencies,
with its artificial burdens, abhorrent to his primitive nature and instincts.
CHAPTER LI.
INDIAN POPULATION.
Population OverratedExaggerations of the Early ExplorersKeport of the Com-
missioner of Indian AffairsNumber of Indians in the United States at the Pres-
ent TimeEffect of Contagious DiseasesDestruction of GameSemi-State
of StarvationGradual DecreaseCause of Decrease Becoming RemovedHow
Indian Population Became OverestimatedExaggeration of Population in New
EnglandThe Iroquois NationExaggeration of NumbersThe West Indies
Numbers OverestimatedAnd so in VirginiaHow a Small Number of Indians

Appear LargeIndians of KentuckyNo Permanent Indians there.
R. SCHOOLCRAFT has
well remarked that the
aboriginal population of
America was overrated
from the beginning, and that the
same spirit of exaggeration which
actuated the early discoverers con-
tinued to throw its influence over
subsequent periods of our history,
until, in later times, when some
reliable data could be obtained.
Since the United States government succeeded in dispossessing
the Indian tribes of the lands they held in their tribal state, and allotted
them reservations, we have had more accurate data from which to
determine the population of those Indians who have been assigned to
reservations by the general government. The report of the Commis-
sioner of Indian Affairs, under date of September 28, 1886, shows
the total population of Indians assigned to reservations, exclusive of
those in Alaska, to be 247,761, the number of Indians in Alaska
being estimated at 20,000.
The number of Indians scattered about the country, of which the
United States have no immediate care or jurisdiction, and of which no
accurate census has been taken, will, perhaps, increase the whole num-
ber to the estimate made by Col. Dodge, of the United States army,
in
1876, wherein he says the number of Indians of all descriptions, at
present inhabiting the United States, is estimated at about 300,000.
(611)
INEVITABLE DESTINY.
612
Add to this the Indians of the British possessions and the northern
regions, and it will doubtless swell this number of Indians in North
America to somewhere about 500,000. Col. Dodge expresses the opinion
that, some two centuries ago, the number of Indians, in what now
comprises the United States, was upwards of two millions.
He says that everywhere, amongst all tribes, with the exception
perhaps of the Dakotas, their numbers are rapidly decreasing,
which
arises from various causes, amongst the principal of which may be
mentioned contagious diseases, intemperance, and wars, both amongst
themselves and with the whites; and that the steady and resistless
emigration of white men into the territory of the west restricts the
Indians yearly to still narrower limits, destroying the game which, in
their normal state, constituted their principal means of subsistence,
reducing them to a semi-state of starvation and desperation. He
declares that the records of every tribe tell the same story of their
gradual decrease and probable extinction.
But since the foregoing statement was made, the Indian question
or Indian problem, as to his future, has been largely settled, and the
causes of decrease, mentioned by Col. Dodge, have been greatly
removed; and, so far as the Indian population of North America is
concerned, the better opinion is that the Indian has held his own in
numbers to a greater degree than popular opinion, injater times, has
generally estimated.
Careful investigation into this subject warrants the assertion that
there wâs not, and has not been, since the time of the discovery of
America, within what is now the territory of the United States, nor
upon the whole North American continent, two millions of Indian
inhabitants.
It is the opinion of many who have investigated this subject that
one of the causes which held the increase of the Indian population in
check was that, of all the children born, full one-half died before
reaching even the period of youth. It was only those who had the
strongest constitutions who survived the shocks and exposures to which
they were subjected during infancy and childhood. Added to this, the
mortality among others, who had passed through childhood, was quite
large in proportion to their numbers, owing to their hardships in life
in procuring the means of subsistence, through constant exposure to
the elements.
That the Indian, as an Indian, is to become extinct, sooner or
later, there is little or no question, not, however, by the mode generally
suggested, but rather by amalgamation, or mixing with the race w^hich
surrounds him, and with which he is destined in process of time to
INDIAN POPULATION. 613
intermingle. The time is evidently near at hand when he will no
longer hold his lands in common, but will be corppelled to take what-
ever he can get in severalty, all tending to revolutionize his condition
and remove his attachment for tribal affiliations, whereby his race must
sooner or later succumb to the fate here predicted. This would seem
to be inevitable.
The idea of a large Indian population upon this continent, at the
beginning of the white man's invasion, arose from the overestimates of
early writers and adventurers. Capt. John Smith tells us that, within
sixty miles of JamestoAvn, there were 5,000 people, of whom 1,500
were warriors, at the time of the first settlement of the Virginia col-
ony, 1607.
Mr. Jefferson, in his "Notes on Virginia," says the territory of
the Powhatan confederacy, south of the Potomac, comprehended about
8,000 square miles, thirty tribes and 2,400 warriors; from this he says
the Powhatan confederacy, the proportion of warriors to the Avhole
people being as three to ten, would consist of about 8,000 inhabitants,
which was one for every square mile. Although the climate and
native productions of Virginia were calculated to sustain quite a dense
population of native inhabitants of that day, this estimate of Mr. Jef-
ferson is no doubt considerably overdrawn. There was, doubtless, no
place in Virginia of 8,000 square miles that could furnish 2,400 war-
riors. In regard to the estimate of Capt. Smith, subtract from it one-
half, and it leaves more nearly the correct number of the population
within the limits he mentions.
Mr. Schoolcraft's estimate of the Indian population of the United
States in 1850, including New Mexico, Utah, California and Oregon,
was about 500,000.
At the early occupation of New England by the whites, the tribe
of Pequots were set down as being large in numbers. It was said
that Sassacus, their great sachem, had under him twenty-six sagamores
or subordinate chiefs, which was taken as indicating a large popula-
tion, and it was stated that this great chief could muster from 500 to
700 warriors. This number of warriors, even, however, would not
indicate the large population which it is supposed would be indicated
in the number of sagamores mentioned. The tribe of Pequots could
probably have furnished some 300 warriors; this would be a fair
estimate.
It is said that the Narragansetts, the formidable foes of the
Pequots, who dwelt at the eastward in Ehode Island and vicinity, and
along the shores of the sea in Massachusetts, at the time aforesaid,
were very numerous, and, according to some accounts, numbered more
I
614 THE AMERICAN INDIAN,
tliau 20,000, and that at one time they could have furnished
5,000
fighting men. This is believed to be at least three times their correct
number at that period.
Concerning the Indian population of New England, Mr. W. A.
Phelan, a young student of Chicago, in his manuscript of a work he
is preparing for publication, on the Indian population of North Amer-
ica, finds that the total of the Indian population of New England,
originally estimated at 70,000, is reduced by close investigation to, at
the outside, 13,000 to 14,000.
The exaggeration as to numbers of Indians in America in early
times, is shown by the estimates which were given from the commence-
ment along through various periods as to the Iroquois nation. Thus,
Baron La Hontan placed them, in his time, at 70,000; Col. Coursey,
at Albany, in 1677, estimated them at about
15,000, but it is known
that his means of judging were very imperfect. Bancroft estimates
them, including the Tuscaroras, at 17,000. Calculations made at a
later day, after they had decreased in numbers, allows them 10,000.
This was substantially the estimate of Sir William Johnson in 1763.
Also, for instance, after the organization of the territory of Oregon,
and after a reasonable mode had been adopted for ascertaining the
Indian population of the territory, then comprising also what is now
Washington Territory, the Avhole population was declared to be 23,033,
where Lewis and Clark in 1806 had reported the same country to con-
tain 80,000 Indians.
Mr. Schoolcraft, in referring to this subject of exaggerating the
Indian population of this country by the early adventurers, says that
ail the Spanish travelers were mere romancers on this point. As an
instance in this regard, he cites the case of Hispaniola, or Little
Spain, the name given by Columbus to the present island of Hayti or
St. Domingo, having an area of about 30,000 square miles. When
first discovered Las Casas says it sustained 3,000,000 Indians; he
afterwards sets the number at 1,200,000. Another Spanish authority
estimates the Indian population, at about the same.time, at 1,130,000.
In 1508, a later Spanish authority put the population of this island
at 70,000. The governor, Diego Columbus, estimated the number at
40,000. In 1514, Albuquerque, pretending to estimate them correctly,
set the number ?i IC.OOO or 14,000.
So, everywhere, within the range of the Spanish invaders, they,
in like manner, exaggerated the number of the Indian population.
So, in regard to the numbers comprised in the Indian armies, and the
number of Indians killed in engagements with them, they were greatly
overrated. This same spirit of exaggeration extended also among the
Spanish Jesuits, who claimed to have converted 9,000,000 of natives
in New Mexico in the space of about twenty years, which statement,
Mr. Ellis says, in his book,
"
The Ked Man and the White Man," we
know to be a mere fiction. He says: "Such random accounts as
these have no value, inasmuch as the evident exaggeration is charac-
teristic of the extravagant spirit of all the Spanish expectations and
accidents of their experience."
Mr. Ellis also, in this connection, takes occasion to refer to some
of the assertions of the historian, Capt. John Smith, in which he says:
"
John Smith, of Virginia, who tells us that the country produced
pearl, coral, and metallic copper, and that the natives planted and har-
vested three crops of corn in five months, also multiplied the numbers
of the Pamunkys, to exalt the state of their 'emperor,' Powhatan."
In military confiicts, our natural disposition inclines us to over-
estimate the number of the enemy's forces. So, w4th everything in
w^hich our Avonder and curiosity is excited to any great degree, we are
apt to exaggerate facts and overestimate numbers. This is shown in
all accounts coming to us from the early Greek historians, wherein
they estimated the army of Xerxes on one occasion to have consisted
of 2,500,000 soldiers. AVlien, afterwards, the Persian army invaded
Greece, they estimated the Persian force at 500,000, whilst their own
forces they rate in numbers merely nominal in proportion to that of
the Persians.
Mr. Schoolcraft gives a very good idea as to how the imagination
was set to work, leading to these exaggerations and overestimates of
the Indian population. He says they are a people who rove over vast
spaces, occupy the land very sparsely, and that their quick movements,
and yells under excitement, create an impression of numbers which is
very deceiving. Five hundred Indian wârriors turned loose in the
forest occupied grounds which would sufiice for five thousand or per-
haps fifty thousand civilized persons or regular troops. The rapidity
with which they move, the tumult they make, their wild costumes and
arms give them a picturesque and formidable appearance.
"It is believed that every ofiicer who has marched against them,
from the early days of Virginia and Massachusetts to the formidable
military expeditions of Braddock, Bouquet, and Bradstreet, has greatly
magnified their numbers. Similar exaggerations prevailed in the
armies during the epoch of the American Revolution and the succeed-
ing campa,igns of Harmer, St. Clair, and Wayne. Nor do the data at
our command lead to the supposition that a much greater degree of
accuracy in estimating their numbers wâs made in the campaigns of
Generals Harrison and Jackson, or Scott and Taylor, while operating
016
THE AMEIUCAN INDIAN.
in Florida or the Mississippi valley. It is astonishing what mistakes
this great ditfusion of the Indian forces, brought into the field, has led
to in all periods of our history."
These large estimates of the Indian forces, in conflict with the
whites, are soon exploded, when we take into account the fact that the
condition of the native Indian was such that he had no means of sup-
plying subsistence beyond a very few days at a time at the furthest.
If any considerable force Avas amassed for a battle or campaign, they
were compelled soon to disperse to supply themselves with the means
of subsistence, which could not be very readily acquired, to continue
or renew an attack.
The first occasion in Indian history concerning Indian wars, where
anything like an accurate account of the number of the Indian forces
was arrived at, was when the allied Indian forces met the army of St.
Clair in northern Ohio, in 1791, under the sagacious Miami war chief.
Little Turtle, whose forces numbered about 1,200. The manner of
supplying their subsistence during the time being was admirably
arranged by their commander. Later investigations, as the country
became settled, show that large portions of the continent in various
localities possessed no settled Indian inhabitants whatever, like that
portion of the country now comprised in the state of Kentucky.
On this subject, Mr. Joseph Ficklin, a prominent citizen of the
aforesaid state, in a letter to Mr. Schoolcraft, in 1847, says: "We have
not to answer to any tribunal for the crime of driving off the Indian
tribes and possessing their lands, for there were no Indians located
within our limits on our taking possession of this country."
On this subject Mr. Schoolcraft says: "It is known that while the
present area of Kentucky was, at the earliest times, the theatre of
severe Indian conflicts, stratagems, and bloody battles, these efforts of
fierce contending warriors were made by tribes who, during all the
historical period of our information, crossed the Ohio from the West.
The fierce Shawnee and wily Delaware remained in the country but
for short times. They landed at secret points as hunters and warriors,
and had no permanent residence within its boundaries."
The regions of Kentucky comprised the Indian's attractive hunt-
ing-grounds, where the deer, the elk,, and the buffalo abounded. The
j^
Indians of both the near and distant tribes resorted here at intervals
for the purpose of hunting these animals, and over which country they
passed and repassed in their migratory habits, but never stopped at
any point for purposes of a permanent habitation. The wars or con-
flicts between the Indians and white settlers of this country, so much
noted in frontier history, occurred with those Indians who had resorted
to this country for purposes of hunting, and such were the bloody and
constant attacks and depredations made by the Indians upon the early
settlers, and such even were the conflicts between the various hostile
tribes themselves, over this region, that it became known as "the dark
and bloody ground," which, it is claimed by some, is the meaning of
the word Kentuckywhich would appear to be a word in the Shawnee
dialect, and a contraction and misspelling of the original.
History informs us that when the Pilgrims arrived on the coast of
New England, they found that the Indians had recently been visited
by a plague or some kind of fatal disease, by which their population
had been much reduced, at least in that portion of the country; so
that, when the Pilgrims landed, they found the country nearly desolate,
and it is said that it was easy for these religious fanatics to believe
"that God had killed off the Indians to make room for them;" in fact,
it is asserted that they reasoned in this manner. It was stated, also,
by the Indians, that a blazing star had appeared in the heavens some
years before the landing of the Pilgrims, which, to their minds, fore-
bode dreadful disaster to them; that the disaster predicted was the
plague and destruction of their numbers which followed, and, in their
superstitious minds, they extended this prediction to the evil conse-
quences which were to follow from the coming of the white man.
u
COME TO STAY.
CHAPTEE LII.
INDIAN ANECDOTES.
Anecdotes Illustratinor Indian CharacterLost ConfidenceThe Good Man, and the
Bad ManHonor among IndiansThe Indian's View of the TrinityMore
RoomIndian MendacityIndian Gratitude and WitHead WorkIndian
FidelityIndian Chief PontiacSelling Lands to the WhitesExample of
NatureGiving the Missionary a Cold ShoulderIndian Opinion of the White
ManA Singular Instance of a Thing FoundIndian IncredulitySample of
Indian Justice
Ân Indian's Reply to a Challenge.

HE numerous anecdotes
coming to us through
various sources in the
W"^ line of Indian history,
since the advent of the white
man, serve well to illustrate
Indian character and give us
ideas concerning the red man,
not so clearly brought to our
attention and appreciation in
other forms. Therefore, in
pursuing the subject of Indian
characteristics, this chapter has been devoted to this class of anecdotes,
selected with reference to their brevity from reliable sources.
A Serious Question.About 1794, an officer presented a western
Indian chief with a medal, on one side of which President AVashing-
ton was represented as armed with a sword, and on the other an Indian
was seen in the action of burying the hatchet. The chief at once
saw the wrong done his countrymen, and very wisely asked, "Why
does not the president bury his sword?"
Lost Coyifidence.An Indian runner, arriving in a village of his
countrymen, requested the immediate attendance of its inhabitants in
Council, as he wanted their answer to important information. The
people accordingly assembled, but when the messenger had with great
anxiety delivered his message, and waited for an answer, none was
given, and he soon observed that he was likely to be left alone in his
(618)
INDIAN ANECDOTES. 619
place. A stranger present asked a principal chief of the meaning of
this strange proceeding, who gave this answer, "He once told us a
lie."
The Good Man, and the Bad Man.An Indian being among his
white neighbors, asked for a little tobacco to smoke, and one of them,
having some loose in his pocket, gave him a handful. The day fol-
lowing, the Indian came back, inquiring for the donor, saying he had
found a quarter of a dollar among the tobacco; being told, as it was
given him, he might as well keep it, the Indian answered, pointing
to his breast: "I got a good man and a bad man here; and the good
man say, 'it is not mine, I must return it to the owner;' the bad man
say, 'why he gave it to you, and it is your own;' the good man say,
'
that's not right, the tobacco is youi's, not the money
;'
the bad man say,
'never mind, you got it, go buy some dram;' the good man say, 'no, no,
you must not do so;' so I don't know what to do, and I think to go to
sleep ; but the good man and the bad man keep talking all night, and
trouble me; and now I bring money back, I feel good."
Honor Among Indians.There is not a class of human beings on
earth, who hold a pledge more sacred and binding than do the North
American Indians. A sample of which was witnessed during the Win-
nebago war of 1827, in the person of Dek-ker-re or Dak-ko-ra, a
celebrated chief of that nation, Avho, among four other Indians of his
tribe, was taken prisoner at Prairie du Chien. Colonel Snelling, of
the 5th regiment of infantry, who then commanded that garrison,
dispatched a young Indian into the nation, with orders to inform the
other chiefs of Dek-ker-re's band that unless those Indians who were
perpetrators of the horrible murders of some of our citizens, were
brought to the fort, and given up within ten days, Dek-ker-re and the
other four Indians, who were detained as hostages, would be shot at
the end of that time. The awful sentence was pronounced in the
presence of Dek-ker-re, who, though proclaiming his own innocence
of the outrages which had been committed by others of his nation,
exclaimed that he feared not death, though it would be attended with
serious consequences, inasmuch as he had two affectionate wives and
a large family of small children, who were entirely dependent on him
for their support; but, if necessary, he was willing to die for the honor
of his nation. The young Indian had been gone several days, and no
intelligence was yet received from the murderers. The dreadful day
being near at hand, and Dek-ker-re being in a bad state of health,
asked permission of Col. Snelling to go to the river to indulge in his
long accustomed habit of bathing, in order to improve his health.
Upon which, Col. S. told him that, if he would promise, on the honor
of a chief, that he would not leave the town, he might have his liberty,
and enjoy all his privileges, until the day of the appointed execution.
Accordingly, he first gave his hand to the Colonel, thanked him for his
friendly offer, then raised both hands aloft, and in the most solemn
adjuration, promised that he would not leave the bounds prescribed,
and said that if he had a hundred lives, he would sooner lose them all
than forfeit his word, or deduct from his proud nation one particle of
its boasted honor. He was then set at liberty. He was advised to
flee to the wilderness, and make his escape. But "no," said he, "do
you think I prize my life above honor, or that I would betray a con-
fidence reposed in me, for the sake of saving my life?" He then
complacently remained until nine days of the ten which he had to
live had elapsed, and nothing heard from the nation, with regard to
the apprehension of the murderers, his immediate death became
apparent; but no alteration could be seen in the countenance of the
chief. It so happened that on that day. Gen. Atkinson arrived with
his troops from Jefferson barracks, and the order for execution was
countermanded, and the Indians permitted to repair to their homes.
The Indian^s View
of
the Triniiy.Eliot, the great Indian
apostle, so called, had been lecturing on the docrine of the trinity,
when one of his auditors, after long and thoughtful pause, thus
addressed him: "I believe, Mr. Minister, I understand you. The
trinity is just like water and ice and snow. The water is one, the ice
another, and the snow another; and yet they are all one water."
More Room.When General Lincoln went to make peace with
the Creek Indians, one of the chiefs asked him to sit down on a log ; he
was then desired to move, and in a few minutes to move still further;
the request was repeated till the General got to the end of the log.
The Indian said "Move farther." To which the General replied,
"
I
cannot move any farther." "Just so it is with us," said the chief, "you
have moved us back to the water, and then ask us to move farther."
Indian MendacUy,Of all the vices incident to the aborigines of
this country, from their intercourse with the whites, that of lying,
probably, is not among the least with which he has been charged.
Some years "anterior to the independence of the United States, one
Tom Hyde, an Indian famous for cunning, went into a tavern in Brook-
field, Massachusetts, and after a little chat told the landlord that he
had been hunting, and had killed a fine fat deer, and if he would give
him a quart of rum he would tell him where it was. The tavern
keeper, being unAvilling to let slip so good an opportunity of obtaining
some venison, immediately struck the bargain, and measured the
Indian his quart of rum, at the same time asking where the deer was
to be found. "Well," says Tom, "do you know where the good
meadow is?" "Yes." "Well, do you know the great maple tree that
stands in it?" "Yes." "Well, there lies the deer." Away posted
the landlord with his team in quest of his purchase. He found the
meadow and the tree, it is true; but all his searching after the deer
was fruitless, and he returned no heavier than he went, except in
mortification and disappointment. Some days after, he met the Indian,
and, feeling indignant at the deception practiced on him, accused him,
in no gentle terras, of the trick. Tom heard him out, and 'with the
coolness of a stoic replied, "Did you find the meadow as I said?"
"Yes." "And the tree
?"
"Yes." "And the deer?" "No." "Very
good," continued he, "you found two truths for one lie, which is very
good for Indian."
Indian Gratitude and Wit.Soon after Litchfield, Conn., began
to be settled by the English, an unknown Indian came into the inn at
dusk, and asked the hostess to furnish him with food and drink; stat-
ing that he had had no success in hunting, and could not pay till he
had better fortune. The woman refused, calling him a lazy, drunken,
good for nothing fellow. A man who sat by, noticed the Indian as he
turned away from the inhospitable place, and perceiving that he was
suffering very severely, from want and weariness, generously ordered
the hostess to furnish him with a good supper, and call on him for
payment. After the Indian had finished his meal, he thanked his
benefactor again and again, and assured him he should never forget
his kindness, and would, if it were in his power, recompense him. He
observed that he had one more favor to ask ; if the woman was will-
ing, he wished to tell a story. The hostess whose good nature had
been restored by money, readily consented. The man assented.
"Well, the Bible says, God make the world; and then he took him and
looked on him, and say, 'all very good.' Then he made light; and
took him and looked on him, and say, 'all very good.' Then he made
land and water, sun and moon, grass and trees ; and he took him, and
looked on him, and say, 'all very good.' Then he made beasts, and
birds, and fishes; and he took him, and looked on him, and say, 'all
very good.' Then he made man; and took him, and looked at him,
and say, 'all very good.' Then he made wôman; and took him, and
looked at him, and he no dare say one word."
Many years after this, the Indian's benefactor was taken prisoner
by an Indian scout, and carried into Canada. He was saved from
death by one of the tribe, who asked leave to adopt him in the place
of a son, who had fallen in battle. Through the winter he experi-
enced the customary effects of savage hospitality. The following
622
summer as he was at work in the forest alone, an unknown Indian
came to him and appointed a meeting at a certain place, on a given
day. The prisoner consented, but afterwards, fearing that mischief
might be intended, he neglected the engagement. The Indian again
souglit him, reproved him for his want of confidence in him, and
assured him the meeting would be for his good. Encouraged by his
apparent friendship, the man followed his direction. He found the
Indian provided with muskets, ammunition, and knapsacks. The
Indian oTdered him to arm himself and follow him. Their course was
towards the south ; day after day the Englishman followed, without
being able to conjecture the motive of his guide. After a tedious
journey, he arrived at the top of an eminence, commanding a view of
a country somewhat cultivated and populous.
"
Do you know that
country?" said the Indian, with an arch smile. "Oh, yes, it is Litch-
field," replied the white man, as he cordially pressed his hand.
"
Many
years ago, you give weary Indian supper here," said he. "He promise
to pay you, and he pay you now. Go home and be happy."
Head Work.Colonel Dudley, governor of Massachusetts, in the
beginning of the last century, had a number of workmen employed in
building him a house on his plantation ; and, one day as he was looking
at them, he observed a stout Indian who, though the weather was very
cold, was a naked as well as an idle spectator. "Hark ye, friend," said
the governor, "why don't you work like these men, and get clothes to
cover you." "And why you no work, governor?" replied the Indian.
"I work," answered the governor, pointing his finger to his forehead,
"with my head, and therefore need not work with my hands." "Well,"
replied the Indian, "and if I would work, what have you for me to do?"
"Go kill me a calf," said the governor,
"
and I will give you a shilling
;"
the Indian did so. The governor asked him why he did not skin and
dress it. "Calf dead, governor
give me my shilling; give me

another," said the Indian, "and I will skin and dress it." This was
complied with. The Indian then went to a tavern with his two shil-
lings, and soon spending one for rum, returned to the governor, saying
"your shilling bad, the man no take it." The governor, believing
him, gave him another ; but soon returning in the same manner with
the second, the governor discerned his roguery ; however, he exchanged
that, also, reserving his resentment for a proper opportunity. To be
prepared for it, the governor wrote a letter directed to the keeper of
the bridewell, in Boston, requesting him to take the bearer and give him
a sound whipping. This he kept in his pocket, and in the course of a
few days the Indian came again to stare at the workmen ; the governor
took no notice of him for some time, but at length taking the letter
out of his pocket, and calling the Indian to him, said, "I will give you
half a crown if you will cany this letter to Boston." The Indian
closed with his proposal, and set out on his journey. He had not gone
far before he met with another Indian in the employ of the governor, to
whom he gave the letter, and told him that the governor had sent him to
meet him, and bid him return with that letter to Boston as soon as he
possibly could.
The poor fellow carried it with great diligence, and received a
severe flogging for his pains; at the news of which the governor was
not a little astonished on his return. The other Indian came no more
;
but, after the lapse of some months, at a meeting with some of his
nation, the governor saw him there among the rest, and asked him how
he durst serve him such a trick? The Indian, looking him full in the
face, and putting his forefinger to his forehead, replied "head work,
governor, head work."
Indian Fidelity
White Man^s Murderous Deeds.Mr. Hecke-

welder gives the following: "Some time after the commencement of
the Revolutionary War, when the northern Indians were beginning to
make inroads on the people living on the east side of the Ohio river.
General O'Hara, having come out of the upper Moravian town, on the
Muskingum, on business, and there taken lodging with a respectable
and decent family of Indians in the village, I had, one evening, scarcely
laid down to sleep when I was suddenly roused from my bed by an
Indian runner (or messenger), who, in the night, had been sent to me
nine miles, with the following verbal message: 'My friend, see that our
friend O'Hara, now at your town, be immediately taken off to the set-
tlement of white people, avoiding all paths leading to the river. Fail
not in taking my advice, for there is no time to lose, and hear my son
further on the subject.'
"The fact was that eleven warriors, from Sandusky, were far
advanced on their way to take or murder O'Hara, who, at break of day,
would be at this place for that purpose. I immediately sent for this
gentleman, and told him that I would furnish him with a conductor, on
whom he might depend, and, having sent for Anthony (otherwise
called Luke Holland), informed him of the circumstances and requested
his services; he (the Indian) wished first to know whether my friend
placed confidence in him and trusted to his fidelity ; which question
being answered by O'Hara himself, and to his full satisfaction, he re-
plied, 'Well, our lives cannot be separated! we must stand or fall
together! but take courage, for no enemy shall discover us!'
"
The Indian then took Mr. O'Hara through the woods, and arriv-
ing within a short distance of the Ohio river pointed out to him a
624
hiding place, until he, by strolling up ana aown the river, should dis-
cover white people on the opposite shore ; when, finally observing a
house where two white men were cleaning out a canoe for use, he hur-
ried back to bring on his friend, who, when near the spot, advised his
Indian conductor to hide himself, knowing these people to be bad men,
he feared they might kill him for his services. The Indian, finally
seeing his friend safe across the river, returned and made report
thereof.
"The young Indian who had been the bearer of the message from
his father to me, had immediately returned on seeing O'Hara off, in
order to play a further deception on the war party, for the purpose of
preventing them even from going to our town, fearing, that if there,
and not finding their object, they might probably hunt for his track,
and, finding this, pursue him. He, indeed, effected his purpose so
completely, that while they were looking for him in one direction his
conductor was taking him off in another.
"The father of the young lad, who was the principal cause that
O'Hara's life had been saved, had long been admired by all who knew
him for his philanthropy; on account of which the traders had given
him the name of "the gentleman." Otherwise, this Indian was not
in connection with the Christian Indian Society, though a friend to
them. He lived with his family retired, and in a decent manner.
"While I feel a delight in offering to the relatives and friends of
the deceased, as also to the public, this true and faithful picture of
Indian fidelity, I regret that, on necessarily having had to recur to
the names 'Anthony' and 'Luke Holland,' I am drawn from
scenes of pleasure, to crimes of the blackest hue. The very Indian,
just named, who at that time joyfully reported to me his having con-
ducted his friends out of danger, to a place of safety, some years
after, approached me with the doleful news, that every one of his chil-
dren (all minors) together with his hoary-headed parents, had been
murdered by the white people, at Gnadenhutten, on the Muskingum.
Indian Honor.I can give, says Golden, in his history of the
Five Indian Nations, two strong instances of the hospitality of the
Mohawks, which fell under my own observation, and which will show
that they have the very same notions of hospitality we find in the
ancient poets. When I was last in the Mohawk country, the sachems
told me that they had an Englishman among their people, a servant
who had run away from his master in New York. I immediately told
them that they must deliver him up.
"
No," they answered,
"
we
never serve any man so, who puts himself under our protection." On
this, I insisted on the injury they did thereby to his master; they
allowed it might be an injury, and replied: "Though we will never
deliver him up, we are willing to pay the value of the servant to the
master." Another man made his escape from the jail in Albany,
where he was in prison on the execution of a debt and fled to the
Mohawks who received him, and as they protected him against the
sheriff and officers, they not only paid the debt for him, but gave him
land over and above, sufficient for a good farm, whereon he lived when
I was last there."
Indian Chief Pontiac.Great as are many of the western Indian
warriors, none was greater than Pontiac, a chief whose fame was not only
spread throughout America, but widely diffused in Europe. He wâs the
chief or, rather, acknowledged head man of all the Indians on the chain
of lakes, of the Ottawas to which he belonged, the Miamis, the Chip-
peways. Wyan dots, Pottawattamies, Winnebagoes, Shawnees, Ottaga-
mies, and Mississaugas, all of which tribes were afterwards led by
Tecumseh. Pontiac is said to have possessed a majestic and princely
appearance, so pleasing to the Indians, and this in part accounts for
his popularity among them.
In 1760, after the capture of Quebec, Major Rogers was sent into
the country of Pontiac to drive the French from it. Being informed
of his approach, Pontiac sent word to him to wait until he came to
him. The Major waited, and when Pontiac came, the chief asked him
why he entered his dominions without permission. The Major
answered that he came not against the natives but against the French
;
and, at the same time, gave him several belts of wampum ; whereupon
Pontiac replied: "I stand in the path you travel until to-morrow
morning." By this was meant that he must not proceed until the next
morning. Upon an offer of the Indian, Major Rogers bought a large
quantity of parched corn, and other provisions. The next day, Pontiac
offered him every facility for the undertaking. Messengers were sent
to the different tribes to assure them that the English had his permis-
sion to pass through the country, and he even accompanied the Major and
troops as far as Detroit. He was noted for a desire of knowledge,
and while the English were in his country, he was very curious in
examining their arms, clothes, etc., and expressed a wish to go to
England. He said that he would allow white settlements in his
domain; and was willing to call the king of England "uncle," but not
"master." He further told the soldiers that they must behave them-
selves peaceably while in his country, or he would stop the way.
Pontiac had distinguished himself at Detroit and Michilimacki-
nac. When the French gave up Canada
(1760),
their Indian allies
still preserved their hatred towards the English ; and, as Pontiac was
40
the most considerable enemy of that nation, the adjacent tribes all
came to him as a support against them. Pontiac had advanced further
in civilization than any of the neighboring chiefs; he appointed
a commissary during the Avar of 1763, called Pontiac's war; and
issued bills of credit, on each of which was pictured the thing
desired, and the figure of an otter, the symbol of his tribe. In 1763
Major Rogers sent a bottle of brandy to him, which Pontiac was coun-
seled not to drink, as it probably contained poison. But with the great-
est magnanimity he exclaimed: "It is not in his power to kill him
who has so lately saved his life."
Indian Magistrate. At the first settlement of the English
colonies in New England, a movement was inaugurated to attempt the
civilization of the Indian tribes, and adopt them into English society,
on the footing of the whites, in which work the Rev. John Eliot took
a leading part. They commenced by instructing them in the Christian
religion and in the English language. This reformation became so
complete and satisfactory, that quite a large Indian population, called
"praying Indians," were accorded the rank, rights and privileges of
white citizens, among whom local officers were elected, to take part in
administrating and executing the laws of the colony. The following
"state paper," it is said, is yet extant, curious among such writings
for its brevity and point. It was a warrant addressed by an Indian
magistrate to an Indian constable :
"1.
I, Hihoudi. 2. You, Peter
Waterman. 3. Jeremy Wecket. 4. Quick you take him. 5.
Fast you hold him. 6. Straight you bring him. 7. Before me,
Hihoudi."
Selling Lands to the Whites.Mr. Heckewelder. in his book of
"Indian Nations," gives the following:
I once asked an Indian acquaintance of mine, who had come with
his wife to pay me a visit, where he had been that I had not seen him
for a great while. "Don't you know," he answered,
"
that the white
people some time ago summoned us to a treaty to buy land of them ?
"
"That is true; I had, indeed, forgotten it; I thought you were just
returned from your fall hunt."
"
No, no," replied the Indian,
"
my
fall hunt has been lost to me this season; I had to go and get my
share of the purchase money for the land we sold." "Well, then,"
said I,
"
I suppose you got enough to satisfy you?
"
Indian.
" I can show you all that I got. I have received such
and such articles (naming them and the quantity of each) ; do you
think that is enough?"
Heckew.
"That I cannot know, unless you tell me how much of

the land which was sold came to your share."
Indian (after considering a little).
"Well, you my friend,

know who I am
;
you know I am a kind of chief. I am, indeed, one,
though none of the greatest ; neither am I one of the lowest grade, but
I stand about in the middle rank. Now, as such, I think I was
entitled to as much in the tract we sold as would lie within a day's
walk from this spot to a point due north, then a day's walk from that
point to another due west, from thence another day's walk due south,
then a day's walk to where we now are. Now, you can tell me if what
I have shown you is enough for all the land lying between these four
marks."
Heckew.
"If you have made your bargain so with the white

people, it is all right, and you probably have received your share."
Indian.
"Ah, but the white people made the bargain by them-

selves, without consulting us. They told us that they would give us
so much and no more."
Heckew.
"Well, and you consented thereto."

Indian.
"What could we do, when they told us that they must

have the land, and for such a price? Was it not better to take some-
thing than nothing ? For they would have the land, and so we took
what they gave us
"
Heckew.
"Perhaps the goods they gave you came high in price.

The goods which come over the great salt water lake sometimes vary
in their prices."
Indian.
"The traders sell their goods for just the same prices
that they did before, so that I rather think it is the land that has fallen
in. value. We Indians do not understand selling lands to the white
people; for when we sell, the price of land is always low; land is then
cheap, but when the white people sell it out among themselves, it is
always dear, and they are sure to get a high price for it. I had done
much better if I had stayed at home and minded my fall hunt. You
know I am a pretty good hunter, and might have killed a great many
deer, sixty, eighty, perhaps one hundred, and besides caught many
raccoons, beavers, otters, wild cats, and other animals, while I was at
this treaty. I have often killed five, six and seven deer in one day.
Now, I have lost nine of the best hunting weeks in the season by going
to get what you see. We were told the precise time when we must
meet. We came at the very day, but the great white men did not do
so, and, without them, nothing could be done. When, after some
weeks, they at last came, we traded, we sold our lands and received
goods in payments, and when that was over, I went to my hunting-
grounds, but the best timethe rutting timebeing over, I killed but
a few. Now, help me to count up what I have lost by going to the
G28
treaty. Put down eighty deer; say twenty of them were bucks, each
buckskin one dollar ; then sixty does and young bucks at two skins for
a dollar; thirty dollars, and twenty for the old bucks, make fifty dol-
lars lost to me in deer skins ; add, then, twenty dollars more to this for
raccoon, beaver, wild cat, black fox and otter skins, and what does the
whole amount to?"
Heckew.
" Seventy dollars."

Indian.
" Well, let it be only seventy dollars, but how much I

might have bought of the traders for this money ! How well we might
have lived, I and my family, in the woods during that time! How
much meat my wife would have dried! How much tallow saved and
sold, or exchanged for salt, flour, tea and chocolate! All this is now
lost to us; and had I not such a good wife (stroking her under the
chin), who planted so much corn, and so many beans, pumpkins,
squashes and potatoes last summer, my family would now live most
wretchedly. I have learned to be wise by going to treaties; I shall
never go there again to sell my land and lose my time."
Example
of
Nature.Heckewelder, the Moravian missionary,
relates the following:
"Seating myself once upon a log, by the side of an Indian, who
was resting himself there, being at that time actively employed in
fencing in his corn fields, I observed to him that he must be very fond
of working, as I never saw him idling away his time, as is so common
with the Indians. The answer which he returned made considerable
impression on my mind; I have remembered it ever since, and I shall
try to relate it as nearly in his own words as possible:
"
'My friend,' said he, 'the fishes in the water and the birds in
the air and on the earth have taught me to work; by their examples I
have been convinced of the necessity of labor and industry. When I
was a young man, I loitered a great deal about, doing nothing, just like
the other Indians, who say that working is only for the whites and
the negroes, and that the Indians have been ordained for other pur-
posesto hunt the deer and catch the beaver, otter, raccoon, and such
other animals. But it one day so happened, that while a hunting, I
came to the banks of the Susquehanna, where I sat down near the
water's edge to rest a little, and, casting my eye on the water, I was
forcibly struck, when I observed with what industry the Meechgalin-
gus (Sunfish) heaped small stones together, to make secure places for
their spawn, and all this labor they did with their m-ouths and bodies,
without hands. Astonished as well as diverted, I lighted my pipe, sat
a while smoking and looking on, when presently a little bird, not far
from me, raised a song which enticed me to look that way ; while I was
trying to distinguish who the songster was, and catch it with my eyes,
its mate, with as much grass as with its bill it could hold, passed close
by me and flew into a bush, where I perceived them together busy
building their nest, and singing as they wênt along. I entirely forgot
that I was a hunting, in order to contemplate the objects I had before me.
I saw the birds of the air and the fishes in the water Avorking diligently
and cheerfully, and all this without hands. 1 thought it was strange,
and became lost in contemplation. I looked at myself, I saw two long
arms provided with hands and fingers besides, with joints that might be
opened and shut at pleasure. I could, when I pleased, take up any-
thing with these hands, hold it fast or let it loose, and carry it along
wath me as I walked. I observed, moreover, that I had a strong body
capable of bearing fatigue, and supported by two stout legs, with
which I could climb to the top of the highest mountains and descend
at pleasure into the valleys. And, is it possible, said I, that a being
so formed as I am was created to live in idleness, Avhile the birds
which have no hands, and nothing but their little bills to help them,
work wdtli cheerfulness, and wdthout being told to do so? Has, then,
the great Creator of man and all living creatures given me all these
limbs for no purpose? It cannot be; I will try to go to work. I did
so, and went away from the village to a spot of good land, built a
cabin, enclosed ground, planted corn and raised cattle. Ever since
that time I have enjoyed a good appetite and sound sleep ; while the
others spent their nights in dancing and are suffering with hunger, I
live in plenty ; I keep horses, cows, hogs and fowls ; I am happy. See
!
my friend; the birds and fishes have brought me to reflection and
taught me to work.'
"
Giving the Missionary a Cold Shoulder.A Swedish minister, saj^s
Dr. Franklin, having assembled the chiefs of the Susquehanna Indians,
preached a sermon to them, acquainting them with the principal histor-
ical facts on which our religion is founded ; such as the fall of our first
parents by eating of an apple, the coming of Christ to repair the mis-
chief, his miracles, sufferings, etc.
When he had finished, an Indian orator stood up to thank him,
and said: "What you have told us is all very good. It is indeed bad
to eat apples. Better make them all into cider. AVe are much obliged
by your kindness in coming so far to tell us those things which you
have heard from your mothers. Iii return I will tell you some of
those things which we have heard from our mothers. In the begin-
ning, our fathers had only the flesh of animals to subsist on ; and if
their hunting was unsuccessful, they wêre starving. Two of our young
hunters, having killed a deer, made a fire in the woods to broil some
parts of it. When tliey were about to satisfy their hunger, they
beheld a beautiful young woman descend from the clouds, who seated
herself on that hill you see yonder among the Blue Mountains. They
said to each other,
'
It is a spirit that, perhaps, has smelt our broiling
venison, and wishes to eat of it; let us offer some to her.' They pre-
sented her with the tongue ; she was pleased with the taste of it, and
said 'Your kindness shall be rewarded. Come to this place after thir-
teen moons, and you shall find something that will be of great benefit
in nourishing you and your children, to the latest generation.' They
did so, and, to their surprise, found plants that they had never seen
before; but which, from that ancient time, have been constantly culti-
vated among us to our great advantage. Where her right hand had
touched the ground, they found maize; where her left hand had
touched it, they found kidney-beans, and where she had sat upon it,
they found tobacco."
The good missionary, disgusted with this idle talk, said: "What
I delivered to you were sacred truths ; but what you tell me is a mere
fable, fiction and falsehood."
The Indian, offended, replied: "My brother, it seems your
friends have not done you justice in your education; they have not
instructed you well in the rules of common civility. You saw that we,
who understand and practice those rules, believe all your stories. Why
do you refuse to believe ours?"
Indian^s Opinion
of
the White Man.Dr. Franklin gives the fol-
lowing related to him by Conrad Weiser, an Indian interpreter, who
had been naturalized among the Six Nations, and spoke well the
Mohawk language:
In going through the Indian country to carry a message from our
governor to the council at Onondaga, he called at the habitation of
Canassetego, an old acquaintance, who embraced him, spread furs for
him to sit on, placed before him some boiled beans and venison, and
mixed some rum with water for him to drink. When he was well
refreshed, and had lit his pipe, Canassetego began to converse with
him ; asking how he had fared the many years since they had seen
each other, whence he then came, what had occasioned the journey?
etc. Conrad answered all his questions; and, when the discourse
began to flag, the Indian, to continue it, said: "Conrad, you have
lived long among the white people, and know something of their
customs. I have been sometimes at Albany, and have observed that,
once in seven days, they shut up their shops, and assemble all in the
great house; tell me, what is it for? What do they do there?"
"They meet there," said Conrad, "to hear and learn good things."
*'I do not doubt," said the Indian, "that they tell you so; they
have told me the same; but I doubt the truth of what they say,
and I will tell you my reasons. I went lately to Albany to sell
my skins, and buy blankets, knives, powder, rum, etc.
You know
Hans Hanson; but I was a little inclined tliis time to try other
merchants. However, I called first on Hans and asked him what he
would give for beaver. He said he could not give more than four
shillings a pound; 'but,' said he, 'I cannot talk on business now; this
is the day when we meet together to learn good things, and I am
going to the meeting.' So, I thought to myself, since I cannot do
any business to-day, I may as well go to meeting too, and I went with
him. There stood up a man in black, and began to talk to the people
very angrily. I did not understand what he said ; but perceiving that
he looked much at me and at Hanson, I imagined that he was angry
at seeing me there; so I went out, sat down near the house, struck
fire, and lit my pipe, waiting till the meeting should break up. I
thought, too, that the man had mentioned something of beaver, and I
suspected it might be the subject of their meeting. So when they
came out, I accosted my merchant: 'Well, Hans,' said I, 'I hope you
have agreed to give me more than four shillings a pound.' 'No,' said
he,
'
I cannot give so much ; I cannot give more than three shillings
and six pence.' I then spoke to several other dealers, but they all
sung the same song
'three and six pence.' This made it clear to me

that my suspicion was right; and that, whatever they pretended of the
meeting to learn good things, the real purpose was to consult how to
cheat Indians in the price of beaver. Consider but a little, Conrad,
and yoii must be of my opinion. If they meet so often to learn good
things, they certainly would have learnt some before this time. But
they are still ignorant. You know our practice. If a white man, in
traveling through our country, enters one of our cabins, we all treat him
as I treat you. We dry him if he is wet; we warm him if he is cold;
give him meat and drink, that he may allay his hunger and thirst ; and
we spread soft furs for him to rest and sleep upon. We demand noth-
ing in return. But if I go into a white man's house at Albany, and
ask for victuals and drink, they say,
'
Where is your money
?
' And
if I have none, they say, 'Get out, you Indian dog.' You see they
have not yet learnt these little good things, that we need no meeting
to be instructed in, because our mothers taught them to us when we
were children ; and, therefore, it is impossible their meetings should
be, as they say, for any such purposes, or have any such effect.
They are only to contrive the cheating
of
Indians in the price
of
heaver
y
632
Sitigulai' Insfance
of
a Thing Found.Charlevoix relates the
following: A good old Indian woman, whose whole stock consisted in
a collar of porcelain or shells, which was worth about fifty crowns,
cairied it always with her in a little bag. One day, as she was work-
ing in the field, she hung her bag upon a tree; another woman, who
perceived it, and who longed very much to sharp her out of her collar,
thought it a favorable opportunity, without being accused of theft.
She never lost sight of it ; and, in an hour or two, the old woman being
gone into the next field, she ran to the tree and began to cry out she
had made a good find. The old woman at this cry turned her head,
and said the bag belonged to her ; that it was she who had hung it to
the tree, that she had neither lost nor forgotten it, and that she
intended to take it again when she had done her work. The other
iârty replied that there was no judging of intentions, and that, having
quitted the field without taking again her bag, one might naturally
conclude she had forgotten it.
After many disputes between these two women, between whom
there passed,
nevertheless, no disobliging word, the affair was carried
before an arbitrator who was the chief of the village, and this was his
decree: "To judge strictly," said he, "the bag belongs to her who
found it, but the circumstances are such that, if this woman Avill not
be taxed with avarice, she must restore it to her that claims it, and be
contented with a small present, which the other is indispensably obliged
to make her." The two parties submitted to this decision, and, it is
proper to observe, that the fear of being noted for avarice has as much
influence on the minds of the savages as the fear of punishment
would have, and that, in general, these people are governed more by
principles of honor than by any other motives. What I have further
to add will give
another proof of this. I have said before that, to
hinder the
consequences
of a murder, the public takes upon itself to
make submission
for the guilty, and, to make amends to the parties
concerned.
Even this has more power to prevent disorders than the
severest laws. But this is certainly true; for as these submissions are
extremely
mortifying to men, whose pride surpasses all description, the
criminal is more affected by the trouble which he sees the public suffer
on his account, than he would be for himself, and a zeal for the honor
of the nation restrains
these
barbarians much more powerfully than
the fear of death or
punishments.
But it is very certain that impunity has not always prevailed
amongst
them, as it has done in these latter times, and our missionaries
have still found some traces of the ancient rigor with which they used
to
suppress
crimes. Theft, especially, was looked upon as a blot which
dishonored a family, and every one had a right to wash away the stain
with the blood of the delinquent. Father Brebeuf, one day, saw a
young Huron who was killing a woman with a club, ran to him to pre-
vent it, and asked him why he committed such violence. "She is my
sister," re2:)lied the savage;
"
she is guilty of theft, and I will expiate,
by her death, the disgrace she has brought upon me and all my family."
Indian Credulify.General Dodge, in his book entitled
"
The
Plains of the Great West," relates the following:
Twenty years ago, when Indians knew comparatively little of the
wonders of civilization. Lieutenant (now General) P was sent,
with a small force, to treat with a band disposed to be t}'oublesome.
He took with him, as guide and interpreter, a Delaware chief, Black
Beaver, a warrior celebrated throughout the length and breadth of the
plains. Beaver was semi-civilized, had been to Washington, owned a
farm, and wâs a person of social consequence in his country. The
refractory Indians were assembled in council, and the difficulties
adjusted. Lieut. P then proceeded to descant upon the numbers
and power of the w^hites, and the folly of the Indians making war
upon them. As a peroration, he directed Beaver to tell the Indians
about steamboats. Beaver had seen steamboats, and gave a glowing
description. At its conclusion, a murmur ran through the council.
"What do they say, Beaver?" asked P .
" He say he don't believe
that d d lie," said Beaver. " Tell them about railroads, then."
Beaver had traveled on railroads, so proceeded to give his ideas and
experiences on that subject. Again a murmur passed through the
assembly. "What do they say now, Beaver?" asked P . "He
say he don't believe that d d lie, either." Somewhat nonplussed for
a wonderful thing which they might believe, P at last said:
"
Tell
them about the telegraph." " I don't know what that is," answered
Beaver. P explained that by aid of a little wire he could stand
where he was and talk to the Great Father at Washington, etc., etc.
Beaver listened attentively, but with a grave face, and made no attempt
to translate. "Why don't you tell them?" said P
,
impatiently.
'^
'Cause," said Beaver, nodding his head slowly and emphatically,
"
'Cause I don't believe that d d lie myself."
Sample
of
Indian Justice.In 1864, Mrs. Fannie Kelly, while
crossing the plains wath her husband in a train of emigrants, to the
mining region of the Northwest, was captured by a band of Sioux
Indians. After destruction of the train, during which several persons
were killed, whilst others escaped, she was retained as a captive among
this people in the territory of Montana for about six months, after
which she was released through strategy. In 1870 she went to Wash-
ingtoii, where her case was laid before Congress, by which she was
granted an indemnity of |5,000
for her valuable services rendered the
United States army during her captivity.
While she was in Washington, a delegation of Sioux chiefs visited
the city, among whom was the great chief Red Cloud, for the purpose
of a con ference with the government authorities, with a view of adjust-
ing existing difficulties between the government and that people. Mrs.
Kelly, in her narrative giving an account of her captivity, gives an
interesting incident which occurred on that occasion, showing the
noble spirit of the great chief before mentioned, and the Indian char-
a<?ter for justice, whatever may have been said to the contrary of this
people, during the time of their determined resistance to the invasion
of the whites, resulting in that long and bloody conflict between the
contending parties. Mrs. Kelly says:
"During my stay in Washington, Red Cloud and a delegation of
chiefs and head warriors from the different tribes of the Dakota or
Sioux nation arrived. They all recognized me at once as having been
with their people, and seemed quite rejoiced at the meeting.
"Some of the good Christian people extended to the Indians,
through me, an invitation to attend the church on the Sabbath, which
I made known to Red Cloud, telling him of the great organ, the fine
music they would hear, and the desire the good people had to benefit
their souls.
"Red Cloud replied with dignity that he did not have to go to
the big house to talk with the Great Spirit ; he could sit in his tipi, or
room, and the Great Spirit would listen. The Great Spirit was not
where the big music was. No, no, he would not go.
"None of the Indians accepted the invitation, but some of the
squaws went, escorted to the church in elegant carriages, but they soon
left in disgust. The dazzling display of fine dresses, the beautiful
church, and the "big music"none of these had interest for them, if
unaccompanied by a feast.
"I attended several of the councils held with the Indians. At
one of them, Red Cloud addressed Secretary Cox and Commissioner
Parker in a lengthy speech on the subject of his grievances, in which
he referred to me as follows. Pointing me out to the secretary and
commissioner, he said:
"'Look at that woman; she was captured by Silver Horn's party.
I wish you to pay her what her captors owe her. I am a man true to
what I say, and want to keep my promise. I speak for all my nation.
The Indians robbed that lady there, and through your influence I want
her to be paid out of the first money due us.' Placing his finger first
upon the breast of the secretary and then of the commissioner, as if
to add emphasis to what he was going to say, he added :
'
Pay her
out of our money; do not give the money into any other but her
hands; then the right one will get it.'
"
At the suggestion of Red Cloud, Spotted Tail, and others, Mrs.
Kelly proceeded and made out a statement in writing, setting forth
her claims against the Indians for property destroyed by thein at the
time of her capture, and losses attending, which was attested by all
the chiefs present, who requested the government that the amount
thereof should be paid out of moneys coming to their people, which
was accordingly done.
An Indian''s Reply to a Challenge. The Indian has more sense
than the white man. The duelist may possess some physical bravery,
but he lacks the moral courage of the Indian, who, when he was chal-
lenged, replied: "I have two objections to this duel affair; the one is
that I should hurt you, and the other is, lest you should hurt me. I
do not see any good that it would do me to put a bullet through your
body. I could not make any use of you when dead ; but I could of a
rabbit or turkey. As to myself, I think it more wise to avoid than to
put myself in the way of harm. I am under apprehension that you
might hit me. That being the case, I think it advisable to keep my
distance. If you want to try your pistols, take some objecta tree,
or anything about my size ; and, if you hit that, send me word, and I
shall acknowledge that, had I been there, you might have hit me."
Indian Friendship.Mr. Jefferson, in his "Notes on Virginia,"
declares that Indian friendships are strong and faithful to the utmost
extremity. He says: A remarkable instance of this appeared in the
case of the late Col. Byrd, who was sent to the Cherokee nation to
transact some business with them. It happened that some of our dis-
orderly people had just proposed, in the council of the Cherokees, that
Colonel Byrd should be put to death, in revenge for the loss of their
countrymen. Among them was a chief named Silouee, who, on some
former occasion, had contracted an acquaintance and friendship with
Colonel Byrd. He came to him every night in his tent, and told him
not to be afraid, they should not kill him. After many days' delibera-
tion, however, the determination was contrary to Silouee's expectation,
that Byrd should be put to death ; and some warriors were dispatched
as executioners. Silouee attended them, and when they entered the tent,
he threw himself between them and Byrd and said to the warriors, "This
man is my friend; before you get at him, you must kill me." On
which they returned, and the council respected the principle so much
as to recede from their determination.
CHAPTER LIII.
WARS AND MASSACRES.
Prejudice of White ManWant of Correct InformationHistory Misunderstood
and ExaggeratedMethods of Declaring WarOn the Warpath Their En-
campmentsEngagementsPrisonersRunning the GauntletAdoption of
PrisonersSpanish Invaders Committed First MurderOutrages by DeSoto
and D'AllyonIndians RetaliateAttack and Bloodshed in New England by
the WhitesFear and Suspicion Aroused among the IndiansIndian Attach-
ment to Their LandsTheir Efforts to Retain ThemIndians Aroused by the
British Against the ColonistsIndian Massacres Stimulated and Led on by the
WhitesOne Faction against the OtherThe So-Called Wyoming Massacre
True History of the SameBurning of Joan of ArcOther Instances of Man's

Inhumanity to ManHistory Misunderstood.
,WHE Indian has been arraigned
fe
for his cruel wars and barbarous
massacres ; to this he has never
^''
been heard in his own defense.
His history and character in this re-
gard come to us alone through the
visions of the white man, with the
single purpose in view of justifying
his own race, in a continued course of
injustice during a long conflict in
which the Indian has ever been on the
defensive.
Before proceeding, however, ta
the main purposes of this chapter, it is proposed to speak first of the
Indian character in connection with this subject, and of the Indian
custom in declaring or preparing for war against an emeny in his own
country, among those of his own race.
As in other respects, elsewhere occasionally noted, it is proper
here again to repeat that in regard to a propensity for war or hostile
combat with an enemy, the Indian does not differ essentially from the
white man. Whenever an Indian suffers wrong from another it arouses
within him a spirit of revenge against the aggressor, in like manner
as it would with the white man. Whenever an Indian felt that hi&
(636;
PAWNEE WARRIOR
t
WARS AND MASSACRES. G37
tribe had received injuries from some other tribe, it was resented in a
spirit of indignation the same as with the white race, and such provo-
cations were regarded, according to their customs, as just causes for
war against the aggressive party.
Rev. Isaac McCoy, long a missionary among the Indian tribes
who had occasion to investigate Indian character thoroughly, emphat-
ically denies that which has been so much alleged against the Indian,
that he has a natural propensity for war, and speaks thus forcibly in
this regard:
"Evidences are almost endless that the Indians in their original
state are not a warlike people, they are not as much inclined to war as
civilized man is, and as they advance in civilization, they become more
courageous in contending for their rights, whether real or supposed.
The time has come for us to understand facts in regard to the
Indians. We have been too long deluded and amused with false
theories and romantic stories about the aboriginal tribes ; and even at
this time fictions are crowded upon public credulity, under the name
of truth, served up to the taste of the novelist. When the true
character of the Indians comes to be drawn, even from the showing
of the visionary historians who have labored to produce a different
impression, how exceedingly foolish their pages will appear, in which
they have described in glowing colors the propensity of the Indians
for war ; and how ridiculous will be the attitude of those who predict
the failure of all efforts to improve the condition of the Indians,
because their supposed fondness for hunting and war is uncon-
querable."
It is said there were three causes for war with the native Indian
:
first, where his established hunting grounds were invaded by some
other tribe or nation ; second, where some one of his tribe had bee n
killed or some depredation committed upon him by some other tribe
;
thirdly, war was sometimes engaged in by a tribe or nation for the
purpose of enlarging or extending the territory of their hunting
grounds, as in the example of the leagued nations of the Iroquois,
whose territory was being rapidly extended through conquest, at the
time of the arrival of Europeans, which, however, received an abrupt
check on the arrival of the English on the Atlantic coast and the
French in New France or Canada.
But we are informed that urtlike the nations of white men, the
American Indian never had his civil wars, that is, a war among those
of his own tribe. A marked trait in Indian character was that of
fidelity to his nation, among whom no dissensions were ever allowed
to arise leading to dissolution, hence, unlike the white man in his
catalogue of crimes, there did not exist in Indian life the crime of
treason to his tribe.
The Indian was as fond of distinction among his tribe, and the
people of other tribes, as the white man is among his people. In our
civilized life, however, there are numberless ways open to the civilized
man in the direction of distinction ; but, in the primitive life of the
American Indian, these avenues of renown were exceedingly limited,
confined almost exclusively to exploits on the war path. It is also to
be noted that, in the white man's civilization, notwithstanding the
innumerable ways that are open for him to distinction, he also attains
the highest degree of fame through success in war ; so that, in reality,
the customs of civilized man in this respect have little, if any, advantage
over those of the American savage.
Civilized nations have, from all time, since civilization on the
earth began, gone to war, or provoked war with a neighboring nation,
for no other purpose than national or individual glory, not even pre-
tending that the cause thereof possessed a single attribute of merit;
and it may not be improbable that the Indian has waged war on like
causeless occasions, and with like purposes in view.
In selecting, organizing, and training warriors, the customs of the
Indians are much like those of the civilized white man. Everv tribe
has its band of warriors or military force. In general, it consists
of all the males of the nation, from fifteen years and upwards, to that
period in life which would border upon what would be called old age,
say up to fifty-five and perhaps to sixty years. These warriors are
organized in a rude manner, according to their notions of military dis-
cipline, under command of war chiefs as may be agreed upon, amongst
whom there is always a principal or commanding chief, appointed ta
position in their councils.
Their weapons of war, in their primitive condition^ were bows and
arrows, war clubs and spears. After the coming of the white man,
these weapons gave place to the rifle or musket, the tomahawk, the
finished metal spear, and the scalping knife or dagger. Ilj
The Indians had a formal mode of declaring war, at councils of
the tribe assembled for the purpose of considering that question, at
which their grievances or the objects leading to war were recited in
their speeches, and the question was decided, for or against, by the
council. With some tribes, the question of war was submitted to the
whole tribe for their decision; among others, the custom prevailed of
considering questions of this kind in the assembly of chiefs and lead-
ers, or wise men of the tribe. When war was determined upon, then
commenced the recruiting service, or proceeding for enlisting warriors
into the military service. The chiefs and leaders, or head men among
the tribe, proceeded to persuade the warriors to take up arms against
WARS AND MASSACRES. 639
the enemy, reciting the wrongs of their tribe, and exhorting the war-
riors to come forth and vindicate the honor of their nation, in this style
of eloquence:
"The bones of our deceased countrymen lie uncovered; they cry-
to us to avenge their wrongs; their spirits must be appeased. The
invisible guardians of our honor inspire us with a resolution to seek
the murderers of our brothers. Let us go and devour those by whom
they were slain. Sit not, therefore, inactive. Give way to your valor.
Annoint your hair. Paint your faces. Fill your quivers. Make the
forests resound with your songs. Console the spirit of the dead, and
tell them they shall be avenged."
Whereupon the warriors raise the war song, and ask to be lea
against the enemy. The chief, who is to be their leader, paints
himself black, fasts several days and avoids all conversation with those
of his tribe. By this means he hopes to obtain the favor of the Great
Spirit, and avert the evil intentions of the Bad Spirit. He carefully
observes his dieams, which generally foretell success. This idea of
fasting, it is said, is purely a religious notion with them, believing that
such religious services are appreciated by the Great Spirit.
Having fasted the appointed time, the chief takes the appropriate
belt of wampum in his hand, and, addressing his warriors, informs
them of all the motives of the war, and of the success which the Great
Spirit has promised them. He then lays down the belt, and he who
takes it up is second in command. The chief removes the black paint
from his face, and, thereupon, he becomes painted red. He sings the
war song and makes a devotional address to the Great Spirit, in which
he is joined by all the warriors. Then they engage in the war dance,
and conclude, according to a general custom, with a feast of dog's flesh.
A hatchet, painted red, is sent to the nation or tribe against whom
they have declared war, or intend to attack, which is their manifesta-
tion of a declaration of war. The messenger who bears this symbol
or message does so at the peril of his life. According to their custom,
he has no protection under their rules of honor in doing so, and his
mission often proves fatal to him.
When the warriors set out on their march, they carry little or
nothing with them beyond their weapons of war. They subsist on their
way by hunting. If not near the enemy's country, they proceed un-
guarded and without concern in small parties, during the day, for the
convenience of hunting ; but take good care, at night, to return to their
camp, where they all assemble together before nightfall. When they
arrive in the enemy's country, a different course of conduct is pur-
sued; they" are now more circumspect and sagacious, and game is no
(340 THE AMERICAN INDIAN.
longer pursued. They avoid even speaking to one another, communi-
cating by signs. Their well trained senses admit of discovering the
enemy at a distance, from the smell of the fires in or about their habi-
tations.
They can perceive the track of a foot upon the smoothest grassy
surface, and, it is said, even on the hardest substances, and it is
claimed that, from the tracks, they discover with amazing certainty the
nation, the sex, and the stature of the person who has passed, and the
time that has elapsed since the track was made. It becomes the great
object of both parties, therefore, to conceal their own tracks, and to
discover those of their enemy. In marching, they follow each other
in a single line, called Indian
file,
each treading in the footsteps of
those going before; whilst the last carefully conceals their tracks by
throwing leaves thereon. If they encounter a stream or rivulet on
their way, they march into it, and, in order to deceive their enemies
more completely, they will go out of the stream at a point above or
below where they entered.
Their usual custom is to march during the night, and secrete them-
selves during the daytime. If they discover the enemy, without
being discovered themselves, they at once hold a council, in which
they only whisper, and thus lay their plans for attack. Attacks are
generally made just before daybreak, at the time when the enemy are
supposed to be in their soundest sleep. They approach them on their
hands and knees, till within bow-shot; when the chief gives a signal,
they all start up, and with a horrid yell, in accordance with their cus-
tom, discharge their arrows into the enemy's camp. Taking advantage
of the confusion which naturally follows, they rush forward and com-
plete the carnage with their tomahawks or other Aveapons. It is said,
without evident advantage of this kind, an Indian seldom engages an
enemy, for he expects no praise for a victory which is purchased by the
lives of any of his own party.
John Tanner, the Indian captive, frequently before mentioned in
this work, who was for thirty years in captivity among the Ojibways,
often going with them on the war path, gives the following account of
their customs on such occasions
:
"In their marches, the warriors, if they ever sit down, must not
sit upon the naked ground, but must at least have some grass or
bushes under them. They must, if possible, avoid wetting their feet;
but if they are ever compelled to wade through a swamp, or to cross a
stream, they must keep their clothes dry, and whip their legs with
bushes or grass, when they come out of the water. They must never
walk in a beaten path if they can avoid it; but if they cannot at all
WARS AND MASSACRES.
641
o
H
K
IS
>
tn
M
Q
H
H
41
times, then they must put medicine on their legs, which they carry for
that purpose. Any article belonging to any of the party, such as his
gun, his blanket, tomahawk, knife or war club, must not be stepped
over by any other person, neither must the hands, legs, or body of any
one who is sitting or lying on the ground. Should this rule be inad-
vertently violated, it is the duty of the one to whom the article stepped
over may belong, to seize the other and throw him on the ground, and
the latter must suffer himself to be thrown down, even should he be
much stronger than the other. The vessels which they carry to eat
out of, are commonly small bowls of wood, or of birch bark ; they are
marked across the middle, and the Indians have some mark by which
they distinguish the two sides; in going out from home they driuk
invariably oat of one side, and in returning, from the other. When
on their way home, and within one day of the village, they suspend all
these bowls on trees, or throw them away in the prairie.
"I should have mentioned that, in their encampments at night, the
chief wdio conducts the party, sends some of his young men a little
distance in advance, to prepare what is called Puslikwawgumme-gen~
ahgun, the piece of cleared ground where the kozau-bun-zichegun, or
divination, by which the position of the enemy is to be discovered, is
to be performed. This S23ot of cleared ground is prepared by remov-
ing the turf from a considerable surface, in the form of a parallelogram,
and, with the hands, breaking up the soil to make it fine and soft, and
which is so inclosed with poles that none can step on it. The chief,
when he is informed that the place is ready, goes and sits down at the
end opposite that of the enemy's country; then, after singing and
praying, he places before him, on the margin of the piece of ground,
which may be compared to a bed in a garden, two small roundish
stones. After the chief has remained here by himself for some time,
entreating the Great Spirit to show him the path in which he ought to
lead his young men, a crier goes to him from the camp, and then,
returning part way, he calls by name some of the principal men, say-
ing, 'come smoke.' Others also, if they wish it, who are not called,
repair to the chief, and they then examine, by striking a light, the
result of the kozau-bun-zichegun. The two stones which the chief
placed on the margin of the bed have moved across to the opposite
end, and it is from the appearance of the path they have left in
passing over the soft ground, that they infer the course they are to
pursue.
"At this place of divination, the offerings of cloth, beads, and
whatever other articles the chief and each man may carry for sacrifice,
are exposed during the night on a pole; also their je-bi-ug, or memo-
WARS AND MASSACRES.
'
(US
rials of their dead friends, which are to be thrown away on the fiekl
of battle, or, if possible, thrust into the ripped up bowels of their ene-
mies, who may fall in the fight. If a warrior has lost, by death, a
favorite child, he carries, if possible, some article of dress, or perhaps
some toy, which belonged to the child, or more commonly a lock of his
hair, which they seek to throw away on the field of battle. The scouts
who precede a war party into an enemy's country, if they happen, in
lurking about their lodges, or in their old encampments, to discover any
of the toys that have been dropped by the children, such as little bows,
or even a piece of a broken arrow, pick it up and carefully preserve it
until they return to the party; then, if they know of a man who has lost
his child, they throw it to him, saying,
'
your little son is in that place,
we saw him playing with the children of our enemies, will you go and
see him?' The bereaved fatlier commonly takes it up, and, having
looked upon it awhile, falls to crying, and is then ready and eager to
go against the enemy. An Indian chief, when he leads out his war
party, has no other means of control over the individuals composing
it than his personal influence gives him ; it is, therefore, necessary they
should have some method of rousing and stimulating themselves to
exertion."
AVhen they have secured a victory, and dispatched all who would
be troublesome to them on their return, they make prisoners of the
balance; they then scalp the dead and wounded, preserving the scalp
as a memento of their victory; whereupon, they turn their course in the
direction of their own country, and, if they have fear of being pursued,
they take the same precaution on their return with which they
advanced. If these precautions do not operate sufiiciently to conceal
them, they kill all the other prisoners, then, each taking a separate
route, they proceed homewards. They thus put an effectual stop to
traces enabling the enemy to pursue them.
When proceeding with their prisoners, they watch them closely.
During the day, they are constantly held by some one of their conquer-
ors, and, during the night, are fastened to the ground by the arms and
legs, and the cords therefrom are held by an Indian, wlio is instantly
awakened by the slightest motion. Indian prisoners often, during the
night, sing their death song: "I am going to die, but will not shrink
from tortures inflicted by my enemies. I will die like a warrior and
go to join those chiefs Avho have suffered before me."
When they approach their home, on their return, they announce
their arrival by different cries. The number of war whoops indicate
how many prisoners they have taken ; the number of death cries indi-
cate how many of their companions they have lost. The whole village
C44:
THE AMEIilCAN INDIAN.
meets tliem to learn the particulars. They form a line through which
the prisoners are obliged to pass, when they beat them with sticks from
one end to the other, called rumiing the gauntlet. By a council, which
is immediately held, their fate is soon determined. Those who are
condemned to die are delivered to the principal war chief; those who
are spared are to be given to the chief of the nation to be disposed of
as he may desire.
When a prisoner is condemned to die, he is bound to a stake pre-
pared for that purpose, where, for the last time, he sings his death song.
He is then burned, and expires with that unexampled courage and
bravery which distinguishes an Indian warrior. If he is a chief who
has given proof of his prowess in former engagements with his ene-
mies, they frequently give his fortitude a severer test, by the infliction
of the most terrible torments within their invention. Terror finds no
place on the one side, nor pity on the other. The victim, according to
Indian custom, glories in his torments, and boasts of the victories he
has obtained over their nation on occasions past. In the words of a
supposed occasion, pictured to us in early New England history, he
thus defies his enemies:
"
Begin, ye tormentors, your threats are in vain,
For the son of Alnoomok shall never complain."
He enumerates the scalps he has taken, and recapitulates the
manner in which he has treated his prisoners, and reproaches them
with their ignorance of the fact. The prisoner, in time, becomes
exhausted, but never humbled, expiring without a sigh. It is said that
none of them suffer these extreme tortures, except a chief who has dis-
tinguished himself in war. Burning, according to universal custom
among the American Indians, is the mode of putting prisoners to death.
Prisoners that are not condemned to death are distributed, by the
direction of the chiefs, to families, by whom they are adopted in the
place of husbands, sons, or other relatives who have been killed in war
;
and, if contented with their condition, they experience the same tender-
ness and regard which belongs to those whose places they fill. Accord-
ing to Indian custom, when one of their tribe has been taken prisoner,
he is disgraced ; if he should escape and return to them he would be
considered unworthy of life, hence there is little or no incentive for an
Indian prisoner to escape from his captors. Prisoners that are not
adopted into some family are considered slaves, and are treated accord-
ingly.
Says the Bishop of Meaux:
"
When a prisoner is adopted they lead
him to the cabin where he must live, and the first thing they do is to
untie him ; then they warm some water and wash him, and dress his
wounds, if he has any. They omit nothing to make him forget his
Bufferings. They make him eat, and clothe him decently, in a word
they would not do more for their own children, nor for him whom lie
raises from the dead. This is their expression. Some days after, they
make a feast, during which they solemnly give him the name of the
person whom he replaces, and whose rights he not only acquires for
that time, but he lays himself also under the same obligations."
We now come to speak of wars and massacres as between the
Indians and the whites, or the invaders of his country. Mr. Hecke-
welder says it is a fixed principle with the Indians that evil cannot
come out of good, that no friend will injure a friend, and, therefore,
that whoever wrongs or does harm to another is his enemy. As it is
with individuals, so it is with nations, tribes, and other independent
associations of men; if they commit murder on another people; if they
encroach on their lands, by making it a practice to come within their
bounds, and take the game from them ; if they rob or steal from their
hunting-camps; or, in short, are guilty of any act of unjust aggression,
they cannot be considered otherwise than as enemies; they are declared
to be such, and the aggrieved nation think themselves justifiable in
punishing them.
The popular notion of the white man, instilled into his mind by
continued prejudice, is that the American Indian has engaged in wars
with the whites, alone from his savage propensity, losing sight entirely
of the question of provocation or palliating circumstances on his part,
leading to such results. Little or no explanation, and comparatively
no defense whatever, has ever been offered in behalf of the Indian by
the American historian in this regard.
Indian history, upon the North American continent, may prop-
erly be said to have commenced at the invasion of De Soto and his
followers in 1538, in his wanderings through the country of the
Appalachians, on his route to the Mississipppi in search of gold. AYe
are informed that
"
the natives they met exhibited signs of hostility,
and, though feeble in numbers and arms, opposed the progress of the
invaders with such means as they could command. Such of the
natives as were captured were put to death, or fettered and doomed
to slavery."
The historian, continuing, says:
"
Some other natives had
recently been captured, and, as they lived nearer to the supposed land
of gold, tlaey were brought before De Solo to be questioned. The
first promptly and truthfully replied that he knew nothing of such a
country as they sought. This so incensed the commander, who be-
lieved the native was deceiving him, that he ordered him burned.
CRUELTIES OF TPIE SPANIARDS.
The order was obeyed with alacrity. He was bound to the stake, the
fagots were piled around him and lighted, and the whole force of
Spaniards looked on with-
out remorse, if not with
satisfaction, and jeered at
his sufferings ; but the brave
Indian did not retract or
falter."
Continuing on, these
soldiers in quest of fortune,
eager for chances of per-
sonal advancement, these
avaricious knaves seekinof
only for gold, came to a
considerable Indian town, which they entered without parley or
permit, and sought to take possession of the Indian habitations
without even asking their permission. The Indians were indig-
nant at this intrusion, and arose to resist the invaders. A fearful
battle followed; the Indians fought des2:>erately for the protection of
their homes, but were unable to cope with the superior weapons of the
Spaniards, and especially with the cavalry, whose horses and fiery
charge inspired a mortal dread. The Indians were slaughtered on
every side, men, women and children suffering alike, as the historian
says,
"
at the hands of the vindictive Christians." The houses were
set on fire, and the flames spread rapidly through the closely built
town, burning to death many of the unfortunate inmates. It is averred
that upwards of 2,000 of the Indians were killed, and that only a
small remnant of the inhabitants of the town escaped by fleeing to
the neighboring forests.
The Spanish force afterwards encountered the Chickasaws, who
gave them battle, and, in their resistance, were partially successful.
As their prospect of success began here to diminish, the Spaniards
added vindictive and wanton cruelty to their treatment of the Indians.
They cut off the hands of many of the natives on the most frivolous
pretenses, and without restraint. Reckless young adventurers would
quarrel with and then kill them in order to maintain and boast of
their prowess. In the eyes of the Spaniards, these miserable heathens
had no rights which Christian invaders were bound to respect. The
natives attempted to hide their small stores of food from the plunder-
ing Spaniards, but, in addition to being robbed of them, they were
fearfully punished for the offense. Indian guides sought to conduct
the invaders away from the villages of their friends, and, on discovery
of such fact, if not upon mere suspicion, they would be bound and
then thrown to the bloodhounds.
Before the invasion of De Soto, D'Allyon, a wealthy colonist who
ow^ned extensive mines in Hayti, sent two ships northward, which
arrived on the coast of South Carolina. The natives, believing the
ships sea monsters, crowded the shore in wonderment. This was
about the year 1512, and was, it is said, the first appearance of white
men on that shore. The natives appeared to be a harmless, inoffensive
people, and showed no sign of hostile feeling towards the invading
party. The commander invited them on bo^rd of his vessel, where
they wêre entertained at a feast, and given strong drink, of which they
partook freely. When they had become stupid by intoxication, the
hatches of the ship were closed, and these deluded people carried
away captives. Many died from starvation, refusing to partake of
food. One of the ships was foundered and all on board, including
captives and Spaniards, were lost. The remainder of the captives
who were on the other ship were taken to Hayti, where D'Allyon, deaf
to the voice of mercy or humanity, made them slaves.
The story of this wickedness rapidly spread from lip to lip along
the coast, whereby the natives were aroused to those acts of defense
and revenge which resulted in the wounding of Ponce de Leon, on his
visit thereafter to the same coast, and the expulsion of his followers
from their countrv.
The alarm of the natives at the inhuman acts of De Soto and his
follow-ers, as in the case of D'Allyon, spread with rapidity among the
inhabitants along to the northward and back into the interior,
until the native population, from the coast to the far interior, were
thereby put upon their guard against the white invaders, so that, wdien
Sir Walter Kaleigh and his successors landed in Virginia, the Indians
met them with fear and suspicion, and so, also, upon the coast of New
Eno-land on the landing of the Pilgrims. A few years before the
latter event, we are informed that an Englishman, one Hunt (who had
been left in charge of a vessel by Capt. Smith, in
1614), landed on
the coast of New England, and, on pretense of trading, enticed twenty-
seven Indians on board his vessel, seized them, carried them off and
sold them for slaves in the West Indies.
This further exasperated the Indian mind, whereby the intelli-
iênce of the barbarity of the white man penetrated "svith still greater
force back into the interior,
operating still further to prejudice and
exasperate the natives
against these strange visitors; and the devoted
Puritans, on landing upon the coast of New England, under the cir-
cumstances, might well have looked for extermination
; but it is said
that a pestilence had, some years before, swept the land of its people,
whereby they became weak and disinclined to offer resistance.
Says Mr. Elliott, the modern historian of New England: "The
Pilgrims, id their devout way, saw the finger of God in this desola-
tion
;
He was working for them, no doubt. It was well they saw God
in their encouragements more than in their disasters."
After the Mayflower had anchored off Plymouth Rock, a party,
selected for that purpose, went on shore to reconnoitei* or explore in
the vicinity. Among the first things which they encountered, attract-
ing their attention, were heaps of earth, evidently the work of human
hands; on digging into them they found them to be human graves.
Proceeding further to dig, they found, from time to time, quantities of
corn, "in all," says The Journal
of
the Pilgrims, "some ten bushels.
'^
"This corn," continues the Journal,
"
was delivered into the common
stock, to be saved for seed, proposing, so soon as we could meet with
any of the inhabitants of that place, to make them large satisfaction."
There is no record anywhere that recompense for this corn was ever
made, or attempted to be made,
"
to any of the inhabitants of that
place." Thus the first proceeding in the Pilgrim invasion was to
desecrate the graves of the peaceable, unoffending natives; to rifle
them of their contents of whatever was valuable, on the naked propo-
sition among themselves to make satisfaction whenever the owners o
the property could be found.
In June, 1622, two ships arrived from England, having emigrants
on board, sent out by Mr. Weston, one of the English company, to
found a colony in America, for his benefit. They settled at a place
called Wichaguscusset, since called Weymouth. Says Mr. Elliott:
"A short time had passed when the Indians became loud in their com-
plaints of these men. They stole the Indian corn, and otherwise
abused their confidence and trifled with their friendship." Continu-
ing, Mr. Elliott says: "The men of Wessagusset had utterly wasted
their stores, and were driven to hire themselves to the Indians, that
they might share their food, and stave off starvation ; they ended by
robbing them. Confusion, distrust and exasperation ensued, and the
Indians became bitter. Spring came
(1623),
and they wanted seed
corn; the Indians refused to deal with them, and there was evidence
that they had determined to drive the colony from the country ; Ave are
at a loss to conceive why they should not."
Gov. Bradford received intelligence that the Indians, becoming
exasperated, had determined to drive these base white men from their
shores, and that a widespread combination or conspiracy had been
formed for that purpose, which was to include all the pale faces in the
country. This intelligence he laid before his court, whereupon
"
the
unanimous voice declared for war." This, it is said, they did, knowing
Weston's men to be in the wrong. By order of the court, Capt. Miles
Standish, with some eight men, watched his time, proceeded to the
colony, and, having got the chief of the conspiracy into a wigwam,
gave a signal, sprung suddenly upon them, secured the door, and
buried his knife in the heart of Pecksuot, one of the fiercest of the
chiefs. It is said the Indians died hard after many wounds, one of
Avliom was hung by Standish himself.
Says Mr. Elliott: "They returned to Plymouth with the head of
Wetawamat, which was set up on a pole in the fort ; one of the Indians
who had been secured was set at liberty with a defiant and threatening
message ; and the whole fight carried such terror among the Indians
that they tied from their homes, and, wandering in swamps and forests,
many perished through suffering and disease ; among these were the
Sachems Canacum, Aspinet and lyanoughy
This was the first conflict in New England between the Indians
and the whites, in which it is conceded the Indian was not the attack-
ing party. A reconciliation among the surrounding tribes was effected
through Massasoit, which continued for many years ; but the encroach-
ment and the arrogant conduct of the Puritans was afterwards carried
to such an extent that hostilities could no longer be averted. The conse-
quence was the fierce Pequot war, which practically exterminated that
tribe and their allies.
If massacres were continued, or resistance prolonged, on the part
of the Indian against the white man, the reason of it is apparent from a
rational standpoint. Whilst in the East the Pequot war put an end to
Indian outbreaks, instigated and led on by the Indians, at the same
time, upon the frontier settlements, Indian outrages on the West con-
tinued all the same, but, invariably, or with a very few exceptiens, at
the instance of white men. The destruction of Schnectady and Deer-
field, and many other like events, were led on by the French (white
men), and but for them such occurrences would not have happened.
The noted massacre of Cherry Valley, which is set down in the popu-
lar mind as purely an Indian outrage, was one led on by white men,
called
"
British Tories," and it is noted in history that one of the
tories who led in this affair boasted that he had killed one Mr. Wells
at prayer; and, from that time forward, until after the close of the
war of 1812, Indian outrages and outbreaks were, in general, instigated
by white men, under the influence and encouragement of the British
government, and, frequently, the authorized agents of that government.
In taking leave of this subject, it is sufficient to remark, in gen-
650
eral terms, that the Indian in this long conflict with the whites was
not the first aggressor, and that, as he has been compelled to recede
from his country step by step, his whole conduct has been merely w^hat
he considered acts of self-defense. It is sufficient for the purposes
here, in closing this subject, and as affording some evidence that the
ill-founded prejudice and misrepresentation of Indian conduct, in
regard to Indian wars and massacres, as against the white man, to refer
to what is commonly called the massacre of Wyoming, which is
another feature in the white man's history of the Indian, held up to
us as marking his dark and bloody character. There has been some
faint effort, in later times, to correct the erroneous impression created
in the public mind in regard to this alleged Indian massacre. The
truth of history may be vindicated concerning this affair in the simple
assertion that, according to the proper interpretation to this term, there
never was an Indian massacre at Wyoming ; and, indeed, attention is
here called to the fact that no conclusions can be drawn from the vari-
ous histories that have been written on the subject of this alleged
massacre, warranting the impression, so generally existing in the pub-
lic mind, that there was, at some time after its settlement, a horrible
massacre of white people in the valley of Wyoming, at the hands of the
Indians.
S^
The history of Wyoming valley, so called, in which there is a
general concurrence among them all, is simply this: that at its first
settlement, the land was claimed by two contending parties, one from
New England and the other from Pennsylvania. The party from Con-
necticut founded their claim upon the consent procured in the summer
of 1755, from the colony of Connecticut, that colony basing its claim
upon the grant which was derived from the Plymouth company, of
wiiich the Earl of Warwick was president, the grant being made in
March, 1631. The claim of the party from Pennsylvania was based
upon the charter granted by King Charles the Second, in 1681, to
AVilliam Penn, the proprietor and governor of Pennsylvania, his heirs
and assigns.
It appears to have been simply a question of boundaries in
advancing the extent of the two aforesaid grants. At the date of the
first attempts at settlements by the whites, 1755, the valley was occu-
pied by portions of three tribes of Indians ; the Nanticolces at the
foot of the valley, on the eastern side of the river; the Delaivares
above and on the same side ; the Sliawnees upon the western side.
The Sliawnees occupied their country on invitation of the Dela-
wares. In the first place, a contention arose among these tribes as to
the right of occupancy among themselves. The Iroquois or the Six
Nations claimed the superior right of control over the whole country
occupied by these three tribes. In the conflict which followed among
the Indian tribes for supremacy of possession, the Delawares were
triumphant, and peace and quiet was restored ; whereupon, about the
year 1755,
parties from Connecticut, with their families, removed into
the valley, under authority of the Connecticut grant aforesaid, and
commenced a settlement.
They were subsequently annoyed by Indian depredations, an
occurrence common to all parts of the colonies exposed upon the
frontier, in consequence of the war existing between the English and
the French, the Indians being stirred up to such action by the French,
as a means of annoying and conquering their common enemy, the
English.
Peace being declared between the English and the French, and
the occupation of the country by the former being no longer disputed,
parties from Pennsylvania, under the Penn grant before mentioned,
removed into the Wyoming valley. This led to hostilities between the
two factions, the Connecticut people and Pennsylvanians. For the
purposes of defense, each party built forts in different parts of the
valley as a means of protection from violence against each other.
Frequent battles or skirmishes with firearms occurred, whereby much
property was destroyed and many persons killed. Far greater depre-
dations were committed, both as to destruction of life and property,
by these two contending factions of ivhite people, than had ever
been committed by the Indians in that locality.
Peace was finally restored, so far as open hostilities were con-
cerned, between the contending factions, which was brought about in
consequence of the general revolt of the colonies against the government
of Great Britain, in the year 1776. It seems that, after the commence-
ment of hostilities between the colonies and the mother country, a
large proportion of the inhabitants of Wyoming valley adhered to the
authority of the British government; in other words, were, as then
styled, iories.
Those who favored the cause of the colonies, and who were
attached to the Connecticut line, organized into military companies,
and took up arms against the British government, and made part of
the troops of that colony. This action increased the bitterness existing
between the two factions of colonists, or settlers, in the Wyoming
valley. Upon this, it seems that the tory faction applied to the authori-
ties of the British government, and asked aid in suppressing the
military demonstrations of their neighbors ; whereupon, in the spring
of 1778, a force consisting of about 800 men, composed of British
regulars, volunteer tories and some Seneca Indians, under the com-
mand of Butler, assembled at Niagara, from whence they marched to
the Wyoming valley, for the purpose of compelling that people to
submit to the authority of the British government.
It is said that the Indians who joined this force were, in number,
about 400, and were commanded by the celebrated Mohawk chief,
Brant. The number of Indians is, doubtless, much overestimated,
and it is probably not true that Brant was among them.
The Seneca Indians had already submitted to the authority of the
British government, recognizing it as the established government of
the country at that time ; and, in consideration that the British gov-
ernment would protect them in the possession of their lands in west-
ern NeAv York, they joined the British army as a military organiza-
tion, submitting, in all things, to regular army discipline. When this
force entered the Wyoming valley, they found themselves at once rein-
forced by accession from the tory portion of the valley, who joined their
forces to engage with the British army in fighting and subduing their
neighbors.
The colonists, or those who adhered to the cause of the colonists,
had a military force of about 400 in number, which occupied a fort in
the valley called
"
Forty Fort." When the British army was di3cov-
ered in the upper part of the valley, some four or five miles away, this
force, then in the garrison, under command of Zebulon Butler, marched
out in regular military order, and met the British with their Indian
allies, formed in line and gave them battle, in which, however, they
were defeated, and retreated back to the fort.
During this battle, as history shows, the Indians submitted to
military discipline, and fought in the same manner as the British
regulars and volunteer tories. The atrocities of the occasion, so far
as there were any, in which all historians seem to agree, were com-
mitted by the tory white people themselves upon their neighbors who
had taken up the cause of the colonies. One instance in particular is
mentioned, where one man, a tory, pursued his own brother, and shot
him down, refusing him any quarter or mercy whatever. There is no
instance recorded where the Indians acted differently from the white
regulars and tories, throughout the whole affair.
The sole object of this invasion, by the British army, seems to
have been to compel the colonists of the valley to submit to the authority
of the British government. It was not a raid for plunder nor for
extermination by massacre, as is generally supposed. It was occa-
sioned on application, as is understood, from the tory portion of the
inhabitants of the valley to the British authorities, as before remarked.
The colonists being defeated, a capiculation was entered into, wliieli,
being fulfilled, the invading force withdrew. The aforesaid conclu-
sion is further strengthened by the written articles of capitulation, in
which appears the following:
"It is agreed that the settlements lay down their arms, and their
garrison be demolished;" "that the property taken from the people
called tories, be made good, and that they remain in the peaceable
possession of their farms and homesteads, in free trade through this
settlement;" "that the inhabitants which Col. Dennison capitulates
for, together with himself, do not take up arms during this contest,"
meaning the American Revolution. The terms of this capitulation
are entirely inconsistent with the claim that this affair was an Indian
massacre.
The burning of Joan of Arc, on the trumped-up charge of
sorcery, is but one example in
the midst of innumerable others
affording proof of "man's in-
humanitv to man;" and, if his-
tory is to be relied upon, the
Indian, barbarous even as he
has ever been painted, has never
approached those examples of
barbarism which the white man
has, by his own history, shown
himself to possess.
The ferocious or savage character we commonly give to the
Indian, seems to spring more or less from the assumed virtuous char-
acter of ourselves ; at least it assumes that we are not a people of like
barbarous character, and would not commit such acts of cruelty as we
charge upon them, and herein lies, largely, the cause of this preju-
dice instilled into us against the native Indian. If the character of
the two races is to be judged by comparison of conduct, in the history
of the past, the Indian certainly would not suffer in comparison with
our own, especially when tested by our own history, as written by our-
selves.
It is singular that, whilst we are thus berating the Indian for his
massacres and savage conduct, we have not considered the standing of
our own race in this regard. Have- we never been guilty of instigat-
ing wars ? Have we never been guilty of massacres, whereby we
occupy that eligible position before the world, that we are at liberty
to assail others for conduct of this kind? What defense have we to
offer for the massacre of 70,000 people at Jerusalem by an invading
BUKNING OF JOAN OF ARC.
army under Peter the Hermit, called the Crusades, durins^ that
epidemic of fanatical excitement in the pretended attempt to rescue
the Holy Land from the occupation of infidels, which cost, in the end,
the lives of 2,000,000
men in an aimless purpose, tending to no good
whatever for the race of mankind? What explanation is to be offered
in behalf of the white man for the massacre of 70,000 Hugenots
throughout the kingdom of France, attended with circumstances of the
most horrid treachery and cruelty in 1572, by secret order of Charles
IX, King of France, at the instigation of the queen dowager ? And
who, above all, shall answer for the consequences of what is called the
fhirfy years' ivar in Europe in modern times
(1618-1648), in even our
enlightened age, wherein it is estimated that twelve million persons
were barbarously slain, out of a total population of only 16,000,000 at
the start?
^'
At the taking of Ismael by the Eussians, 30,000, old and young,
were slain in 1790. In O'Neal's Rebellion in Ireland, October
23,
1641, upAvards of 30,000 were killed in the commencement of this
rebellion, and it is said that before the rebellion was entirely sup-
pressed, 154,000 people were massacred. But it is not necessary, for
purposes of comparison in this case, to go back to any ancient times,
but we may take events in the memory of the living of to-day. Take
as an example the massacre at Andersonville, Ga., during the late
civil war, when 13,000 men were starved to death, who suffered and
died a more horrid and lingering death than even burning at the
stake, under the Indian custom of dealing with captive enemies. And
when Ave have taken into account all the horrors of that inhuman
rebellion, on the part of white men among themselves, in this enlight-
ened age, and in what we call the most enlightened government in the
world, shall we still insist that the Indians by comparison are the more
barbarous people?
We have arraigned the Indian for that peculiarity in his char-
acter, in retaliating for the injuries he imagines he has received from
the whites, in which he takes revenge upon the innocent, irrespective
of the question of their individual guilt. The defense for the Indian,
in this regard, is that he knows no distinction among the race who
have invaded his country and driven him from his possessions. In
this want of discrimination, it must here again be asserted that the
Indian, in his prejudices and propensities, is not unlike the white
man.
The people of all Christendom have, from natural instincts of
avenging wrongs, looked back upon the offense of that people who cru-
cified the Savior at Jerusalem 1800 years ago, as one demanding retail-
atioii against them as a people, and down tlirough the ages following,
that spirit of retaliation in the Christian mind has continued against
them and their succeeding descendants even to the present day,
ignoring the question of individual guilt.
Again, we may say for the Indian, that he is not, in his nature,
inclined to war; but when driven to extremities, or when he imagines
himself injured, he is, perhaps, as brutal in his instincts as mankind in
general, and becomes alike as desperate and ferocious in his resistance
and spirit of retaliation.
Acting on the principle enjoined on that noted occasion of moral
teaching that
"
He that is without sin among you let him cast the first
stone." it is suggested that it ill becomes the white man to question
Indian character in this regard until he shall have cleared up his own
record in his inhumanity to man from the beginning of his race. In
concluding this subject, let us derive some information from good
authority
:
Rev. Isaac McCoy says: "Of similar character is the silly suppo-
sition that the Indians are strongly predisposed to war. Why should
we think so? It would be as absurd to suppose that Indian children
came into the world with a peculiar passion for war as to suppose that
they were born hunters in miniature, or that white children wêre born
cobblers or tinkers. If the Indians are a warlike people, they are
made so by extraneous causes, and not hereditarily. But the Indians
are not a warlike people. The whole history of our settlements in
America, and of our operations in forcing them from their countries,
to which they are strongly attached, show^s that they were not a warlike
people. By degrees the tribes near the white settlements acquired
courage to light, until their yell became dreadful to their invaders
;
but the Indian in his original condition is precisely the reverse of what
he has been represented to be. A fe^v Spaniards could enter their
country, and enslave and butcher their hundreds of thousands. If the
natives had been as courageous as civilized wdiite men usually are, the
task of destroying their invaders with sticks or stones would have been
easy. All along the coast of the Atlantic small companies of Euro-
peans planted settlements, the natives, invariably, sooner or later,
resisted their encroachments; but their want of success, with their vast
advantages of numbers, proved that they were neither disposed nor
accustomed to hard fighting."
Mr. McCoy could have added, in proof of his position, that Avhich
is apparent to the most casual observer of Indian history. The Indian,
in his primitive condition, had no destructive weapons of war. He
had his simple bow and arrow, simple, indeed, as compared with the
G56
like weapons of the ancient and warlike people of the Old World, the
arrow being tipped or pointed with flint or buck's horn. He had his
stone ax, his spear, and his war club, which were the only implements
of destruction he possessed. Had the Indian been naturally warlike, it
would seem as if he would have sought out and manufactured more
destructive implements for this purpose than he had at his command.
But when we contemplate the more finished implements of human
destruction among civilized people of later times, it is submitted, which
has established the better and more complete evidences of his warlike
disposition, the native red man or the civilized white man?
We have been accustomed to calling the Indian a savage^ a term
conveying to our mind that he is ferocious in his nature and warlike in
his disposition. These propensities we have accepted as self evident
in Indian character, forgetful of the fact that, from our first acquaint-
ance with him, he has been compelled to act on the defensive; that the
invading race have ever been the aggressors, from Cortez down to the
latest time.
But wherein lies the consistency of the white man's complaint of
the barbarous Indian ? He came to this continent with the avowed pur-
pose of taking possession of it and appropriating it to his own use, as
against the prior right of the Indian, in which he has been completely
successful ; and it would seem to ill become him now to turn around
and complain of the hard blows dealt him by the conquered party, in
the progress of his aggression, in resistance to his unwelcome invasion.
FORT DEARBOEN, (CHICAGO), IN 1833.
First built 1804. Destroyed by Indians 1812. Rebuilt 1816.
CHAPTER LIV.
THE ORDER OF RED MEN.
Society Formed at Philadelphia Before the American RevolutionA.dmirers of
Indian CharacterAdopting the Examples of Tammanend, a Delaware Chief
Sometimes Called TammanyCharacter of this Chief as Described by Hecke-

welderAccount of Preparation for MeetingMay 4, 1772, Old StyleAccount
of Meeting, Monday, May 11, 1772Toasts Drank at this MeetingPatriotic
Spirit of the SocietyYearly FestivalsFirst of May, Old Style, now May 12th
Members Marched in Procession Through the StreetsHats Adorned with
Bucks TailsThis Association the Origin of the Later Order of Red Men
Other Societies FormedIn New York under the Name of TammanyPlace of

Meeting called WigwamObject of Order of Red MenSocial, Fraternal and
BenevolentFounded on Customs, Traditions and History of the Aborigines
Three Phases of this OrganizationFirst, Prior to RevolutionSecond, from the

Time of Peace to War of 1812 -Third, from 1813 at Fort Mifflin to the Present
TimeName Improved Order of Red Men Adopted March 4, 1835Charter of
Great Council Granted by MarylandGreat Council of the United States
Organized March, 1847.
OTWITHSTANDING
the prejudices which
have existed against
the American Indian,
among people of our own
race, from the beginning of
his resistance to the intrud-
ing white man, we have had
among us since an early day,
a limited number of philan-
thropists who have recognized
and admired the true character of the Indian, and contended for
justice in his behalf.
Some years before the American Revolution, a society of citizens
was organized in Philadelphia, composed of admirers of Indian
character, adopting as an example in this regard that of a noted
chief of the Delaware tribe, named Tammanen or Tammanend, very
generally in after times called Tammany, said to mean in our language
"amiable" or "Beaverlike," and who was a leading chief of the
(657)
IN COUNCIL.
G58 THE AMERICAN INDIAN.
aforesaid tribe, called by themselves Lenni Lenape. He was present
among the other chiefs of his tribe at the famous treaty of William
Penn, at Shakamaxen, on the Delaware river, jus{ above the site
selected for Philadelphia, since called Kensington.
Mr. Heckewelder, the historian of this tribe, says of this chief,
that he was, in the highest degree, endowed with wisdom, virtue, charity,
meekness, hospitality; in short, with every good and noble qualifica-
tion "that a human being may possess
;"
that the fame of this great man,
at an early day, extended even among the whites, who fabricated numer-
ous legends concerning him, and his enthusiastic white admirers gave
him the title of saint, adopting him as the patron saint of America.
His name was inserted in some calendars in lieu of St. George, and
his festival was celebrated by this society, and his white admirers, on
the first day of May in every year, which was styled
"
St. Tammany
day."
In the Pennsylvania Chronicle, a newspaper published at Phila-
delphia before the American Revolution, issued Monday, May 4th,
1772, old style, a file of which paper is in possession of the author
of this work, is the following notice of this early American organiza-
tion :
"
On Friday, the 1st instant, a number of Americans, Sons of
King Tamany, met at the house of Mr. James Byrn, to celebrate the
memory of that truly noble chieftain whose friendship was most
affectionately manifest to the worthy founder and first settlers of this
province. After dinner the circulating glass was crowned with wishes,
loyal and patriotic, and the day concluded with much cheerfulness and
harmony. It is hoped from this small beginning a society may be
formed of great utility to the distressed, as this meeting was more for
the purpose of promoting charity and benevolence than mirth and
festivity."
In a subsequent number of the same paper, dated Monday, May
11th, 1772, continuing the subject, the following notice appears:
"
The following toasts were drank at Mr. Byrn's on the first
instant by the Sons of King Tamany:
1. The King and Eoyal Family.
2. The Proprietaries of Pennsylvania.
3. The Governor of Pennsylvania.
4. Prosperity to Pennsylvania.
5. The Navy and Army of Great Britain.
6. The pious and immortal memory of King Tamany.
7. Speedy relief to the injured Queen of Denmark.
8. Unanimity between Great Britain and her Colonies.
THE ORDER OF RED MEN. 659
9. Speedy repeal of all oppressive and unconstitutional acts.
10. May the Americans truly understand and faithfully defend
their constitutional rights.
11. More spirit to the councils of Great Britain.
12. The great philosopher, Dr. Franklin.
13. His Excellency Governor Franklin, and prosperity to the
province of New Jersey.
14. His Excellency Governor Tryon, and prosperity to the
province of New York.
15. The Honorable James Hamilton, Esq., late Governor of
Pennsylvania.
16. The Chief Justice of Pennsylvania.
17. The Speaker of the Honourable House of Assembly of
Pennsylvania.
18. The recorder of the city of Pennsylvania.
19. The pious and immortal memory of General Wolfe.
20. The Pennsylvania Farmer.
21. May the Sons of King Tamany, St. George, St. Andrew, St.
Patrick and St. David love each other as Brethren of one common
ancestor, and unite in their hearty endeavors to preserve the native
Constitutional American liberties."
At the word speaker in the foregoing toast, number 17, as printed
in said paper, is a star pointing to the following note, which is given
here as a curious incident in the proceedings, showing that some special
prejudice existed against the person referred to as speaker, but leaving
the reason therefor unexplained, to-wit:
''
This toast did not circulate. The kind genius that presides over
American freedom forbade it, and the Sons of King Tamany appeared
as averse to drink it as they would have been to swallow the Five Mile
Stone.*'
But the understanding is that the speaker of the house of assem-
bly of Pennsylvania, at that time, did not concur with the admirers of
St. Tammany in the move of separating the colonies from Great
Britain, as was then being agitated by the Sons of King Tammany.
According to usages of this society, as before remarked, a regular
festival was held on the first day of May, old style, being now the
12th. On that day the members of the society walked together in
procession through the streets of Philadelphia, their hats decorated
with bucks' tails, as a badge of their Indian admiration, and proceeded
to a handsome rural place out of town in the direction of the Schuylkill
river, which they called the wigwam, where, after a long talk or speech,
in the manner of Indian custom, had been delivered, and the pipe of
peace had been smoked, they spent the day in festivity and mirth.
After dinner, Indian dances, or dances after the Indian style, were
indulged in on the green in front of the wigwam ; the pipe of peace
was again smoked when the company separated.
This association* continued, in the form of its original organiza-
tion, for some years after peace between the colonies and Great Britain,
when the public spirited owner of the wigwam, who had generously
lent it every year for the honor of his favorite saint, having fallen
under misfortune, his property, with this building, called the wigwam,
was sold to satisfy the demands of his creditors, and this truly Ameri-
can festival ceased to be observed.
This is accepted as the origin of the present organization of the
Order of Red Men, now becoming so numerous throughout the United
States. After the discontinuance of the aforesaid organization, other
societies of like nature were formed in Philadelphia, New York, and
other towns in the Union, under the name of Tammany; but the object
of these associations soon drifted in the direction of partisan politics,
and lost much of the charm which was attached to the original society
of St. Tammany, established only for pleasure and innocent diversion.
But these latter societies endeavored to preserve Indian forms in their
organization and procedure in their meetings, their officers being desig-
nated by Indian titles, and their place of meeting being called a wig-
icam. Their distinguishing appellation always being the Tammany
society; only one of which is continued to the present day, existing in
New York city, being that powerful Tammany organization in that city,
wielding such an influence in local politics.
The Order of Bed Men of the present day, like that of the origi-
nal society before referred to, is a social, fraternal and benevolent
organization, founded upon the customs, traditions, and history of the
aborigines of this continent. Its primary object is to promote among
men the exercise and practice of the true principles of benevolence and
charity; the care and protection of the widow and orphan; and the
cultivation of friendly relations among mankind. It is purely Ameri-
can, as herein shown, and is the oldest protective and benevolent society
of American birth and growth. Its proceedings are secret, but only in
the sense that secrecy is proper; that is, as to those matters which
concern the private interests of a common family. In other words,
more properly speaking, it is not a secret society, but rather a society
having some secrets. Its organization, proceedings and mode of initi-
ating members are in imitation of native Indian customs, using Indian
terms for designating their officers and in conducting their ceremonies,
as before remarked.
The Order of Ked Men, in its history, may properly be classed
into three phases. The
first
phase was that period of the existence of
the original order as first organized at Philadelphia, some time prior to
the Revolution, as before related, which we are informed, however, was
but little more than a rehabilitation of the old time May day festivals,
which had been brought from the Old World by the early immigrants,
and which continued until some little time after the Declaration of In-
dependence. When the American Revolution, and final determination
of the people of the colonies for a separate government had been
reached, it was the commencement of the second phase; when it is said
these societies became intensely popular with the people, and their
anniversaries bade fair to excel the Fourth of July in popular esteem.
Under these auspices, says the historian of the Order of Red Men,
these societies were continued until a short time prior to the second
war of the United States with Great Britain, when Gen. Dearborn,
then Secretary of War, considering the convivial feature of these
societies, which had gradually grown to excess, to be demoralizing to
the soldiers, issued orders prohibiting them in the army, whereupon
the civic branches of the society commenced to languish and ceased to
exist.
The third phase in the existence of this order is claimed to have
commenced in the year 1813, at Fort Mifflin, on the Delaware river,
about four miles below Philadelphia, by an organization among the
volunteer soldiers from Philadelphia, called the "Junior Artillerists,"
who had entered the fort in the month of March of that year, duly
equipped to aid in its protection against the British forces.
It is aid that at that fort and from among those volunteers origi-
nated the society of Red Men. It is noticed, however, from the
information before us, that the society of Red Men formed at this time
was a semi-military organization. The circumstances surrounding its
organization would naturally tend in this direction. Whilst the charm
of the ideal native red man for his fidelity to his companion, and
enduring devotion to his tribe, became a feature of imitation in the
principles of this organization, yet the military forms of the white man,
in the practical workings of the society, were observed as a natural
consequence, instead of adopting those which pertained to the customs
of the native red man.
Their officers were known and took rank by military titles,
common in use in our own military organizations, as generalissimo, or
presiding chief of the tribe while in council, lieutenant general, major
general, brigadier general, colonel, lieutenant colonel, captain, lieuten-
ant, etc.
Much interest has been manifest, of late years, in regard to the
origin and history of the present organization of Red Men among our
race in this country. Its most important and interesting era, it woukl
seem, dates from the beginning of what is called the iliird phase of its
existence, of which we are now speaking ; and it seems a little singular
that the history of an order of men which has grown to the importance
that this has attained at the present day, should be so much involved
in doubt and obscurity.
It appears that an unbroken chain in the existence of the society
of Red Men, as formed at Fort Mifflin, before mentioned, continued
thereafter to exist in Pennsylvania and neighboring states, yearly
increasing in numbers and importance ; but with no particular effort
for concurrent action among the societies in general, until about the
year 1857. On the 21st day of October, 1857, a grand demonstration
of Red Men, including a public parade in full regalia, with banners
and other insignia appropriate to the order, took place at Lancaster,
in the state of Pennsylvania.
An accomplished member of the order, and a member of long
standing, of Virginia, was selected as the orator of the day, who, in
his address on the occasion, presented a history of the order as far as
he was able to do so, from the meager materials then at hand, from
which four distinct propositions were deducible ; first, that the society,
as then organized and existing, originated among the volunteers of
Fort Mifflin ; second, that it had been organized under the inspirations
of patriotism ; third, that the object it was designed to accomplish was
the disposition and promotion of harmony and good fellowship among
the members of the garrison; and, finally, that it accomplished its
purpose through the soothing influence of its fraternal machinery.
It is said that the spirit of inquiry, which had been already
aroused, was stimulated by the discourse of the orator on this occasion,
from which an increased determination was aroused among the mem-
bers of the order present to unravel the story of their society's obscure
and somewhat doubtful history. Whereupon, in the year
1860, the
great council of the United States Improved Order of Red Men, which
was held in Baltimore, in the month of September of that year, took
action to the end of collecting and preserving a complete history of
the order by adopting the following resolution:
*'That the Committee on the State of the Order report, during the
present session, 1st, the date of the Institution and Constitution of the
Order in the hunting-grounds of the Pale Faces; 2d, the date of the
Institution of the Great Council of the United States; 3d, such other
statistics of the Order as the Committee may deem pertinent."
THE ORDEK OF RED MEN. 1)63
Under this resolution a thorough investigation was made into the
subject, and much material was collected and reported to the Great
Council, forming the basis of subsequent inquiry, and which action,
it appears, led Mr. Morris H. Gorham, a member standing high in the
order, who was a member of the committee appointed to gather
information on the subject under the foregoing resolution, to pursue
inquiry into the subject; upon which he prepared a book entitled,
"
The History of the Improved Order of Ked Men, from its organiza-
tion at Fort Mifflin, G. S. 5573 (A. D.
1813), and its reorganization
at Philadelphia, G. S. 5576-77 (A. D. 1816-1817),^' which, with addi-
tions by William G. Hollis, after the death of Mr. Gorham, was pub-
lished in Philadelphia in 1884, containing much valuable information on
the subject of this order ; but yet, it must be confessed, it is far from
being clear and satisfactory as a connected history of its origin and
progress down to the date of that work.
This book, following the manifest notions of the Great Council
of Virginia in 1860, as its title indicates, assumes that the Order of
Red Men had its origin at Fort Mifflin, in 1813, whilst the apparent
fact is that the organization at Fort Mifflin was more properly what
may be termed the commencement of a ihird phase in the existence of
the Order of Red Men. In pursuing inquiry on this subject, we
should take a more general view of it. It is not mere forms that we
are searching for, but rather the pursuing of great principles which
first inspired or induced an organization of this kind, embodying the
cardinal points of friendship and fidelity, as understood to be embraced
and practiced in native Indian character, uncontaminated by the vices
of civilization, as has been well illustrated in the examples of the
native red man of North America.
In pursuing an inquiry upon this line, it is clear that the Order
of Red Men, or the idea of such an order, sprung from the original
Tammany Society, formed at Philadelphia, previous to the American
Revolution. Herein originated the idea of a society of this kind under the
character it adopted, which has prevailed and been kept in view through
the various phases of red men organizations down to the present day
of its embodiment in the present Order of Red Men in the United
States. But the present title and system of organization of this order
is of modern date, all of which has been perfected and matured in its
present form, as growth, circumstances and experience have seemed to
dictate or suggest, the whole forming a subject of interesting inquiry,
especially among those who have become members of the order.
It is said that, for some length of time prior to the organization
of the Order of Red Men of this day, there existed at Baltimore,
(]04 THE AMERICAN INDIAN.
Maryland, a lodge or society called Red Men. They had their wigwam
or place of meeting in the garret of a tavern, where they met once a
week, paid in their dues and initiated new members. After the busi-
ness of the meeting was finished, the remainder of the evening was
spent in singing, telling stories, making speeches, and in convivial
enjoyment, in which the old fashioned decanter figured largely. The
object of the society appeared to be only convivial entertainment.
Many who were induced to join the society withdrew as soon as they
found what its nature and objects were, whereby the organization in
time became dissolved. The convivial feature of the aforesaid organ-
ization seems to have been common to societies of this nature in early
days, but, as would appear, was becoming less popular at the time this
society became dissolved.
In those days, says Mr. Gorham, secret societies were somewhat
of a novelt}^, and could not so readily procure eligible places in which
to hold their meetings, as like societies can at the present day. The
fees from initiation and dues required of members were merely nomi-
nal, in comparison with the amounts now derived from like sources.
They could not, therefore, wêll afford to meet the higher charges for
rent and other necessary expenses incurred by societies in later times,
hence they were compelled to accept such economical accommodations
as circumstances afforded them; furthermore, it was a custom for
friendly societies to hold their meetings at public houses, in those
days commonly called taverns, where, in most cases, the host or land-
lord willingly furnished rooms for the purpose, in consideration of the
reckonings to be realized from the members at the bar. This was an
old English custom brought over by the earlier members of these
friendly societies.
The Order of Red Men, as now existing, seems to have taken on
its present form from circumstances commencing at, and following the
organization of the "Bed Men's society" tribe of Maryland, number
one, organized on the 12th of March, 1834. Early in the year 1835,
the members of this tribe, having in view the extension of its principles
beyond the jurisdiction of the state of Maryland, and its development
into a great social and benevolent order, according to the original
founders of the society of red men, took the necessary preliminary
steps towards "lengthening the chain of friendship," and establishing
a legislative or sovereign head, under which the machinery for the
accomplishment of their purpose might be put in operation.
To this end, delegates were chosen by the tribe and vested with
ample power, in the premises, for the accomplishment of the desired
object. " On the 20th day of the fifth moon, in the season of the
THE ORDEE OF RED MEN. 665
blossoms, 1835," these delegates met at Baltimore for consultation on
the subject committed to their charge. At a subsequent meeting, an
election was held, at which, we are informed, officers were elected as
follows: Grand Sachem, Grand Senior Sagamore, Grand Junior
Sagamore, Grand Prophet, Grand Scribe, Grand Chief of Wampum,
and Grand Guard of the Wigwam.
It seems that, at this time, the position of Grand Prophet was not
regarded with the consideration and importance which it has since
attained, but was one of subordinate significance. It is also noticed
that, whilst the old custom of conferring society names was recognized,
the old military title formerly applied to officers became now for the
first time abandoned, and the more consistent and appropriate Indian
titles adopted in their stead, still continuing at the present time.
The second meeting of the Grand Council was held at the place
of first meeting, on the 25th of May, 1835, when the members began
to concern themselves as to their authority. The old tribe at Phila-
delphia, it appears, had ceased to exist, and its mantle might have
been assumed to have fallen, with all its authority growing out of pri-
ority of origin and possession of the original work and "landmarks"
of redmanship, upon the revived system in Baltimore. But one
branch of the old society, at least, continued working at Beading, in
Pennsylvania, under the original "grant of power" it had received
from "the mother tribe" at Philadelphia, and which is considered
quite as legitimate as the Baltimore society.
Mr. Gorham declares that, in the exercise of sovereign authority,
beyond the jurisdiction of Maryland, it would have been but courteous
to have consulted the tribe at Reading, but the change, if not the
re-organization, appears to have been perfected without regard to, or
apparent knowledge of, the existence of a society elsewhere ; and on
the 25th day of May, 1835, at the Great Council before mentioned, a
resolution was adopted, providing for the punishment of brothers who
might attempt to get up a spurious council. To what extent, if any,
resistance was made by the brethren of Pennsylvania, to the assump-
tion of authority by the brethren of Maryland, does not appear.
Mr. Gorham concurs that the assumption of supreme authority in
Maryland was legitimate, and not challenged by the older tribe in
Pennsylvania, which existed as late as the year 1850; and, thereby
being tacitly acquiesced in by the latter, it became the legal successor
of the mother tribe at Philadelphia, and its authority has been
acknowledged by the order ever since.
The convivial feature which had attached to this order in the early
days of its existence, as before mentioned, having given rise to preju-
I
GOO
dices against it, to a considerable extent, in the minds of the citizens
in the community, the question as to the propriety of changing the
name or title of the order arose, to the end that the association of the
name witli the offensive practices complained of operating much to
impede the progress of the order might cease. This led the members
to reflect upon the situation and consider what was best to do to over-
come this prejudice. It was proposed by one to drop the name Red
Men altogether and substitute Aborigines; but one brother, prominent
in the order, having an impediment in his speech, objected because he
said he "could never pronounce that word." The name "Order of
Improved Red Men" was then proposed and adopted; but another
brother, prominent in the order, did not like the name in this form, as
he objected to having the qualifying power of the word Improved
placed in connection with the term Red Men, and, at the next council,
moved to reconsider the former action by which it wâs adopted, and
to transpose the words so that the name should read Improved Order
of
Red Men; but this was opposed for some trifling reason of personal
prejudice against the member who moved to reconsider, and it was not
adopted.
It was at length resolved to apply to the legislature for an act of
incorporation for the Grand Council of Maryland, and the member who
had moved the aforesaid change of name was selected to prepare and
have printed the petitions for the purpose. Through this, availing
himself of the authority thus given him, the petitions presented to the
legislature asked for a charter constituting an organization to be called
"Improved Order of Red Men," whereupon the legislature granted a
charter to the "Great Council of Maryland, Improved Order of Red
Men," on the 14th day of March, A. D. 1835, and from this, it appears,
comes the present organization of Improved Order of Red Men, which is
spread over the country in its present form. By this act of incorpora-
tion, not only was the title of the order changed, but other important
changes were made; thus the term "Grand," which had been used as
a qualifying prefix to the council and superior chiefs, was abolished,
and the term Greed adopted instead, as being more truly expressive of
the sense of the term used by the North American Indians for such
purposes, for it must be understood that the Indian has no term in his
language corresponding to our word Grand as distinguished from the
word Great. The society names which, under the old custom, had been
conferred upon the members at their adoption, gradually fell into dis-
use, and a settled policy to follow simpler forms, by retaining Indian
nomenclature and customs, so far as practicable, was determined upon.
The order being thus re-established, under authority of law, com-
menced to increase in numbers and importance, when, in 1845, it had
arrived at that point when the subject of organizing a Great Council of
the United States was taken into consideration by the Subordinate
Councils, whereupon measures were adopted towards accomplishing
that object. Delegates were chosen who met at Baltimore in March,
1847, at which a Great Council of the United States was duly organized,
by the election of officers for the term of one year next ensuing. The
officers provided were the Great Sachem Incohonee, Great Senior
Sagimore, Great Prophet, Great Keeper of Kecords, Great Keeper of
Wampum, Great Tocakon, Great Minewa.
At this convention, it would seem, delegates were present only
from the state of Maryland and District of Columbia, since which, the
growth of the order has been such, that there are now Subordinate
Councils in nearly every state and territory of the United States, and
the order has extended its organization into Canada.
Aside from the organization of the Improved Order of Red Men,
there are independent organizations of Red Men throughout the
country not under the jurisdiction of the Great Council of Improved
Order of Red Men of the United States, but who derive their origin
from the same source or circumstances.
CHAPTEK LV.
VOCABULARIES.
Indian DialectsOjibwayDakotaComanche
Miami
MenomineeShawnee
OneidaOnondagaBlackfeet
Tuscarora
Mohawk
Cayuga
Muscogee
ZuniDelawareMandanArapahoeSheyenneOsageNootkianCompari-
son of DialectsComparison of PronounsWords and PhrasesCatalogue of
Trees and PlantsCatalogue of Animals.
I
WHIS chapter is devoted to
^^
i words and phrases in vari-
/wt"
ous Indian dialects of
^'^
tribes of North America.
The object of it is, first, to
give such information in this
regard on this subject, in gen-
eral, as the limited space allotted
to a chapter in this work will
admit; and, second, to show,
by comparison, the difference
existing between the dialects in use by the several tribes men-
tioned.
The phrases which are given are from the Algonquin language,
Ojibway dialect, and will serve to show% to some extent, the manner of
forming sentences in this language, which, indeed, is much the same
as that of all other languages of the various linguistic groups of the
continent.
The Indians having no written language, as we express it, the
orthography, adopted in the use of our letters, varies according to the
notion of each writer, the object of writers, in general, in the use of
our letters applied to Indian languages, being, as will be observed by
those who have given this subject attention, to adopt such mode of
spelling or putting letters together to form words as will convey to
the mind an accurate idea of the sounds.
(668)
VOCABULARIES. d69
GENERAL VOCABULARY OF WORDS IN VARIOUS INDIAN DIALECTS.
English. Ojihway. Dakota. Comanche
God,
Gitchemanito, Wakantanka, Tahapee.
Devil, Matchemanito, Wakansica,
Man, Innine, Wicasta, Tooavishchee.
Woman, Equa, Winohinca, Wyapee.
Boy, Quewesance, Hoksidan, Tooanickpee.
Girl or maid, Equasance, Wiciuyanna, Wyapeechee.
Child, Aubenoozhe, Koksiyokopa, Tooachee.

Father, Nosa, Ate, Nerakpee.
Mother, Neingga, Ina, Nerbeeah.
Husband, Nenaubame, Hihna; Hinaku, Nercomakpee.
Wife, Nemindemoamish, Tawicu, Nerquer.
Son, Ninggwis, Cinksi, Nertooah.
Daughter, Nindauniss, Cunksi, Nerpatah.
Brother, Necauniss, Cinye, Nertama,
Sister, Nedongwa, Tawinohtin, Nerpachee.
An Indian, Uhnishenauba, Ikeewicasta, Ahtahwitchee.
White man. Wongaubeskewade, Skawicasta, Toshoptyvoo.
Head, Osteggwan, Itancan, Paaph,
Hair, Wenesis, Hin, Parpee.
Face, Tainkhong, Ite; Itoye; Itohnake, Koveh.
Eye, Skeinzhick, Ista, Nachich.
Nose, Jshaus, Poge, Moopee.
Hand, Winge, Nape, Mowa.
Finger, Webenauquanoning, Napsukaza, Mowa.
Town, Odanogh, Otonwe, Kanuke.
Lodge, Wegewaum, Wakeya or Tipe, Kanlike.
Chief, Ogemau, Wicastayatapi, Taquinewaph.
Warrior, Gitehedau, Akicita, Tooavitche.
Friend, Nitchee, Koda; Kicuwa, Haartch.
Kettle, Akick, Cega; Cegahuha-
tonwa,
Witwa.
Arrow, Ussowwaun, Wanhinkpe, Paark.
Bow, Metigwaub, Itazipa, Hoaate.
War club, Paugaumaugan, Canhpi.
Gun, Paukishegun, Mazakan, Peiate.
Knife, Mocomaun, Isau; Minna, Weith.
Shoe, Maukeesin, Canhanpa, Maape.
Legging, Metoss, Hunska. Koosha.
Blanket, Wabewyan, Sina.
Pipe, Opawgun, Cotanka; Cansuhupa, Toish.
Wampum, Megis, Wamnuhadan, Tshenip.
Tobacco, Ussamau, Candi, Pahamo.
Sky, Gezick, Mahpiyato.
Heaven, Ishpeming, Mahpiya.
Sun, Gesisgezicke (day
sun),
Anpetuwi, Taharp.
Moon, Gesistebick (night
sun),
Unung,
Hanyetuwi, Mush.
Star, Wicanhpi, Taarch.
Day, Geshegud, Anpetu, Taharp.
Night, Tebickud, Hanyetu, Tookana,
Light, Wassaau, Izanzan.
Morning, Geheshabe, Hanhanna, Puaarthca.
Evening, Onangwishee, Htayetu, Yurhumma.
Early, Baugaug, Kohanna.
Late, Ishpe, Tehanhisni.
Spring, Zegwon, Wetu.e, Taneharro.
Summer, Nebin,
-
Mdoketu, Taarah.
Autumn, Taugwawgee, Ptanyetu, Yerwane.
Winter,
,
Pebone, Waniyetu, Tohante.
Year, Kenonowin, Omaka.
Fire, Ishcoda, Peta, Koona.
Water, Nebee,
Mini, Pahar.
Earth, Ahkee,
Maka.
{
070
English,
Lake,
River,
Stream,
Potato,
Pigeon,
Robin,
Cow,
Horse,
English.
God,
Devil,
Man,
Woman,
Boy,
Girl or maid,
Infant or child,
Father, my,
Mother, my,
Husband, my,
Wife, my,
Son, my,
Daughter, my,
Brother, my
Sister, my,
An Indian,
White man,
Town,
House,
Door,
Chief,
Warrior,
Friend,
Arrow,
Bow,
Gun,
Shoe,
Legging,
Pipe,
Tobacco,
Sky,
Heaven,
Sun,
Moon,
Star,
Day,
Night,
Light,
Morning,
Evening,
Early,
Spring,
Summer,
Autumn,
Winter,
Year,
Wind,
Lightning,
Rain,
Potato,
Melon,
Beaver,
She,
They,
'4i-
Ojihway.
Sagieegun,
Seebee,
Seebeeweesaine,
Opin,
Omeme,
Opitche,
Equapeshekee,
Papashegogunshee,
Miami.
Kasheheweah,
Machamanato,
Laneahkea,
Metaimsah,
Kwewasah,
Kwananswah,
Pelosau,
Nosaw,
Ningea,
Nanawpamah,
Newewah,
Nengwesah,
Netawnah,
Nesawsah,
Nemesah,
Ownzawwelokea,
Shemalsan,
Menotene,
Wekeawme,
Kwawntame,
Kemawh,
Mamekawkea,
Nekawno,
Wepema,
Nateawpemaw,
Pekwune,
Kesene,
Tawsama,
Pwawkawnaw,
Saaraaw,
Keshekweeah,
Pamingeah,
Keelswaw,
Pekondakeel
Longwawh,
Kawkekwa,
Pekondawe,
Osakewe,
Siepowwe,
Lankwekea,
Siepowwa,
Nepenowe,
Malokawmawe,
Takawkewe,
Peponwe,
Ngotapeponab,
Samthainwe,
Popondawah,
Petelonwe,
Panaw,
Aketawmingeab,
Mahkwaw,
Enaw,
Weelwaw,
Dakota.
Mde; Mdedana.
Wakpa; Watpa,
Kaduza.
Mdo.
Wakiyedan.
Sisoka.
Ptewanunyanpi,
Saktanka,
Menominee.
Keshamonayto,
Machayawaytok,
Enainniew
Metamo,
Ahpayneesha,
Kaykaw,
Necheon,
Nonhnamh,
Nekeah,
Nenanhpeon,
Nayon,
Nekeish,
Maytawn,
Nainhnainh,
Nekoshaymanh,
Mahmanchaytowe,
Wayweahquonett,
Meneekon,
Comanche.
Honope.
Pemoro.
Teheyar.
Shaivneeo
Tapalamawatah.
Mahcheemuneto.
Eelenee.
Eekwaiwah.
Skeelahwaitheetah.
Skwaithathah.
Ahpelothah.
Nothah.
Neekeyah.
Waiseeyah.
Neewah.
Neekweethah.
Neetahnathah.
Nthathah.
Nemeethah.
Lenahwai.
Tukoseeyah.
Otaiwai.
f
OwayahquonaywaickWeekeewah.
Ishquotem,
Ohkaymowe,
Nainhnowwaytowe,
Naymut,
Maip,
Mainhtoquoop,
Poshkecheshekon,
Shkwahta.
Okeemah.
Nanahta.
Neekahnah.
Lanahlwe.
Eelawahkwee.
M'takwah.
Mahtekmehkahshee, Neemheekwahthowa*
Meteeshshon,
Fainhnaywahwoh'
kah,
Nainhnaymowe,
Kayshaick,
Kayshahmonnayto
waick,
Kayshoh,
Taypainkahshoh,
Ohnanhkock,
Kayshaykots,
Wahneto paykon,
Wahshenahquot,
Meep,
Nainhkaw,
Ishpaintainwick,
Sheequon,
Naypen,
Tahquoahquoawe,
Painhpoh,
Nequotokommeck,
Nohwahnen,
Wahwahnahwen,
Kemaywon,
Ohpancock,
Oshkemaykwon
,
Nahmin,
Aynanh,
Wanonanh,
Mutatah.
Kwahgah.
Kthaimah.
Menkwatwee.
Menkwatokee.
Keesahthwah.
Tupexkeekeethwah.
Ahlahkwah.
Keesakee.
Tupexkee.
Wahthayah.
Kwalahwahpahlee.
Walahkweekee.
Kolahwahpanwee.
Mulokumee.
Pelahwee.
Tukwahkee.
Peponewee.
Kuto.
Meeseekkukee.
Papukee.
Keemweewonwee.
Meeahseethah.
Yeskeetahmaikee.
Amexkwah.
Weelah,
Weelahwah.
VOCABULARIES. 671
English. Miami. Menominee. Shawnee.
White, Wawpeke, Wahpishkiew, Waxkanahkyah.
Black, Mahkottawehawko-
ke,
Nawkawnenawkot-
twe,
Wahkeneketaw,
Ahpeshew, Mukutaiwah.
Old, Keeshkeen, Kyaitah.
Young, Washkeneeneek
,
Oskee.
Pigeon, Mameah, Meme, Pahweethah.
Duck, Topawseawke, Shayshep, Seeseebah.
Fly, Ocheaw, Ohcheeu, Ocha.
Bird, Wissewesaw, Waishkaynonh, Wiskeelothah;
Wolf, Whawawk, Manhwawe, M'waiwah.
Dog, Lamwah, Ahnaim, Wissee.
Horse, Nakatakawshaw, Payshekokoshew, M'shaiwai.
Cow, Lanonzwaw, Peshainkiewohkoo, M'thothwah.
English. Oneida. Onondaga. Blackfeet.
God, Lonee, Hawaneuh, Kinnan.
Devil, Onishuhlonuh, Onishonknainnuk,
Man, Longwee, Haingwee, Matape.
Woman, YoHgwee, Wathoonwixsus, Aquie.
Boy, Laktsahyeksah, Huxsaha, Sacomape.
Girl or maid, Laktsahyeksah, Ixesaha, Aqueconan.
Father, my, Lakeneeha, Knehah, Kinnan.
Mother, my. Akhanolha, Uknohah, Nochrist.
Husband, my, Lona, Haiwnah, Couma.
Wife, my. Tehnedlon, Tehnetaiw, wife, Nitokeman.
Son, my, Loyanah, his. Hohawa, his. Nocouse.
Daughter, my. Sagoyeh, his, 8agohawa, his, Naquecouan.
Brother, my, Tehaihdanondal, Taiakeadanonda, Ninogpopi.
An Indian, Ongwahonwe, Ungwahongwa, Sicsicou.
House, Kanusuda, Kunosaia, Napiouyis.
Lodge, Yagoduskwahele, Wuskwaka, Mouyesi.
Chief, Loainil, Hohsenowahn, Nina.
Friend, Hunadanlu, Untshee, Nappe.
Enemy, Aeleeska, Kihuniagwasa, Cajteraena.
Kettle, Oondak, Kuuatia, Iska.
Arrow, Kiowilla, Kahaiska, Abses.
Bow, Hauhnu, Ahainda, Namma.
War-club, Yunleohtaquagan-
hiuh.
Kajeehkwa, Maniquapecacsaque.
Spear, Hoshagweh, Ajudishtah, Sapapistats.
Knife, Hashale, Hasha, Stouan.
Boat, Kahoonweia, Kuneaetah, Ojquieojsacs.
Shoe, Aghta, Atahkwa, Atsikin.
Legging, Kalis, Kais, Atsics.
Pipe, Konanawuh, Kononawehta, Tacoueniman.
Tobacco, Kalonia, Oyaikwa, Pistacan.
Sky, Kakonia, Kaaiwia,
Heaven, Kokonhiagee, Kaaiwiaga,
Sun, Wohneda, Anikha, Natos.
Moon, Wohneda, Assoheka, Natoscoucoui.
Star, Yugistokwa, Ojistanahkwa, Cacatos.
Day, Kwondagi, Wundada, Apinacoush.
Night, Kwasundegi, Ahsohwa, Coucoui.
Light, Wanda, Teohahiaih, Ghistocouiapinacoush
Darkness, Tedhugallas, Teokaus, Christicouicoucoui.
Morning, Ostihtshee, Haigahtsheek, Apinacoush.
Evening, Ugallosnih; Ogaisah, Coucoui.
Spring, Kungwedadeh, Kugwedehkee,
Summer, Gwagunhage, Kugenhagee,
Autumn, Rununagih, Kununahkee, Stouie.
Winter, Rohslagih, Kohsahgih, Stouie.
Wind, Uwelondo, Oah, Soupoui.
Thunder, Gasagiunda, Kawundotate, Christocoom.
Bain, Okanolahseeh, Oshta, Ogquie.
Snow, Oneahta, Okah, Poutand.
672 THE AMERICAN INDIA.N.
English. Oneida. Onondaga.
Blaekfeet.
1
Fire, Adjistah, Odjistah, Sti.
>
Water, Ohuagonnoos, Ohnagonoos, Ocquie.
t
Ice, Hoowissee, Oweesoo, Ocotosco.
Earth, Ogwunjeah, Owhainjeah, Otscouye.
Lake, Kaneadalahk, Kuneada, Omacsiquimi,
Elver, Kehoadadee, Kiuadadee, Nehetatan.
Maize, or corn, Omust, Onahah, Bescatte.
k
Wheat,
Onadia,
1
Potato,
Ohnunnaht, Onunuhkwa,
1
Tree,
Kelheet, Kaiunta, Mistis.
1
T>og, Ailhol, Tshechba, Imite. f'
Pigeon, Oleek, Tshuha, f
Partridge, Okwais, Oneagiehe,
f
White, Owiska, Owikaishta, Chriscouie.
Black, Aswaht, Osuntah, Sicsinatsi.
1
Cold, Yathola, Wthowe, Stouye.
To-day, Kawanada, Anouk.
'
Sour, Yayoyogis, Otshewaga,
1
Sweet, Yaweko, Winiwaindah, Napini.
English.
Tuscarora, Mohawk. Cayuga,
r
God, Yawuhnneyuh, Niyoh, Niyoh.
i
Devil, Onnasaroonuh, Onesohrono, Onesoono.
Man, Ehnkweh, Eongwe, Najina.
Woman, Hahwuhnnuh, Yongwe, Konheghtie.
1
Boy, Kunchukweh'r, Eaxaa, Aksaa.
'
Girl, Yateahchayeuh, Kaxaa, Exaa.
'
',
Child, Katsah, Exaa, Exaa.
Father, my. Eahkreehn, Eakeniha, Ihani.
*!
Mother, my, Eanuh, Isteha, Iknoha.
An Indian, Eeuhkwehhehnweh,, Ongwehowe, Ongwehowe.
House, Yahkeuhnunh, Kanosa, Kanosoid.
ii
Door, Oochahreh, Kanhoha, Kanhoha.
V i
1
Lodge, Wahk'tahnahyeuh-
noh'gh.
Teyetasta, Teyetasta.
Chief, Yakoowahnunh, Eakowana, Aghseahewane.
Warrior, BooskeuhrahkehrehL, Eoskeahragehte, Osgeagehta.
*
Friend, Enhnunhrooh, Atearosera, Aterotsera.
J*
Enemy, Yeuhchunht'seh, Shagoswdase, Ondateswaes.
Kettle, Oomunhweh, Onta, Kanadsia. ''
ll
Arrow, Ooteh, Kayonkwere, Kanoh.
\l
Bow, Nahchreh, Aeana, Adota.
War club. Oochekweh, Yeanteriyohtakan-
yob.
Kajihwaodriohta.
il
Spear, Churets, Aghsikwe, Kaghsigwa.
M ;
Ax, Nokeuh, Aghsikwe, Atokea.
1
Knife, Oosahkeuhneh, Asare, Kainatra.
i
Boat, Oohunhweh, Kahoweya, Kaowa.
Shoe, Oochekoora, Aghta, Ataghkwa.
h
4
Legging, Oorestreh, Karis, Kaisra.
I'--'..
Pipe, Chah'rshoohstoh. Kanonawea, Atsiokwaghta.
Tobacco, Chah'rshooh, Oyeangwa, Oyeangwa.
Sky, Oorenhyah'rs, Otshata, Otshata.
Heaven, Ooreuhya hkeuhf
,
Karonghyage, Kaohyage.
Sun, Heteh, Karaghkwa, Kaaghkwa.
Moon,
Aht'seuhyehah, Eghnita, Soheghkakaaghkwa.
Star,
Oonesenhreh, Ogiktok, Ojishonda.
Dav,
Awunhneh, Eghnisera, Onistrate.
Light,
Yuhooks, Teyoswathe, Teyohate.
Darkness,
Yahwehtoahyeuh, Tyokaras, Tiyotasontage.
Morning,
Tsooteh'rhunh, Ohrhonkene, Sedetsiha.
Evening,
Yahtsat'henhhah, Yokoraskha, Okaasa.
Spring,
Wah'rwoohstroh'gh, Keankwetene, Kagwetijiha.
Summer,
Ookenhhohkeh, Akeanhage, Kakenhage.
Autumn,
Eoht'sehkeh, Kanonage, Kananagene.
Winter,
Koohsehr'heuh, Koghserage, Kohsreghne.
VOCABULARIES. 673
English. Tuscai'ora. Mohawk. Cayuga.
Wind, Ooreh, Owera, Kawaondes.
Thunder, Henunh, Kaweras, Kaweanotatias.
Rain, Wanetoo'eh, Yokeanorough, Ostaondion.
Snow, Ooneetsreh, Oniyehte, Onieye.
Fire, Oochereh, Yotekha, Ojista.
Water, Ahwunk, Oughnekanos, Onikauos.
Ice, Ooweseh, Oise, Oitre.
Earth, land, Ahwunhreh, Owhensia, Oeanja.
Lake, Hahnyahtareh, Kanyatare, Kanyataeni. .
River, Kenunh, Kaihoghha, Kihade.
Mountain, Yununhyeuhtih, Yonontekowa, Oiiontowanea.
Meat, Wahreh, Owarough, Owahon.
Dog, Chee'sr, Ehrhar, Shaos.
She, Ayanuehteh, Aonha, Kaoha.
We, Eahkwahyasunkteh, Onkyoha, Onoha.
You, Thwahyasunkteh, Jiyoha, Johha.
English. Muscogee, or Creek Zuni. Delaware.
God, Heesahkeetamissee, Poshaiankee, Welsheetmunet.
Man, Istee, Oatsee, Leno.
Woman, Hoktee, Okeeah, Xquai.
Boy, Cheepahnosee, Ahktsahkee, Peelahachick.
Girl, Hoktoochee, Keeahtsahkee, Xquaichick.
Infant, Istochee, Weehah, Meemuns.
Father, Chalkee, Tahcho, Nox.
Mother, Chatskee, Tseetah, Ngaxais.
Husband, Chahee, Homoeeyahmahshee, Neetilose.
Wife, Chahaiwah, Homoeeai, Nuxahoshum.
Son, Chapootsee, Homochahwee, Ngwees.
Daughter, Chachastee, Homochahahlee, Ndahnes.
Brother, Chathlaha, Pahpah, Nuxans.
An Indian, Isteetsahtsee, Hoeetai. Ahwainhukai.
White man, Isteehatkee, Ahkohonnah, Shuwununk.
Head, Ekah, Oshoquinnee, Weel.
Face, Tothlofah, Nopominee, Wushkingwh.
Ear, Hatsko, Lahjotinnee, Whitahwuk.
Eye, Tothlwah, Tonahwee, Wushkingwh.
Nose, Yupo, Nohahhunee, Wheekee eyun.
Mouth, Chokwah, Ahwahtinnee, Whdone.
Hand, Inkee, or Ingkee, Ahseekatso, Noxk.
Finger, Inkeeweesahka, AbseeailahpalttonnaiTellundge.
Breast, Hokpee, Pohahtannee, Xtolhahe.
Body, Enah, Klooninnee, Okkahe.
Heart, Faykee, Eekaiainannai, Whtai.
Town, Talofa, Klooahlahwai, Otainahe.
House, Chokko, Tchahquinnee, Weekwam,
Door, Ahowkee, Clemmahteenee, Skondehe.
Chief, Mikko, (king) Paiaieenahquai, Sahkeemah.
Friend, Hissee, Keeheh, Neetees.
Arrow, Chlee, Shoailai, Neep.
Ax, Pochoswah, Kee eelai, Tumahheegan.
Flint, Chlonoto, Ahcheeahtaiatlah
,
Mahxlus.
Boat, Pithlo, Klailonnee, Muxhol.
Shoe, Isteleepikah, Moquahwee. Shuwunuxoksun.
Pipe, Heecheepokwah, Taipokleenannai, Opahokun.
Wampum, Lonuphatkee, (beads Haipeequinnai, Kaikwh.
white).
Tobacco, Heechee, Annah, Koshahtahe.
Sky, Sotah.
Ahpoyannai, Kumokwh.
Sun, Hassee, Yahtokeeah, Keeshkoneekeesho
xkwh.
Moon, Hassee, Yahonannai, Peeskawaneekee-
shoxhwh.
Star, Kotsotsumpa, Moyahchoowai, Allangwh.
Day, Nittah, Yahto, Keeshko.
Night, Nithlee,
Tafleeahkeeah, Peeskaik.
43
English, Muscogee, or Creelc. Zuni. Delaivare.
Morning, Hathayatkee, Eecheeteh, Allahpahwunee e.
Evening, Yahfkee, Soonnahkeeah, Loquonee e.
Spring, Tasahtsee, Tehlahquaikeeah, Seekong.
Summer, Miskee, Oloeekeeah, Neeping.
Autumn, Thlafohaks, Ahmeeashneekeeah
,
Tahkoxko.
Winter, Thlafo, Taiahtsinnah, Lowungu.
Year, Miskee, Taipeequaikeeah, Kaiting.
Wind, Hotallee, Ooltokeeah, Kaishxing.
Thunder, Tinitkee, Coollolonnannai, Paithukowh.
Rain, Oskee, Lonahwai, Sookelang.
Fire, Totka, or Tatekah, Mahkeeai, Tundahe.
Earth, Ekana, Ahwaikailinnai, Hukee.
Lake, Okhassee, Eechahtolokeeah, Mnupaikwh.
Island, Otee, Hekettoyai, Munahtahe.
Potato, Ahhah, Chahpeemowai, Oppunees.
Tree, Eto, Tahkoleepotee, Hittokew.
Beaver, Etshasswah, Peehah, Tumahkwa.
Dog, Efah, Wahtseetah, Mowaikunna.
Fish, Thlathlo, Keeashsetah, Numaiis.
White, Hatkee, Kohannah, Oppai.
Black, Lustee, Quinnah, Sukai.
To-day, Muchanitta, Laheekee, Yoogwaikeeshkweek.
To-morrow, Poksee, Taiwahnee, Alluppah.
Yesterday, Poksangee, Teshsooquah, Lahkowai.
English, Mandan. Arapahoe. Sheyenne,
God, Umahagnumagshi, Eschbahneyahthar, Aamahveho.
Man, Numankosh, Ananetah, Hatan.
Woman, Mihe, Issee, Haeo.
Boy, Subnumankosh, Anorhoye, Kikuna.
Infant or child, Subyamahe, Wonchincheehaes-
sah,
Nasonnah,
Machevote.
Father, my, Subyomahe, Neoee.
Mother, my. Nahe, Nanah, Nahcoee.
Husband, my, Kobaro, Nash, Nah.
Wife, my, Kuns (my wife
muns),
Nertersheeah, Nahstchim
Son, my. Kornikosh, Naah, Nah.
Daughter, my, Nuhankosh, Nahtahnnah, Nahtch.
Brother, my. Hoshimka, Nasisthsah, Nahsimmahkah,
Sister, my, Hoshimka, Naecahtaeeah, Nissishaeo.
An Indian, Numahakake, Eneneetah, Voistanah.
A white man, Wuashi, Neeyahthar, Veaho.
Pipe, Thinke, Achah, Haeyoke.
Tobacco, Manashe, Sheeshahwah, Sinnamon.
War club. Mikasgesh, Annathkahthar, Wopeto.
Gun, Watasherupa, Kerkereeah, Mietano.
Bow, Warairupa, Baheetah, Mahteka.
Legging, Hushi, Wottahah, Mahtuts.
Spring, Cehenude, Bonneeahwanaee, Mahtchseomeve*
Summer, Raskeke, Vaneecha, Meameve.
Autumn, Pitande, Tahunee, Otonnoeve.
Winter, Maana, Charcheeneenee, Ahaameve.
Morning, Mapsita, Naukah, Meahvone.
Evening, Istundehosh, Eetherah, Atoive.
Tree, Manaininge, Hahhouit, Hoest.
Wood, Mana, Vahconnaistana, Mahxt.
Pine,
Manayopeni, Sas, Shistoto.
Oak,
Manaitahu, Hahancha, Ormshe.
Ash,
Tabsa, Haescheebis, Motoke.
Elm,
Warauit, Beeit, Game
Grass,
Hantoy, Wahcooee, Moist.
Bread,
Wapabshi, Chauchah, Cococonnah.
Meat,
Maaskape, Ahoo, Onnovote.
Dog, Maniserute, Ath, Otam.
I
VOCABULARIES. 675
English. Mandan. Arapahoe. Sheyenne.
Horse, Umpamaniyse (looli
like an elk).
[s Awourkerah, Moiunahham.
Fire, Warade, Isshittah, Oesth.
Water, Mine, Nutch, Mahpa.
Earth, Mahanke, Betowah, Hoa.
Lake, Memniyte, Ahwhattat, Haahne.
River, Passanhe, Necheeah, Oha.
Knife, Mahi, Wharher, Muteka.
Boat, Minake, Thaaeewun, Si mon.
Friend, Manuka, Naterhaah, Hoah.
Chief, Numahagshi, Nahchah, Veonnabe.
Warrior, Kahrokanarehosh. Nutteekunneennah, Veutchhaton.
Town, Miti, Haeetan, Motah.
House, Oti (lodge), Neroowah, Mahveahn.
Sky, Yareoto, Onnah, Voha.
Sun, Mapsiminake, Neesheeish, Isshe.
Moon, Istuminake, Beecosheeish, Tahisshee.
Star, Ykeke, Ahthah, Otoke.
Day, Hampe, Eeshee, Navone.
Night, Istu, Tutchah, Tab.
Hand, Unkeh, Mahcheiun, Maharts.
Finger, Unkirihe, Nishstee, Moich.
Face, Ista, Nerhoreteh, Neschin.
White, Shotte, Nonnorchah, Vocummi.
Black, Psih, Wattareyah, Moketahvo.
Red, Zeh, Bahhah, Mahi, or Mi.
Old, Yihosh, Vatauhkanin, Mahalikis.
Young, Yamahosh, Wonnornee, Monah.
Bad, Yiggosh, Wahsor, Abseevah.
Good, Shish, Eesettee, Pahwah.
Handsome, Shinashosh, Yoyeethasee, Paivewah.
Cold, Shinihush, Norkorsah, Atonuit.
English. Osage. English. Nootkian.
Pipe, Nonebaugh. Man, Check-up.
Tobacco, Noneheugh. Woman, Klootzmah.
Pouch, Noneusheugh. Father, Noowexa.
Knife, Mohee. Mother, Hooma-hexa.
Shirt, Haaskah. Child, Tanassis.
Tomahawk, Mohispeh. Brother, Katlahtik.
Moccasins, Hompech. Sister, Kloot-chem-up.
Legging, Hendingeh. Daughter, Tanissis-kloots-mah
Arm band, Mosescah. Head, Tauhat-se-tee.
Paint, Wasseuge. Eyes, Kassee.
Beads, Wanepehomgreche. Hair, Hap-se-up.
Hat, Ograngesheah. Nose, Naetsa.
Gun, Wahotah. Ears, Parpee.
Powder, Neebheujeb. Hands, Kook-a-nik-sa.
Ball, Mosemoh. Sun or moon. Oophelth.
Flint, Mobeseuh. Stars, Tar-toose.
'
Water, Ocurachera. Sky, Sie-yah.
;
Fire, Pe-eche-he. Water, Toop-elth.
;
Rum, Pegene. Rain, Meetla.
1 Dog, Shonng-eh. House, Muk-ka-tee.
Wampum, Wanaingreche. No, Wik.
Head, Werechree. Yes, He-ho.
! Hair, Poheugh, Mountain or hill. Noot-chee.
1
Eye, Ishtah.

Earth, Klat-tur-mifs.
Teeth, Heeb. Iron, Sick-a-miny.
Ear, Nottah. Fruit, Cham-mass.
Hand, Nompeeb. Smoke, Quish-ar.
Feet, Seeh. How many. Oo-nah.
Bear, Wasaben. I understand. Kom-me-tak.
i
How do you do, Hah, cou, rah. To laugh, Kle-whar.
iuC) THE AMERICAN INDIAN.
SHORT VOCABULARY, SHOWING COMPARISON OF WORDS IN THE DIALECTS OF SOME OF
THE NEW ENGLAND TRIBES OF THE ALGONQUIN GROUP.
English. Massachusetts. Narragansett. Mohegan.
Man, Wosketomp, Nnin, Neemanaoo.
Woman, Miitamwosses, Squaws, P'ghainoom.
Ear, Wehtauog, Wuttouwog, Towahgue.
Eye, Wuskesukpl, Wuskeûkp], Ukeesquan.
Nose, Wutch, Okeewon.
Mouth, Unttoon, my, Wuttone, Otoun.
Teeth, Meepit, Wepit, his. Upeetou.
House, Wetu, Wetu, Wekuwuhm.
Shoes, Mokissonah, Mocussinass, Mkissin.
Sun, Nepauz, Nippawus, Keesogh.
Moon, Nepaushdt; Manepaushat, Neepauhauck.
Bay, Kesukod, Wompan, Waukaumauw.
Night, Nukon, Tuppaco, T'pochk.
Fire, Nutau, Squatta, Sfcaauw.
Water, Nippe, Nip, Ubey
Rain, Sokanunk, Sokenum, Thocknaum.
Snow, Koon, Sockepo, Meauneeh.
Tree, Mehtug, Mintuck, Mochtok.
Dog, Anum, Anum, N'dijau.
Bear, Mosq, Mquch.
Eiver, Sepu, Seip, Sepoo.
VOCABULARY COMPARING PRONOUNS AND OTHER PARTS OF SPEECH IN THE DIALECTS
OF VARIOUS INDIAN TRIBES, SHOWING THE SIMILARITY IN NUMEROUS INSTANCES.
Blackfeet,
Cahuilo,
Cayuga,
Choctaw,
Cherokee,
Chmook,
Comanche,
Dakota,
Delaware,
Hueco,
Kiowa,
Mandan,
Menominee,
Miami,
Mojave,
Mohawk,
Navajo,
Nez Perces,
Ojibway,
Oneida,
Onondaga,
Osage,
Pima,
Queres,
Riccaree,
Shawnee,
Sheyenne,
Tuscarora,
Yuma,
Zuni,
I. Thou. He.
Nistoa, Cristou, Amo,
Neh, Eh, Peh,
I, Ise, Aoha,
Uno, Chishno,
Ayung, Nehe, Naski,
Naika, Maika, Jakhka,
Met-za, Un-nt, Or-dzta,
Mia, Nia, Dai,
Ni, Ki, He,
No, Am, Kin,
Me, Me, E,
Nay-nauh, Kay-nauh, Way-nauh,
Ne-law, Ke-law, Enau,
Ima-ta, Inicak, Pe-pa,
lih, Ise, Ra-ou-ha,
Ni, Shi-dota, Nil-lad,
In, Im, Ipi,
Nen, Ken, Wen,
Ee, Esa, La-oon-ha,
Eeh, Ee-sah-he, Hourh,
Veca, Diea. Aar,
Ahan, Mantou, Yeu-tah,
Hi-no, Hish, Weh,
Mauto, Kay-hon, Wite,
Ki-la, Kiluh, Yah-ma,
Kuneeohwah, Nin-nee-howahSisto,
Ee, Eets, Rawonroo,
Nyat, Mantz, Nabuitzk,
Ho-ho, Toh-o, Luk-ye,
Yes. No.
Ah, Sah.
Hec, Ki-il.
Eghe-a, Te-ah.
Yaw, Ke-yu.
Ungung, Tlah.
Ikaa, Ki.
Kaa, Ke.
How, Ea.
(
'o-hum, Ha-ceri.
Ahe, Kid-de.
Ho-o. Hoa ni.
K-hoo, Megosh.
Ay-ay, Kawn.
E-he, Ne-she.
E, Co-bar-o.
Ea, Yah-te-a.
Shi, Do-lu.
A, Water.
Aih,
. Kau.
Ha, Yah-ten.
Ae, Zach-te.
Hoya, Honkosha.
Ah-ah, Ou-ut.
Hah, Tsali.
Nee-coola, Na-ka.
Hah-hah, Mat-hah.
Ha, Wahham.
Uhruh, Gwass.
Ahah, Co-barque.
la, Ho-lo.
VOCABULAEIES. 677
WORDS AND PHRASESALGONQUIN LANGUAGE, OJIBWAY DIALECT.
FireIsli koo da. FiresIsli koo daig.
Smoke of a distant firePuk kwa na.
WaterNee be.
IceMik kwun.
EarthAlike.
LandAh ke.
A little groundPun ge sha ah ke.
Big, big lakeGitche gitche gum me.
WaveTe go. WavesTe go wag.
LakeSah gi e gun.
ShoreTid e ba.
On the shoreCheeg a beeg.
IslandMe nis. IslandsMe nis un.
RiverSe be. RiversSe be wun.
Dirty pondPe to beeg. Small clear pondNe bis.
RivuletSe bo wis sha.
Rivulet, or small riverSe be ainse.
Up the riverO ge tah je wun.
Down the riverNees sah je wun.
FallsBow we tig.
RapidsSah sah je wun.
'
Boiling springMo kid je wun ne beeg.
Crossing placeAk zhug ga win.
Banks of a riverKish kut te naunk.
ForksSaw waw koo te kwi aig.
"
y
Left hand sideMum mun je nik e nuh kuh ka yah.
Right handGitche nik.
PortageOne gum.
HillPe kwut te naw.
MountainWud ju. MountainsMud ju wun.
ValleyNas sah wut te naug.
ValleyTah wut te naug.
PathMe kun nuh.
War roadNun do bun ne me kun nuh.
StoneUs sin. StonesUs sin neeg.
RockAh zhe beek.
SandNa gow.
Clay^Waw be gun.
Dirt of housesWe ah gus se.
MudUz zish ke.
678
Cavern in rockWeen bah zho ke kah.
Cavern, or hole in groundWeen baiah.
SaltShe we tau gun.
Salt springShe we tau gun e mo gitche wun ne beeg.
Deer lickOm waush ke wa wa.
MetalPe waw be ko.
GoldO zaw waw sho neah.
SilverSho neah.
CopperMis kwaw beek.
LeadOs ke ko maung.
IronPe waw beek.
BrassO saw waw beek.
PewterWar bush ke ko mah.
BirthMah chees kunk pe mah te se win.
DeathSkwaw be mah te se win.
LoveMeen oo neen de win.
HatredSheen ga neen de win.
MarriageWe te kun de win.
HungerBuk kud da win.
Blacking, or fastingMuk kud da ka win.
SicknessAh koo se win.
PainSuck kum mun dum mo win.
A wordKe ke to win.
NameAh no zo win.
ColdKis se nah win.
HeatKe zhe ta win.
DampnessShuk kiz ze win.
LengthUli kwaw win.
BreadthMun kwut tia ah win.
Height, or tallnessKe no ze win.
DepthKeen ween du mah win.
ShortnessTuh ko ze win.
CircleWaw we a ah.
BoundnessWaw wi a ze win.
SquareShush shuh wao.
SquarenessShush shuh wa ze win.
A measureTe bi e gun.
A holeNo ko na ah.
Calamity, had lookMah nah bo wa wis.
HarmonyBup pe she ko way win.
PlayfulnessPaw pe niz ze win.
MindGaun nug gus ke wa shie.
i
VOCABULARIES. 679
TroubleSun nug ge ze win.
WorkAll no ke win.
LazinessGitche mish ke win.
StrengthMus kaw we ze win.
ShapeE zlie ke win.
BreathPuk ke tah nah mo win.
SleepNe pah win.
A personAh we ah.
A thingKa go shis.
NothingKah ka go.
NoiseBe giz ze win.
A shriekWe suk wa win.
HowlingWah o no win.
VoiceMus se tah goo se win.
AYhite (animate)Waw biz ze.
White (inanimate) Waw bish kaw.
BlackMuk kud da waw.
BedMis kwaw.
BlueMe zhuh kwod oong ; a zhe nah guwt, like the sky.
YellowO saw waw.
GreenO saw wus kwaw.
GreatMit chaw, animate.
GreaterNah wud mit chaw.
Greatest
^Mi ah mo mit chaw.

SmallAh gah saw.
SmallerNah wuj ah gah saw.
SmallestMi ah ma ah gah saw.
StrongSoang gun (tough).
HardMush kaw waw.
HeavyKo se gwun.
LightNahn gun.
HighIsh pah.
LowTup pus sah.
DampTip pah.
ThickKip pug gah, as a board.
ThickPus sug gwaw gum me, thick as mush.
ThickKip pug ge gut, as cloth.
ThickKip pug ga big gut, as iron.
ShapeKe nah.
WeakSha wiz ze.
BraveSoan ge ta ha; strong hearted.
BraveMahn go ta sie ; loon heart.
680
CowardShah go ta a ; loeak heart.
Old.Ke kaw.
YoungO ske ne ge.
GoodOnish e shin.
BadMah uah tut, inanimate.
BadMah nah diz ze, animate.
WickedMutche e pe wa tize.
HandsomeKwo nahdj.
UglyMah nah diz ze.
HealthyMe no pe mah diz ze.
SickAh koo ze.
AlivePe mah diz ze.
DeadNe po.
SensibleNe bwaw kah.
CunningKuk ki a ne ze.
FoolishKe pah te ze.
HappyPau pin an ne mo.
CoolTuk ka yah.
ColdKis se nah.
WarmKe zho ze, animate; Ke zho yah, inanimate.
HotKe zhaut ta.
ThirstyKos kun nah pah kwa.
HungryBuk kut ta.
FirstNeet tum [imj aizsh kut).
SecondA koo nee shink.
LongKeen waw ; keen ivaizh, long in time.
WideMun gut ta yah.
DeepKeen ween dum mo (âs water).
INeen.
ThouKeen.
HeWeen.
SheWeen.
ItE eu.
WeNeen ah wind (excluding the person addressed).
WeKeen ah wind (including the person addressed).
TheyE gieu, or, ween ah waw.
ThemE gieu (to persons) ; e nieu (to things).
MyOur. >.
ThyYour,
,^, ,
TT- Ti.

r
(ône).
HisTheir,
^
Its,
ThatE eu, animate. ThatWah ow, inanimate.
VOCABULARIES.
681
ThisMalm dun, or, O o (to things).
ThisWah ow, or, Mali bum (to persons),
This personMali bum, if near.
This personAh weh, if far off.
TheseAh noon dah, if near.
TheseAn ne weh, if far off.
WhoWa nain.
WhichTall neeii e eu.
BothI eezhe.
EitherWa go to gwain.
Other
(None), ah ne we (nearly).
AllKok kin nuh.
ManyBah ti eem.
MuchNe be waw.
FewPun ge.
A little
(The same),
MoreMin o waw.
SomeGa go.
SeveralNe be waw.
WhereAh neen de.
WhenAh nuh pe.
HereO mah
ThereE wid de.
At
(Inseparable).
AboveIsh pe ming.
BelowTub bush shish.
OverGitche i e.
UnderA nah mi e e.
WithinPeenj i e.
NearBa sho.
FarWaw saw.
NowNoang goom.
SoonWi e buh.
ThenMe ah pe.
AlwaysMo zhuk.
NeverKah we kaw, or, kaw ween we kaw.
To-dayNong gum ge zhe guk.
YesterdayPitch e nah go.
To-morrowWaw bunk.
Long agoShah shiah.
HereafterPon ne mah.
BeforeBwoi.
682
AfterKail esh kwaw.
OuceAh be diug.
TwiceNe zhing.
HowAll iieen.
WellKwi uk, strait.
IllKaw'gwi uk.
QuicklyWa weeb.
Slowlv
^Ba kali diz ze.

WhyAh nish win.
WithA i yeesh.
AVithout(None).
FromWain je.
Towards
(None). Ah che waw?

YesUh. CertainlyMe nung ga ha.
NoKaw. .
IfKeesh pin.
AndGi a.
Or
(None).
Also
(None).
PerhapsGo ne mah, or, kah nah butch.
OneNing gooj waw.
TwoNeezh waw.
ThreeNis swaw.
FourNe win.
FiveNah nun.
SixNin good waw swe.
SevenNeezh waw swe.
EightShwaw swe.
NineShong gus swe.
TenMe dos we.
To eatChe we sin it.
To be hungryChe we buk kud dit.
To drinkChe min ne kwait.
To walkChe pe mo sait.
To runChe pe me bat toan.
To sit downChe nam mad a bit
To lie downChe shin ge skink.
To standChe ne bo wit.
To stayCha ah bit.
To danceCha ne mit.
To goCha mah chaht.
To comeCha tah ko shink.
VOCABULARIES. 683
To rideChe me zhug gaut.
To rideChe pe mah bi o goat.
To huntChe ke o sait.
To fightChe me kwa zoat.
To smokeClie sug gus swawt.
To singChe nug gah moat.
To smokeChe been dah kwait.
To sleepChe ne baht.
To dieChe ne bote.
To sayChe e ke doat.
To speakChe keke doat.
To treatChe to to want.
To marryChe we wit.
To thinkChe nain dunk.
To knowChe ke ken dunk.
To wish
(This is not a regular verb, in the Ottawa).

To seeChe wau bit.
To hearChe non dunk.
To tasteChe ko tun dunk.
To smellChe me non dunk.
To touchChe tahn je nunk.
To loveChe san gi unk.
To hateChe shin ga ne maut.
To killChe nis saut.
To scalpChe mah miz zhwaut.
To giveChe me uaut.
To takeChe o tau pe naut.
To bringChe be naut.
To carryChe mah che naht.
To cutChe kis ke shunk.
To stickChe wa po to waut.
To plantChe ke te gait.
To burnChe chau ge zung.
To buryChe ning wo waut.
To sowChe kus ke gaw saut.
To blowChe pe me bo tote.
To hideChe guk ket tote.
To cookChe che bah kwait.
To meltChe nin ge taik.
To subdueChe muk dwait.
To haveChe aiht.
To beChe iaht.
684: THE AMERICAN INDIAN.
He isWeeu sab.
I amNeen sah.
I am coldNeen ge kudj.
I am warmNeen ge zho se.
I am youugNeeu do ske neeg.
I am oldNeen ge kaw.
I am goodNe meen no zhe wa bis.
I am strongNe musli kaw wees.
I am hungryNe buk kud da.
I am sickNeen dah kooz.
It rainsKe me wun.
It is coldKis se nali.
GoMah jon.
StayAll bin.
BringPe toan.
GiveMeezh.
Give meMe zhe shin.
Take himO tah pin.
Take itO tah pe nun.
He drinksWeen min ne kwa.
He runsWeen pe me bat to.
He singsWeen nug gah mo.
I singNeen nug gah mo.
We eatWe sin ne.
I eatNe we sin.
I cameNeen ge tuh koo shin.
He cameWeen ge tuh koo shin.
We cameNeen ge tuh koo shin noam.
I have eatNe ke we sin.
Thou hast eatKe ke we sin.
He has eatO ke we sinne.
He sawO ke waw bo maun.
He is deadWeen ke ne bo.
He has been seenKe waw bo maw.
He shall speakOan jittah kahgeeketo (I make).
He shall goOan jittah tah mah jah (I make, etc.)
He may goTah mah jah.
We may goTah mah jah men.
This dogMaw buh an ne moosh.
These dogsAh goon dah an ne moag.
This is mineNeen een di eem (mine it remains).
That is thineKeen ke ti eme (it belongs to thee).
VOCABULARIES.
685
Whose dog is this?Wha iiain wha ti et?
AVhat is thy name
?
Ah neen a zhe ne kah so yun ?
"What do you call this
?
Ah neen a zhe ne kah dah raun ?
To whom shall he speak
?
O wa na nan ka kun no nah jit ?
Which of us shall go
?
O wa nain ke e shaut ?
Who shall go
?
Tali neen a ow ka e shaut ?
Either of us shall goNe got wa hi ao o tai a shon.
Who saw theseWa ne wi ah bo mik?
HeWeen.
My fatherNos a.
My brotherNe kau nis ; n'dan wa mah, by the women.
ElderNesiah.
YoungerNe she ma.
My sisterN'dah wa mah.
ElderNe mis sah.
YoungerNe she mah.
My sonNe gwis.
My daughterNe dan nis.
My childNe en jah nis.
My headNe o ste gwon.
My feetNe o zit tun.
My dogNeen di.
My shoesNe muk ke zin nun.
I saw you-Nee ke waw bo min.
I love youKe zaw ge in ; to a woman only, ne ma ne ne min.
I will marry thee, (a man to a woman) Neen gah we te ga mah;
(a woman to a man)kuh we te ge min.
He is taller than meNah wudj ween ke nose a ko zeaun.
He is a stranger in the TillageMi ah mah mush kaw e zeet o da
nin nong.
My wife is called handsomerNe wish nah wuj kwo nahj a zhe
nah ko zi ian.
Your wife is younger than mineKe wis nah wudj os ke ne ge
neen a pe te zit.
My brother is with his wifeNe kaun nis o we je waun we wun.
My hatchet is in thereNe waw gaw kwut peen dig at ta.
Where is he
?
To ne e peezh at taik ?
I am hereMaun di pe een di ah.
I am a manEen da nin ne ne ew.
I am a good manNe mic no a nin ew.
Thou art a womanKeet e kwa o.
There is a GodMan i to sah iah.
686
I am that I amNeen goo sah neen.
He sings wellNe tah nug gali mo.
He sings illKaw'nit tah nug gah mo se.
He sings slowSe bis kautch e nug gah mo.
He sings quickKa tah tub buh um.
He sings his death songO be mah tuh se win e nug gah mo
toan.
I see himNe waw bo maw.
I see a manE nin ne ne waw bo maw.
I see nearPa show n'duk wawb.
I see far offWas saw n'duk wawb.
He came on footKe bim me to sa.
He came on horsebackKe be pe mom mi co.
You came on horsebackKe ke be pe mo mik.
He came by landAh keeng ke pe e zhaw.
He came by waterKe be pe mish kaw nah.
He came before meKe be ne kaune.
He came lastSkwi ahtch ke ta koo shin.
f
'
He came without meKaw'neen ge we je we goo se.
I struck himNeen ge wa po to waw.
I struck him with my footNeen ge tun gish ko wa
;
(I kicked
him).
I struck him with a stoneUs sin neen ge wa po to waw.
I struck him with a hatchetWaw gaw kwut neen ge wa po to
waw.
I gave it to himNeen ge me nah.
ijil
I did not give it to theeKa ween keen ke ke me nis se noan.
He gave it to meNeen neen ge me nik. ,
What I gave himWa go to gwain e to ge gaw me nuk.
|
What he gave meWa go to gwain e to ge gaw me zhi.
And did he give it to thee
?
Ke ge me nik in nah ?
Hast thou given it to him ?^Ke ge me nah nah ? ( Didst thou
give)
?
Wilt thou give it to me ? Ke kah me shin nah 9
May I give it to him
?
Kaw nuh neen dah me nah se ?
I wish to go with thee and catch his horse
Op
pa tus we je win
naun che tah ko nuk o ba zheek o guh zhe mun.
Give me some venison to put in his kettleMe she shin we yos,
che po tah kwi aun o tah ke koonk.
We conquered our country by our bravery, we will defend it with
our strengthNe munk kund wa min ain dun uk ke ung, e zhin ne ne
wi aung, (our manliness)
, or, ne mahn go tah se we win ne naum, (our
VOCABULARIES. 687
loon heartedness), ne kah ko no ain dali men ne mus kaw wiz ze win
ne naun.
Good morningMe gwaitch wi ah bah me non
;
(I am glad to see
you).
Howis it with thee
?
Tah neen keen o waw aiz zhe be mah te ze
aik?
(If two or more, ke me no be nah te ze nah?how dost thou

live)?
He is a good manMe no pa mah tiz ze e nin ne.
Dost thou live well
?
Ke men no pe mah tiz ze nah ?
What news
?
Ah heen ain e kum me guk ?
I know himNe ke ken ne maw.
I understandNekekendum; (weeds and small things; of a
tree, or a large stone, they say, ne ke ken ne maw).
She is a good womanMen no pa mah te se.
It is a large treeGitche me tik: (large tree).
I see itNe waw bo maw, if a man, a tree, or 'a large stone ; Ne
waw bun daun, if inanimate, or a very small animate object.
I give you this canoeKe me nin maun dun che maun.
Take itO tau pe nun.
I give you this deerKe me nin maw buh waw waw wash gais.
Take himO tau pin.
Give me meatMe zhe shinwe yos
;
give or hand to me, pe doan.
Give me that dogMe zhe shin owan e moose.
Bring waterNe beesh nah din.
Bring the prisonersBeesh a wuh kau nug.
This is my father's canoeNo si ah maun dun o che maun.
I gave corn to myfatherMun dah me nun neen ge me nah noas.
I planted corn for my fatherNeen ge ke te go waw noas.
I love my fatherNe sah ge ah noas.
I took corn from my fatherNeen ge o tah pe nun no waw noas
mun dah min.
I came with myfatherNe pe we je waw noas. (I accompanied
my father).
I saw a deerNeen ge waw bo mo waw wash gais.
I saw two deerNeesh waw wash gais e wug ne waw bomaig.
I killed a deerWaw wash gais neen ge ne sah.
I killed him with my hatchetNe waw gaw kwut ne ke oon jin
nee sah.
I took the skin from the deerNeen ge puk ko nah, (if he saved
the meat) ; neen ge gitche ke zwo ah, (if he threw it away).
It is very cloudy, I think it will rainNingwahnukwud ahpeche,
tahkemewun nindenandum.
688
It is hot weatherKezhahta.
It is cold weatherKezenah.
The wind blowsNoodiD.
This is good breadOnesheshe suh mahbah buhquazhegun.
Please give me something to drinkMenuheshin.
There is no cupKahween menequaiijegun ahtasenoon.
Do you want tea?Me nuh uhnebishahbo wahmenequayun?
How are you to-day?Ahneen ezhe bemahdezeyun noongoom?
Are you a little better, do you think?Ashkum nuh kemenouhyah
punge, kidenandum ?
What is the matter with him
?
Ahneen audid ?
AVhere shall we pitch our tent?Ahneende che kuhpasheyung
?
Lend me your knifeUhweeshekun keemookoomaun.
Is the kettle boiling
?
Ahzhe nuh ke oonso uhkik ?
Make the fire blaze upPiskahkoonanjegan.
Fetch water^Nebee nahdin.
Get the dinner readyChebahquan che weesening.
Let us smoke ; have you tobacco
?
Suhguswahdah ; Ahsamah nuh
kiduhyahwah ?
Yes, but I left my pipe behind
A,
ningewuhnekanun dush nind
opwahgun.
Can you lend me your pipe?Kegah uhwe nuh kid opwahgun.
The mosquitoes are bad hereSuhguhmakah suh omah.
The mosquitoes don't like smokeEgewh suhguhmag kahween
ominwandunse nahwah puhquana.
Where is Jack?Ahneende Jack?
He is gone back in the bush with his gunNoopeming keezhah
opaushkesegun kemahjeedood.
Is he gone hunting
?
Ke uhwe goosa nuh ?
I don't know, he did not tell meAnduhgwan kahween ninge-
weenduhmahgoose.
Where do you suppose he is now?Ahneende dush noongoom
ayahgwan kedenandum?
I am sure I don't knowTebeedoog.
What bird is that calling? Is it a partridge?Ahwanan owli
penase masetah goozid ? Pena nuh ?
No, it is a loon on the lakeKahwasuh, maung suh ween owh
ewede kechegummeeng.
What animals are there about here?Ahwanan doowuh ahwasee-
yug ayahjig omah?
All sorts of small gameAhnooj goo doowuh ahwaseensug.
Stop, are we going right
?
Pakah, ke quuhyukooshenoomin enuh ?
VOCABULARIES. 689
I see a sugar camp through the treesNewahbundaun sinsebah-
kwudookaum magwayahquah.
The Indians are making sugarSinsebahquudookawug egewh
ahnishenahbag.
See, the sap is runningEnuh, oonjegahmuhgud sinsebahquu-
dahboo.
How far is it to the shore?Ahneen apeechaug ewede uhguh-
ming?
About five milesKagah nahnun debahbaun.
Have you shot anything?Kegeneton nuh kago?
No, I saw nothingKah, kahween uhweuyh ahwase ningewah-
bumah se.
That Indian is hunting beaverNundoomiqua owh ahnishenahba.
Good day, it is a fine dayBoozhoo, meno kezhegud.
Yes, it seems a long time since we have seen youA kagat, kuh-
bauhyee suh enewag kah uhko wahbumeegooyun.
INDIAN NAMES OF COLORS, OJIBWAY DIALECT.
BlackMukadu.
WhiteWahbe.
BlueOzah Washquah.
YellowOsuhive.
RedMiskiou.
CATALOGUE OF TREES, PLANTS AND ANIMALS.
Algonquin language; Ojibway dialect; with the English names
for the same.
Mettle goagTrees.
Shin go beekEvergreens, or cone bearing trees.
Ma ni hikNorway pine.
A nee naun dukBalsam fir.
Kik kawn dugSpruce. The black pheasant feeds on the leaves.
Mus keeg wah tickHackmatack, swamp wood.
Kaw waun dukSingle spruce.
Mis kwaw waukRed cedar.
Ke zhikWhite cedar.
Kaw waw zheekJuniper bushes.
Kaw wah zheen sha, or Ah kaw wunjeYew.
Kaw kaw ge wingzHemlock spruce.
Puk gwun nah ga mukWhite pine (peeling bark).
Shin gwawkYellow pine.
690
Ne hish unTrees with broad leaves
Niii au tikSugar maple (our own tree).
She she gum maw wisEiver maple (sap flows fast).
Shah shah go be mukLow-ground maple.
Moons omaisStriped maple (moose wood).
Sha sha go be muk oonsSpiked maple (little shah shah go be
muk).
We gwosWhite birch.
Ween es sikBlack birch.
Buhwiemenin awgawwunjeBed cherry (the wood of the
shaken down fruit, or berry).
Sus suh way meen ah ga wunjeChoke cherry.
Bull wi me nah ne gah wunjeBlack cherry.
Nai go wim me nah gaw we zheenSandcherry bushes.
Me tik o meesh (Mait e ko ma Menominee)Black oak (wood
cup).
Meesh a mishWhite oak.
|
Ah sah tiaWhite poplar.
I
Mah nu sah tiaBalsam poplar (ugly poplar). Mat he me toos
Cree. Franklin's narrative,
p.
78.
'
Be zhew au tikCoffee bean tree (wild cat tree). Found only
in the south.
Way miche ge meen ah ga wunjeHoney locust, southern.
Uz zhuh way mishBeech ; none northward of Mackinac.
Me tig wawb awkSmooth hickory (smooth wood bow tree).
Nas kun nuk a koositMe teg wawb awkHickory (rough bark
bow tree).
A neebElm, white.
O shah she go peRed elm, two varieties; the bark of one only
used for sacks.
Wa go be mishLinn (bark tree).
Bug gaun awkBlack walnut.
Ke no sha bug gaun awkButternut (long walnut).
Ahn za bug gaun awkPecan, southern.
Suz zuli wuk ko mistHackberry.
As seme nunPawpaw.
Boo e nukWhite ash.
We sug aukBlack ash.
Bug gaun ne me zeesh ahHazel bush.
Waw bun wah ko meezhWhite arrow wood.
We ah ko meezhArrow wood.
Mus kwaw be mukBed ozier.
I
VOCABULARIES.
691
O to peAlder. O to peenAlders.
Sis se go be misliWillow.
Bug ga sail ne misbPlum tree.
Misli she min null ge wunjeCrab apple tree.
Mish she min au tikCrab apple wood, or tree.
Ne be min ah ga wunjeHigh cranberry bush.
Pah tah te mun a ga wunjeBlack haw bush.
Ke teg ge manitoNew Jersey tea (red root).
Koose gwaw ko mizhe ga wunjeHigh blueberry bush.
O zhusk ko mi zheenMuskrat berries.
Be ma gwutGrape.
We gwos be mah gwutBirch grape.
Manito be mah gwut, or manito meen a gah wunjeCissus, a
climbing vine, with scattered berries, somewhat like grapes.
Mus ke ge minCranberry, crane berries (swamp berries).
Sa zah ko me nah gah wah zheen, p/. Saccacommis, or arbutus.
The leaves of this plant, the wa wesa of the shops, are commonly
used by the Ojibways, in whose country it abounds, to mix with their
tobacco.
Waw be ko meen ah gaw wunjeNine bark, or spiraw.
Wis seg ge bug, sing, wis seg ge bug goon, pi. Bitter leaf; an
andromeda, very highly esteemed by the Indian, as a remedy, and by
them, said to grow only about the Grand Traverse, in Lake Huron.
Ne kim me nunSwamp whortleberries.
Shug gus kim me nunThimble berries, or flowering raspberries.
Kaw wah be ga koo sitWhite bark, a small tree at Lake Tra-
verse.
Ut tuh be ga zhin nah gookA shrub said to be found only in
the north.
Pah posh geshe gun au tikRed elder, (popgun wood), very
common about Me nau zhe taun naug, and the islands in the Lake of
the Woods.
Bwoi jim me nah ga wunjeWhortleberry bush.
Ne kim me nah ga wunjeHigh blueberry bush.
Mus keeg obug goanLabrador tea, (swamp leaves) one of the
most esteemed of the products of cold and swampy regions ; used in
decoction as tea.
Pe boan meen ah gaw wunjeWinterberry bush, a prinos.
Mun no mun ne chee beegRed paint root.
Me nais sa gaw wunjeThorn apple.
Buz zuk ko me nais, sing.^ buz zuk ko me nais ug, pi. A kind of
thorn apple growing in the north, which sometimes kill bears when-
they eat them in large quantities. The Indians suppose that it is in
consequence of the strongly adhesive quality of the pulp, that they
have this deleterious property.
MeenBlueberry; meen unBlueberries (fruit). This is a
word that enters into the composition of almost all which are used as
the names of fruits or berries of any kind; as me she min, or me she
meen, an apple, o da e min, a strawberry, or heartberry, etc. The
word ga wunge, added to the name of any fruit or berry, indicates the
wood or bush.
Meen ah ga wun'sBlack currant bush.
Mish e je min ga wunjeThis is a bush growing at and about
the Lake of the Woods, which bears red currants, like those of the
gardens ; but the currants are beset thickly with hairs.
Shah bo min nunGooseberry; shah bo min ga wunjethe
bushes.
Mis kwa minRaspberry ; mis kwa min nugRaspberries.
O dan tah gah go minBlackberry ; O dah tah gah go me nug
Blackberries.
Muk kwo me nug, or muk kwaw me nugBear berries ; muk ko
me nah ga wunjeThe mountain ash, or American service tree.
O gin ne mee nahga wunjeRosebush. The fruit is much eaten
in winter by the starving Indians in the north.
All these are called me tik goag, or woody plants.
Weak gush koanWeeds, or herbaceous plants.
Me zhusk keen, (Ma zhus koon of the Menominees) grasses.
Na bug us koanCoarse swamp grass.
Anah kun us koanBuUrush, (mat grass).
Be gwa wun us koanSoft coarse grass. The name of the Be wi
o nus ko river and lake, called Rush river on some of the maps, is
from this word. This word seems, in some districts, to be used as
the name of the cow parsley.
As ah gu nus koanBug guskIris.
Puk kwi usk ogeFlags.
Zhusk gwut te beegMuskrat root (a grass).
The following are not called Me zhus keen:.
Maz zha nush 'kos.n pi.Nettles.Ma zan, sing.
Skib waw we guskArtichoke, a species of sunflower.
Ke zhe bun usk koanRushes.
O kun dum mogePond lilies.
Ma ko pin, Ma ko pin eeg, sing, and pi.Chinkapin, or cyamus.
Waw be ze pin neegArrowhead (swan potatoes). The roots of
fi
VOCABULARIES. 693
the common saggittaria, as well as the bulbs of some of the crest
flowering lilies, which are eaten by the Indians, receive this name.
Mus ko ti pe neegLily, (prairie potatoes).
O kali tahkCicuta.
Manito O kah tahkSison? heracleum?
O saw wus kwun weesGreen small balls.
Sug gut ta bo waySticking burs ; hounds' tongues, etc.
Nah ma wuskSpearmint, (sturgeon medicine).
Wis se giche bikIndian's physic, (bitter root; callistachia).
Mis kwe wis che be kug gukBloodroot.
A zhush a way skukSquare stem scrophularia.
Be zhew wuskWild cat medicine.
Ke na beek o me nunSnake berries ; Dracaena borealis.
Main wakeAngelica, or cow parsley.
Me tush koo se minApple of the prairie of the Canadians,
(Psoralia) much eaten by the Crees and Assinneboins, in whose country
it abounds.
Mali nom o ne gali wah zlieen, pi.Wild rice (the grass).
Muk koose a mee nunYoung bear's berries.
We nis se bug goonWintergreen.
Mus kee go bug goonSwamp wintergreen
;
perhaps the little
rough wintergreen.
Be na bug goonPartridge flower.
Mus ke gway me tausSide saddle flower, (swamp bottles, in
allusion to the pitcher shaped leaves).
Muk kud da we che be kug gukBlack roots.
Pa ta sis koo see menThe flower that follows the sun.
Pe zhe ke wuskBuffalo medicine.Wild carrot?
She wa bug goonSweet cicely, (sour leaf).
A nich e me nunWild pea vine.
O da na me na gaw wun zheen, j)!. Strawberry vines.
Se booi gun nukCornstalks (chaw sweet).
O pinPotatoe.O pin neegPotatoes.
O guis e maunSquashes. O zaw waw o guis se maunYellow
squashes.
Mis kwo de se min Bean. Mis kwo de se min ugBeans.
As ke tum moongMelons.
Gitche un ne beeshCabbage (-big leaf). Gitche ne beesh un
Great leaves.
Skusli kuii dah min ne kwi ukPlaintain; the leaves of this are
particularly observed by hunters, as they show, better than anything
else, the age of the tracks of game.
Sliig gau ga win zlieeg,
j)Ônions, (skunk weeds).
O kau taukCarrots.
Kitclie mus ke ke meenRed pepper, (great medicine berry).
Ba se kwunkThis is a red astringent root, much valued by the
Indians as an application to wounds. Avens root.
Shah bo ze gunMilkweed. The Ojibway word signifies purga-
tive.
Waw be no wuskYarrow, (Wawbeno medicine).
Ke zhe bun usk kon sunSmall rushes in prairie.
Nah nah gun e wushkFern. Nah nah gun e wushk koan
Ferns.
We se bain jah ko nunUsnaco.
Wah ko nugLichens ; the edible gyrophora.
"Ween de go wah ko nugGyrophora, inedible.
Waw bah sah ko nickSphagnun, used by the women to make a
bed for young children.
Ah sah ko nikMarchantia, and green mosses, on the shady sides
of trees.
O zhusk kwa toan sukReindeer moss, citrariac, etc.
O zhush Java to tougFungi.
Waw but toPine touch-wood.
f
Me tik o mish O zhusk kwa to wugWhite oak touch-woods,
much used to burn mortars for pounding corn.
i
Sug guh tall gunSpunk.
Je bi e push kwa e gunXylostroma; dead people's moccasin
leather is the literal meaning of this word, which is applied to the
leather-like substance in the fissures of old trees.
O je bi e muk ke zinGhost or spirit moccasin; puff ball; dead
man's shoe; sometimes called Anung wugstars.
Ah ices sie ugAnimals.
The diminutive termination is used for the young of animals, and
is, in the Ottawa dialect, generally in the sound of ns, or nee, when the
noun ends with a vowel. Thus, Gwin gwaw ah ga, a wolverence;
Gwin gwaw ah ga giance, a young wolverence; the a in the last
syllable retaining the same syllable as in the word without the diminu-
tive termination. When any distinction of sex is made, it is commonly
by prefixing the word i ah ba and no zha, very similar in signification
to our male and female ; thus, I ah ba Gwin gwaw ah ga, is the male
wolverence; No zha Gwin gwaw ah ga, a female wolverence.
Na nah pah je ne ka seA mole, (foot wrong way).
Gwin gwaw ah gaWolverence
;
(tough beast), Carcajou, French,
4
VOCABULARIES. 695
northern glutto7i, a very sagacious and mischievous animal, but not of
common occurrence; now principally found among the lakes.
Bo taich die pin gwis saGopher, (blow up the ground).
ManitoMuk kwawGreat grizzly bear, always found in the prairie.
Ma mis ko gah zlie muk kwawRed nail bear; very fierce and
dangerous, more feared by the Indians than the former, who very
rarely attacks a man, unless wounded; but the red nailed bear attacks
when unprovoked, and pursues with great speed. He lives in rocky
places in woods.
Muk kwawCommon bear; Ou wash ah, of the Menominee&.
Muk koons, or Muk koonceCub; Oit wa sha sha, of the
Menominees.
I aw ha koons and No zha koons, are used by the Ottawas and
Ojibways to distinguish the male and female bear, where the Menomi-
nees would use Ou wa shah E nai ne wow and Ou wa shah, Ma tai
mo shuh.
Me tun nusk, (Ojib).Toothless. )
Mish she mo nah na, (Ott).Great burrower.
j
^
Mus ko tai Chit ta moPrairie squirrel.
Mus ko tai Ah gwin gwoosPrairie striped squirrel ; small squir-
rel, with stripes and spots, burrowing in the prairie, sometimes with
the ChUtamo.
Ah gwin gwoosChipping squirrel.
Atch e dah moBed squirrel.
O zhug gus kon dah waFlying squirrel (strikes flat on a tree).
Sun nah go, and Muk kud da As sun nah go, and Mis kwaw sun
nah go
-The grey, black, and fox squirrels, not found in the country
north of Lake Superior.
Uk kuk koo jeesGround hog, smaller than in the states.
Me sau boosHare, white in winter.
Waw boosBabbit. Meezh way, Meezh way ug, sin. and pi.
Southern rabbit.
Pish tah te koosAntelope. This is reckoned the fleetest animal
in the prairie country about the Assinniboin.
Pe zhe keBuffalo. No zha zha pe zhe keA cow that has a
young calf following her. O neen jah nis pe zhe keFarrow cow.
Jah ba pe zhe keBull. Pe zhe keenceA young calf. O saw
waw Koo shanceA calf, while the liair is red. Poo nah kooshCalf,
a year old. Ah ne ka boo nah kooshTwo years old.
Gitche pe zhe keFossil mammoth.
Ma nah tikBig horn.
Gitche mah nish tah nishBocky Mountain sheep.
An ne moo shugDogs.
Na ne mo why, (Ott.
) ) o n i

j.

. .^.., \ r
fc>niail wolr, in prairie countries.
Nishtuhtalisi, (Ojib.)
)
^
Mi een gun nugCommon wolves.
Mi een gunCommon wolf.
Muk kud da mi een gunBlack wolf.
Waw be mi een gunWhite wolf.
Shoon shoLong-eared hound.
An ne mooshCommon dog.
Ta tah koo gaut ta was sinShort leg dog.
Be gwi wa wes simLong haired dog ; Newfoundland.
Ke wis kwa mi een gun nugMad wolves, sometimes seen, but
rarely bite, unless attacked.
Waw goo shugFoxes.
O saw waw gooshCommon red fox.
Muk kud da waw gooshBlack fox.
Muk kud da waw goo shugBlack foxes.
Wa whaw gooshWhite foxes, fur long, but of no value.
Ne ke kwa tug gah wa waw gooshGray fox.
Pis tah te mooshSwift fox (small dog).
Kah zhe gainseCommon house cat (little glutton).
|
Pe zhewWild cat.
Ke tah gah gah pe zhewLynx (spotted wild cat).
Me she pe zhewPanther (big wild cat).
'"'
Ah meekBeaver Naub ah meekMale beaver.
Noazh ah meekFemale beaver. Ah meek koanseYoung
beaver.
Kin waw no wish shusf, Cree.
) -di i j. -i i j
*
^'
.
^.. }
Black tailed deer.
Muk kud da waw wash gais, Ojib. )
Waw wash gaisRed or Virginia deer.
'
^
\
'^
I
Elk. On Red river, Mouse river, the
We sha way, ( Ott.
) > a i

j.
/'
\^ (
baskawjawun, etc.
Waw was kesh,( Cree).
)
Ah dikReindeer. Ca ri bon, the FrenchThe feet very large
and broad, fitting the animal to travel over smooth ice, or deep snow
;
found on all the shores of Lake Superior, and sometimes at the upper
end of Lake Huron ; but most frequently farther north.
Moose. The nasal sound at the end
of this word is common in these
dialects; but it is dijfi&cult to repre-
sent by the letters of our alphabet.
Mooze, or Moonce, (Ojib.
)
Moon swah, (Cree).
l
VOCABULARIES. 697
I aw ba moozeBuck moose. No zha moozeDeer moose.
Moonze ainceLittle moose, etc.
A yanceOpossum, only in the south. The word a yance means
crafty.
Shin goosWeasel, two kinds.
Ne gikOtter. Ne gik wugOtters.
Keen wah no wa waw waw be gun o jeLong tail leaping mouse.
AVaw waw be gun o jeMouse.
Ah mik waw waw be gun o jeBeaver, or diving mouse.
Kah ge bin gwaw kwaShrew. Two species are common about
St. Mary's in winter.
KahgPorcupine. Kahg wugPorcupines.
Shong gwa sheMink.
Wah be zho sheMarten.
A se bunRaccoon.
She gahgSkunk.
O zhuskMuskrat.
Ah puk kwon ah jeBat.
OjeegFisher weasel, very stupid, easy to kill.
Ba hah mo fajeegReptiles.
Nau to wayThick, short rattle snake. Sha no we nawThe
rattler.
She she gwaCommon rattle snake. Both these are occasionally
kept tame by the Indians. They sometimes make feasts to them, and
they are said to be very docile and intelligent.
Me tik o she she gwaAdder.
Na waMoccasin snake.
Pill kunPrairie snake. At the head of Mouse river, and in the
prairies towards the Missouri. These snakes are more than six feet
long, and proportionately large. Pih kun un, common snakes, but
never half so large as the above.
Mis kwan dibRed head; copper snake.
O zha wus ko Kena beekGreen snake.
Muk kud da Ke na beekBlack snake.
O mus sun dum moWater snake.
Wa in je tali Ke na beekGarter snake (right or true ge na bik).
O kaute Ke na beekLizzard. (legged snake).
Gee kut tau naungLizzard of some kind.
Que we zainsLittle boy (also a lizzard).
Nib be ke O muh kuk keOrbicular lizzard (medicine frog).
Wain je tah O muh kuk keRight frogs, or common frogs.
Dain daBull frog, and hannie Z. 19.
Mis ko muh kuk keRed toad. From O muk kuk ke (toad), and
Ah koo se win (sickness), is probably derived the word Ma muk ke ze
win (the small pox).
Boos kut tah wishA tortoise with round deep shells.
Mis kwaw tais saTerrapin.
Sug gus kwaw ge maLeech.
Be nais se wugBirds.
Ke neuWar eagle; the master of all birds.
Me giz zeWhite headed eagle. Me giz ze wug, plural.
Ka kaikSpotted hawk.
Be bo ne sa, (Ottaw.) )
^' , . .
Ke bu nuz ze, (Ojib.
) )
I
No je ke na beek we zis seMarsh hawk (snake eating). I'
Wa be no je Ke na beek we zis seWhite marsh hawk.
|
Mis ko na ne saRed tail hawk.
Pish ke neuBlack tail hawk.
f
Muk kud da ke neuBlack hawk.
Bub be nug goSpotted tail hawk.
Be na seen'sSmall pheasant hawk.
Cha een saA small hawk, so named from its cry.
Pe pe ge wiz zain'sSmallest hawk.
We nong gaTurkey buzzard.
8
^ '^
/r\L \
[
Raven. Kah eâh ê wuffRavens.
Gau gauge she, (Ott.
) )
&
& &
On daigCrow. On daig wugCrows.
As sig ge nawkBlackbird.
Mis ko min gwe gun nah Sig ge naukRed wing blackbird.
O pish kah gah geMagpie. O pish kah gah ge wugMagpies.
Gween gwe shaSimilar in habits and locality to the former,
and closely resembling in size and color.
Teen de seBluejay. These begin to lay their eggs before the
snow is off the ground in the spring.
Be gwuk ko kwa o wais saTrush.
Ah luckSimilar to the thrush in habits.
Ween de go be nais saKingbird (the bird that eats his own
kind).
O pe cheRobin.
Ma mah twaCat bird.
Chaum ma wais sheAnother of the same size.
Kos kos ko na chingGround bird? A small bird so named
from its note.
VOCABULARIES. 699
Waw be ning ko seSnowbirds.
Che ki che gau na saA very small lively bird, peculiar to the
north.
Mis kobe na saRed bird.
Sa ga bun wau nis saWaxen chatterer.
O zha wus kobe na saGreen bird.
O zaw we be na saYellow bird.
Ma maBed headed wood pecker.
Paw paw saSpotted wood pecker.
Muk kud da paw paw saBlack pawpawsa. The male of this
kind has a bright yellow spot on the top of the head. They are
iound about Lake Superior in winter.
Mo ning gwun naYarril (highhold).
Ke ke ba naSmall spotted wood pecker.
Che gaun do wais saBrown wood pecker, confined to cedar
countries.
Shin go beek ai saCedar bird.
Gitche o gish ke mun ne saGreat king fisher.
O gish ke mun ne saCommon king fisher.
Shaw shaw wa ne bais saSwallow.
O kun
is
saLoxia enudeator, found at Lake Superior in Febru-
ary.
Pe, sing., Pe ug, pi.A fringilla, smaller than the waxen chat-
terer. The female has a spot of red on the head ; the male, the whole
head and neck of the same color. The tail feathers are bent outwards
near the ends. Found about Lake Superior in the winter.
Bosh kun dum moanParakeet (croch perons).
Moasli kah o se We kum mo (Menominee) Stake driver, (bit-
tern).
Kun nuh waw be mokee zhis wais saFly up the creek (sun
gazer).
Me nom i ne ka sheBail (rice bird).
Pud dush kon zheSnipe.
Gitche pud dush kon zheWood cock.
Che chees che me ukWaders.
Mo bokeCurliew (a foreign word).
Mus ko da che chees ke waUpland plover.
Wain je tah che chees ke waYellow leg plover.
Che to walkBull head plover.
Che chees ke waisTern.
Wawb uh che chawkWhite crane.
O saw waw clie chawkSand hill crane.
Me zis saTurkey.
Be naPheasant.
Mus ko da saGrouse ; confined to pine and cedar countries.
Ah gusk (Ojib.) Ke maw ne (Ott.
)
Prairie hen.
O me mePigeon ; o me meegPigeons. Amemi, Z. 19.
Ko ko ko ogeOwls.
Waw wain je gun noGreat horned owl.
Wain je tah koko kohoRight owl.
Koko oanseLittle owl
;
gokholit, Z. 18.
Bo dah wall doam baSize of a pigeon (membrum virile).
Kaw kaw be shaBrown owl. I
Waw be ko koSnow owl, very large.
Wah o nais saWhippoorwill.
Baish kwaNight hawk.
She she bugDucks.
Waw be zeeGreat swan. f
Mah nah be zeeSmaller swan, not common. Their cry resem-
bles the voice of a man. The word means ugly or ill looking swan. *
Ne kuhBrant; ne kug, pi.
^
Pish ne kuhA smaller brant. 8
Wa waGoose ; Wa waigGeese ; Waw be wa waWhite goose
;
Waw be wa waigWhite geese.
An ne nish sheebDuck and mallard.
f
Tah gwaw ge she sheebFall duck, red neck.
Mah to gun she sheeb- -Scraper bill duck.
Scah moWood duck.
AVa weeb ge won gaBlue wing teal, swift winged.
Ke nis te no kwa sheebCree woman duck.
Muk kud da sheebBlack duck.
Kitche waw we big wa wyaLarge blue wing duck.
Pe gwuk o she sheebLarge bill, or blunt arrow duck ; from pe
gwuk, the blunt or unbarbed arrow. This species has a large bill, and
head of a leaden color. They are found throughout the winter in the
rapids between Lakes Superior and Huron.
Ma muh tway ah gaWhistling wing.
Kee no gwaw o wa sheebLong neck duck.
A ha waHouse duck.
Wah ka we sheebWhite duck.
Gaw waw zhe koosShell duck.
VOCABULARIES. 701
Ah zig wukFishing duck.
Sah gah taMud hen.
Shin ge bisGreebe ; Gitche shin ge bis
-large greebe.
MahngLoon.
A sha mahngSmall loon.
Gaw gaw geshe sheebCormorant.
Sha daPelican ; sha daigPelicans.
Shuh shuh gahBlue heron.
Gi aushk wugGulls.
Gitche gi aushkGreat gull. Gi as koo sha of the Ottawas.
Paush kaw gi aushkBlack headed gull.
Nas so waw gwun nus kitte kwah gi aushkFork tailed gull.
Muk kud da gi aushkBlack gulls.
Man e toanse sug*Insects.
Bo dush kwon e sheLarge dragon fly.
Bo dus kwon e sheenseSmall dragon fly.
Gitche me ze zaukLarge horse fly.
Me zaukCommon horse fly.
Me zauk oonsGnat fly.
Gitche ah moHumble bee.
Ah mo, sing., ah maag, pZ. Wasps, hornets, etc.
Waw waw tais saLightning bug.
An ne me ke wid de koam-j*Miller, sphinx, thunder's louse.
Pah puk ke naGrasshopper.
Ad de sah wa a sheLocust.
Mow wytch e ka seBeetle (dung worker).
Gitche o mis koseGreat water bugs.
O misCommon water bug.
Ma maing gwahButterfly.
Metig onishe moan ka she
(He that sleeps in a stick). Found

in the bottom of springs.
Sha bo e ya saRowing water bug.
Man e toanse o ke te beeg pe me but toanLiterally, the
little creature, or spirit that runs on the water.
O mush ko se se wugGrass bugs.
*Maii e toanse sug, or man e toanse ug, small spirits; not exactly synonymous
in this application with our word insscts, but used to designate, indiscriminately, all
very small animals.
tThis is one of those clumsy sphinxes, or moths, that are found on the ground, in
damp weather, or after showers of rain, and the Indians imagine that they fall from
the Annimekeeg, the beings whose voice is the thunder.
O o chugBlowing flies and house flies.
Sug ge maMosquito.
Pin goosh, pin goosh ains sugGnats and sand flies.
Mat wa nuh kai moagSwarming flies.
Sub be ka sheSpider (net worker). A a be koLarge black
spider.
An e goAnt.*
Mis ko manetoanseA little red bug common in the north.
Me nail koo sit manetoanseStrawberry bug.
Puh beegFlea; Puh beeg wugFleas.
Eze gangTick.
E kwuhLouse; E kwugLice.
Mo saigWorms.
O zah wash ko mo sahGreen worm.
Way muk kwah naGreat catterpillar (bear skin).
Gitche mo saGreat white grub
;
gitche mo saig, pi,
^
Me shin no kau tait mo saMillipede.
j
Pe mis koo de seenceSnail.
I
Ke goi yiigFishes.
Nah maSturgeon.
Mas ke no zhaMuskallunge, or pike.
O zhaw wush ko ke no zhaGreen pickerel, only found in the
north.
Ke no zhaPickerel; from Kenose, long.
Nah ma gooshTrout.
Na zhum ma gooshBrook trout.
Ne git cheBuffalo fish.
Bush she toSheepshead ; bush she toag, pi.
Mon nuh she gunBlack bass.
Ad dik kum aig (attai kum meeg, Menom.
)
White fish.
Buh pug ga saLarge sucker.
Mis kwaw zhe gun noBed horse.
Nah ma binSucker. Mis kwun nah ma binRed sucker.
Ug gud dwawshSun fish.
Sah waPerch, (yellow). Sa waig, pi.
O ka ah wisFresh water herring.
We be cheeA flat fish larger than herring ; only found in Red
river.
*The Nautoway Indians have a fable of an old man and woman who watched an
ant heiap until they saw the little insects changed to white men, and the eggs which
'
they carry in their mouths to bales of merchandise.
VOCABULAEIES. 703
Mon num maigGreat cat fish.
Ah wa sis sieLittle cat fish. The Indians say this fish hatches
its young in a hole in the mud, and that they accompany her for some
time afterwards.
Ke na beek gwum maigEel, (water snake).
O da che gah oonGar.
Shig gwum maigShovel nose , only in the Mississippi.
Kuk kun naun gwiLittle toad fish ; Lake Huron.
O gah sukLittle dories; Lake Huron.
O gahDory.
Bug gwut turn mo goon sukThese are small fishes that make
their appearance in ponds having no connection with rivers or lakes,
and which are sometimes quite dry. But, though they all perish in
times of drouth, they reappear when the ponds are filled.
Shaw ga sheCraw fish.
AisClam. Ais sugClams.
Ais ainseLittle clam.
Mis koan sugBed clams.
MINERALS.
That the Indians are less observant of inanimate substances than
of organized beings, will be manifest from the following meagre cata-
logue of minerals:
Bin gwaw beekLime stone, (ashes stone).
Mat toat wah nah beekGranite.
Muk kud dah waw beekBlack stone.
Mik kwum me waw beekWhite flint, (ice stone).
Pish ah beekSulphuret of iron. They often find this passing
into sulphate of iron, and make use of it for dyeing black.
O poih gun us sinPipe stone; further distinguished according
to color.
O skaw shut waw beekGneiss, (vein stone).
Mis kwaw sinRed sand stone.
Gan gaw wuskGypsum.
Waw be gunWhite clay.
O num unOchre.
Mis kwaw be gunBed earth.
O saw waw be gunYellow earth.
Muk kud da wuk kum mikBlack mould.
Waw be gun uk kawClay ground.
CHAPTEK LVI.
Definition of Indian Local NamesNames of StatesCountiesCitiesTowns
BiversStreamsLakesMountainsRanges.
[The matter contained in this chapter is derived from information obtained from
the writings of Heckewelder, Schoolcraft, Trumbull, Morgan and others, aided by
that from the Indians themselves, as well as from a knowledge of the Indian dialects
acquired by the writer through patient study in the midst of a busy life.]
Abbreviations.The language from which words are derived is denoted by abbreviations, thus: Alg.
for Algonquin, Dak. for Dakota, Irq. for Iroquois.
A.
BACOOCHE, this word is supposed to be
I'
derived from Oscoochee, one of the
ancient bands of the Creek nation. Name
of a river in Georgia.
Abanaka, Ahenake^ (Alg.), "the east
land." Apost-office in Ohio, from a tribe of
Indians, sometimes known as Wabencikies.
Abaguage, (Alg.), "a flaggy meadow."
The name of a pond in Connecticut, near the source of a stream
called Little Eiver.
Abitibi, (Alg., Cree dialect), "intermediate water." Name of
lake in British America; from the root abit^ "middle half," and nipt
(pronounced ne pe) "water," which makes ipi in composition, whence
AhUipi, "water at half distance;" the name of this lake comes from
its position at the level of the land between Hudson's Bay and the St.
Lawrence.
Abrigada, (Alg.), "shelter," "hiding-place." Name of a hill in
Waterbury, Conn., having on its side a deep cavern-cliff called "the
Indian house," whence the name.
Absecon, ^6secwm, (Alg.), "the place of the swan." Name of a
creek in New Jersey.
(704)
INDIAN GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES. 705
Abscoda, (Alg.), "pertaining to fire;" post-office in Michigan.
Abwoina or Abwoinac, (Alg.), from ahwoina Sioux, and auke
land, "the land of the Sioux." Aterm formerly applied to the country
lying between the Mississippi and the Missouri rivers, and north of the
St. Peters river, formerly occupied by the Sioux.
AccOHANOC, (Alg.), "as far as the river." Name of a river in east-
ern Virginia, from a tribe of Indians of that name dwelling on this
river.
AccoKEEK, "small kettle;" it may come from achoioekik, "a
thicket." A post-office in Maryland, from a creek of that name, tribu-
tary of the Potomac.
Accomack, (Alg.), corrupted from Achgameek, "a broad bay."
Name of a county in Virginia. Some authorities say from acaum-
(iiike, "on the other side," or "the other side land," or derived from
aco, limit, auk^ wood, and auke, land, and means "the limit of the
wood-land."
AccoTiNK, "within a small place;" from aco, "limit," and ink or
ing, "at or within." A post-village in Virginia.
AcEYEDAN or Oceyedau, "place of weeping." So called by the
Dakota Indians, because of weeping there the death of some of
their relatives. Name of a large creek in the northwestern part of
Iowa.
AcHAFALAYA, "long river." Name of the principal western out-
let of the Mississippi river. The word is sometimes spelled Atcha-
falaya.
AcHQUANCHicoLA, signifies in the Delaware dialect,
"
the brush-
net fishing creek." Acreek in Pennsylvania. This word is sometimes
spelled Aquanshicola.
AcHSiNNiNK, (Alg.), "standing alone." Name of a place in west-
ern Pennsylvania.
AcHWiCK, Achweek, (Alg.), "bushy," "difficult to pass." Acreek
in central Pennsylvania.
AcKEEKSEEBE, Akeekseehe, (Alg.), said to signify "kettle stream."
The name of a northern tributary of Rum river, which enters the
Mississippi some distance above th6 Falls of St. Anthony.
AcoMEQUES, (Alg.), "the land on the other side." The name of
a district on the east side of the Thames river in Connecticut, and
near its mouth.
45
706
AcoMES, (Alg.), "a rest," or "a place of stopping." The name
of a fall in the Amariscoggin river in Maine.
AcQUACKANONCK, (Alg.), from aco, limit, misquak, red cedar, auk, i
wood, stump or trunk of a tree, i. e., "the limit of the red cedar stump
or trunks," or possibly a better translation would be, "the limit of
the red cedar wood." Name of a village on the Passaic river in New
Jersey. This word is also spelled Aquackannonok.
J
AcQUiA or Aquia, (Alg.), equiwi, "between," or "in between
something." Others say the word is derived from auke, "earth," and
means literally "earthly, or muddy creek." Name of a creek in Vir-
ginia.
Acton, in the Dakota language is the word Akton, signifying
"more than." A town in Minnesota.
Adirondack, (Irq.), name of a tribe of Indians, signifying "he
eats bark." Name of a post-office in New York.
Agamentigus, (Alg.),
"
on the other side of the river." A moun-
tain and river in Maine.
Agawam, (Alg.), contracted from Agawawaum, "around the
point," "the other side." Other authorities say it signifies "low land,
marsh, or meadow;" also "place below or down stream," with refer-
ence to some place above or up stream. Name of a town in Massachu-
setts and other states.
Agicomook, (Alg.), "inclosed place." The Indian name for
Stony creek in Connecticut.
Agiochook, (Alg.), "place of the spirit of the pines." One of
the aboriginal names for the White Mountains of New Hampshire.
Agogebic, (Irq.) The same as Gogebic, (which see).
Ahiki, or Ouhegee, "sweet potato mother." The name of an
eastern tributary of the Chattahoochee river.
Ahnapee, (Alg.), "whenwhen is it?" Said to be contracted
from Ahnineopee, "when will you return or come back?" A town
in Wisconsin. In the Shoshonee dialect is the word Aneepee, signi-
fying "elm tree."
AiSAHATCHA, "deer river." This was formerly the name of a river
in Florida.
Alabama, "thicket clearers." The name of a state and river in
the United States. The name was first applied to a tribe of Indians
who formerly resided at the junction of the Tombigbee and Coosa, or
Alabama. Other authorities say it means "here we rest."
Alempigon, supposed to be the same as Nipegon, a bay and small
lake on the north shore of Lake Superior. Nipegon seems to contain
the roots nibee, "water," and gan, "lake."
Algansee, (Alg.
),
"the lake prairie," or "the prairie resembling
a lake." The name of a township in Michigan.
Alipkonck, (Alg.), from ancient maps this was the name of an
Indian village which, in 1659, stood on the east bank of the Hudson,
between Sing Sing and the influx of the Croton river. It appears to
be a derivative from two words in the ancient Mohegan, iineeh, leaves
(elm leaves), and ong^ locality.
Algoma, (Alg.), from Algonquin and wai^, "waters," "Algonquin
waters;" other authorities say "Lake of Algons." Name of a town in
Michigan.
Algona, probably the same as Algoma. A town in Iowa.
Algonac, (Alg.), pertaining to the Algonquin language. Other
authorities say from Algonquin and auJce, "land," "Algonquin coun-
try," "land of Algons." Name of a town in Michigan. Mr. School-
craft says in this word the particle ac is taken from auke, "land," or
"earth," and its prefixed syllable, Algon, from the word Algonquin.
This system by which a part of the word is made to stand after, and
carry the meaning of the whole, is common to Indian compound sub-
stantives.
Algonquin, from a tribe of Indians of that name. A post-office
in Illinois and other states.
Allamakee, (Alg.), "thunder." Name of a county in Iowa.
Allegan, or Alleghan, (Alg.), name of the oldest tribe of Indians
in the country of the United States, of which there is any tradition.
Name of a county, township and post village in Michigan.
Alleghany, (Alg.), corrupted from Allegewi, name of an extinct
tribe of Indians who dwelt along the river of that name, and in the
country west of the Alleghany Mountains, along the tributaries of the
Ohio river and numerous branches. In New York this river was
called by the Indians J.wee?/o, "the beautiful river." Allen's creek,
N. Y., was called by the Indians Oatka, "the opening."
Alpena, (Alg.), from peiiaise, "a bird," and the Arabic aZ. A
county and town in Michigan.
708
Altamaha, "the place of the village;" "where the village is."
Name of a river in Georgia.
Allum Bank, the word Alliim comes from a Quinabaug captain,
meaning "the fox." Name of a post-office in Pennsylvania.
Amakalli, or Amacallee, "the sliding or tumbling water."
Tributary of the Flint river in Mississippi.
Amariscoggin, (Alg.), from namaos, "fish," kees, "high," and
auJce, "place." A river having its source in New Hampshire.
Amboy, (Alg.), called by the Indians who dwelt there embote,
which signifies, if Indian, "round and hollow." According to Mr.
Heckewelder from emboli, "a place resembling a bowl." Name of
towns in New Jersey and Illinois.
Amicolola, the word amico signifies "hunting ground." A town
in Georgia.
Amikaindand, (Alg.
),
"beaver house." Name of the most eastern
of the Beaver Islands in Lake Michigan.
Aminicon, (Alg.), "the seed of anything." A river in Wis-
consin.
Amo, (Alg.), "a bee." Post village in Indiana.
Ammonoosuc, (Alg.), "fish story river." Name of a river in New
Hampshire, tributary of the Androscoggin river. Others say it signi-
fies "the stony fish place."
Amoskeag, (Alg.), from amusk, in the Merrimack dialect, signi-
fying "a beaver," and eag or eeg is an inflection for the plural of
inanimate nouns; it also signifies "pond," "marsh," or "a small body
of water or overflowed land." Name of falls in the Merrimack river;
also the name of a post village in New Hampshire. Others say it sig-
nifies "swampy."
Anamosa, (Alg.), "you walk from me." Name of a town in Iowa,
or it may come from Anamoosh,
"
dog," or "species of fox."
Annamosing, (Alg.) The Indian name for Fox Islands of Lake
Michigan, meaning, "place of the little dog."
Anawauk, Anawanka, (Dak.), "to gallop onto." Name of a post-
office in Minnesota.
Andes, Anta, "copper." Name of a town in New York. This
name was applied by the Indians to the mountains near Cuzco, the
ancient capital of Peru.
A\
Androscoggin, (Alg.
),
"fish speariDg." Name of a river and
county in Maine.
Annaton, Anatan, (Dak.), "charge," "attack." Name of a town
in Wisconsin.
Annawan, (Alg.), probably from the word awan, "fog." Name
of a town in Illinois.
Anoka, (Dak.), "both sides." The word anoke, (Alg.), signii&es
"he works." A village in Minnesota, on both sides of Rum river.
AoNTAGlLLON, (Irq.), "creek at point of rocks." A branch of
Fish creek in Oneida county. New York.
Apache, "men." The name of a tribe of Indians; post-office in
Arizona.
Appalachie, supposed to be derived from apalachee oJdi, "those
(people) on the other side," or "the people on the other side." The
term was formerly applied to a town on Appalachee Bay, Florida. It
is now the name of a river in the northern part of Georgia.
Apalachicola, Apalatchukla, "old town," a river in Florida.
This river was named after an Indian town standing on or near its
banks.
Appanee, in the Ojibway dialect, means "a slave captured in
war." A river in Canada, falling into Lake Ontario, in the bay of
Quinte.
Appanoose, Ahbenooje, (Alg., Ojibway dialect), meaning
"child," or "a chief when a child." Name of a Sac chief; a town in
Illinois.
Appolacon, (Alg.), corrupted from Apelogacon^ "whence the
messenger returned." Name of a stream emptying into the Susque-
hanna from the south, in Susquehanna county, Pennsylvania.
Aptakishik, Habiia Geshick, (Alg.), "half day," or "sun at
meridian." A post office in Lake county, Illinois.
Aquanshicola, (Alg.), corrupted irom Achquoanschicola, "where
we fish with bush-net." Name of a stream emptying into the Lehigh
from the northeast, in Carbon county, Pennsylvania.
Aquapauksit, (Alg.), this word probably means, "at the end of
a small pond." Name of a place in Connecticut.
Aquasco, (Alg.), probably corrupted from Achoivasquii, "grassy,"
"overgrown with grass." A post village in Maryland.
I#
Aquashicola, (Alg.
),
corrupted from Achquonschicola, "where
we fish with the bush-net." A town in Pennsylvania.
Aquebapaug, Aquahepaiig, (Alg.) This word may mean either
''before the pond," or the "pond before" some other pond. The name
of a pond near the head of Pawcatuck river, in Rhode Island.
Aquidneck, (Alg.) The name by which the Narragansetts called
Rhode Island, the meaning of which could never be obtained.
Aquia, from Equiivi, (Alg.), "between." A post-office in Vir-
ginia. (See Acquia).
Arenac, is a compound of the Latin arena and the Indian auke,
"earth," or "land." A county of Michigan.
Arkansas, from Kansas, with, the French prefix of arc, "a bow."
Name of a river, and one of the states of the Union.
Arkansaw. Name of a town in Wisconsin, same as Arkansas.
Arapahoe, "pricked" or "tatooed people." Name of a county
in Colorado, from a tribe of that name.
Aroostook, (Alg.), "good river," "clear of obstruction." Name
of a county and river in Maine.
AscuTNEYViLLE, Ascutney, (Alg.), "fire mountain," from having
been burned over. Name of a post village in Vermont.
AsHAWAY, (Alg.), the same as Assawog, "place between," or "in
the middle." A village in Rhode Island.
AsHKUM, (Alg.), "more and more," speaking increasingly, thus,
Ash-kum-ah-koose, "he is getting worse (more sick);" Ash-kum-wa-
hish-kah, "it is getting worse." Name of a town in Illinois, from a
Pottawattamie chief.
AsHOWUGH, Cummocke, (Alg.), "the half way place," or "the
place between," that is, "the island between the large island and the
main land." Name of an island near New London, Conn.
AsPETUK, Aspatock, (Alg.), "a height." The name of a river in
New Milford county, Conn. There is a ridge dividing the two prin-
cipal branches of this river, called "Aspatuck Hill," and the proba-
bility is the river took its name from the hill..
AsPROOM, (Alg.), "high," "lofty," or "elevated." Name of a
mountain in Connecticut.
AssAWA Lake. The word Assawa here signifies in the Ojibway
dialect, "perch," this species of fish being found in this lake. The
source of the Plantagenian fork of the Mississippi.
AssAWASSUC, Assawa suck, or Nashuae suck, (Alg.
),
"the fork of
the brook," or "the place between the forks of the brook." Name of a
place ill East Glasteiibury, Conn.
AssAWOG, or Ashaicog, (Alg.), "place between." Name of a river
in Connecticut.
AssiNiBOiNE, (Alg.), "stone roasters;" from a tribe of Indians
of that name. A name given this people, it is said, from cooking
their meat by roasting on hot stones. The name of a river in British
America.
AsTORENGA. A Mohawk name for the Little Falls of the Monawk
river, said to denote "compressed channel." Other authorities say
they called these falls Astenrogen, signifying, "the rock in the water."
Atabaska, "place where there is an amount of high grass here
and there." Name of a river in British America.
Atalaposa, (Alg.), "the slippery place." Indian name for
Tongue Mountain in Warren county, N. Y.
Atesi, Atctssa, "war club." Name of a town in Indian territory.
Called after an old town on the Tallapoosa river.
Athapasca, or Arahasca, "lake of the hills." A lake flowing
north through an outlet of the same name into Slave lake and Macken-
zie's river.
Atoka, in the Dakota language is the word Atokan, signifying
"in another place," "to another place." Name of a post-office in
Indian territory.
Attapulgus, Itupulga, "boring holes into wood to make fire."
Name of a village in Georgia.
Attica, (if Indian), probably from J.//zA;a, "white." Name of a
town in Michigan and other states in the Union.
AuGHWiCK, (Alg.), corrupted irom Achweek, (Alg.), "brushy,"
"overgrown with brush." Name of a tributary of the Juniata river in
Huntingdon county, Pennsylvania.
B.
Bannack. a town in Montana territory. The same as Bonak.
Coming from a tribe of Indians of that name inhabiting the country
on the western slope of the Kocky Mountains, meaning "root diggers."
They are so called from subsisting upon roots which they dig.
Bantam, -om, -itm, Banfaham, etc., (Alg. ) A name given to
the place at which Litchfield, Conn., was settled; afterwards, to "The
Great Pond" and river in that township. In the first deed recorded
in Litchfield town records. May, 1719, the plantation is called Bania-
ham.
Bawateeg, or Pawcdeeg. The Ojibway name for the falls of the
river St. Mary's, Michigan. The term is descriptive of "shallow water
upon a rock," and is a common word to designate rapids of that par-
ticular class. The French, on the discovery of the country, gave
the name of Mary, as a tutelar saint to the village; and, as a con-
sequence, named the rapids Sault de Sainte Ilarie, Avhich is usually
and properly abbreviated Sault Ste. Marie. The word is generally
heard from the natives, in its prepositional form, in ing, when it
means, at the place
of
the falls. The true Chippeway pronunciation
is Bawateeg.
Bezhickeseebe, (Alg.), "buffalo river." Generally known to the
whites by the latter. A name tributary to Sandy lake on the west of
Lake Superior.
BiLOXi, B^luksi, LuJdchi, "turtle." The signification of the par-
ticle B is lost, but the word, it is said, has some allusion to the catch
of turtles. Name of a bay and town in Mississippi.
Bochequet, (Alg.), "corner of the bay." Name by which the
Ojibways called the place where the town of Green Bay now stands.
c.
Cacoosing, Cocoosing (Alg.), "place of owls;" from a creek of
that name. A town in Pennsylvania.
Calamus, (Alg.), corrupted from calamo, "honey wood." A town
in Wisconsin.
Callicoon, from Caivlicoon, said to signify "turkey." A town in
New York.
Can, in the Dakota language, signifies "a tree," "trees," or
"wood;" it also signifies "a night or day." Name of a post-office in
Michigan.
Canada, (Irq.
), "a village" or "town." Name of a town in Kan-
sas, and British Province, also the name of two several streams in the
state of New York, putting into the Mohawk river, known as the East
and West Canada creeks. It is said that when the French first visited
that country now known as Canada, having proceeded up the St. Law-
rence river to the point now called Montreal, they found a considerable
village of the Iroquois people at that place. They inquired of them
as to the name by which their country was known. The Indians, mis-
taking the inquiry by supposing that they referred to the name by
which a village or town was designated in their language, replied that
it was Canada; accepting this as a correct answer to their inquiry,
they applied the word Canada as the name of the country at large.
Canadasaga, (Irq.
),
the Indian name for Seneca Lake. It appears
to have been so named from Canada, town, and aga, a placein
allusion to the Seneca capital, near its foot or outlet.
Canadawa, or Canadaway, Ganadawao, (Irq.), "running
through the hemlocks." A creek in New York.
Canajoharie, (Irq.), "the village of the bear;" others say the
words mean
"
the pot that washes itself." A town on the Mohawk
river in New York.
Canandaigua, (Irq.),
"
a town set off," or
"
separated," from the
rest of the tribe. Name of a lake and town in New York.
Canaseraga Creek, Kanasowaga, (Irq.) A stream in Chenango
county. New York,
"
several strings of beads with a string lying
across." There is another creek of this orthography in Livingston
county, said to be derived from ga7iusgago, and to signify
"
among
the milk waeds." Both roots, with their signification, are obtained
from very high authority, and the probability is the similarity in the
modern orthography is a mere coincidence.
Candoto, Candatoiva, (Alg.), "high land." Name of a ridge
upon which the town of Ridgefield, Connecticut, stands.
Canoadoa, corrupted from Gaoyadeo, (Irq^.) , "where the heavens
rest upon the earth." Name of a stream in New York.
Canastota, Kanetota, (Irq.), "pine tree standing alone." The
name of a creek and town in New York.
Caniskrauga, (Irq.), "among the slippery elms." Mr. Morgan,
in his
"
League of the Iroquois," says the name by which this creek
and the village of Dansville was known to the Senecas was Gamis-
gago,
"
among the milk weeds." Name of a creek emptying into the
Genesee river, near Mt. Morris, New York.
Canisteg, "board in the water." A branch of the Chemung
river in New York.
Cankapoja, (Dak.), "light wood." The name of a small lake at
the head of Vermillion river, Dakota.
Canoe, a word by which we designate an Indian boat for navi-
gating the water. It comes from some dialect of the natives of the
West India Islands. One of the oldest Spanish writers on the Indians,
Peter Martyr, a cotemporary of Columbus, says that the Indians called
their boats hollowed out of trees Conoas
;
the word is altered by the
Trench into Canot, and by the English into Canoe. Name of a town
in Pennsylvania and other states.
Cannonpa, (Dak.), "two woods." The name of a chain of small
lakes in east Dakota ; so called on account of having two small groves
of timber on their banks.
Cannouchee, from the Creek word ikano dash% "graves are
there." The name of a river in Georgia.
Canoga, Ganogeh, (Irq.
),
"oil flowing on the water." The name
of a town on Cayuga lake, New York.
Capac, probably corrupted from the Algonquin word Kepec or
Kepak,
"
being shut," when applied to a place means
"
a place that is
shut in or surrounded by hills or elevation of ground." A town in
Michigan.
Casco, (Alg.
),
an abbreviation of Ancocisco, "the resting place."
Name of a bay in Maine ; significant of many retreats among its 365
islands; some authorities say it signifies "crane."
Cassacubque, Kussukohske, (Alg.), "high rocks." Name of a
great ledge of rocks in Colchester, Conn.
Casqadkga, Gusdago, (Irq-), "under the rocks." Name of a lake
and creek in New York.
Cataraque, Gadaioqiie, "fort in the water;" a river in New
York. The name by which Lake Ontario was known to the English at
an early day.
Cataroqui, (Irq.), "a bank of clay rising out of the water."
Ancient name of Kensington, Canada.
Catasauqua, (Alg.), corrupted from Gottoshacki, "the earth
thirsts," viz.: "for rain;" other authorities say it signifies "parched
land." Name of a town in Pennsylvania; also an affluent cf the
Lehigh river in Delaware.
Catawissa, (Alg.), corrupted from Gattawisi, "growing fat."
Probably the Indians who named the place killed a deer along the creek
in the season when deer fatten. A creek in Pennsylvania.
INDIAN GEOGRAPPIICAL NAxMES. 715
Cattaraugus, "bad smelling shore." The name of a county and
Tiver in New York.
Caucomgomic, Kaukonuumik, (Alg.), "at the big gull lake."
Name of a lake in Maine.
Caughnawaga, (Irq.
),
"stone in the rapid water." Name of a
town in New York.
Caughwaga, Gagwaga, "creek of the cat nation." Name of a
small river in Erie county, New York.
Cawanesque, (Irq.), "at the long island." A branch of the
Chemung.
Cawanshanock, Gawunschhanne, (Alg.), "green briar stream."
Name of a creek in Armstrong county, Penn.
Cayuga, (Irq.) Mr. Morgan, in the appendix to his "League of
the Iroquois," says this word is derived from gweugweh, in the Ca-
yuga dialect, and signifies "the mucky land;" other authorities say
"long lake," also "canoes pulled out of the water." Name of a
lake in New York.
Cazenovia. a creek in New York; was called by the Iroquois
Indians Gaamindehta, "a mountain flattened down."
Cega Iyeyapi, (Dak.), "kettles are found." The name of the
lakes and country near Fort Wadsworth, Dakota.
Changwatana, (Dak.), supposed to mean "the straight place," as
the straight path, road or river. A town in Minnesota.
Chanhasan, (Dak.), "pale bark wood," "sugar tree." The name
of several small rivers in Minnesota and Dakota.
Chanka, (Dak.), "fire stone." The name of a western tributary
of the Dakota, formerly Jaques or James river ; so called from a very
hard rock consisting of semi-fused or vitrified sandstone, found near
its mouth.
Chanshayapi, (Dak.), "red wood," literally "a post painted red."
The name of a western tributary of the Minnesota river.
Chanssnsan, "tumbling" or "rapid." The Dakota name of what
is now called Dakota river.
Chaea, (Dak.), "beaver." The name of a river in Minnesota.
Chappaqua, (Alg.), "an edible root of some kind." A town in
New York; country residence of the late Horace Greeley.
716
Chaska, Caske, (Dak.), "first born boy." The name of a town in
Minnesota.
Chateaugay, probably the same as Chautauqua,
"
place where one
was lost." A lake and town in northern New York.
Chattahoochee, Chatahuchi, "pictured rocks." The name of a
river in Georgia.
Chattanooga, said to mean "crow's nest." The name of a creek
in Georgia ; also the name of a city in Tennessee.
Chautauqua, (Irq.) spelled by different writers, in different
languages, and in successive periods of time, Chatakouin, Chataconit,
and Shatacoin. The Indian chief, Corn Planter, pronounced the name
as though it were spelled Chaud-dauk-wa, which is very near the pop-
ular pronunciation at the present day. The meaning of the word has
been interpreted to signify "a pack tied in the middle," and "mocca-
BIRDS EYE VIEW OF LAKE CHAUTAUQUA AND SUEKOUNDING COUNTEY.
sins tied together," from the shape of the lake by that name, which is,^
in reality, two small lakes united by a narrow strait, as will be noticed
by a reference to the accompanying cut. But from the best authori-
ties the name, doubtless, signifies "foggy place," from a legend con-
nected therewith, which makes it mean "where one vanishes away,"
"where one was lost."
Chautauqua is the name of the most western county of New York,
nnd the lake, above referred to, which is situated in the center of the
same, and which is said to be the most elevated navigable body of water
on the western continent, being 1,300 feet above the level of the ocean,
and over 700 feet above Lake Erie. This i the seat of the famous
Chautauqua Assembly Grounds, or Summer School and Assembly,
organized on its banks by a congregation of people in 1874.
Chebanse, (Alg.
),
"Little Duck;" name of a PottaAvattamie
chief. Name of a town in Illinois.
Chebeague Island, probably from Chebeeg^ (Alg.
),
"great waters,"
or "wide waters," "wide expanse of water." A post-offic3 in Maine.
Cheboygan, Chepoygan, (Alg.), "big pipe." Name of a town in
northern Michigan. From Che, "great," and p>oygan, "pipe."
Chectenunda, (Irq.), "twin sisters." A stream in Montgomery
county. New York.
Chedi, Cedi, (Dak.), "swamp canoe." The name of a small lake
in Dakota.
Cheektowaga, same as Chicfawauga, (which see). Name of a
town in New York.
Cheesechankamuck, (Alg.), "the great fishing place at the weir."
The name of the east branch of the Farmington river in Hartland,
Connecticut.
Chehalis, "sand," takes its name from a tribe of Indians who
lived at the mouth of Chehalis river, on account of the sand there.
A post-office in Washington territory.
Chehtanbeh, or Chetanhe, (Dak.), "sparrow hawk's nest." The
name of a tributary of the Minnesota river.
Chemung, (Irq.), "big horn," from a fossil tusk found in the river.
The name of a river and county in New York.
Chenango, Ochenang, (Irq.)? "bull thistles." The name of a
river and county in New York.
Chepachet, (Alg.), "a place of separation;" as where a stream
divides. The name of a creek and village in Ehode Island.
Chepultepec, "grasshopper hill." The name of a high elevation
of ground in the vicinity of the city of Mexico ; also the name of a
post-office in Alabama.
Chequamegon, Shagawaumicong, "shoal water," or "place
where the water is shoal," "where the bottom comes nearly to the
surface." Name of an island and bay on Lake Superior; the name
also by which the locality of La Pointe, Wis., was known to the
Indians.
Chesapeake, (Alg.), "place where there is a great body of water
spread out." The name of a bay off the coast of Maryland. Some
authorities say it signifies simply "great water."
Chesuncook, (Alg.), "great goose lake." The name of a lake in
Maine.
Cheyenne,
"
speaking a different language." The name originally
of a tribe of Indians recognized as a part of the great Dakota family,
although their language indicates that they sprung from the Ojib-^
way or Algonquin stock. The capitol of Wyoming territory.
Chicago. The word Chicago is understood to be an Indian word.
What its precise meaning is, or whether it has any particular meaning
in its present form, is a matter about which there is considerable dis-
pute among those who have given the subject attention. The word
comes to us through the early French explorers of the west, as an
Indian word, from the language of the Algonquin group. Whilst
this group of the North American tribes had one general or generic
language by which they were distinguished, yet each tribe had its
dialect, differing more or less from that of the other tribes of the same
group. The standard or parent language, however, since this people
became known to the whites, was that spoken by the Ojibways (Chip-
peways), the most powerful and numerous of the various tribes of this
group.
Those who pretend to make any positive assertion as to the cor-
rect meaning of this word, as an Indian word, seem to have confined
their investigations on the subject to the Algonquin language, as
spoken by the Ojibways, without reference to other dialects, seeming
to ignore the fact that it could come from any other source ; where-
upon, they reach the conclusion that it means onion, garlic, leek, or
skunk.
So far as appears at this day, there seems to have been no special
inquiry into the origin or meaning of this word, until about the time
of the re-building of Fort Dearborn in 1816. The year following
that event. Col. Samuel A. Starrow visited this place, and, in a letter
to Gen. Jacob Brown, of the United States army, refers to the river
here as "the Kiver Chicago (or, in the English, 'Wild Onion
Kiver')."
Mr. ySchooleraft, the Indian historian, in his "Narrative of an
INDIAN
GEOGKAPHICAL
NAMES.
719'
Expedition
to the
Sources of the
Mississippi
River
in 1820
"
in giving
an account
of visiting
Chicago
on the return of said
expedition,
speak-
ing ot the
Chicago
river,
says:
" Its banks
consist of a black
arena-
ceous fertile
soil
which
is stated to
produce
abundantly,
in its
season,
the wild
species of cepa or leek.
This
circumstance
has led the
natives
to name it the
place of the
wild leek.
Such is the
origin
of the term
Chicago
which IS a
derivative
by
elision
and
French
annotation
from
the word
chr-kaug.ong.
Kaug is the
Algonquin
name for the
hystrix
or
porcupine.
It takes
the
prefix chi,
when
applied
to the
mustela
putorius
(pole cat).
The
particle
chi is the common
prefix of
nouns
to
denote
greatness
in any
natural
object,
but it is
employed,
as
here
to mean the
increase
or excess,
as
acridness
or
pungency
in
quality'
CHICAGO
IN
1820SKETCHED BY MK.
SCHOOLCKAFT.
The
penultimate
ong
denotes
locality.
The
putorius
is so named
from
this plant.
'
Bishop
Baraga,
in an
appendix to his
Ojibway
dictionary,
says
the
word
Chicago
is a word in the Cree dialect,
a tribe
of the
Algonquin
group
called
also
Knistenos.
"From
Chicag
or
mag, a skunk,
a kind
ot
wildcat, a word which,
at the local term,
makes
CMcagok
"
In his
dictionary
mentioned,
he defines an onion, in the
Ojibway
dialect,
as
kitchijigagmanj.'
(French orthography).
English
orthography
kit-
che-zhig-a-gam-anzh.
The
definition
of
onion,
by Eev.
Edward
F
Wilson,
in his dictionary
of the Ojibway
dialect,
is
keche-she-gaug-uh.
wunzh.
He
defines
skunk as zhe gang.
John
Tanner,
for thirty
years a
captive
among
the
Ojibways,
'
and many years United States Indian interpreter, in a
"
Catalogue of
Plants and Animals found in the Country of the Ojibways, with
English names," appended to the narrative of captivity, defines skunk
as she (jcihg. He defines onion as she-gau-ga-winzlie, (skunk weed).
In a note thereto by Dr. James, editor of Tanner's narrative, it is
added: "From shih-gau-ga-winzhe, this word, in the singular number,
some derive the name Chicago.''^ The Indians, it seems, at least the
Ojibways, called the onion, garlic, and other weeds of like odor, by
a name which signified skunk-weed, and in the Ojibway dialect, the
words used so express it.
It is noticed that all who contend that the word Chicago, as
applied to the river and city of that name, means skunk, onion, or the
like, derive their convictions on the subject from one or more of the
authorities which aro before cited, or from some one familiar with the
Ojibway dialect, who forms his convictions to the same effect from the
mere coincidence of sounds. History is so unsatisfactory and varied
in regar to this word, that we are left at this day to determine its
meaning solely upon the basis of similarity of sounds; for there
seems to be no fact or incident narrated or mentioned in history, that
leads with any degree of certainty, either to the original meaning of
this word as intended, or to the dialect from which it is derived;
and it is to be confessed that, upon the theory aforesaid, conceding
that the word comes from the Ojibway language or dialect, no one is
prepared to dispute the assertion, so generally made, that the word is
derived from skunk. The word skunk being in the Indian tongue
simply she kaug. In order to make Chi-ca-go, the theory adopted is
that ong, an Ojibway local termination, is added, which makes Chi-cag-
ong, meaning at the skunkthe sound of ng being dropped in com-
mon speech, leaving the word in the form now used. Whilst this is not
inconsistent in practice, in dealing with Indian names, there is another
theory, it is suggested, which may be adopted in this connection, that
would seem to be equally consistent. The word Chi-cag-o, without
adding ng, would be a fair Ojibway expression. The sound of o added
would denote the genitive, and might be rendered thus: him
of
the
skunk, in which case it would probably be the name of an individual,
and it is stated that this word is the name not only of some one Indian
chief, but the name also of a line of chiefs during several genera-
tions.
It is to be remarked, however, that there are some facts in history,
in regard to this word, not in harmony with the definition generally
contended for, as before stated. The word is first mentioned in early
western history by Hennepin, in his account of La Salle's expedition
which he accompanied, chapter 34 (London edition,
1099),
the head-
ing o Avhich is as follows: "An account of the building of a new
fort on the river of the Illinois, named by the savages, Che-cau-gou^ and
by us, Fort Crevecoeury This was in January, 1680. This fort was
at or near the place where Peoria in this state now stands. We must
believe that the Indian word mentioned, given by the savages as their
name for this fort, could not, in this connection, mean s/cwnA:, nor skunk
iveed. The definition of the French word mentioned would mean
"broken heart." Hennepin remarks that the many difficulties they
labored under had almost broken their hearts. May we not, therefore,
suppose that the Indian word thus applied was intended to be of sim-
ilar import?
The name Che-ka-gou, thereafter, appears on a map by Franquelin,
in 1684, applied to a river putting into the Desplaines from the east,
at a point just above the Kankakee river, while at the head of Lake
Michigan, on this map, is the word Checagoumeinan. At a later date,
what is now called the Desplaines river, was called by the early French
explorers, the river Chekagou. This word, as a local name, did not,
as would appear, reach the river at present so named, nor the point
where Chicago now is, until at least thirty years after the time of
Hennepin, as before mentioned ; and, of the circumstances under which
this word was lastly so applied, from what dialect it came, or what
its intended meaning was, if any, in its changed application, no
account whatever is transmitted to us. The most that can be said of
the word, with any degree of certainty, is that it is of Indian origin,
and comes from some dialect of the Algonquin group, so called. It
must be noted, however, that in the Ojibway dialect, this word Chi-
cago, or that which is essentially the same, is not confined in its mean-
ing to that contended for, as before mentioned. The word may mean,
also, in that language, io forbear^ or avoid, from kah-go, forbear, and
che, a prefix answering to our preposition to. Or it may mean some-
thing great, from ka-go, something, and che, from git-che, great.
Besides this several other words or expressions may be found in
this dialect of the same sound, yet of different meanings. Che-ca-gua
was the name of a noted Sac chief, and means in that dialect, he that
stands by the tree.
In the Pottawattamie dialect, the word choe-ca-go, without addi-
tion or abridgement, means destitute, or "got none."
Now, if this word was applied to the river which at present bears
this name from the local circumstance, as claimed, that of the abun-
dance of skunk weed upon its banks, it would seem to follow that it
must have been so given by the tribe who then inhabited, or dwelt in
46
722
THE AMEraCAN INDIAN.
the vicinity. At the time this word first appeared in this locality, the
country about was inhabited, we are informed, by the tribe of Miamis,
in whose dialect the word for skunk or polecat was se-kaw-kwaii\ The
Miamis, it seems, were succeeded by the Pottawattamies. We have
no account from any source that the Ojibway nation, from whose
dialect the attempt is made to define the meaning of this word, ever
inhabited this part of the country.
Mr. Hurlbut, in his book of Chicago Antiquities, refers to an
article in Potter's American Monthly, Avherein it is stated that in early
days this place was called "Tuck Chucago," and in which it is said
that Tuck, in the Indian dialect, means tvood or iimher. That the
word Chicago means gone, absent^ or without. That the words Tucl:
Chicago, signified, therefore, the waste prairie, or, literally translated,
wood gone. The Indian dialect referred to, it is understood, has refer-
ence to that of the Pottawattamies. Conceding this to be so, there is
much force in this definition. Properly, however, in that dialect, it
would be Tuck Choc-ca-go (no tree or not a tree). In the Ojibway
language, Mit-tick-ga-ga-go. As a matter of history, the locality
about Chicago was the only place on the western shore of Lake Mich-
igan, where there was an entire absence of trees. The country along
the lake, at this point, for some distance south of the mouth of the
river, was clean naked prairie, with not a tree to obstruct the view ; and
it is fair to suppose that some name would be given this place by the
natives, suggestive of this circumstance.
Chickahominy, Chickamawhony, (Alg.), "turkey lick," or "the
lick at which the turkeys are plenty." Name of a river in Virginia.
Chickamauga, "river of death." Name of a river in Georgia.
Chickaming, (Alg.), "big lake." The name of a town in Michi-
gan.
.
Chicomico, is formed from she, che, "great," and komuk, or coma-
co, "house," or "enclosed place." Name of a creek which runs north-
westerly through Pine Plains township, Connecticut.
Chicopee, (Alg.), "cedar tree," "birch bark tree." The name of
a river, falls and town in Massachusetts.
Chictauwauga, Jiikdowaahg'eh, (Irq.), "the place of the crab
apple tree." Name of a township in Erie county, N. Y.
Chikisalunga, (Alg.), supposed to mean "place of crabs, or crab-
fish," or "the creek on which the ground is full of holes made by the
crab-fish." Other authorities say it means "long piece of land where
rabbits burrow." Name of a creek in Pennsylvania.
Chiknicomika, now Cliicacomico, (Alg.
),
"the place of turkeys,"
or "the place where turkeys are plenty." Name of a stream on the
eastern shore of Maryland.
Chilesquaque, (Alg.), "resort of snow birds." Name of a creek
in Pennsylvania.
Chilhowah, (Cherokee dialect), "deer mountain." The name of a
mountain in southern Tennessee and northern Georgia.
Chilhowee. The name of a town in Tennessee. (Same as Chil-
liowah )
.
Chilhowie. The name of a township in Missouri. (Same as
Chilhowah).
Chinkeclamoose, now shortened into Moose, corrupted from
Achfschinkiclamme, (Alg.), signifying "it almost joins," in allusion
to a horseshoe bend in the stream, whose extremities almost unite. A
stream emptying into the Susquehanna from the northeast, in Clearfield
county, Penn.
Chippaquiddick, or Chippoqiiiddick, (Alg.), "separated island."
Name of an island separated by a narrow strait from Martha's Vine-
yard.
Chippewa, Chippeway, Ojihway, (Alg.), "puckered shoes," or
"he who wears puckered shoes;" other authorities say it signifies "he
overcomes," not in battle only, but in any undertaking, or "he sur-
mounts obstacles." Name of a county in Michigan. From an Indian
tribe.
Chippecoke, (Alg.), "brush wood." The Indian name for the
place where Vincennes, Indiana, now stands.
Chissenessick, Chussenesik, "the place of blue-birds;" or "the
place where blue-birds flock together." Name of a river in Georgia.
Chittenango, Chudenaang, (Irq.), "where the sun shines out."
Other authorities say "waters divide and run into." Name of a
creek in New York.
Choctaw, Chadas, "charming voice." The name of a tribe of
Indians, probably given to them on account of having an aptitude for
music or singing. Name of a county in Alabama; also a town in
Michigan.
CHOdTAWHATCHEE, from Choctaw, a tribe of Indians, and hatchee,
a creek, or river, meaning "Choctaw river." The name of a river in
Alabama.
Chohwajica, (Dak.), "willow." Name of a stream and lake in
Minnesota.
Chokio, Cokaya, (Dak."), "the middle."" The name of a station on
the road to Brown's valley, Dakota.
Chokin, (Dak.), "roasting," or "the place of the roasting;"
probably so called from the Dakotas roasting here ieepoinna, a root
much used by them for food. Name of a lake in Minnesota.
Chowan, Chaicwanoke, (Alg.), "south, or southern country."
Name of a river in Virginia. The name wâs given to this stream by
Capt. John Smith. It was, however, applied by the Powhatans and
neighboring tribes to the country south of them.
Chuctenunda, (Irq.
),
"twin sisters;" so named from the coinci-
dence of two streams flowing into the Mohawk river at the same
point on the opposite sides. The name of a stream in Montgomery
county, N. Y. This word is sometimes spelled Chiicttonaneda.
Chygoes, "the oldest planted ground." The name of the place
where Bennington, New York, now stands.
Cisco, (Alg.), is accepted as the name of a fish taken in northern
streams; coming from the Ojibway word Seeskon, plural, aig; kind of
trout of an oily nature. Name of a town in Illinois.
CicouESSiNG, "the fishing place." The Indian name of Lewis
creek, Delaware.
Clallam, is a corruption of an Indian word signifying "strong
people." A post-office in Washington territory.
Coaquannok, (Alg.), "grove of tall pine trees." This name was
applied by the Indians to the spot where Philadelphia now stands;
the place was subsequently called by them Quakalnimk, "place of
Quakers."
CocALico, corrupted from Achgookivalico, (Alg.), "where snakes
gather together in holes or dens to pass the winter." Name of a creek
in Pennsylvania.
CocHECALECHEE, "broken arrow." A tributary of the Chatta-
hoochee river, Georgia.
Cochecton, originally called Cushnuntunk, (Alg.), "low
ground." A town in New York.
CocHiTUATE, (Alg.), "land on or near falls, or rapid streams."
A town in Massachusetts.
CocoosiNG, Gokhosing or Gokhoosink, (Alg.), "place of owls."
INDIAN GEOGEAPHICAL NAMES. 725
Name of a small stream that rises in Montville, Conn., and flows into
the Thames river.
CoDORUS, said to mean "rapid water." Name of a stream in
southern Pennsylvania, on w^hich the town of York is situated. Prob-
ably of Iroquois origin.
CoHASSET, (Alg.
),
"place of pines." Name of a town in Massa-
chusetts.
CoHOCTON, Cohochta, (Alg.), "trees in the water." A branch of
the Chemung river.
CoHOES, Gahaoose, "shipwrecked canoe." Falls and town on the
Mohawk river in New York.
CoKATO, (Dak.), pronounced Chokahta, "at the middle." A town
in Minnesota.
CoNCHAEDEE, "red dirt," "red earth," a wôrd of Creek origin-
Name of a place a few miles west of Taladega, Alabama.
CoNEAUET, "snow lake." Name of a lake in western Pennsvl-
vania.
CoNEDOGWixiT, or Conodogitinit, "for a long way nothing but
bends," "continued bends." Name of a stream in Pennsylvania.
CoNEMAUGH, (xllg.), "otter creek." Name of a stream in Penn-
sylvania.
CoNEQUEXESsiNG, (Alg.), "for a long way straight," or "running
a straight course." Name of a creek in Pennsylvania.
Coxestoga; it may be that this word, which is generally sup-
posed to be of Iroquois origin, is a corruption of canasiagioicne, "the
great magic land." The English settlers applied this name to a stream
and creek in Pennsylvania.
CoxEWAGO, (rimeuaê, "long strip," or "long reach." Name of a
large creek in Pennsylvania ; also the name of rapids in the Susque-
hanna, near Middleton, and also name of a creek in York county. Pa.
CoNE^VAXGO, GanowungOy "the rapids;" other authorities say,
"they have been gone a long time." A river in New York; also a
creek in Pennsvlvania.
CoxECOCHEAGUE, KoueJcocheeg, (Alg.), "indeed a long way:"
the wôrd. seems to refer to some occasion when a party of Indians
became impatient on their journey. Name of a stream in Pennsyl-
vania.
72()
I
CoNEWANTA, (Irq.), "they stay a long time," corrupted from
GaneuiKja, a stream emptying into the Susquehanna in Pennsylvania.
CoNNEAUT,
corrupted from Gunniatl, (Alg.
),
signifying, "it is a
long time since he or they are gone." A branch of French creek, and
town in Pennsylvania.
Connecticut, "land on the long tidal river," or "land on the river
without end." Name of a river and state in this Union. The country
along the banks of the Connecticut was called by the Indians Quinneh-
tuqiif, and Eoger Williams in 1643 calls the nati^ês who inhabited the
territory, Quinfikoock.
CoNNESUS, Ganeasos, "place of nanny-berries." Name of a
lake in New York.
CoNODOGWiSET,
corrupted from Gunyiipduckhcmnet, signifying "for
a long way nothing but bends." A branch of the Susquehanna in
Pennsylvania.
CONONODAW, corrupted from Gunniada, (Alg.), signifying "he tar-
ries long;" one of the head branches of the Alleghany river in Penn-
sylvania. A name expressive of some Indians when halting along the
creek to await the return of one of their companions.
CoNOQUESSiNG, Corrupted from Gunachquenesink, (Alg.), signify-
ing "for a long way straiglit." A branch of the Alleghany river in
Pennsylvania.
CoNOY, corrupted from Guneu, signifying "long." A small creek
emptying into the Susquehanna in Lancaster county, Penn.
CoNTOCOOK, (Alg.), "crow river." The name of a river and post
village in New Hampshire.
CoOKQUAGO, (Alg.), "big owl." Name of the west branch of the
Delaware river.
Coos, (Alg.), "place of pines." Name of a county and town in
New Hampshire.
Coosa, said to signify the same as Coos, the same word being
spelled in two different ways by early writers. Name of a river in
Alabama and post-office in Georgia ; the river takes its name from a
band of Indians.
!'
CoosAHATCHiE, from Coosa, the name of a band of Creek Indians,
and hcdcJiie, a creek or river. Name of a river in South Carolina.
Copley, (Alg.), from a small creek, the proper name of which is
Copeechan,
"
a fine running stream." Name of a town in Pennsylvania.
?
CoRAPECHEN, Colapeckeu^ (Alg.), "fierce ruimiiig stream." Name
of a creek in Maryland.
Coshocton, ( Alg.
) ,
given by Mr. Heckewelder, the Moravian
missionary, as forks of the Muskingum ; in other words, it appears
that this place was so called, being a place where the rivers unite,
meaning "union of the waters." Name of a county and town in Ohio.
Other authorities say it signifies "finished small harbor."
CossAYUNA, (Irq.), signifying, according to the St. Francis
Indians, "the lake at our points." Name of a lake in Washington
county, N. Y.
Coyote, a species of dog, in the dialect of the Cushina and other
tribes inhabiting the upper portions of the Sacramento valley. A
town in California.
CowAMPS, Coivompsque, (Alg.), "a whet-stone, or rock suitable
for that purpose." Name of a place on the south side of the Potatuck
river in Connecticut.
CowANESQUE, (Alg.
),
"briery," "thornbushy." Name of a creek
in northern Virginia.
CowASiT, Coivisseck, (Alg), "place of small pine trees." The
name now applied to a small stream in Connecticut.
CowAUTACUK, (Alg.), "pine wood land." Name of a river in
Connecticut.
CowESSETT, (Alg.), probably corrupted from Coivdssit, "place of
small pine trees." Name of a post-office in Rhode Island.
CowiLLiGA, said to signify "willow." A creek in Montgomery
county, N. Y.
CoxsACKiE, derived from Coo/vsoc/te?/, signifying "owl hoot." A
town in New York.
Croton, (Alg.), "the wind." A river in New York. The word
appears to be derived from a sachem who lived at its mouth.
Cunneyaut, Cunneaut, Gunneate, (Alg.), "it is long since they
went." Name of a creek in Pennsylvania.
CUPPACOMMUCK, "a refuge or hiding place," literally, "a close
place.'' A swamp in the southwestern part of Ledyard, Connecticut,
called by the English the Pine or Mast swamp.
Cupsuptic, (Alg.), "the act of drawing a seine while fishing."
Name of the most northern of the Umbagog chain of lakes.
CussAWAGO, "snake with big belij."
Name of a creek in Penn.
CussETA, Hasihta, "coming from the sun." A town in Alabama.
Cuyahoga, (Irq.), from Kaihogha, a word in the Mohawk dialect
signifying "river." Name of a river and county in Ohio. In the
Mohawk dialect also occurs the word Carrihoga, which was the name
of an Indian at Canajoharie, who married the widowed mother of the
noted Indian Brant, the meaning of which is "news carrier."
CuYAHORA, (Irq.) The name given by the Indians to Trenton
Falls, N. Y., meaning "falls of the glancing waters."
D
Dacada, supposed to b9 the same as Dakota, (which see). A
town in Wisconsin.
Dadenoscara, (Irq.), "trees having excresences." A creek in
Montgomery county, N. Y.
Dahlonega, Taulauneca, "yellow money." A village in Georo-ia,
near the gold mines in that state.
Dakota, "leagued," or "united people." Other authorities say
it means "many in one government." Name of a territory of the
United States. Takes its name from a tribe of Indians.
Damariscotta, (Alg.), "ale-wife place." A town in Maine.
Decora. Name of a town in Michigan. (See Dekorra).
Decorah. Name of a town in Iowa. (See Dekorra).
Dekorra, (Winnebago dialect), believed to be the same as
Dekare or Decare. Name of a Winnebago chief as signed to treaties
between the United States and that tribe, spelled as before given
and defined as "the spoon." A town in Wisconsin.
Des Moines, so called by the French from Moingena, derived
from an Algonquin word, Mikonang, signifying "the road." Name
of a city and river in Iowa.
E.
Equinunk, (Alg.), " the place where the wearing apparel is dis-
tributed." A town in Pennsylvania on the Delaware river.
Erie, "wild cat." Name of one of the great lakes of the United
States. Name of an extinct tribe.
EsCANABA, (Alg.), "flat rock." Name of a town in Wisconsin.
EscoHEAG, (Alg.), is supposed to signify "origin of three rivers."
A town in Rhode Island.
i
EsHQUAGENDEG, (Alg.), " outei' islands." Name of one of the
Apostle Islands in Lake Superior.
Esopus, from Seepii, name for river, in the Delaware dialect. A
town in New York.
EsTABOGA, "where people reside." A town on the Coosa river in
Alabama.
Eyota, lyotah, (Dak.), "greatest," "most." A village in Min-
nesota.
F.
FiNHOLOWAY, Finhalui, "high bridge," or
"
high foot log." Name
of a swamp in Georgia.
G,
Gaaschtinick, (Alg). The Indian name for the place where
Albany, N. Y., now stands.
Ganawada, (Irq.
),
meaning "on the rapids." The Indian name
for the place where Fonda, N. Y., now stands.
Ganowauges, or Conaivaiigus, "fetid waters." Name of a town
in New York.
Gardow, Gardau, Gadao, (Irq.)' "bank in front." Name of a
place in New York.
Genesee, Gennisheyo, (Irq.)' "^^^ beautiful valley." Name of
a river in New York.
Geneseo, (Irq.), "beautiful valley." Name of a town in Illinois
and other states. Mary Jemison, the captive white woman of the
Genesee, says it comes from Genishau, Clieneseco^ Gemieseo, as pro-
nounced by the different tribes, all meaning substantially the same,
shining, clear, opening, pleasant, clear opening, clear valley, or
pleasant open valley, relating more particularly to Genesee Falls.
Geauga, may come from Cageauga, meaning "dogs round the fire."
Name of a chief of the Six Iroquois Nations who signed the treaty at
Fort Harmer, on the Muskingum river. Name of a county in Ohio.
Gitchegumme, (Alg.), "great water," "wide water." Name of a
bay extending into the laud on the-south side of Lake Superior.
Gogebic, Agogehic, supposed to be a corruption of Agojehic,
"rocky," or "rocky shore." Some authorities say the word is Goge-
bing, meaning "dividing lake." A lake in Michigan, upper peninsula.
730 THE AMERICAN IXDIAX.
o
o
CD
4 in
'<31
GowANDA, (Irq.
),
"a town among the hills by the water side." A
town in New York.
Grand Kaukaukalin, (Alg.), pronounced by the French Koko-
lau, by the Indians Kaukonnee, meaning "pickerel fishing." A place
on Fox river, Wisconsin.
H.
Hampa, Hanpa, (Dak.), "moccasin." Name of a small stream
near Aberdeen, Dakota.
Hackensack, supposed to be derived from Haucquansauk, (Alg.),
"hook mouth." The name of a channel bv which the Avaters of New-
ark Bay find their way around Bergen Point to New York Bay,
Others say the word is derived from hackmksaqinnk, and signifies
"a stream which unites with another stream in a low place or on low
ground, that discharges almost imperceptibly into another stream."
Halpataokee, "alligator water." Name of a swamp in Florida,
made of small islands, surrounded by water of various depths.
Hatchechubbee, derived from hatchie, "a creek," and chuhha,
"half way," "the middle." A post village in Alabama.
Hatteras, originally, it is said, the name of a band of Lennape
Indians. Name of a post village in North Carolina.
Hiawatha, "wise man." The name of a post village in Kansas.
HiGGANUM, (Alg). The original name was Tomhefjnompskid,
and means "at the ax or tomahawk rock." Name of a brook and
village in Connecticut.
HoBOKEN, (Alg.), "smoke pipe;" others say "tobacco pipe."
Name of a town on the Hudson in New Jersey.
HoccANUM, or Hockanum, (Alg.), "hook" or "hook shaped."
Name of a river in Connecticut.
HocKHOCKiNG, (Alg.), "a bottle," or "place of the gourd which
resembles a bottle." A river in Ohio.
HocHELAGA, (Irq). Former name of Montreal, signifying "beaver
dam."
HocKENDAUQUA, corrupted from Hackinundochwe, "searching for
land." Name of a stream in Pennsylvania.
Hocking, from Hockhock, "a gourd," and ing, a local termination
in the Delaware dialect, meaning "at the gourd," or "place of the
gourd." HockiDgport, name of a post-ofiice in Ohio.
732
HoKAH, (Dak.), "gar-fish." Name of a stream in Minnesota, |l
also called Eoot river.
HoKAMAN, (Dak.), "where herons set, or breed." Name of lakes-
in Minnesota.
HoKENDAUQUA,
"searching for land." Name of a town in Penn-
sylvania ;
takes its name from a small creek.
HoKA, "horn." Name of a small tributary of the Mississippi
near its source.
HoNEOYE, Haneayeh, (Dak.), "finger lying." Name of a lake
and creek in New York.
HoppENY Creek, Hohhenisink^ (Alg.), "potato creek," or "the
place where the wild potato grows." Name of a creek in eastern
Pennsylvania.
HoRicoN,
"
the lake of silver water." This name is applied by
some
writers to Lake George, in New York. A town in New York;
also the name of a lake in Wisconsin.
HousATONic, (Alg.), "stream beyond the mountains." Other
authorities say it is composed of wassa, "proud," aton, "a channel or
stream," and ick, from azheehic, "rocks," that is "proud stream flow-
ing through the rocks." Name of a county and river in Massachusetts.
It is also stated by some that it means
"
bright stream flowing through
rocks."
I.
Idaho, "sun-rise mountain." Name of a territory of the United
States; takes its name from a high mountain so called by the Indians.
Other authorities say it means "the gem of the mountain."
Illinois. From the Algonquin word Inini, or Illini, pi. Illini-
wug, "man," and French adjective termination ois. The French sub-
stituted I for n. From tradition, it was intended to mean or have
reference to a perfect man, as distinguished from the Iroquois nation,
who were considered by the western tribes as beasts. Marquette, in
descending the Mississippi, touched on the west bank of that river at
a place near the mouth of the Des Moines, where he found marks of
inhabitants, which he pursued westward a few miles, when he arrived
at an Indian village, where he was received with demonstrations of
great friendship. He communicated with the inhabitants, it would
appear, in the Algonquin language, but as their dialect differed from
that of any of the tribes he had before met with, he asked the chief who-
1^
INDIAN GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES. , 733
received liim who tliey were. He answered in the Algonquin language,
'
We are men,''^ as distinguished from the Iroquois, whom they looked
upon as beasts in consequence of their cruel conduct in their invasions
upon the western tribes. Hence the term Inin% "man," or as the
French rendered it, Illiiii. Thereafter the tribes of this vicinity
became known among the French as Illinese or Illinois.
Imnija, or Emneja, "rock;" properly, "a rock washed by water."
Imnijaska, or Emnejaska, "white rock." The Dakota name for
the city of St. Paul, Minnesota.
Inkpa, Eenkpah, (Dak.), "end" or "point" A tributary of the
Minnesota river entering from the southwest near Lacqui Parle, which
was formerly considered the head or end of the Minnesota river.
Inyanbosdata, or Enyanhosdata, "stone standing on end." The
Dakota name for Cannon river in Nebraska, and the name of a village
near it.
Inyan Kara, Isanyati, (Dak.), "rocky hills." The name of some
peaks in western Black Hills.
Inyan Keakah, (Dak.), "river of the rock." Name of a river in
Minnesota.
Inyanshahshahwakpa, "river of red stones." The Dakota name
for the Des Moines river.
Inyantankinkinyanmde, (Dak.), "lake of big stones," so called
from the rocky mounds found near the lower end of the lake. Name
of a lake in Minnesota.
Inyan Yanke, (Dak.), "stones there." The Indian name of the
Little Sioux river.
loKA, probably corrupted from loga; from ô, "beautiful," and
ga^ "a place." Name of a town in Iowa.
Iosco, (Alg.
),
"water of light." A county in Michigan.
Iowa, from a tribe of Indians called by the French Ajoues, "the
sleepy or the drowsy ones." Name of one of the states of the Union.
This name was applied by the Dakotas to several Indian tribes.
Ipakshan,
"
crooked." The Indian name for the Big Sioux.
Irondequoit, named from a bay called by the Iroquois Neodaon-
daquat, signifying "a bay." A town in New York.
Iroquois. The name of a linguistic stock of Indians, applied
especially to the six nations of the state of New York. The French at
734
first gave to the five nations and Hurons the name Hiroquais, from a
word used in their speeches, and their usual cry of warning. Hi7ô
was a word or exclamation used in closing their speeches, like the Dixie
of the Latin, and qual was a cry of warning or alarm given by sentinels
or persons posted out to Avarn their assemblages of approaching
intruders. Name of a county and town in Illinois.
IsAN, Inyansapa, or Isanyati, (Dak.), "pale stone." The name
of a small lake near the head of Bum river in Minnesota, upon the
banks of which probably were found the flint from which the Dakotas
made their knives and hatchets, as the word iscm is said to signify
knife in their language.
Isanti, Isanyati, (Dak.), "dwellers at the knife," or "at Knife
lake." Name of a county in Minnesota. This is the name of one of
the four dialectic divisions of the Sioux nation, commonly called the
Santees.
Itaska, (Alg.), a name formed by Mr. Schoolcraft for a lake at
the supposed source of the Mississippi river; from la, "to be," and
totosh, "the female breast," with a locative inflection.
|
IzuzA, (Dak.), "white stone." Name of a tributary of the Min-
nesota entering that stream a short distance below Big Stone lake.
Jamaica, Caymaca, or Kaymaca, said to mean "a country abound-
ing in springs." Other authorities say it is a corruption of the word
Xayamaca, "land of wood and water." Name of a town in New York
and other states.
K.
Kaginogumaug, (Alg.), "long water lake." The Indian name for
the lake which is the source of the Crow-wing river in Minnesota.
Kakagon, (Alg.); the proper word is Ogakagun, from oga, a
dorry, a kind of fish or wall-eyed pike, and kagun, which signifies a
place where this kind of fish can be taken plentifully. A river in
Wisconsin running into Chequamagon bay.
Kakiweonan, pronounced by the French Kakiiveona, signifying
"
a country traversed by a cross water communication, and a portage
for small lakes." A portage through the copper regions of Lake
Superior was so called from Ninkakinee, "I march across."
Kalamazoo, Negikanamazo, (Alg.), a term derived from stones
SI
seen through the water, which, from a refractive power in the current,
resemble an otter swimming under water. A river, county and town in
Michigan.
Kamas, a kind of root gathered for food by the Indians on the
Pacific coast. A post-office in Utah territory.
Kampeska, (Dak.
),
"crystal," "clear." A lake near Watertown,
Dakota.
Kanabec, (Alg.
),
"snake." A county in Minnesota. A river
passes through this county called Snake river, from which this county
seems to take its name, by being transferred to the Indian language.
Kanawha, said to signify "river of the woods." A county in
West Virginia, from a river of that name. The word, it is believed,
takes its name from a tribe of Indians inhabiting the country in the
vicinity of this river, spelled variously as Canai, Canais. Canaways^
Canawese.
Kandiotta, (Dak.), "many buffalo fish." Name of a lake in
Dakota.
Kandiyohi, (Dak.), from kandi, "buffalo flesh," and lyohh "to
reach to me." A town in central Minnesota.
Kandizohi, (Dak.), "that which the buffalo fish come into."
Name of a lake in Minnesota.
Kankakee, (Alg.) A town and county in Illinois, which takes its
name from a principal river known at this day by the same name. It
is spoken of by Charlevoix in 1720 as the Thecikiki river. He says it
comes from theak, "wolf," a name by which some tribe of Indians
were called by some other tribe who lived upon this river ; but this is
a mistake ; the word theak does not signify wolf in any language of
any tribe who were ever known to inhabit or frequent this part of the
country. Charlevoix remarks that the French Canadian by French
corruption called it Kiakiki. Kankakee is not an Indian word.
Kankakee is a word in the Algonquin language, and means "raven."
In the treaty with the Pottawattamies and other Algonquin tribes at
Camp Tippecanoe, November 3rd, 1832, this river is called the Kait-
kake. Other authorities say it is an Iroquois word and comes from
kantake, signifying "among the meadows."
Kansas, "smoky," "smoky fiver." Name of a principal river
and state of the Union, coming from a tribe of Indians of that name
who dwelt upon this river. Other authorities say it signifies "good
potato."
736
Kaskaskia. Name of a town in southern Illinois, situated on a
river of that name, near its confluence with the Mississippi. This is
believed to be the oldest town in the Mississippi valley, having been
founded in 1G83 by the French, under La Salle. It was considered
the capital of the Northwest Territory, and was the center of the
French population of that region. Upon the formation of Illinois
Territory, Kaskaskia became the capital, and so continued until the
state of Illinois was admitted into the Union in 1818. It is also the
name of one of the Illinois tribe of Indians who were first visited by
FIEST STATE HOUSE AT KASKASKIA.
Marquette in 1673, then inhabiting the country about what is known
as Starved Eock, on the Illinois river, where they had quite a large
town, which the French speak of as Kaskaskia, or the town of the
Kaskaskias. Soon after the arrival of La Salle, this tribe removed to
the site of the present town of Kaskaskia, which gave to it, also the
river on which it is situated^ their present names. Several early
writers speak of an Indian town of the same name on Beaver river in
western Pennsylvania, about the year 1748, referring to it as
"
a large
Indian town." If it is an Indian word in this form, which is doubt-
ful, and ever had any signification, it is now lost.
Kasson, (Dak.), "to use all up." A post-office in Minnesota.
Kasota, (Dak.), said to mean "clear," or "cleared off," "as the
sky clear from clouds." Name of a small stream and town in Minnesota.
Katahdin, Kcdaadeni, (Alg.
),
"the greatest," or "chief moun-
tain." Name of the highest mountain in Maine. Other authorities
say it signifies
"
the highest place."
Katonah,
"
sickly." A post-village in New York.
^
It;
5-
I
ll
Katchenaha, "turkey lake." Name of a lake in Florida.
Kauadarauk, (Irq.), "broad." A stream in Montgomery county,
New York.
Kaukauna, (Alg.), "a portage," or "long portage." In the
Ojibway dialect there is a word of the same sound, which signifies
"all." Name of a town on Fox river, Wisconsin.
Kearsarge, (Alg.),
"
sharp or pointed pine mountain," or merely
"the notched or peaked mountain." Name of a mountain in New
Hampshire. Other authorities say it signifies "the highest place."
Keht Hanne, "principal or greatest stream." This name was
given by the Lenna Lenape Indians to the Delaware liver. The same
name is said to have been given by the Delawares, on the banks of the
Ohio, to that stream.
Kenaway, (Alg.), "whirlpool," or "swallowing up." Some
Indians have it that an evil spirit lived in the water which drew sub-
stances from the bottom of the river. Name of a river.
Kennebago Lake, (Alg.), probably from Kenahiggo, plural of
snake. A post-office in Maine.
Kennesaw. Kinnesali was the name of a Cherokee chief, Avho
sifirned tlie treaty between the United States government and that
nation on July 2nd, 1791, the meaning of whose name is given as
"cabin," supposed to be the same as Kennesaw. A post-office in
Georgia.
Kennebec, (Alg.), "long water," "long lake." Name of a river
and county iii Maine. Bishop Baraga, in his dictionary of the Ofchrpice
language, says Kennebec is a word in the Cree language signifying
"snake," or "serpent."
Kennebunk, (Alg.), "long water place." Name of a town in
Maine, also in several other states of the Union.
Kennekuk, a corruption from Keannekuk, "the foremost man,"
from the name of a great Kickapoo prophet. A town in Kansas.
Kenosha, (Alg.), "a pike," or "pickerel." Name of a town in
Wisconsin.
Kentucky, "at the head of the river." Barber, in his history of
Yirginia, says it is an Indian word signifying "dark and bloody
ground,", from the fierce and savage contests, in this part of the coun-
try during the early settlements, between the Indians and the whites.
Other authorities say it is derived from Keniakekowa, "the prairies."
738
Name of one of the states of the Union, and a principal river in the
state.
Kenzua, or Kenjiia, kenfschuak, (Alg.
),
"they gobble/' that is,
*'the wild turkeys gobble." Name of a creek in central Pennsylvania.
Keokuk, (Alg.), "watchful fox." Name of a city in Iowa. It
takes its name from an Indian chief of the Sac tribe, who inhabited
that part of the country at its first settlement by the whites. It is
interpreted as "watchful fox," in two treaties between the United
States government and this tribe, which are signed by this chief. In
another treaty it is interpreted as "he who has been everywhere,"
which is not believed to be correct. Mr. Caleb Atwater, in his account
of a tour to Prairie du Chien in 1829, says that it means "river fox;"
that uk means "river." Mr. Catlin savs it means "the running: fox."
All authorities, it seems, concur that the word fox is included in the
term Keokuk.
Keosaqua. This word in the Ojibway dialect would mean
"
a
woman that hunts." A post village in Iowa.
Keota, probably corrupted from the Algonquin word keahta,
"the fire is gone out." Name of a post-office in Iowa. It may also
mean "gone away," "gone to visit."
Keshena. In the Ojibway dialect this word means "a pretense
or pain." Name of a town in AVisconsin.
Kewanee, (Alg.) This name is given by John Tanner in his
narrative of thirty years' captivity among the Indians, as "prairie
hen." Mr. Schoolcraft gives the same word in the Miami dialect,
signifying "nose." The Indians mark it as the song of the prairie
hen, ke-iva-nee, ke-wa-nee, signifying in their language "where I got
lost." This being the constant song of the prairie hen, they call it
by that name. Other authorities say it is a Dakota word, from kiwani,
"winter again;" said of snow coming in the spring after the winter
is supposed to be over. Name of a town in Illinois.
Kewaskum, (Alg.),
"
returning track." A town in Wisconsin.
Kewaunee. A town in Wisconsin. (See Kewanee).
Keweenaw, (Alg.), probably corrupted from newgwenaun, "back
again." A county in Michigan. It may also come from kewaywenon,
signifying a detour or returning around a point, or to go out and come
back around the point.
Keya Paha, (Dak.),
"
turtle hills." Name of some hills and a
stream in northern Nebraska.
739
KiCKAPOO, Negikahos, (Alg.), "ghost of aii otter," a phrase jest-
ingly applied, it is said, by other tribes. A town in Wisconsin and
other states.
KiNNi KiNNiCK, (Alg.) The proper word is K'nick K'nick,
meaning "mix." A kind of weed used by the Indians to smoko as
tobacco, or the inside bark of willow used for the same purpose, when
dried and pulverized, mixed with tobacco. A post-office in Ohio.
This word is variously spelled as Kinnick Kinnick. A town in Wis-
consin.
Kiowa, in the Ojibway dialect, would mean "thy body." A
town in Kansas and other states.
KiscHicoQUiLis, "the snakes have already got into their dens."
A creek in Pennsylvania.
KiSHWAUKEE, (Alg.) The Indian name in the Pottawattamie dia-
lect for sycamore tree. Name of a river in northern Illinois; also
name of a station on the C. <fe N. W. R'y in McHenry county, in that
state.
KiSKATAMENAKOOK, Keskatofiunakanke, (Alg.), "the place of
shelled nuts." Name of a locality near the Catskill mountains. New
York.
KiSKiMiNETAS, GiesgumanUo, (Alg.), "make daylight." Name
of a stream in Pennsylvania. Tradition says a warrior encamping on
its banks said this during the night to his comrades, so impatient was
he to move forward.
KiTCHi Gami, or Keche Gummee,
"
the great or chief lake." The
Ojibway name for Lake Superior. (See Gitchegumme).
KiTCHOPATAKi, "where the Maize Wood river is spread out."
Name of a tributary of the Tallapoosa river.
KiTTANiNG, (Alg.), corrupted from Kithannink, "at, or on, the
main stream." Other authorities say it is from Kittannin, "you have
abundance," or "you are rich." A river and town in Pennsylvania.
KiTTATiNNY, (Alg.), "the greatest, or chief mountain." Name
of an extensive mountain range in eastern Pennsylvania, containing
the Delaware and Lehigh water groups.
KiTTATON, (Alg.), "the great town or village." Name of a creek
in Yirginia, entering the Potomac, opposite Point of Rocks. Proba-
bly so named on account of an Indian village on its banks.
KiTTEMAUG, "great fishing place." A locality on the east bank of
the Thames river, in Connecticut.
\
KiWATiN, (Alg.), "north wind," "wind going back." Name of
a district of country in British America
KoKOMO,
"
young grandmother," A town in Indiana. In the
Algonquin language this word would mean "owl's roost."
KoOEKWENAWKOO, (Alg.) The name wliicli the Indians gave to
the place where Philadelphia now is, meaning "the grove of the long
pine trees."
KosHKONONG, (Alg.), from kosku, "scared," and ong, "place,"
" a frightful place," "ugly place." Perhaps from I'eJaishko, "he got
away," or "was released," and ong, "a place;" that is, "the place
where he got away or was released." A lake in Wisconsin.
KuMTUX, "to know." A word in the Chinook jargon. A post-
office in Washington territory.
KuTTUCK, KeMeiulx, "great river." The Indian name of the
Blackstone river, in Connecticut.
L.
Lackawanna, (Alg.
)
,
"
forked stream," or
"
the stream that forks."
Name of a creek in eastern Pennsylvania flowing into the Susque-
hanna above Wilkesbarre. The word Rackaivana is a word in the
Mohawk dialect, and means "a chief," or "head man."
Lackawaxen, (Alg.), "where the roads part." Name of a river
and town in Pennsylvania.
Lackawanak, Lackaican7iock, (Alg.), "the forks of two streams,"
or
"
the place of the fork." Nameof a mountain in eastern Pennsylvania.
The mountain originates at the junction of the Lackawanna river with
the Susquehanna, and from its location at the fork of those streams,
may be said to have an appropriate name.
Lakota, (Dak., Tironwan dialect), same as "Z)aAô/a." A post-
office in Nebraska.
Lenape, (Alg.), "original," "first," "original people." "A
race of people who are the same as they were in the beginning,
unchanged, unmixed." A post-office in Pennsylvania; also in Kansas.
Takes its name from a tribe of Indians originally inhabiting Penn-
sylvania, afterwards called Delaivares, the same with whom William
Penn made his famous treaty at Shakamaxon.
Lenawee, in the Shawnee dialect, signifies "Indian." Name of
a county in Michigan.
INDIAN GEOGllAPHICAL NAMES. 741
LiLLEWAUP,
"
falling water.'' Takes its name from the falls on
a stream on Hood's canal, Washington territory.
Lima, a corruption by the Indians or Spaniards of the native
name R'imac. A city in South America, and name of towns in Ohio
and other states of the Union.
Loachapoka, "the place where terrapins are killed." A towm in
Alabama.
LoNOTO Creek, "flint creek," an affluent of Flint river, Georgia.
This word is the Indian name for that river.
LoosHTOOK, "long river." Name of the principal rivei' of New
Brunswîck, better known as St. John's river.
LoYAHLHANNA, Loiccelhanne, (Alg.), "middle stream." Name of
a creek in Westmoreland county, Penn.
LoYALSOCK, from Lawisaquik, (Alg.), "the creek that empties
itself between others," or "middle creek." Name of a creek in
Lycoming county, Pennsylvania.
Lycoming, Legauihanne, (Alg.), "sandy stream." Name of a
creek and county in Pennsylvania.
M.
Machemoodus, (Alg.), Maicliemadose, "there is a bad noise,"
or "the place of bad noises." Name of a locality in East Haddam,
Connecticut.
Mach Hanne, (Alg.), "the large, or largest stream." The name
given to the largest of the three streams which unite to form the
Lehigh river.
Machigammi, (Alg.), "large lake." Name of a lake in northern
Wisconsin.
Machigamig, (Alg.), " large lake, or "large lake stream." Name
of a stream flowing from Lake Machigammi in Wisconsin.
Mackinaw, in some of the Algonquin dialects means "turtle."
Name of a town in Illinois.
Macoupin, (Alg.), name from a small stream in Illinois, "Indian
name of a bulbous root like the potato, found growing along this
stream." Name of a county in Illinois.
Macungie, (Alg.),
corrupted from Machkunschi, "the feeding
place of bears." Name of a post-office in Lehigh county. Pennsylvania.
742
Madawaska, (Alg.
),
from Mataicaska, "the mouth of a river,
where there is grass aucl hay." Name of a town in Maine.
Magatankamde, (Dak.), "swan lake." Name of a lake in Min-
nesota.
Magotty, or llagothy, (Alg.), "a small plain or prairie devoid of
timber." A river in Maryland.
Mahanoy, (Alg.), corrupted from Jfa/iom, "a lick." Name of a
stream in Pennsylvania.
Mahantick, Monhantick, (Alg.), "a spruce swamp," or "cedar
swamp." Name of a swamp in the southwestern part of Newtown,
Conn.
Mahantauga, from Mohantaugo,
"
where we had plenty to eat."
A stream in Dauphin county, Pennsylvania.
Mahaska, "white cloud." Name of an Iowa Indian chief. A
county in Iowa.
Mahaskakook, (Alg.), "a crippled bush." Name of a place in
Columbia county, N. Y.
Mahoning, or Mahony (Alg.), corrupted from MaJionink, "where
there is a lick," "at the lick." A county and river in Ohio.
Makagi, (Dak.), "brown earth." Name of a western tributary
of the Minnesota.
Makamde, (Dak.), "sunk lake." A lake in Dakota.
Makon, probably the same as Maquon, an Algonquin word for
"feather." A town in New York.
Makua, (Alg.), "bear," or "a bear." A town on the shore of
Lake Michigan.
Mamachimins, Mamachimons, (Alg.), "barren," "waste," or
"unoccupied little island." A small island near Norwalk, Conn.
Mamachoag, a brook in New London, Conn., which was so called
by the English settlers, probably from their abundance of small fish,
popularly known by a corruption of their Indian name as
''
Mitmma-
chogs.'' (Alg.)
Mamacock, variously spelled as Mamaquack^ Mamacokk, Maliam-
lecake, (Alg.), "a great hook." Name of a creek in East Lyme, west
of Black Point, Conn.
Manady, or Manada, Menathey, (Alg.), "an island." Name of a
creek in Dauphin county, Penn.
Manahan, corrupted from Menehund, (Alg.
),
"where liquor had
been drank." A branch of a stream called Yellow Breeches, in York
county, Penn.
Manalton, Menaltink, (Alg.), "at the place where we drank
liquor to excess." Name of a place in western Pennsylvania.
Manawa, (Alg.), "back again." A town in Wisconsin.
Manatauk, (Alg.), "a place of observation," or "a look out
place." Name of a high hill in Waterford, Conn.
Manaticut, or Monafoquot, probably the same as Monatuck,
"
a
place of observation," Name of a small river in Baintree, Mass.
Manatawny, corrupted from Menhaltanink, (Alg.), "where we
drank liquor." A branch of the Schuylkill, in Berks county, Penn.
Manayunk, Meneiimk, "place of rum," or "place of drinking
liquor." A locality within the present limits of Philadelphia, Penn.
Manhan, ( Alg.
),
"
an island." Name of a river in East Hampton,
Mass.
Manhannock, MunnohanoMke, (Alg.), "island place." A section
of Gastonbury, Conn., formerly an island in the Connecticut river.
Manhattan, Munnohaian, (Alg.), "the town of the island."
Name of a town in Illinois and other states of the Union. Other
authorities say it is from Manhachtanick, "the place where we all got
drunk or became intoxicated." Manhattan, N. Y., is said to be the
place where the Indians first tasted whiskey, on meeting the Europeans
who first landed at that place. They gave them whiskey to drink,
whereby they became intoxicated and, therefore, it is said, so named this
place.
Manhumsqueeg, (Alg.), "in the whetstone country." Name of a
locality in Connecticut.
Manussing, Miinnohan, (Alg.), "an island," or "the island."
Name of an island in Long Island Sound, N. Y.
Manidoish, (Alg.), "bad spirits." A river in northern Wiscon-
sin, running into the Chippeway river.
Manistee, (Alg.), from Manisieek or Mcmistick, in the Cree
dialect, meaning "island," or "island in the river." A town and river
in Michigan.
Manistique, (Alg.), same as Manistee, "island in a river." A
town in Michigan.
7-i'i: THE AMERICAN INDIAN.
Maniteau, (Alg.), tlie same as Manito. A county and town in
Missouri.
Manitoba, (Alg.), from 3Ianiioicada, "the strait of the spirit;'^
from a lake of that name. This lake is so called on account of strange
things seen and heard in the strait which joins the lake with another
one, in the old times. According to Schoolcraft, from Mamtobwa,
"spirit voice." A district of country in British America.
MkîTO, or 3fanifou, (Alg.), "spirit," usually understood, how-
ever, to mean "the Great Spirit." Name of towns in various states.
Manitoulin, "spirit island." Name of an island in Lake Huron,
east of Mackinaw, south of the North Channel.
Manitowoc, (Alg.), given by Schoolcraft as Mmitowauke. Va-
rious definitions are given to this word, and there is much dispute and
difference of opinion as to its correct meaning in its present form.
Manito^ means "spirit," the word auk means "a tree standing alone."
This termination added to Manito would mean "spirit tree," or "a
tree under some mysterious influence." The word catfce would signify
"earth" or "place." This word added to the word Manito, would
mean "place of the spirit." Manitowong, from which the word in its
present form is supposed by some to be derived, would mean about the
same thing as "place of the spirit." ManUowog would be the plural
and would mean "place of the spirits." The letter to in this wôrd is
thrown in for euphony, having no effect in changing the meaning of
the word, it being a rule in the Indian language, from which this word
is derived, that two vowel sounds in a word are not allowed to come
together, but a consonant, usually w^ is thrown in for euphony, as in
this case. Name of a town on Lake Michigan in Wisconsin.
Mankato, from McCha and /o, (Dak.), "blue earth." A town in
Minnesota.
Manokin, (Alg.), "an enclosed place." The Lidian name of a
river in Maryland.
Manteno. (Alg.), probably a corruption of Maniiou or Maniio^
"spirit." Another authority states that the signification of Manteno^
in the Pottawattamie dialect, is "soldier's village." Name of a tow^n
in northeastern Illinois.
Manunka Chunk, (Alg.), probably corrupted from Manunketuck,
or Munnawhatteaug,
"
that which manures land," referring to fish
which the Indians used in fertilizing their corn lands. A village in
New Jersey.
Maquon, or Mequon, (Alg.
), "a quill or feather." This is the
name which the Delaware Indians gave to William Penn, from tlie cir-
cumstance of signing the memorable treaty made with them on the
Delaware river at a place, since called Kensington, called by them
Shakamaxon. He put his name to this treaty with a quill pen, which
also the Indians touched in making their mark thereto, in the usual
form in cases where persons cannot write, hence they gave him this
name. Name of a town in Illinois.
Masgeekhanne, (Alg.), "a stream flowing through swampy
ground
"
A stream on Broad Mountain, south of Scranton, Pennsyl-
vania.
Mashamoquet, Massaamaugitt, (Alg.), "at the great fishing
place." Name of a brook in Pomfret, Conn.
Mashapaug, (Alg.), from massa, "large," and 'paiuj, "standing
water." A post-office in Connecticut.
Mashpee, probably corrupted from Maschapi, (Alg.), "corals,"
"beads." A town and post-office in Massachusetts.
Massabesic, (Alg.), denotes "a place at a (relatively
)
great rivu-
let, or brook." A post-office in New Hampshire.
Massabesie, (Alg.), probably the same as Massabesic, (which
see). A lake in New Hampshire.
MassACHAUG, Mitschaug, (Alg.), probably corrupted from the
Narraganset equivalent of Mohegan, Miixquataug, "place where
rushes grow." Name of a pond in Westerly, Ehode Island.
Massachusetts, (Alg.), an anglicized plural of Massaclmsci,
signifying "at or near the great hills," "the great hill country," from
massa "great" and wadchv, (in composition acZc/zit), plural ivadcuash,
"mountains" or "hills," and suffix it or ef, "on or near." According
to Roofer Williams, it siofnifies "blue hills." Josiah Cotton was
informed that the term specially belonged to
"
an hill in the form of
an arrowhead." Other authorities say it is supposed to come from
the word llachtitschicarmic, as the Indians think, meaning "a cluster
of islands," wdtli channels every way. According to the best authority
the meaning of the name, no doubt, is "at the great hill." Name of
one of the states of the Union.
Massapeag, MassapcaiiJ:, (Îg-) "gi'eat water land," or "land on
the great cove." A post-office in Connecticut.
Massaucunnock, (Alg.), "place of fish-hawks," was the name by
74:0
which Falcon Island, south of Guilford, Connecticut, is recorded in
early history.
Massawamasog,
Massawomussuk, (Alg.), "great declivity,"
"steep hillside or bank." This name is now applied to a brook and
cove west of the Thames river in Montville, Conn.
Masthope,
corrupted from maschapi, "beads of glass." A post-
office in Pennsylvania. Former orthography, Mashope.
Matacomacock, (Alg.), "bad place land," or, possibly, "where the
path is bad." The name of a locality in Windsor Bounds, Conn.
Matawan, (Alg.), "it opens (a river); it arrives in a lake." A
town in New Jersey.
Matoaca, ilfrt/oaA;e, (Alg.), "snow feather." The original name
of the Indian girl, daughter of Powhatan, afterwards known among
the whites as Pocahontas. Name of a town in Virginia.
Matoax, probably the same as Matoaca. A town in Virginia.
Matoake, meaning "snow feather," or "snow flake." This is
another mode of spelling the name of Pocahontas, the daughter of Pow-
hatan, chief of one of the Virginia tribes, who is reported to have
saved the life of Capt. Smith. This was also the name of her mother,
and both were represented as being very graceful and swift of foot.
Name of a post-office in Virginia.
Matomde, (Dak.), "a gray bear." A post-office in Minnesota.
Matowa, said to mean same as Matomde. Name of a post-office
in Carlton county, Minnesota.
Mattapoiset, (Alg.), probably from matchepeeset, "a place
unfavorable for the passage or shelter of canoes." A river in Con-
necticut; also a town in Massachusetts.
Mattapony, (Alg.), "no bread at all to be had." A river in the
southeastern part of Virginia.
Mattawaks, (Alg.) Here, it is said, the Indians obtained their
material for wampum, "the perowinkle." The Indian name for Long
Island.
Mattawamkeag, (Alg.) The probable meaning is, "it opens
into or passes into a swamp," as "the river of this name runs into or
passes through a swampy place." Name of a river and town in Maine.
Mattawan, (Alg.), supposed to be the same as Maiawan, which
is the name of a town in Michigan.
Mattawin, supposed to be the same as Matawan, (which see).
Name of a post-office in Pennsylvania.
Matteawan, supposed to be the same as Matawan. Name of a
post-office in the state of New York.
Mattituck, Matuhtugh, (Alg.
),
"a place without wood," or
"badly wooded." A post village in Suffolk county, N. Y.
Mauch Chunk, "bear mountain." A town in Pennsylvania.
Maumee, Omaumeeg, pi., (Alg.), "people who live on the penin-
sula." A river in Ohio.
MaxATAWNY, corrupted from machksithanne, signiiymg "bear's
path stream." A branch of Saucon creek, in Berks county, Penn.
Mayaimi, "very large water." Name of a lake in Florida.
Mayawaken, (Alg.), "sacred or mysterious banks." A large
tributary of the Minnesota, more frequently called the Chippewa river.
May Luck, a corruption from the Indian word namareekroake^
"fishing place." Name of a small stream in East Windsor, Conn.
Mazomania, (Dak.), "the walker on iron," "walks in metal."
Name of a town in Wisconsin. Named after an Indian chief.
Mazon, (Alg.), "a nettle," "a kind of weed," which originally
grew in abundance along a small stream putting into the Illinois river
from the south, in Grundy county, Illinois. Name of a town in Illi-
nois, taking its name from the stream aforesaid.
Medo, (Dak.), probably corrupted from 3Ido, "an esculent root
eaten by the Dakotas, in appearance and taste something like sweet
potato." A post-office in Minnesota.
Meduxnakeag, (Alg.), "the noise made by the water where it
touches the limbs of trees." A river in Maine.
Meech Hanne, (Alg.), "main stream." The name applied by
the Indians to the largest arm of the Lehigh river flowing between
Monroe and Lackawanna counties, Penn.
Meeme, Omeeme, (Alg.), "a pigeon." A town in Wisconsin.
Memphramagog, (Alg.), "lake of abundance." A lake in Ver-
mont.
Menan, (Alg.), (Grand Menan), Munnohan, "the island." The
word Grand is an English prefix. The name of an island opposite
Passamoquoddy bay.
Menasha, "island," or "on the island." A town in Winnebago
748
county, Wisconsin. In the Mandan language is the word Mcnasha,
meaning "tobacco."
Mendota, 3rdofa, j\rdote, (Dak.), "the mouth," or "the mouth
of a river," or, more frequently, "at the junction," originally the
name of Gen. H. H. Sibley's trading post at the mouth of the St.
Peter's, and transferred from that to a number of other places. Name
Menekaunee, (Menominee dialect), "the place where the lodges
are;" literally, "the villages." A town in Wisconsin.
Menheering, or Menherrin, "on the island." Name of a stream
in southeastern Yirginia.
Menno, probably from the Algonquin word minno, "good." A
Menoken, (Alg.
),
"a good growing place," or Minnogen^ Ojib-
way dialect, meaning "it grows well," or "fortunate," "doing well."
Name of a town in Kansas.
Menoti, probably from the Delaware word Menatey, "an island"
A post-office in Iowa.
Menominee, (Alg.) The name of a river emptying into Green
Bay on the north, and the name of several towns in various states of
the Union. The river takes its name from a tribe of Indians living
in the vicinity, meaning "the people who eat wild rice," from menomiii^
"wild rice," which abounds in the marshes and overflowed lands in the
vicinity of Green Bay, in the country of this tribe, a large proportion
of the subsistence of which was wild rice.
Menunketuck, Mumiohquohtean, (Alg.), "that which fertilizes
or manures land." This is the Indian name for Guilford West River,
in Conn. From a tradition we learn that some of the Indian tribes of
Connecticut residing on the larger streams, used fish, when obtainable,
for fertilizing purposes.
Mequon, Mikwan, (Alg.), probably same as Maquon, may come
from emikkwan, "a stone." A town and river in Wisconsin.
Merey Chawick, "the sandy beach." Name of the place where
Brooklyn, New York, now stands. The probability is that the name
was first applied to the sandy beach.
Mereimac. This word is given in early New England history as
Moriac or Moniac. Name of an Ojibway chief, signed to the treaty
of July 4th, 1805, on the St. Mary's river, between the United States
749
government and the several tribes of Indians, to which the mear!iD<r
is given as "cat fish." Name of a river in New England and town in
Wisconsin.
fp.
SCENE NEAR MEEEIMAC, WIS
, ON THE LINE OF CHI. & N.-W. K'Y.
Merrimack, a county in New Hampshire. The same as Merrimac,
(which see).
Meshoppen, (Alg.
),
"glass beads." Name of a stream flowing
into the Susquehanna, in Wyoming county, Penn. It is said that the
name was given to commemorate a distribution of such trinkets as
glass beads among the Indians. Other authorities say it is corrupted
from mawslicqyi, "cord or reed stream."
Mesongo, or Mesonge, (Alg.), "where we killed the deer," "good
hunting." A creek in Maryland.
Metea, (Alg.), "kiss me." Name of a post-office in Indiana;
takes its name from a Pottawattamie chief. It may be the same as
meda or meta,
"
a prophet or priest."
Metichawon, (Alg.), "an obstruction." Falls of Housatonic
river, at New Milford, Conn.
Mexico, said to mean
"
the home or seat of Mextilli, the Aztec
god of war." Name of a town in New York.
Miami, French orthography, the same as 3Iaiimee, from a tribe
of Indians, (which see). A river in Ohio.
MiANUS, (Alg.), "he who gathers together." The little river in
Connecticut to which this name is now applied, and the neck of land
at its junction with the Coscobcove, were so called from the Indian
proprietor Mayanno or Mayene.
Micco, in the Creek dialect, signifies "king" or "chief." A
post-office in Indian territory.
MiCHAUX, from Micliau, (Alg.), "great." A post-office in Vir-
ginia.
MiCHiGAMME, or Michigiimme, (Alg.), "great water," or "wide
water." Name of a lake or bay in the upper peninsula of Michigan,
on the south of Lake Superior.
Michigan, (Alg.) Mr. Schoolcraft says it signifies "big lake,"
from michi, "great," and sagaiegan, "lake." Other authorities say
it means "fish weir," or "place for catching fish." Mechegu7i, in the
Ojibway dialect, sighifies "a fence." One of the great inland lakes;
also the name of one of the states of the Union.
MiCHiLiMACiNAC, (Alg.), "great turtle." An island in the straits
between Lake Huron and Michigan.
Milwaukee, (Alg.), "good land," "rich land." The earliest
mention of this name is by Hennepin. He refers to a river in Wis-
consin which he calls Milioke. The tribes who lived about this river
two hundred years ago, at the time the name first became known to the
whites, had no sound of I in their dialect, they used the sound of n
instead. It is fair to suppose that the word is derived from some of
the tribes living about this river at the time stated, and that the French
used the sound of I instead of n. Minwaukee, or Minnoaukee. would
mean "good earth," "good place," or "good country." Minaukee
would mean "country of berries." Mittigwaukakee would mean
"forest." Name of a river and town in Wisconsin.
Mingo, a name applied by the early English inhabitants of
America to the Indians of the Iroquois stock. It became afterwards
confined as a name designating the Cayuga tribe of that stock, most of
whom, after leaving their original country among the six nations,
removed to the vicinity of Scioto river into Ohio, where they became
known exclusively by the name of Mingoes. It is not strictly an
Indian name, and has no signification as such. This tribe were called
by the Delawares, Mengwe^ from which the word Mingo is understood
to be derived by the English. A town in several states of the
Union,
MiNisiNK, (Alg.), "the place of the Minsies," or "the home of
the Minsies.*' A town and post village in New York.
MiNNAHAUOCK, (Alg.), "at the island," or "the island home."
This was the Indian name of BlackwelFs Island, near the site of New
York.
MiNNECHADUZE, Mihicaduze, (Dak.), "running water." Name
of a branch of the Niobrara river, Nebraska.
Minnehaha, "laughing water," from mini, "water," and ''irari,^^
"to laugh," which became changed to its present form, Minnehaha.
Name of a waterfall in Minnesota. It is said to have been originally
the Indian name for the falls of St. Anthpny, but afterwards became
transferred to the small waterfall before mentioned. (Dak.)
Minne-Inne-Opa, (Dak.), "second water." The name of a beauti-
ful waterfall above Mankato. It is the lower of the two near together,
hence the Dakota name.
MiNNEiSKA, (Dak.), "white or clear water." Name of a tov/n on
the Mississippi river in Minnesota. The Dakota name for this word
was Minneska.
MiNNEKATA, (Dak.), "hot water." Name of some springs in the
Black Hills.
MiNNEOPA, the same as Minneinneopa, (which see). Name of a
railroad station near Mankato.
MiNNEOTA, (Dak.), "much water." Name of a station near
Marshall, Minnesota.
MiNNEQUA, Minnoqua, "good woman," minnaqua, "he drinks."
A post village in Pennsylvania.
Minnesota, (Dak.), "cloudy water." From minni, "water," and
soia, which is understood to mean "mixed or mottled," signifying a
condition or appearance of the river of that name, when affected by the
floods of the Mississippi. Some have assigned it to the hazy or smoky
appearance of the atmosphere over the valley of that river at certain
seasons, which is signified in the Dakota language by the word soia
added to the word minni. Name of one of the states of the Union,
and of a principal river.
MiNNETONKA, according to Mr. Kiggs would mean "great water;"
according to Jonathan Carver it would mean "pond of water," or
"lake." A town and lake in Minnesota.
MiNNEWAKEN, (Dak.), the name of a lake in Minnesota, which is
io"! THE AMEIUCAN INDIAN.
iiiifiimmiiiiifiiiiiiiiiiM
ui
'A
O
H
<
hi
"A
O
o
as
the source of a river called Rum river, putting into the Mississippi,
It is supposed to take its name from the word "spirit water;" some say
alluding to ardent spirits.
MiNNiSKA, (Dak.), "clear water." Name of a tributary of the
Minnesota river.
MiNNi WAKIN, "spirit water," so called by the Dakotas; known
also as Devil's Lake. A large sheet of water in northern Dakota, on
the south edge of what is known as the Salt Water Region. Its waters
are brackish, and, like the lake of this name in Wisconsin, it has no
visible outlet.
MiNONK, (Alg.
),
from minis, "an island," meaning "an island in
a given direction." It might also signify "good place," or "good lo-
cality," or "good land," from minno, "good," and onk, a local termi-
nation, meaning in some Indian dialects "place or locality." Other
authorities say it signifies "a star." Name of a town in Illinois.
MiNOOKA, Manukeke, "maple forest." In the Mandan dialect is
the word manuka, meaning "friend." It may also come from mino-
ake, "good earth." Name of a town in Illinois.
MiSHAMOKWA, (Alg.), "great bear." A town in Wisconsin.
MiSHAWAUKA, "red earth." By some authorities said to signify
"country of trees," which is doubted. A post village in Indiana.
MiSPAU, (Alg.), "raccoon," "the raccoon." A tributary of the
Delaware river.
MiSQUAMicuK, Squomacuk, Mishqiiamaug, (Alg.), "a place for
taking salmon." Name of a locality in Westerly township, Rhode
Island, near the mouth of the Pawatuck.
MissAUKiE, probably takes its name from a tribe of Indians, 3Iis-
sissaiiga, (Alg.), "people of the wide mouthed stream." A county in
Michi Ofan.
MissiNiPi, (Alg.), "the whole water." Other authorities say it
signified "great water." A river near the sources of the Mississippi,
flowing into Hudson's Bay.
MissiSAGiE, (Alg.), "wide mouthed stream." Name of a river
emptying into Lake Huron on the north shore.
Mississippi, (Alg.), "great water," or "gathering in of all the
waters.", According to other authorities "an almost endless river
spread out." Name of one of the principal rivers and one of the states
of the Union.
48
754
MissiSQUOi, (Alg.), understood to be Misiiskweiv, "the big-
woman." A river in Vermont.
Missouri, "turbid water" or "muddy." The Dakota word for
this river is Minnishosha, signifying "muddy water." One of the
principal rivers in the United States, also the name of one of the states
of the Union, which takes its name from this river.
MiSTUCKSUCK, Mistuckset, (Alg.), "Mistick brook," or "at Little
Mistick." Name of a brook about two miles east from Mystic river in
Connecticut. (See meaning of Mystic).
MiTCHAWON, (Alg.), "an obstruction," "a turning back." The
Indian name for the falls of the Housatonic river at New Milford,
Conn.
Moccasin, (Alg.), "an Indian shoe or covering for the foot."
MocKESON. Name of a town in Tennessee. Supposed to be the
same as Moccasin.
Mohawk, said to mean "men eaters," literally "eaters of live
food." A name given by the New England or Eastern Indians to the
Iroquois. By some authorities it is given as Mohoc, meaning
"savage," or "ferocious," which was the character of this tribe.
Name of a river in New York, from a tribe of Indians commonly
known by that name.
MoHEGAN, (Alg.), "wolf," "a wolf." A town in Khode Island,
taken from a tribe of Indians.
Mohican, signifying the same as Mohegan,
"
wolf." Name of a
town and river in Ohio.
MoiNGONA, (Alg.), signifying "the road." From this comes the
word in French orthography Des Moines. Name of a river and town
in Iowa.
MoKENA, (Alg.), "turtle." Name of a town in Illinois.
MoNADNOCK, (Alg.), said to mean "bad," from the badness of the
ascent of a mountain. Name of a detached mountain in New Hamp-
shire. Other authorities say it means "the spirits' place."
MoNASKON, probably corrupted from monhacan^
"
a spade, or any
implement used for digging the soil." A post-office in Virginia.
MONDAMIN, (Alg.), "corn," or "corn-field." A post village in
Iowa.
MoNEGAN, probably from monacan,
"
a spade." A town in Mis-
souri.
MoNEE. Name of a Pottawattamie woman, the wife of an Indian
trader, Joseph Bailes, a French Canadian, a person of influence and
note in the early days of the Northwest. In the latter part of his
career he was living in the Calumet country, near the Indiana state
line, at the place known as Baileytown. The baptismal name of his
wife was Mary, pronounced by the French Mauree^ and so called by
her husband. In the dialect of the Pottawattamies there is no sound
of 7'; it is supplied by the sound of n. The Indians could not, there-
fore, pronounce the word Mauree, but pronounced it Maimee, or Monee.
It is said that the Indians derived many favors at the hands of Bailes,
through the influence of his wife, which, as a natural consequence,
made her a great favorite with them, by whom she was known as
"Monee." In one of the treaties between the government and her
tribe, she was allowed a reservation of land in the vicinity of her hus-
band's trading post, in the Calumet country, in which she is mentioned
as ^' Monee, the wife of Joseph Bailes." Name of a town in Illinois.
Monica, (Alg.), corrupted from monakee, "spirit land." A town
in Illinois.
MoNiTEUA, probably from Manito, "the Great Spirit." Name of
a county and town in Missouri.
MoNOCACY, or MoNOCKiSY, Menahisi, (Alg.), "stream containing
many large bends." Name of a river in Maryland flowing into the
Potomac; also the name of a creek in Butler and Northampton coun-
ties, Penn.
Monody, corrupted from mcncdey, (Alg.), "an island." A branch
of the Swartara, in Dauphin county, Penn.
MoNONGAHELA, corrupted from menaungihella, (Alg.), "high
banks breaking off in some places and tumbling down." Others say
"falling in banks." A river in southwestern Pennsylvania.
Monongalia, supposed to be the same as Monongahela, (which
see). A county in West Virginia.
MoNTAUK, (Alg.), "manito tree," or from manitiick, "a tree."
Other authorities say from monatiauke, "the island country," or "the
country of the islanders." A post-office in Missouri.
MoNTENO, probably a corruption of Maniiou or Manito, an
Algonquin word for
"
spirit." Another authority states that Manteno
is the Pottawattamie word for "soldiers' village." A town in Illinois.
756
MoNTOWESE. This name is derived from mantowese, the name of an
Indian of some local prominence, whose name is the diminutive of
Manito, "little god," or "little spirit." A post-office in Connecticut.
MooDUS, a contraction of the word macJiemoodus, (Alg.
),
"the
place of noises." A post-office in Connecticut.
MoosELEM., or Mooselum creek, (Alg.), "trout stream." A creek
in Berks county, Penn.
MoosHANNE, Moshannie or Moshannon, "elk stream." Acreek in
Center county, Penn.
Moosup, so called from maussup. The name of a chief of the
Narraoânsett Indians. A river in Connecticut.
MowEAQUA, a term occurring in both the Ojibway and Pottawat-
tamie dialects. In the former it signifies "weeping woman;" in the
latter "wolf woman," or "woman of the wolf totem." The proper
word is Mowaequa. A town in Illinois.
MoYAMENSiNG, (Alg.), "the place for maize." The name of a
district within the limits of Philadelphia, Penn.
MuKWA, (Alg.), "bear." A town in Wisconsin.
MuNCiE, (Alg., Delaware dialect), "wolf." A town in Indiana.
From a band of Indians of the Delaware tribe who were classed under
this totem.
MuNNOMiN, (Alg.), "rice." The name of a locality in Michigan.
MuscoDA, (Alg.), "prairie," Other authorities say it takes its
name from mushfcoosie,
"
a grassy plain." A town in Wisconsin.
Muscogee, "a Creek Indian." A county in Georgia.
MuscONETCONG, Musconecon, (Alg)., corrupted from naskhann-
cimk, "rapid running stream." A river in the northern Dart of New
Jersey, flowing into the Delaware, below Easton, Penn.
MuscODAH, (Alg)., "prairie," or "grassy plain." The word
comes to us in various forms in different Indian dialects, and according
to various changes, pronounced as Muscatine, a town in Iowa; Mus-
coda, a town in Wisconsin; Mascoutah, a town in Illinois, and Mus-
cotah, a post village in Kansas.
MusKEESEBEE (Alg.), "the river of marshes." A river putting
into Lake Superior, near Ashland, Wisconsin.
MusKEGO, "swamp," according to some authority; also by some,
"place of cranberries." A town in Wisconsin.
Muskegon, Muskegong, (Alg.
),
"swampy," or "at the swamp."
A town in Michigan.
Muskingum, ( Alg.
)
,
"
moose-eye river
;"
according to some authori-
ties, "town on the river." A river in Ohio.
MusQUAKA, (Alg., Sac dialect), "red earth." A town in Iowa.
Mystic, Mistic, "the great stream." Name of the principal river
flowing into Boston bay. From Missituk^ "great tidal river."
N.
Na-au-say, (Alg.) According to Madore Beaubien, an educated
half-blood Pottawattamie, the word would mean "he is walking and
praying," or "he is praying as he walks along." It may come, how-
ever, from the Ojibway word nayaushe^ "a point of land." A town-
ship in Kendall county, 111. The name of a Pottawattamie chief.
Nahant, "at the point." A town in Massachusetts.
Namekagon, (Alg.) From nama, "sturgeon," signifying "a
place where sturgeon are plenty." A lake in Wisconsin.
Nameoki, Nameaki, Nameauke, (Alg.), "fishing place," or "place
of fish." A town in Illinois.
Namikong, from amik, "beaver," and ong, "place," "a great place
for beavers." A noted point on Lake Superior.
Nansemond, or Nansamond, Naunschimend, (Alg.), "from whence
we fled," "from whence we were driven off." A county in Virginia.
Nanticoke, "tide wâter people." A town in New York; also the
name of a river in Delaware, from a tribe of Indians of that name,
who, when first known to the English, had their seat on the eastern
shore of Marylaud. They were of Iroquois origin, and finally joined
the ^YQ nations in New York. They called themselves Nentigo.
'NA^^TiRaIjAE., Nantahalah, "maiden's bosom." A river in Macon
county, North Carolina.
Narragansett, Acawmenoake, and with ink, it forms acawentuk,
"other side river;" other authorities say the word is a corruption of
7iaiaganset, and signifies "at or about the point." A bay in Rhode
Island.
Nashota, (Alg.), "twins." In the Dakota language, same word
means "kicks up smoke." A town in Wisconsin.
Nashua, (Alg.), "between" (the river); it may also come from
758
THE AxMERICAN INDIAN.
nisJieica, "he kills," "killed." Other authorities say, "a river with a
pebbly bottom." A towu in New Hampshire.
Natchaug, (Alg.), "place between," "in the middle." A river
in Connecticut, formed by the union of Bigelow's and Still rivers.
Natchez, "a hurrying man," "one running, as to war." A
county seat in Mississippi; takes its name from a tribe of Indians.
Some authorities say the word is derived from naksika, "aside,"
"
away
from."
Natick, (Alg.), "the place of hills." A town in Massachusetts.
Naubuc, said to be corrupted from a'upauk, (Alg.), and to sig-
nify "flooded," or "overflowed." A village in Connecticut.
Naugatuck, said to be derived from neqidtugk, (Alg.), signifying
"one tree." A small river in Connecticut. The probability is, the
tree, which perhaps stood on its banks, was of great note or interest.
Other authorities say the word signifies "fork of the river," "point
between two rivers."
Navasink, from onawa, "water," "between the waters," and sink,
"a place." A post-office in New Jersey.
Nawbesetuck, a corruption of nuppeeitohke, (Alg.), "land at the
pond." Name of a locality in Mansfield, Conn.
Nayaug, Naiag, (Alg.), "the point," or "the corner." Name of
a point at the junction of Roaring and the Connecticut rivers in Glas-
tonbury, Conn.
Nayatt Point. The word NayciU is probably corrupted from
Nayaug^ Nayage, or Naiag, (Alg.), "a point," or "corner." Name of
a post village in Rhode Island.
Neah Bay, called Deeah by the Indians there, but Neah by
others; from a chief who lived and owned the place twelve or thirteen
generations ago, but no further meaning can be found. A post-office
in Washington Territory.
Nebeesh Rapids, (Alg.), "bad water," in other Avords, "bad
rapids," from Jiehee, water, and eesh, the derogative. Rapids on the
St. Mary's river, upper peninsula of Michigan.
Nebo, (Alg.), "dead." A town in Kentucky.
Nebraska, (Dak.), "water valley," "shallow water." Other
authorities say it signifies "flat or broad water." One of the states of
the Union.
Necedah, (Winnebago dialect), ivomne, water, and cedah, yellow,
INDIAN GEOGRArHICAL NAMES. , 759
or
"
yellow water," from which, probably, the Yellow river takes its
name. A town in Wisconsin.
Neenah, (Winnebago dialect), *' water." A town in Wisconsin.
Neezhodaseepee, (Alg.), "twin river," was called by the traders
Two-hearted River, from oda, "a heart," and neezh, "two." A river
running into Lake Superior on the southern shore.
Negaunee, (Alg.), "before," "ahead," "he goes before." Name
of a town in Michigan, upper peninsula.
Nekimi, probably from Nokomis, "grandmother." A town in
Wisconsin.
Nekoma, probably from Nokomis, "grandmother," or from the
Cree word meaning the same thing as Nokomis. A town in Illinois.
Nekousa, is the name which the Winnebagoes gave to the Wiscon-
sin and Mississippi rivers. Thus, Nekousa, the Wisconsin river, and
Haddaddahnekoosa, Mississippi, or Big Nekousa.
Nemekan, (Alg.), "sturgeon." The name of a lake in northern
Wisconsin.
Nemujitigeog, (Alg.), "left hand." Name of a river in Wiscon-
sin running into Black river.
Neoga, from Neo, the "Deity," and oga, "place," "place of the
Deity." Name of a town in Illinois.
Nepaug, supposed to be a corruption of either nunnepaug, "forest
pond,"' or wennepaug, "good pond." The name of a village in Con-
necticut.
Neponset, Nepowset, "he walks in his sleep." Name of a town
in Illinois.
Nepeuskun, Nepeashkum^ (Alg.), "more water." Name of a
town in Wisconsin.
Nescopeck, or Nescopec, Naeshchoppek, (Alg.), " blackish colored
and deep still water." The name of a creek in eastern Pennsylvania,
flowing into the north branch of the Susquehanna.
Neshaminy, Nischamhanne,
(Alg.), "two streams making one by
flowing together." The name of a. creek in Bucks county, Penn.
Neshannock, Nishannok,
(Alg.), "two adjoining streams." The
name of a creek in Lawrence county, Penn.
Neshoba, or Nashoba, Neshoba, "gray wolf." The name of a
tributary of the Yazoo river in Mississippi ; also a couuty in Missis-
sippi.
Neshota, (Alg.
),
"twins." Eeferring to the two rivers of Wis-
consin.
Nesquehoning, A"esA:a/iOmi, (Alg.), "black lick," or "a lick the
water of w^hicli has a blackish color." Name of a creek in Carbon
county, Penn.
Neyersink, (Alg.), "high land between waters." Name of a
town in New York.
Newichawannack, (Alg.), "at the fork of the streams." A hill
in the southeastern part of Pomfret and northeastern part of Brooklyn,
Conn.
Niagara, oneaivgain, (Irq.
),
"the neck." The term is derived
from an Iroquois word for the human neck, and was applied to the
entire Niagara river, which connects Lake Erie with Lake Ontario,
as the human neck connects the head with the body. Name for the
great falls. These falls were called by the Senecas datecarslcosasa,
"the highest falls."
NiANTic, said to signify "at a point of land on a tidal river."
The name occurs several times in Connecticut.
Niobrara, ni, "water," ohrara, "broad or large," "the broad or
large water." The name of a river in Nebraska.
Nippenose, Nipenowi, (xllg.), "like unto the summer," "a warm
situation," "where the cold does not penetrate." The name of a
remarkable valley in Lycoming county, Penn. ; also the name of a
creek in the same county. Other authorities say, "very little water."
NiPPERSiNK, (Alg.), "small stream," or " little current water." A
stream in northern Illinois.
NiPissiNG, (Alg.), from nippe, "water," or "still water," and mr/
or ink^ "place," "the place of still water." The name seems more
particularly to apply to a wide place in a river where the current
slackens. Possibly Nipissing lake, in Canada West, may derive
its name from the same root. Bishop Baraga says, "in a little water."
NiPSic, Nipsitck, (Alg.), from nips, "a pool," and auke, "place,"
"the place of a pool." A location in Glastonbury, Conn., so named
from a magnificent spring of w-ater wdiich here bursts forth.
NiSHNABOTANA, evidently derived from Unishnaha, the Ojibway
word for "Indian." A town in Missouri.
NisoPACK, Neeshapaiig, (Alg.), "two ponds." A name fre-
quently occurring in Connecticut.
NiZHWAKWiNDiGSEEBEE, (Alg.), "two island river." The name of
a river on the northern shore of Lake Superior.
NiSKAYUNA, Neeskiu, signifies "black." A town in New York.
NocKAMixoN, Noclianixlnk, (Alg.), "where there are three
houses," "at the three houses." The name of a township in Bucks
county, Penn.
Nodaway, (Alg.), "a kind of adder," "a very venomous reptile."
It was a name applied to the Iroquois nation of Indians by the sur-
rounding Algonquin tribes. It is a derogative term in the Algonquin
language equivalent to that of viper or beast. It is a compound
word, having its apparent origin in nado^
"
adder," and awasie,
"
a
beast." Name of a county in Missouri.
NoKOMis, (Alg.), "grandmother." A character mentioned in
Longfellow's poem of Hiawatha. Name of a town in Illinois.
NoKOMUS, (Alg. ) Name of a town in Iowa. (Same asNokomis).
which see).
NoLAMATT_NK, (Alg.), "the silk worm place," or "the silk worm
land." The name of a tract of land in Northampton county, Penn.,
which formerly abounded in mulberry trees.
NoNNEWAUG, (Alg.), from numiawauke, "dry land." The east
branch of Pomperaug river, in Woodbury, Conn.
NoozAPOGE. Some authorities say it comes from neeshapaiig, or
noosiqjpaug, "beaver pond." Name of a pond in AVesterly, Khode
Island.
NoRRiDGEWOCK, (Alg.), "place of deer." The name of a town
in Maine.
NoRWALK, Norivaiike, Norwauck, (Alg.), "the middle land," (a
tract between two rivers). Name of a town and river in Connecticut.
Other authorities say the word is supposed to be derived from nayaug,
"a point of land."
NuNDA, (Irq., Seneca dialect), from nundao, "hilly." Name of
a town in New York and Illinois.
o.
Oahe, (Dak.), "foundation." The name of a post-office in Da-
kota Territory.
Oanancock, or Onancock, Auwannaku, (Alg.
),
"foggy place."
The name of a town in Accomac county, Virginia.
Obscob. Tiiis word, it is said, means either "at the white rock,"
or "at the narrow passage of the rocks." The name of a village in
Connecticut, near the mouth of Oyster river.
OCCAPOGUE, Acciip^ (Alg.), "a creek." The name of a stream on
Long Island.
Occohannock, Woakhanne, (Alg.), " crooked, . winding stream,"
"a stream with large bends." The Indian name of a stream in Vir-
ginia.
OcEYEDAN, or AcEYEDAN, "place of weeping." So called by the
Dakotas because of weeping there the death of some of their relatives.
Name of a creek in Iowa which flows into the Little Sioux river.
OcHEYEDAN, (Dak.), "place of mourning." A lake and stream in
Iowa.
OcKLOCKONEE, "yellow Avater." The name of a river in Florida.
OcMULGEE, or Okmulgi, "the river," "the water course;" other
authorities say it signifies
"
boiling water." Name of a river in
Georgia.
Oconee, "water course," "small river;" others say it is a Shaw-
nee word signifying "bone." Name of a town in Illinois.
Oconto, (Menominee dialect), "the place of the pickerel." A
town in Wisconsin ; also the name of a river and county in the same
state.
Odanah, (Alg., Ojib. dialect), "a town," or "village." Name of
a post-office in Wisconsin.
Ogalalla, (Dak.), "cast in." The name of a band of the Titon-
wan Sioux. A town in western Nebraska.
Ogema, "chief," or "Indian chief." Name of a town in Wiscon-
sin.
Ogemaw, same as Ogema, "a chief." A county in Michigan.
Ohio, (Irq.), the name of one of the principal rivers of the United
States, the name of one of the states of the Union, and applied to
counties and towns in various states, an Iroquois word, meaning "beau-
tiful," or "beautiful river." The river of that name was originally
known as the Alleghany, from the Alleghan tribe of Indians. The
name was bestowed by the Iroquois tribe after their conquest of the
i
J '!
I
country in alliance with the Lenapes or Delaware Indians. The
term was applied to the entire river, from its confluence with the Mis-
sissippi to its source in the broad spurs of the Alleghany Mountains, in
the states of New York and Pennsylvania. In the form given it is
French orthography, sound of i like the English e, long ; its meaning,
in short, is "beautiful," liberally defined "how beautiful" (a scene),
or as we would express it, O! how beautiful. This river was called by
the French La Belle, meaning the same thing as with the Indians,
showing a concurrent opinion as to its beautiful scenery. In the early
French maps of the country this river, as it approaches the Missis-
sippi, is laid down as the Oubach (Wabash).
Ohiopyle, or Ohiople, Ohiopihelle, "white froth upon the water."
The name of a cataract on the Youghiogheny river in Fayette county,
Pennsylvania.
Ojata, (Dak.), "forks." The name of a station beyond Great
Forks, Dakota.
Okabena, Hokahena, (Dak.), "heron rookery." A lake in Min-
nesota.
Okaug Mountains, irom kcmg, "a porcupine." Mountains on the
ôuth coast of Lake Superior, called by the whites Porcupine Moun-
tains.
Okaw. The upper portion of the Kaskaskia river is called the
Okaw. Judge Breeze, in his history of Illinois, in speaking of the
post at Vincennes, on the Wabash river, says: "The priests kept up
their intercourse with it, and occasionally a villager of Cahokia or Kas-
kaskia might be heard to say he was going "m^pos/," that is, to the
post, and some one at the post would go "rm kas'''' (okaw), whence
the word okaw. "Kas" is an abbreviation of the word Kaskaskia.
The word ogah occurs in the Ojibway dialect, meaning "pickerel."
In the Choctaw language this word would signify "brandy." Name
Okauchee, (Alg.
),
"very long." A town in Wisconsin.
Okechobee, or Okitchobi, "large water." The name of a lake in
the southern part of Florida.
Okee, (Alg.) A word in this form occurs in the dialect of a
New England tribe, which signifies "devil," or "evil spirit," a chief
god of this class among these tribes, which they worshiped. They did
this to appease his wrath and divert calamities he might be disposed
to bring upon them. It may, however, come from auke, "earth," or
"place." Name of a town in Wisconsin.
Okemos, Ogema, (Alg.
),
"a chief." A post village in Micliigan.
Okifenokee, "weaving, shaking water." The name of an exten-
sive swamp in Georgia.
Oklahoma, "the place of Indians," or "home for all Indians." A
territory of land adjoining the Indian Territory.
Oklokonee, OcJdockon''nee, "yellow water." The name of a river
in Georgia.
Okoboji, Huh^boju, (Dak). The name of the southern part of
Spirit Lake, Iowa. Also the name of a creek near Fort Sully, Dakota,
signifying "field of swamp grass." (The hiib^ha is a short heavy
grass having a three-sided stem).
Okoni, or Oconee, Ekuoni, "great, large water." The name of a
river in Georgia.
O'ley, Oblink, Wahlink, Olo, Wahlo, (Alg.), "a cavern or cell;"
also "a tract of land encompassed by hills." Name of a township in
Berks Co., Penn.
Omaha, (Dak.), "up stream." The name of a city in Nebraska.
Onarga. If Indian, is probably an Iroquois word ; if so, it would
mean "a place of rocky hills." A town in Illinois.
Onawa. This word in the Ojibway dialect would signify "al-
though." Name of a town in Iowa.
Onekama, (Alg.), "a portage." A town in Michigan.
Oneida,
"
people of the beacon stone." Name of a county in New
York.
Oneota, Oniota, (Dak.), "many lives." Name of a place in Min-
nesota.
Oneyagine, Oneya, "a stone." The Indian name of Stone Creek,
Schoharie Co., N. Y.
Onida, Ohneeday, "hunted, looked for." A post-office in Sullen
county, Dakota Ty.
Ono, or WoNOO, (Alg.), "these." The name of a town in Wis-
consin.
Onondaga, "on the hills." A county in New York.
Ontario, (Irq.), "beautiful prospect of rocks, hills and water."
Name of one of the five great lakes of North America. Others say
this word is from the Wyandot dialect, meaning "how beautiful is the
hill or rock standing in the water." The Mohawks called this lake
INDIAN GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES. . 765
Cadaracqui. Others say this word is derived from the Mohawk word
Skonadario, and signifies "beautiful lake."
Ontonogon, (Alg.
),
"away goes my dish." This river is said to
be so named from the circumstance of an Indian girl going down to
the stream with a dish to dip up some water; the current being strong
the dish was wrenched from her grasp and floated down stream, upon
which she exclaimed nondonogon,
"
away goes my dish." Name of a
town in Michigan, upper peninsula, from a river of that name which
puts into Lake Superior at that place.
Opelika, from opilua, "swamp," laikata, "to ba stretched out,"
"large swamp," or "great swamp." Name of a town in Eussell
county, Alabama.
Opelousas, Opelusa. This word is said to mean "black leg-
gings or moccasins." The name of a town in Louisiana.
Opequon, (Alg.), "the back of anything." Name of a town in
Virginia.
Opicon, or Opquan, Opeekhan, "a stream of a whitish color."
The name of a stream in Virginia, flowing into the Potomac.
Opillako, "large swamp." Name of a stream flowing into Flint
river, Georgia.
Oquawka, a corruption of the word ozcmkee, meaning "yellow
earth." Name of a town in Illinois.
Oriskany, "river of nettles." Name of a town and creek in
Oneida county, N. Y.
Oronoko or Orinoco, "describes a serpent which enfolds itself
in circles within circles." A town in Michigan, from a river of that
name in South America.
Osage, (Miami dialect), "the neutral," "the strong." A town in
Illinois and various other states. Takes its name from a tribe of
Indians.
OsAKis, from osaukee, "yellow earth." A town in Minnesota.
OsAWATTOMiE, the name of a town in Kansas; a combination
from the words Osage and Pottawattamie, the names of two rivers that
unite at the point where this town is built.
Osceola, "rising sun." Name by which the Seminole or Creek
chief was known, but whose true name was Asseola. A county in
Michigan ; also applied to numerous other places in the United States.
I
766
Oscoda, (Alg.), "stony prairie," from muscoda, "a prairie or
raeadow," and ossin, "a pebble," or "stoue." Name of a county and
town in Michigan. Others say the word comes ivomiscoda, "fire."
Oshawa, (Alg.), according to Peter Jones, an educated Ojibway
missionary, should be auzhuhivuh, "ferry him over." The word, as
given by him, is otherwise defined as "across," or "across the river."
It may also mean "anything yellow." A town in Minnesota.
OsHKEBUGESEBE, "new leaf river," is the name by which the
Indians called the St. Peter's river.
OsKODA, the same as Oscoda, (which see). A town in Wisconsin.
OsHKOSH, (Alg.), "brave." Name of a town in Wisconsin.
Takes its name from an Indian chief. In the Algonquin language is-
the word Oskuzh, signifying "the nail, claw, or horny part of the foot
of beasts."
OssEO, (Alg.), perhaps from ossego, "beautiful view." A post
village in Wisconsin.
OssiNEKE, "stony land." A post-office in Michigan.
OssiPPEE, from ossin, "stone," or "pebble," and sippee, "river,"
"stony river." Other authorities say it comes from cooash, "pines,"
and sipe, "a river," "river of the pines." A lake and town in New
Hampshire.
OssiNiNG, probably takes it names from assin, "stone," or "stony,"
and ing, "a place," "stony place." A town in Virginia.
Osso, probably contracted from ossowa, "white waters." A town
in Virginia.
OswAYA, Osoayeh, "pine forest." Name of a creek and post-
office in New York.
OswEGATCHiE, (Irq.
),
supposed to be a corrupted Huron word
and meaning "black water." In the Mohawk dialect, Swekcdsi. Name
of a town and river in New York.
Oswego, ^toaâ, (Irq.), "where the valley widens." Name of
a creek and town in New York.
OswEYA Creek, Utschija, (Alg.), "place of flies." The name of
a tributary of the Alleghany river in McKean county, Penn.
Otahouju, (Dak.), "oak grove." The name of an old trading
post on Jim river, Dakota, not far from Aberdeen.
Otsego, (Irq.), derived from an Iroquois particle denoting
INEIAN GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES. 767
"bodies of water." Name of a county in New York; also the name of
towns in various other states of the Union.
Otselic, an Indian name signifying "Plum creek;" other authori-
ties say it signifies "capfull." A town in New York.
Otsquaga, from the Mohawk word osquago, signifying "under
the bridge." Name of a stream in Montgomery county, N. Y.
Ottawa, (Alg.), "traders," from a tribe of Indians. Name of a
town in Illinois.
OwANECO. In the language of the Indians found by Captain
Smith in Virginia, Oivaynea means "God;" from this may come
Owaneco. A town in Illinois.
OwASCO, Dwasco, (Irq.
),
"lake at the floating bridge." Name of
a lake in New York.
OwASCUS, Wauwashkish. (Alg.
),
"a deer." A town in Wisconsin.
OwASSO, Owausau, (Alg.), "he that is afar off;" others say it
signifies "glittering water." A town in Michigan.
OwATONNA, (Dak.), "straight," from a stream of water called by
the Dakotas Owoianna. Name of a town in Minnesota.
OwEGO, (Ii'q.)' "swdft river." A creek in New York.
OwoBOPTA, "where they dig roots." The name of one of the
largest tributaries of the Minnesota river, called by the French Pomme
de Terra, and by the Dakotas Teepsinna, which words are the names
in those languages of the roots dug there for food.
OwoTANNA, "straight river." The name of a tributary of the
Cannon river in Minnesota, commonly written Oivatonna.
Ozaukee, (Alg.), "yellow earth." The name of a county in Wis-
consin.
OzAWKiE. The name of a town in Kansas. The same as
Ozaukee, (which see).
OxECOSET, (Alg.), "place of small pine trees." A creek and salt
meadow in Stonington, Conn.
P.
Pachaug, Pachauauke,
(Alg.), "a turning place." The name of
a river in Connecticut.
Pahawaken, (Dak), "the sacred hills," or "the sacred round
768
topped hills." This name is applied to several high, mound-like hills
in Dakota, called also medicine hills.
Pahcupog, otherwise called Cockumpaiig, takes its name from
pauqiiapaug, "clear, or open pond." Name of a pond in Charles-
town, R. I.
Pajutazee, (Dak.), "yellow root." The name of a western
branch of the Minnesota, often called
"
Yellow Medicine."
Palatka, or PiLATKA, "spilled," "thrown down." The name of
a town in Florida, on the St. John's river.
Pamunky, Pihmunga, (Alg.
),
"where we were sweating," or "in
the sweat-house where we sweated." The name of a stream in
Virginia.
Pana, may be corrupted from Pena, (Alg.), "partridge." A town
in Illinois.
Papago,
"
hair cut people." Name of a station in Arizona, from
a tribe of Indians.
Paquabaug, (Alg.), "clear, or open pond." Name of an island
in Shepaug river, Connecticut.
Pascagoula, "bread nation;" the name was first applied to a
tribe of Indians who settled near Mobile. The name of a river in the
southeastern part of Mississippi.
Pascoag. Dr. Trumbull says of this word, the name belongs to
"land at the branch," or "crotch of the river." Name of a river and
post village in Rhode Island.
Paskack, probably the same as Pascoag, "land at the branch."
A town in New Jersey.
Passaic, (Alg.), from Pasaic, or Passajeêk, signifying "a valley."
A town in New Jersey ; also the name of a river in that state.
Passamaquoddy, (Alg.), "a great place for pollock." Other
authorities say "pollock fish," and "pollock ground.". Name of a bay
at the southeastern extremity of Maine.
Passadena, (Alg.), "the valley." Name of a town in California.
Passumpsic, (Alg.), "much clear river." Name of a river in
Vermont; also the name of a post village in the same state.
Patoka. This word is the name by which the Ponca Indians
designate themselves, who are a branch of the Dakota or Sioux stock.
Patapsco, Paiapsqui, (Alg.), "backwater" or "tide water con-
taining froth," or "a long deep stretch in a stream caused by back or
'
tide water containing froth." The name of a river upon which the
city of Baltimore stands.
Patchogue, Pauochauog, (Alg.), "the place where they gamble
and dance." A town of Suffolk county, N. Y., near the southern shore
of Long Island.
Patkaskaden, (Dak.), "the tortoise or turtle." The name of a
western tributary of the Dakota.
Pattaquonk, (Alg.), "round place," meaning an Indian's wigwam
or sweating-house, or possibly only "round hill." Name of a hill near
Savbrook, Conn.
Pattaquonset, Pattguanset, seems to be the diminutive of
Pattaquonk; if so, it would signify "at or near the small round place."
Name of a pond near the village of East Lyme, Conn.
Patuxent, (Alg., Delaware dialect). This is probably the same
as P'^duksU^ meaning "round foot," a word which the Delawares used
to signify "wolf," having a round foot like a dog. A branch of the
Delawares were called Minsi or Munsey or Muncie, meaning "wolf,"
but they frequently used the word P\luksit to signify the same thing.
Name of a river and post village in Maryland.
Paucamack, (Alg.), "clear or open fishing place." A pond
between Voluntown and Exeter, R. I.
Paugwonk, Pogiuonk, (Alg.), "crooked pond." Trumbull says
he is inclined to think it signifies "cleared land," being corrupted from
Poquanac. Name of a small pond in the southeastern part of Salem,
Conn.
Pauquapaug, from Paquapaug, (Alg.), "clear or open pond."
Name of a brook north of New Milford, Conn.
Pautapaug, Poattapoge, Potabauge, (Alg.), "a bay or cove that
has a narrow inlet from a river or the sea." This was originally the
name of the North Cove, an arm of Connecticut river.
I
Pautibaug, (Alg.) This word is supposed to signify "boggy
meadows," "miry land." The name of a district in Connecticut.
Pawcatuck. Dr. Trumbull says of this word, whether the name
originally belonged to the river, or to the territory west of it, cannot
be positively determined. If the name belonged first to the territory,
the eastern part of the Pequot country, it certainly stands for Paqiiat-
770
aiiJve, "Pequot land;" but if, as is on the whole more probable, it
belonged to the river, the first two syllables stand either for pauqiia,
*' clear, open," or for pagwa, "shallow," and the last syllable, iuck,
denotes a "tidal river." Name of a river in Connecticut.
Pawhatan or Pawatan, Pauatlianne (Alg.
),
"at or near the falls
of the stream." From the falls of the James river, near Avhere Rich-
mond now stands, named as above, Capt. John Smith says the great
king Powhatan took his name.
Pawtucket, (Alg.), "the falls," or "at the falls." The name of
a river of Pvhode Island having on it a fall of fifty feet, from which it
is supposed it took its name. Above this fall the river takes the name
of the Blackstone, and below the fall the Seekonk. It may also mean
"clear river."
Pawtuxent, (Alg.), "at the little falls." Falls on Pawcatuck
river, near Westerly, R. I.
Pawtuxet or Pautuxet, "at the little falls." The name of a
river in Rhode Island. |-
Paxton, Peekstiink,
"
place of standing or dead water." The
name of a creek in Dauphin county, Penn., and a town in Illinois.
Paw Paw. In the Algonquin language is the word pahpah, "go
about." Name of a post-office in Illinois.
Peagscomsuck, (Alg.), "mouth of a great brook," or "a great
brook." An island in Quinebaug river.
Pecan, (Alg.), the Indian word for "nut." A post-office in
Alabama.
Pecatonica. Name of a river in Illinois, at first known as Picka-
iolica. Caleb Atwater says it takes its name from a fish, something
like a rock fish, found in the Delaware river. The two words are
undoubtedly the same, coming from different dialects of the Algonquin
language. Some tribes of this group have in their dialect the sound
of Z, whilst others have the sound of n instead. The Sacs and Foxes
would call the word Pickatolica, whilst the Pottawattamies and Ojib-
ways would call it the Pecatonica.
Pegumock, Peekhanne, (Alg.),
"
dark stream." Name of a creek
in New Jersey.
Pembina, (Alg.),
"
watery berries, or
"
high bush cranberry." A
county in Dakota, from a river of that name along which this class of
berries are found growing abundantly.
Pemigewasset, (Alg.
),
"the crooked mountain place," from pc^??-
naquis, "crooked," wadchee, "a mountain," cooash, "pines," and aw/ce,
"a place." A river in New Hampshire.
Penequa, probably corrupted from pennaqui^ "crooked." A
town in Dakota.
Pennepack, supposed to be a corruption from pemmapecka, ( Alg.
),
"a body of water with no current." The name of a creek in Philadel-
phia, flowing into the Delaware.
Penobscot, (Alg.) It is said that this name is reported by the
French in sixty different ways during their occupancy of the country
in that vicinity, in 1664, the principal among which was Panauanshek.
The English, the New Plymouth colonists, caught up the word Penoh-
scote, by which it was known as early as 1626. The true Indian
name, it was said, was Penohsceag or Penohscoote, suggested by the
rocky falls just above Bangor, horn, penohsg, "rocky," and idteral, "a
place," or "the rocky place." In another dialect penapse, "stone,"
and auke, "place," "the rocky or stony place." Applied originally
to a place near Castine, near to the river. A river and county in Maine.
Pensacola, Panshoakla, a Choctaw word signifying
"
hair peo-
ple." The name of a city and bay in Florida.
Pensaukee, (Menominee dialect), "the place of the brants."
Name of a town in Wisconsin.
Peoria, (Alg.) Name of a principal city in Illinois, on the
Illinois river, situated at the place mentioned by Hennepin, which, he
says, "the savages call Pimiteoui; that is, in their tongue, 'a place
ichere there is an abundance
of fat
beasts,^
"
from which the word
Peoria is supposed to be derived. It also became the name by which
one of the Illinois tribes subsequently became and continued to be
known. The name was also given in early times, to some extent, as
Pewarre.
Peosta, in the Algonquin language Peostara, signifies
"
gorge in
the rock." A post village in Iowa.
Peotone, (Alg.), from Petone, meaning "bring," "bring here,"
or "bring to this place." Name of a town in Illinois.
Pequea, corrupted from Picueu, a Shawano word. Name of a
Pequabuck, (Alg.),
supposed to mean "clear or open pond."
The name of a river in
Connecticut. The name was doubtless trans-
ferred from the pond at its source.
Pequanac, "cleared land." A post-office in New Jersey.
Pequannock, (Alg.
),
"a clearing," or " cleared land." The name
of a town in Morris county, N. J.
Perkiomen, Paldhmink, (Alg.), "cranberry-place." The name
of a creek in Montgomery county, Penn.
Pescattaway, (Alg.), wapees, "white," Jwiuat or quaat, "a pine
tree," or "the place of the pine tree," "the place of the white pine
tree." The name of a town in Middlesex county, N. J.
Peshtigo, (Menominee dialect), properly Peshetigo, "snapping
turtle." The name of a town in Wisconsin.
Pey, (Dak.), meaning "elm." The Dakota name for Elm creek,
a tributary of Jim river, Dakota.
Pewakpa,
"
Elm river." The name of a western branch of the
Dakota river.
PiASA, or Piusa. Name of a town in Illinois. It takes its name
from the image of a huge bird painted or carved, seen by the early
French explorers, on a smooth faced rock on the east bank of the Mis-
sissippi river, some distance above the mouth of the Illinois. An early
writer, referring to this picture, says: "Near Alton, 111., there is a
narrow pass confined between two high hills, at the bottom of which runs
the Piasa, a rivulet which flows into the Mississippi river. At this
place is a smooth perpendicular rock, upon which at some distance
above, an immense image of a bird with outspread wings is chiselled
in the stone. This image, from which this rivulet takes its name,
is called by the Indians Piasa, that is to say, 'the man devouring
bird.'"
Piccowaxen, Pixuivaxen, (Alg.), "torn shoes." The name of a
creek in Maryland.
PiQUA, from Pingwa, "ashes." A post-office in Ohio; also in
Kansas.
PiscASSET, Wapees, "white stone." The name of a stream in
Maine.
PiscATAQUA, (Alg.), "great deer place." A river in New Hamp-
shire.
PisCATAWAY, Pisgattauwi, (Alg.), "it is darkening," "growing
dark." The name of a river in Prince George's county, Maryland.
PiSHATiPAUG,
Pissatapaug, "muddy or miry pond." A pond in
Durham, Conn.
PissEPUNK. Tlie name doubtless came from an Indian hot-house.
Name of a hill in the southwestern part of Huntington, Conn.
PiSTAKEE, (Alg., Kaskaskia dialect), "fox." A lake in northern
Illinois near the line of Wisconsin, which Fox river passes through.
Understood to be the same as Pestekoui, the Indian name of Fox river
as given by the French.
PiSTEPAUG, Pishagguapaiig, (Alg.), "muddy or miry pool."
This name has been transferred to a mountain in Connecticut. Doubt-
less originally the name of a lake or pool in the vicinity.
PocASSET, (Alg.), the place "where a strait widens out." The
name of a village in Massachusetts. This name occurs frequently in
New England. A post-office in Massachusetts.
PocATALiGO, or PocoTALico, (Alg.), "plenty of fat ducks." The
name of a town in West Virginia, from a tributary stream of the great
Kanawah river.
PocoTALico. A town in West Virginia. (See Pocataligo).
PocHAUG, Poshaog, (Alg.), "where they divide in two." The
place where the Pochaug and Manunkateset rivers meet in Connecticut.
PocoHANTAS, or PocAHONTAS, Pockohcintes, (Alg.), "streamlet be-
tween two hills;" compounded of pochJw, "a rocky hill," and hanne,
"stream;" the latter root rendered a diminutive by the suffix tes. The
princess Pocahontas doubtless derived her name from this stream.
The name of a town in West Virginia.
PocoMOKE, Pockhammokik, (Alg.), "knobby," "broken by knobs
and hills." The name of a river in Maryland.
PocONO or PoKONO, Pokohanrie, (Alg.),
"
a stream issuing from a
mountain," or
"
running between two mountains." The Broad Moun-
tain, south of Scranton, Pa., receives its name of Po^cono, from a stream
of the same name, contiguous thereto.
PocosEN or PoccosEN. This word is supposed to be derived from
pduckassin, (Alg.), "a place where balls, bullets or lead were to be
had." The name of a river in Virginia.
'PocoTOFAVG, Pohquaejjaug, (Alg.), "divided pond." The name
of a large pond in Chatham, Connecticut, nearly divided in two parts,
connected only by a short and narrow strait.
PoHOPOKA, Pockhcqôcka, "two mountains butting with their ends
against each other, with a stream of water between," as in the case of
774
the Lehigh Water Gap. Name of a stream in Carbon county, Penn-
sylvania, flowing into the Lehigh river.
PoKEGOMA, (Alg.) The name which the Indians gave to any
lake connected with another by a running stream or short outlet con-
necting the two. Name of a place in Wisconsin.
PoKETO, Pachgita, (Alg.), "throw it away," "abandon it." The
name of a creek in Alleghany county, Penn.
PoKOMOKA, Pocqueumolce, (Alg.), "place of shell fish." The
Indian name of a river in Maryland.
PoMPERUNG, Pomperaug. This word probably means "place of
offering," or
"
place of contributing." Name of a river in Con-
necticut.
PoMPTON, Pihmion, (Alg.),
"
crooked mouthed." The name of a
small river in New Jersey.
PoNKAPOG, (Alg.) Said to mean "sweet water." A town in
Massachusetts.
PoNTiAC, Pondeac. Name of an important town in Michigan;
also name of a town in Illinois, so named from Pontiac, Mich. Derived
from the celebrated Ottawa Indian chief, the signification of which is
lost.
Vo^TOOSVC, Powntuasuck, (Alg.), "falls on the brook." A hill
in Glastonbury, Conn., now bears this name. Also the name of a town
in Illinois.
PopoNOMiNG, Papennamink, (Alg.), "where we are gazing." The
name of a small lake in Monroe county, Penn.
PoQUESSON, or PoQUissiNG, (Alg.), "at the place abounding in
mice." The name of a creek in Bucks county, Penn.
PoQUANATUCK, Paquantuck, (Alg.), "cleared land." Name of a
river two miles east of the Connecticut line.
PoQUONOCK, or PoQUONNOC, (Alg.), "cleared land." The name of
a village near Farmington river. Conn.
PoQUETANUCK, (Alg.), "land opened or broken up," "land ready
for planting." The name of a town in Connecticut.
Port Tobacco, Pootuppag, (Alg.), "a bay or cove." The name
of an inlet on the Potomac river, in Maryland.
PoTiCH, Poduch, or Pottuck, (Alg.), "round." The name of one
of the plains in Catskill county, N. Y.
Potomac, Fotowmak, or Peiahmok, (Alg.
),
"they are coming by
water," "drawing near in crafts or canoes." The name of a large
river forming the boundary line between Maryland and Virginia.
Other authorities say it signifies "the place of the burning pine,
resembling a council fire."
PouGHKEEPSiE, (Alg.) The original word, it is said, was Ajw-
keepsink, "pleasant harbor." Other authorities say it signifies
"
shal-
low inlet." A city in New York.
Poweshiek, (Alg.), from a Fox chief of that name, signifying
"to dash off the water." A county in Iowa.
PoYGAN, (Alg.), "pipe." A town in Wisconsin.
PsiMMDSE, (Dak.), "rice lake." The name of several lakes in
Minnesota, so called from the wild rice growing on their banks.
Ptansinta, (Dak.), "otter tail." The name of a peninsula
between Lac Traverse and the Minnesota river, so called from its
resemblance to an otters tail.
Ptanska, (Dak.), "white otter." The name of a lake in Iowa.
PuckAGAMA, (Ojibway dialect), "a portage across an elbow of
land formed by the passage of a river around the same." Name of
falls on a stream near Sandy Lake, northern Minnesota.
PuckAWAY, from Puckwi, the Ojibway name for rushes or cat-tail
flags, from which they make a kind of matting for covering their
lodges. The Ojibways of the upper Mississippi called it opahkwiwuk.
Name of a lake in Wisconsin.
Pueblo, takes its name from a tribe of Indians, signifying "Vil-
lage Indians." Name of a county in Colorado.
PuGATABAMiNNis, (Alg.) The name of one of the islands in
Lake Superior, called Apostle Islands, meaning "fishing line islands."
Pungotegue, or Pungoteaque, Punghatteke, (Alg.), "the place
\
of powder." In the Delaware dialect the word piing signifies powder,
I
also ashes, dust and fine sand. Owing to the extremely sandy char-
I acter of the country, it is highly probable the Indians in this case
intended the word to signify not the place of powder, but rather the
place of fine sand or dust. The name of a town and island in Accomac
county, Virginia.
PuNXUTAWNEY, Ponksuteney, (Alg.), "habitation of sand-flies."
The name of a town in Jefferson county, Penn.
Pymatuing, Pihmfomink, (Alg.), "the crooked-mouthed man's
776
dwelling place," or *'the dwelling place of the man with the crooked
mouth." The name of a tributary of the Chenango river in Mercer
county, Penn.
Q.
QuADDic, a corruption of PaUaquottuck, (Alg.), "afc the round
place on the tide water." Name of a village in Connecticut.
QuAKAKE, corrupted from Cuwenkeek, (Alg.), "pine lands."
Name of a creek in Carbon county, Penn.
QuANTico. If this is the same as Guentico, Gentican, it means
"dancing." Name of a town in Virginia.
Quebec, (Alg.) The name of a village in Louisiana; from a
principal city of that name in Canada. Bishop Baraga, in his diction-
ary of the Otchwipwe language, says, "from Kepec or Kepac, "being
shut;" Kipaw^ "it is shut." The Indians of the Gulf of St. Lawrence
yet call it Kepec. In fact, in that place the river looks shut up by
Diamond Cape when going up, and by Orleans Island when coming
down. Other authorities have it that the word Kebec means "nar-
row." The word Quebec is French orthography, pronounced Kebec.
Other authorities say it signifies "the fearful rocky cliff." Some say
this word was derived from the French word Quelbec, "what a beak."
Quemahoning, corrupted from Cuwei-mahoni, (Alg.), "pine tree
lick," or "a lick in among pines." A branch of the Conemaugh, or
Kiskiminetas, in Pennsylvania.
QuEPONCO, Cuweuponga, (Alg.), "ashes of pine wood." The
name of a creek in Maryland.
QuiccoANE, pronounced Kekoino, "running river." A south-
western branch of the Missouri.
QuiDNic, Aqueednuck, (Alg.), "place at the end of the hill," or
"place beyond the hill." A river and pond in Bhode Island.
QuiLUTAMEND, (Alg.),
"
we came unawares upon them." Name
of a spot in Luzerne county, Penn., lying between the Susquehanna
river and a mountain, where the Delawares say they surprised a body
of Indians of the Five Nations and defeated them.
.
QuiNAMOGUE. This word is supposed to be a corruption of Quinn-
amaug, "long fish pond," or the place where lampreys (long fish) are
taken. Name of a locality near Charlestown, K. I.
QuiNDARO, (Alg.) It was the name of an intelligent Delaware
woman, wife of a white man, whom the town projectors had employed
777
to purchase the land of the town site from the Wyandots. She trans-
acted negotiations so skillfully that her name was perpetuated in the
new city. It signifies "a bundle of sticksstrength in the union."
A town in Kansas.
QuiNNEBAUG, (Alg.), "long pond." Name of a river in Con-
necticut.
QuiNNiPiAC, "the surrounding country." A river in Connecticut.
QuoNEPAUG, or QuiNNiPAUGH, (Alg.), "long pond." Name of a
pond in the northeastern part of Guilford, Conn.
R.
Raratan, (Alg.), "forked river." Name of a river in New
Jersey.
Rappahannock, Lappihanne, (Alg.), "the current has returned,
or flowed again," or "where the tide water flows and ebbs." The
name of a stream in Virginia. Other authorities say it signifies "a
river of quick rising."
Restigouche, Resteegoosha, "the river which divides like the
hand." The name of a river in British America forming the northern
boundary of New Brunswick, so called because a short distance above
its point of discharge into the bay of Chaleur, it divides like the hand
into five branches.
Roanoke, (Alg.), equivalent to peat/, "sea shell," or "wampum."
A river and county in Virginia.
RocKAWAY, supposed to be derived from reckawackes, or ackewek,
(Alg.),
"
bushy," or "difficult to cross." The name of a river in New
Jersey.
s.
Sac, (Alg.) This word is also spelled Sauk, which is the name
of a county and town in Wisconsin. It is an abbreviation of the word
Ozaukee, signifying "yellow earth," and is the name of a tribe of
Indians, and means as applied to them "people of the yellow earth."
The word was abbreviated by the French as Sac, the English speaking
people, adopting their
abbreviation, spelled it Sa2(k. A county and
town in Iowa.
Saccarappa, (Alg.) It was originally written Sacaribigg, said
to signify "towards sun rising." A village in Maine.
Saco, Sauksagook,
(Alg.), "pouring out." The root signifies
I
the place of discharge or pouring out of a river or lake. The name
of a river in Maine. Other authorities say it is a contraction of sawa,
"burnt," coo, "pine," and auke, "place," "place of the burnt pine."
Sacondaga, (Irq.
),
said to signify "drowned lands," from a great
marsh which lies along its shore. A river in Fulton county, N. Y.
Sagadahoc, (Alg.), "ending place;" mouth of the Kennebec.
A county in Maine.
Saginaw, Sauk-sahcoon, (Alg.), "at the mouth," or "pouring out
at the mouth." The Saginaw river discharges through Saginaw bay
into Lake Huron, the bay forming the place where the river pours out
into the lake. Very probably the bay gave name to the river ; that is,
the Europeans gave the same name to the river which they found
attached to the bay. Mr. Schoolcraft says the word is derived from
Saukinong, from the Sac tribe who once lived in that vicinity. It may
come from Sagganash, the Indian word for Frenchman. Name of a
river in Michigan.
Sago, an Iroquois word of the Mohawk dialect. Their usual
word of salute, and signifies "welcome." Name of a town in Ohio.
Sagule, (Irq., Oneida dialect), corresponding to the word sago
in the Mohawk dialect A post-office in Wisconsin.
Sandusky. Many have declared this word to be of Indian origin.
Some say it is from a Wyandot word, Saundiistee, "water within water
pools," or from Sahimduskee, in the same dialect, signifying "clear
water," the definition of the former name being peculiarly applicable
to Sandusky bay. But in Yol. 1 of a periodical, entitled the "Ameri-
can Pioneer," appears a communication from Jacob J. Green, of Tifiin,
Ohio, under date of February 28, 1842,
giving quite a different theory
of the origin of this word. He says: "At the time the French were
establishing posts on the Wabash and Maumee rivers, nearly one hun-
dred years since, connecting their operations on the Ohio with these
settlements at Detroit, a Polish trader by the name of Sandusky, or
more properly spelled Sanduski, established himself near the present
site of Lower Sandusky, at the foot of the rapids of the river. His
operations in trading for fur, etc., with the Indians, being entirely
confined to the river and bay, they soon became known to the Euro-
peans, and afterwards to the Indians, as Sanduski's river and bay.
Sandusky, quarreling with the Indians, was forced to quit the country
for the settlements beyond the Ohio for safety. The Indians, some
time after, followed and killed him in Virginia. So far as I can learn,
there are but two of the name in this country, his grandsons. One
.
779
lives in Kentucky, the other a few miles from Danville, Vermillion
county, Illinois." Reliable authority, however, states that the name
of the person referred to was not, originally, Sanduski, but Sodowsky,
which became changed, after coming to this country, to Sandusky, in
consequence of a deed of land being made to him in that name, by
misunderstanding his correct name; whereupon, to prevent any uncer-
tainty as to the title attaching to him, he at once assumed or .answered
to the name of Sandusky, by which he was thereafter known, and so
transmitting the same to his descendants, while his brother Isaac and
his descendants, wliose interests were not affected by the aforesaid
transaction, retained the name of Sodowsky. The name Sandusky is
applied to an important town in Ohio; also to a bay or body of water
opening into the southwestern part of Lake Erie, upon which the town
is situated.
Sangamon. Investigation has induced the opinion that this is a
corruption of some word in the Algonquin language, and the conclusion
arrived at by many is that it is derived from the word sachamo, or sag-
amo, a word in the Delaware and Abanakie dialects signifying "a chief,"
which has become corrupted into the word sagamore. This word is
given in some of the early gazetteers and local histories as sangamo.
The name of a river and county in Illinois.
Sankinack, SankinaJc, corrupted from sankhamie, (Alg.
),
"flint
stream." Name of a stream in Pennsylvania.
Sappa, (Dak.), "black." Name of a tributary of Republican
river, Nebraska.
Saranac, "river that flows under rocks." A lake and river in
New York.
Saratoga, (Irq. ) Various definitions are given as to the meaning
of this wôrd, as "place where the track of the heel may be seen," in
allusion to a locality in the neighborhood w^here depressions, like in-
steps, may be seen in the rocks, "on the heel;" a very good authority
says that the definition of this word is lost. Name of a lake and town
in New York.
Sasco, supposed to mean "marshy land," "swamp." Name of a
<jreek in Westport, Conn.
Saskatchewan, (Alg.), "the swift current." Name of a river in
Manitoba, British America.
Saucon, or Saconna, corrupted from Sakunk, (Alg.), "where a
smaller stream empties into a larger," hence its "place of outlet."
Name of a creek in North Hampton, Penn.
Saugatuck, (Alg.), "outlet of a tidal river;" other authorities
say it means "at thje mouth of the river." Name of a small river in
Connecticut.
Saukunk, (Alg.), "at the mouth," that is, at the mouth of the Big
Beaver river, where it flows into the Ohio. This spot was a well
known rendezvous for Indian war parties.
ScANTic, supposed to be derived from peskcdnk, (Alg.), "where
the river branches." Name of a river and town in Connecticut.
ScATACOOK, (Alg.), "the confluence of two streams." Name of a
river in Connecticut.
ScHAGTicoKE, "the Confluence of two streams." Name of a town
in New York.
ScHAKAMAXENS, or Shackamaxon, Schachamesink, (Alg.), "the
place of eels." The name of a locality near Kensington, Penn.
Schenectady, (Irq.), "over or beyond the pines." The name of
a town on the Mohawk river, New York. In early colonial times there
was a portage from Fort Orange, or Albany on the Hudson, across the
peninsula formed by the Hudson and Mohawk to this point, Schenec-
tady, which leads through pine forests, whence the name. Others say
this word is derived from skanehtade, and signifies "beyond the
openings."
Schoharie, Skohare, (Irq.), "flat-wood." Name of a creek and
county in New York.
ScHOHOLA, or Shohola, Schauwihilla, (Alg.), "weak," "faint,"
"distressed." Name of a creek in Pike county, Penn.
Schoodic, (Alg.), "burnt lands," from large fires about 1675.
Name of a river and several lakes in Maine.
SciTico, (Alg.), "at the branch." Name of a post village in
Connecticut, on the Scantic river.
Sebago, (Alg.), "place or region of river-lake;" A town and
lake in Maine.
Sebethe, supposed to be derived from sepoese, (Alg.), "small
river." Name of a river in Middletown, Conn.
Sebewa, or Sebewan, (Alg.), "running water." Name of a
township and post-office in Michigan.
Sebewaing, (Alg.), "rivers," or "at the rivers;" it may also
mean "rushing water." A town in Michigan.
4.
INDIAN GEOGKAPHICAL NAMES.
781
Seekonk, Segicoiig, (Alg.), "spring," "next spriDg." A town in
Massachusetts.
Sego, Sago, (Irq., Mohawk dialect), word oi salutation or greet-
ing, as "welcome," "good cheer," and the like. A town in Ohio.
Seminole, Isfisimanole, "separatist." or "run away," the
name given to those who separated or ran away from the Creeks.
Albert Gallatin says the word signifies "wild men," because they sub-
sisted largely by hunting and fishing, while the Creeks generally were
engaged in agriculture and subsisted largely by it. Name of a post-
office in Wyoming territory.
Senegar, Siimike, (Alg.), "stony." Name of a creek in Mary-
land.
Senachwine, Senacivin, said to mean "red cedar." Name of a
lake in Putnam county, Illinois.
Sensinik, (Alg.), "the place of the stone," or perhaps more prop-
erly,
"
the stony place." Name of a locality in AYestchester county,
N. Y.
Sequoyah, takes its name from the Cherokee Indian who invented
the Cherokee alphabet, called by the English
"
Guess." A post-office
and county in Kansas.
Shakopee, (Dak
),
"six." Name of a town on the Minnesota
river, called after a chief of that name who formerly dwelt there.
Shamokin, Schahamoki, or Schahamokink, (Alg.), "the place of
eels." The name of the spot where Sanbury, Penn., now stands; also
the name of a creek flowing into the Susquehanna at Sanbury.
Shamong, probably the same as Chemung, an Iroquois word sig-
nifying "big horn." A town in New Jersey.
Shandaken, "rapid water." A town in New York.
Skaneateles, Skaneadice, (Irq.), "long lake." A lake and town
in New York.
Shannock, Shatciviink, (Alg.), "the place where two streams
meet." Name of a river in North Stonington, Conn., formed by the
union of the Assekonk and Phelps' creek, in Milton village.
Shantuck, supposed to be derived from mishuntugkef, (Alg.),
"the place of much wood." A location near Montville, Conn.
f Shantituck, (Alg.), "the woody place." The name of a small
stream in Rhode Island.
ShawAN, (Alg.), "south." A town in Maryland.
Shawangunk, "in the south;" others say it means "white stone."
A town in the state of New York.
Shawano, (Alg.), "southerner," or "him of the south." A town
and county in Wisconsin, taken from the name of a noted Menominee
chief.
Shawnee, (Alg.), is corrupted from shawano, "southerner."
Name of a town and county in Kansas.
Shawnees, Shawenu, (Alg.), "the southern people." This word
is derived from the Lenape language. The word Showan or Choivaii,
the name of a river in North Carolina, possibly comes from the same
root.
Sheboygan, (Alg.) Name of a town in Wisconsin. Various-
definitions are given to this word. Schoolcraft says it appears to
have its termination from the word ân, "a lake" (sagaiegan), and
the combination denotes a river or water pass from lake to lake.
Shebiahunjegun mesius
^^
a s-pj glass." Shebonigan is an instrument
for boring or piercing, as a needle. It is said by a local writer that
the origin of this word was shewauwaugun, meaning "the place where
the water runs into the ground." Other accounts say the name is
shuehwauwagun^ which was generally shortened by early settlers to
shepwaugun, and afterwards became contracted to its present form.
According to Mr. Hathaway, a local writer of Wisconsin, the word is
corrupted from shawhwaykun (half accent on the first, and full accent
on the last syllable), expressing an Indian tradition that a great noise
coming under the ground from the region of Lake Superior was heard
at this river. The better opinion is that the name signifies a water-
way or passage between the lakes from Sheboygan river, having its
source very near Lake Winnebago, and was a route frequently
traveled by Indians in their canoes.
Shenandoah, Schinethandowi, "the sprucy stream," or "the stream
passing by or through spruce pines." There is another definition ta
this word derived from ononda, "a mountain," and goa, "great," and
signifies
"
a river flowing alongside of high hills or mountains." These
latter roots are of Iroquois origin, and as there is no evidence that the
Iroquois Indians ever inhabited the banks of this stream, or even
visited the region it traverses very often, it is not likely they are
the origin of the word. A river in Virginia.
Shepaug, Shippaug (Alg.), "great pond." Name of a river in
Connecticut. This river rises in a pond in Connecticut, known as^
INDIAN GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES. - 783
"great pDiid," and doubtless the Indian name has been transferred
to the river.
Sheshequin, (Alg., Delaware dialect), "mysterious rattle." Name
of a town in Pennsylvania. This rattle is the customary badge be-
stowed when one is initiated into the degree of doctor or brother.
Shetucket, Shawtiicket, (Alg.), "confluence." Name of- a small
stream in Connecticut, which receives the Quinnebaug and unites with
the Yantic to form the Thames.
Shewatucket, Shewatuck, (Alg.), "confluence." Name of a
small stream in North Kingston, R. I.
Shigawakpa, "bad river;" called also Teton, and Little Missouri
river. Name of a river in Arkansas.
Shintaka, (Dak.), "tamarack." The name of several marshes
in Minnesota. So named on account of the tamarack growing sponta-
neously in them.
Shippaug, (Alg.), "great pond." Said to have been the Indian
name of Litchfield Pond, Connecticut.
Shkotpa, (Dak.), "hollow," or "bowl." Name of a lake in Min-
nesota, now called White Bear Lake.
Shobonier. The name of an Indian chief from the French word
Chevalier, pronounced by the French chevolyn. The Indians, using
the Ojibway and Pottawattamie dialect, would render this word Sho-
ho-na, having in their dialect no sound of v, using b instead, and no
sound of I, using 7i instead. In rendering the word as it is given for
the name of this town, Shobonier, the Indian pronunciation is retained,
with the exception of the last three letters, wherein the French orthog-
raphy is retained. Name of a town in Illinois.
Shohakin, or Cheocton. There was formerly a place in Dela-
l| ware county, N. Y., known by this name, spelled in the two different
ways aforesaid, meaning "union of the waters." The name was after-
wards changed to Hancock.
Shohokin, Schohacan, (Alg.), "glue." The name of a stream
in Wayne county, Penn.
Shoneau, (Alg.), "silver," or "money." Some tribes of the
Algonquin group, as the Ojibways and Pottawattamies, called money
shoneau, their word for silver, because the first money they saw was
silver coin. When, afterwards, on seeing gold coin, they called it
osawa shoneau, ineaniDg "yellow money;" copper coin they called
misqudbik slioneau^ meaning "red money." A town in Wisconsin.
Shoshonee,
"
island Indians." A county in Idaho territory.
SiBAWAiNG. The same as Sebewaign (which see). A town in
Michigan.
Sing Sing, (Alg., Delaware dialect). Said to be from an Indian
village called Osing Sing, from ossin, "a stone," and sing, "a place;"
that is, "place of stone," or "stone upon stone." A town on the Hud-
son river, in the state of New York. Other authorities say that this
name is derived from "a friendly Indian."
Sinnemahoing, Acksinnemahoni, (Alg.), "stony lick," or "the
place of the stony lick." Name of a stream in Cameron county, Penn.
Sioux. This is the name which the French and Canadians gave
in early days to the tribes of the Dakota nations, being an abbreviation
of the word nadouessioux, French orthography. The name which the
Ojibways gave to the Dakotas, signifying, in the Ojibway dialect,
"
enemies." The word has been given by the French and others in
various forms, as nadonesciouz, nadonehioiick, nadsuessioiiek and
nadouaisioug, the former being a plural form of the word. Name of
j}
a river in Dakota.
Jv
Siskiyou, "bob tailed horse." A post-office in California.
SiSKOWiT, (Alg.), "a kind of fish resembling a trout." A lake
in Wisconsin.
SissETON, (Dak,) sisin, tonwanyan, "fish scale mound village."
Name of one of the clans of the Sioux ; also of a fort and an Indian
agency in Dakota.
SiTKUM, (Chinook word), "half," or "a part." Name of a town in
Oregon.
SiWASH, in the Chinook language signifies "an Indian." A
post-office in Washington territory.
Skokomish, "river people." A post office in Washington terri-
tory.
Skaneatice, Skaneadice, "long lake." Name of a lake in New
York.
Skippack, Schkipuk, (Alg.), "stinking pool of water." Name of
a creek in Montgomery county, Penn.
Skookumchuck, (Chinook word), "a rapid," or "strong, smooth
running stream;" from skooJanu, strong, and cltuck, water, river, or
stream. A post-office in Washington territory.
Skowhegan, (Alg.) Name of a town in Maine.
Skunk Grove, (Alg.) The word skunk is from an Indian word in
the Abenaki dialect, contracted from seganku^ a carniverous animal of
the genus mephitis. A place in Racine county, AVisconsiu.
Sleepy Eye, from a Sioux chief, whose Indian name was Eshta-
humleah, meaning "sleepy eye." Name of a town in Minnesota.
SoDUS, called by the Indians Assorodus, of which sodiis seems to
be a contraction, meaning "silvery water." Name of a town and bay
putting out of Lake Ontario, in the state of New York.
SoMONAUK, (Alg., Pottawattamie dialect), irom esser.iiauk, "paw-
paw tree." A town in Illinois.
SouHEGAN, contracted from ASou/te/cenas/i, (Alg.) An Indian noun
in the plural number, meaning "worn out lands." Name of a river in
one of the New England states.
Squam, a contraction of the word iconnesquamsauke, (Alg.), "the
pleasant water place." A lake in New Hampshire.
SuAMico, (Menominee dialect), "the yellow sand." Name of a
river in Wisconsin.
SusPECOUGH, supposed to mean "muddy, dirty water." The name
of a creek in New Jersey.
Susquehanna, "the great bay river," so called by the Delawares,
from its flowing into the great bay. Name of a principal river in
Pennsylvania.
SuwANEE. It is supposed to come from shawano,
"
south or southern
people," from which comes Shawnees, a tribe of Indians who once lived
in Florida, from whence they went to Ohio. This is also the name of a
river in Florida, upon which it is understood these Indians formerly lived
before they came to Ohio. John Johnston, Indian agent at Piqua, O.,
in 1819, says of the Shawnees, that they came to Ohio about sixty-five
years before that time, from west Florida and adjacent country, and
formerly resided on the Suwaney river, near the sea. This river, he
says, was doubtless named after the Shawanoes, Suwaney being a cor-
ruption of that word. Other authorities say it is derived from suwani,
"echo." , A town and county in Florida.
SwAMPSCOTT, contracted from wonnesquamsauke, (Alg.), "the
pleasant water-place." A town in Massachusetts.
786
T.
Tacoma, Tahoma, "almost to heaven," "tall peak." It was the
name given by the Indians to Mount Ranier on account of the great
height of that mountain, which is put down as fourteen thousand feet
above the level of the sea. Name of a town in AVashington territory.
Taconic, "forest," or "wilderness." The name of a mountain
ransre in Massachusetts, west of the Housatonic.
Taghkanick, (Alg., Mohegan dialect), pronounced ToshJwnnick,
supposed to signify "water enough." On this side of Mount Tom was
formerly a spring and favorite resort for the Indians for drinking this
water, and hence the name. A town in Columbia county, N. Y.
Talladega, "the border town," or "the town on the frontier."
Name of a county and village in Alabama.
Tallahassee, "old nation," "old town," "waste place." Name
of the capitol of Florida.
Tallahatchee, "river of the rock." Name of a county in Mis-
sissippi.
Tallapoosa, supposed to be derived from the Creek talepula,
"stranger," "newcomer," alluding to the arrival of other Indians or a
tribe; other authorities say the word signifies "swift current." Name
of a river in Georgia.
Tallassee, derived from ialofau, "a town," and esse, "taken."
Name of a town in Alabama.
Tallula,
"
leaping waters." Name of a town in Illinois.
Tama, Tioma, "bear, whose voice makes the rocks tremble," from
a Fox chief of that name. Name of a county in Iowa.
Tammanend, Tammanen, Tammany, (Alg.), "beaver-like," or
"amiable," takes its name from a chief of the Delaware tribe, spoken
of in history as the patron saint of America. Name of a post-office in
Pennsylvania.
Tamaqua, Tamaquehanne, "beaver stream." Name of a creek in
Schuylkill county, Penn.
Tampa, Itimpi, "close to it," "near it." Name of a bay on the
west coast of the peninsula of Florida, named by De Soto Espiritu
Santo.
Tangipaha, "those who gather maize stalks." The name of a
river in the southeastern part of Louisiana, named after an Indian.
787
Tankhanna, or Tankhanne, (Alg.), "the smaller stream." Name
of a creek in eastern Pennsylvania.
Taopi, (Dak.), "wounded," probably takes its name from a Sioux
chief who won notoriety by befriending the whites in the Minnesota
massacre. Name of a town in Minnesota.
Tappan, "cold stream." Name of a post-office in Ohio.
Tatnick, (Alg,), "at the great hill." The name of a hill and
brook in Worcester county, Mass.
Taunton, supposed to be corrupted from tetiquet or zeticiit, "at the
great hill." Name of a hill and town in Massachusetts.
Tawas, (Alg.), "trader," contraction of Ottawa. Name of a
township and city in Michigan.
Tawaseutha, (Irq.), "hill of the dead." Indian name for Nor-
mansville, N. Y.
Tawawa, supposed to be the same as Ottawa, "traders," or
"people that are given to trading." A town in Ohio.
Taycheedah, (Winnebago dialect), is a corruption from ieyah,
"lake," and chedah, "camp." Name of a town near Fond du Lac,
Wisconsin. It was used by the Indians to denote those Winnebagoes
who were living around Lake Winnebago, of whom there were more or
less at all times.
Tecumseh, Takuhmosah, "he who walks over water." A town in
Michigan and other states ; the name of a distinguished Shawnee chief.
Telmocresses, Taluamutchasi, "new town." The name of an
Indian town on the west side of the Chattahoochie river.
Temegame, (Alg.), "deep lake." The name of a lake that dis-
charges its waters into the Ottawa river, Canada.
Tennessee, meaning, according to some authorities, "curved
spoon," by others, "river of the big bend." Name of one of the states
of the Union, from a principal river of that name.
Tetons, (Dak.), the name of a tribe of the Dakota group or Sioux,
meaning "boaster," given to this tribe in consequence of the habit of
bragging, which is said to prevail among them. Name of a lofty
range of the Eocky Mountains in Idaho territory. Other authorities
say the word signifies "dwellers on the prairie."
Tetonka, (Dak.), "big house." Name of a lake in Dakota; also
the name of a place on Jim river, Dakota.
788
Texas, according to Governor Ireland, of that state, means "wel-
come." He says that, on the landing of the first white men on the
^
coast of Texas, the Indians greeted them with the exclamation
"Texas," or "welcome." Other authorities, however, while recogniz- i
ing the word as of Indian origin, give a different theory of its signifi- ^
cation. In the ancient Spanish archives, stored away in the land
office at Austin, it appears that certain lands were situated "cti el pais
de las Tejas,^'' or in the country of the Texas or Tejas Indians, and of i
being pronounced alike. It is well known that the Texas or Tejas
Indians were a tribe living in the valley of the Kio Grande, and who
were exterminated or driven out by a more savage tribe. The word
Texas or Tejas is supposed to be the root of the names of the Indian
tribes of Texas and Mexico, the prefix indicating the locality of the
tribe. Thus: The Astejas or Aztecs were on the highlands of Ana-
huac, the Toltejas or Toltecs as far south as Yucatan, and the Huas-
tejas on the gulf coast. One authority also suggests that the word
may be of Spanish origin, as the word teja in that language may
be construed to mean the light shed covering of the dwellings of the
natives.
TiNTAH, "prairie." Name of a station on the Manitoba railroad,
in Minnesota.
TiMOGA, "lord," "ruler," "master." The name of an old Indian
town on the tributary of the St. John's, Florida.
TicoNDEROGA, (Irq. ) The name is said to have been derived
from Tsinondrosie or Cheonderoga, signifying "brawling waters," or
"noise of the rapid waters;" other authorities say the word signifies
"place of the separation of waters." Name of a town in New York.
Tioga, (Irq.), from teoga, "swift current." Name of a river in
Tioga county, Penn., flowing into the Chemung river in New York.
Other authorities say the word signifies "meeting of the waters."
Mary Jemison, the captive white woman of the Genesee, says it is de-
rived from tayoga, "at the forks."
TioiNATi, (Irq.), "beyond the point." Name of a small tributary
of the St. Lawrence river. New York.
'f
TiORONDA, "the place Avhere two waters meet." Name of a
locality near Fishkill, N. Y.
TiouGHXiOGA, Teohneaivga, "meeting of the waters." Name of a
river in Broome county, N. Y.
Tippecanoe. The proper word is said to be KUhiippi kennunk,
meaning "at the great clearing." Name of a river in Indiana.
ml
TiTANKA, (Dak.), "big house." Name of an Indian village on
the Dakota river.
TiSKiLWA. Some authorities say it signifies a kind of bird; others
say it comes from chitchishkioa, a kind of bird called plover. It may
also come from chishkmiva, an old boy, as an old bachelor. Name of
a town in Illinois.
TiTANKAHE, "big liouse stands," or "where the big house stands."
Name of some lakes west of the Big Sioux river.
ToBYHANNE, Topilicinnc., (Alg.
),
"
alder stream ;
"
so named from
the abundance of that shrub growing on its banks. Name of a creek
in Lehigh county, Penn.
ToHiCKON, Tohichan, or Tohickhanne, (Alg.), "the stream over
which we pass by means of a bridge or driftwood." Name of a creek
in Bucks county, Penn.
ToMA. The better authority seems to be that this word comes
from the name of a chief of the Menominee tribe, who died at Michi-
limackinac in July, 1816, whose full name was Thomas Carron. His
first name was pronounced by the French Tomah. Name of a town
in Wisconsin.
Tomahawk, (Alg.), "a savage implement," or "implement of
violence." Bishop Baraga says, in his dictionary of the Ojibway lan-
guage, that this word comes from atamahuk (houk), "strike them," or
otamahivaw, "he is stricken." Name of a town in Arkansas.
ToMBicoN, "place of crab apples." Name of a creek in Berks
county, Penn.
ToMBiGB^B, Ihunhi-hikpe, "coffin makers." The Choctow Indians
had their old men with very long nails to clean the bones of their
dead, and place them in boxes, Avhen they were deposited in "bone
houses," whence the name. A river in Mississippi.
ToNAWANDA, Tcmauounda, (Irq.)' "swift water." Name of a
creek in New York.
TONICA, Dunukee, (Ojibway dialect), "he lives in such a place or
country," "a place or country inhabited." A town in Illinois.
TooKTAY, Tukte, (Dak.), "where." A post-office in Dakota.
ToOTO, from foohfo,
"
a corn house." A town in Alabama.
TOPEKA, from a bulbous root like a potato, originally growing
abundantly in this part of the country. A city in Kansas.
Toronto, an Iroquois term denoting "oak trees rising from the
lake." A post-office in Arkansas; takes its name from a city in
Canada.
TosKOGEE, "jumpers," or "warriors." Name of an old Indian
town on the great Tennessee river.
ToTAWA, from tosaicei, "to sink, dive, or go under water to rise
asraiu, as timbers do when carried over a waterfall." Name of falls in
New Jersey.
ToTOGATic, (Alg.
),
"place of floating bogs." Name of a river
in Wisconsin.
ToTOKET, may come from kHetuket, "on the great (the principal)
tidal river." Name of a mountain in New Bedford, Conn.
TowANDA, Taivundeunk, (Alg.), "at the burial place," or "where
there is a burying." The Nanticoke Indians are said to have buried
their dead at Towanda, Bradford county, Penn., whence the name.
TucKAHOE, Tuchahoive, (Alg.), "deer are shy," "hard coming at
the place where deer are so shy." Name of a creek in New Jersey
flowing into Great Egg Harbor bay.
TuLPEHOCKEN, (Alg.), "land abounding in turtles." Name of a
creek flowing into the Schuylkill river near Reading, Penn.
TuMWATER, Tiimioata, (Chinook word), meaning "a waterfall." A
post village in Washington territory.
TuNKHANNE, (Alg.), "the small, or smaller stream." Name of a
stream in Wyoming county, Penn. This word is sometimes written
Tunkhannock.
TUPPEEKHANNA, (Alg.), "the stream that flows from a large
spring." Name of one of the sources of the Little Lehigh river in
Pennsylvania.
Tuscola, (Alg.), "a level plain." Name of a town in Illinois.
TusKEGEE, probably derived from taskialgi, "warrior." Name
of a tov>^n in Alabama.
Tuscaloosa, "black warrior." Name of a city and county in
Alabama.
TuscuMBiA, (Cherokee dialect), "grand battle ground." Name of
a town in Alabama.
TuscARORA, "shirt wearing people." Name of a town in New
York and other states. From an Indian tribe of the Iroquois stock.
INDIAN GEOGRAPHICAL
NAMES.
791
u.
UCHEE, (Creek dialect), "corn." Name of a town in Alabama.
UiUKUFKi, "muddy water." Name of a stream in the Indian ter-
ritory. This word was the Creek name for the Mississippi.
Umbagog, meaning "clear lake, shallow." Name of a lake in
Maine.
UxADiLLA, Deiinadillo, "place of meeting." Name of a town in
Otsego county, N. Y.
Upotog, "covering," "spreading out," as wall paper, carpets,
etc. The name of a creek in Muscogee county, Alabama.
Utuhu, (Dak.), "oak," or "the oak." The name of a small lake
near Lac Qui Parle, Minnesota.
V.
Venango, "interesting mark on a tree." The name of a creek in
western Pennsylvania.
w.
Wabash, Wauhish, (Alg.
),
"white water." Other authorities
say "a cloud blown forward by the equinoctial wind." Name of a
river passing through Indiana; also the name of counties, towns and
post-offices in very many states of the Union.
Wabasha, (Alg.), "red leaf," or "the leaf." Mr. Catlin says
it means "the leaf," from the name of a noted chief of the Sioux
nation. Other authorities say it comes from wapahasa^ "a standard
of battle." Name of a county and town in Minnesota.
Wabaunsee, Wauhanse, (Alg.) 5
"dim daylight." A town and
county in Kansas, from a noted Indian war chief of the Pottawattamie
tribe. A name given to this chief from surprising and capturing
an enemy's camp just at the break of day.
Wachachkeek, (Alg.), "hilly land," or "hi^h land." Name of
one of the plains in Catskill, N. Y.
Wachusetts, Wachusett, (Alg.), "the mountain." Name of a
post village in Massachusetts.
Waco, "a heron." A town in Mississippi and other states of
the Union.
792
Waconda, same as Wauconda, (Omaha dialect). Eev. Mr. Riggs,
in his Dakota dictionary, gives the word in the Dakota language as
Wakanianka, "the Great Spirit," "the creator of all things, and the
God of war." Name of a post-office in Kansas.
Waconia, Wakonia, (Dak.), "living spring." Name of a place
in Minnesota.
AVacouta, WaJcide, (Dak.), "shooter." Name of a toAvn in Min-
nesota. This place was so named from a Sioux chief who lived at Red
Wing, Minnesota.
Wadena, probably from Odena or Odana,
"
town." Name of a
town and county in Minnesota.
Waga, (Dak.), "Cottonwood." Name of a western tributary of
the Minnesota river.
Wagooshance, (Alg., Ojibw
ay
dialect), "little fox" The name
given to a point of land in Lake Michigan, near Michilimackinac,
known to some extent as Wobbleshanks, having much the sound of the
correct name.
Wahbay, (Dak.), "place of hatching." Name of a lake and
post-office in Day county, Dakota.
Wahpeton, Wahpetonwan, (Dak.), "leaf village." A town in
Dakota.
Wahoo. a word of the same sound occurs in the Micmac dialect,
meaning ^êgg.'''' A town in Georgia and Nebraska.
Wakenda, (Dak.),
"
worshipped." Name of a place in Minnesota.
Wakpa Shicha, Wakpa Sica, (Dak.), "bad river" Name of a
stream emptying into the Missouri at West Pierre, Dak.
Wallenpaupack, Waullenpaupack, or Paupack, (Alg.), "deep
and dead water." Name of a creek in northeastern Pennsylvania,
flowing into the Lackawaxen near Honesdale.
Walpack, Walpeek, (Alg.), "a turn hole," "a deep and still
place in a stream." Name of a township in New Jersey.
Wamdushka, (Dak.), "snake." Name of a lake southeast of
Devil's Lake, Dakota.
Wamesit is derived from ivame,
"
all," or "whole," and auke, "a
place," with the letter s thrown in betwixt the two syllables for pur-
pose of the sound. Name of a place embraced in the present town
of Tewkesbury, and the city of Lowell, Middlesex county, Mass.
Wampum or Wampam, (Alg.), "white," "small beads made of
shells, used by the North American Indians as money." A post village
in Pennsylvania.
Wanari, Wahnanghe, (Dak.), "ghost." A post-office in Dakota.
Wanaque, understood to be the same as Waneka, (which see).
Name of a town in New Jersev.
Wanatah, (Dak.), "he that charges on his enemies," from a
noted chief of that name. A town in Indiana.
Waneka, Waniga, (Dak.), "the son." Name of a noted AYin-
nebago chief, known to us as Red Bird. A town in Wisconsin.
Wannupe, from Anupaun, (Alg.), "overflowed," or "subject to
overflow." An island in the Housatonic river, near New Milford, Conn
Wantage, (Alg.), "piece of timber land." Name of a township
in New Jersey.
Wapatoe. The edible bulb of sagittaria variabilis, called by
the Indians Wapatoe, by whom it is used as food ; written also Wap-
pato. A post-office in Oregon.
Wapella, (Alg.), "he who is painted white." Name of an
Indian chief of the Fox tribe. A town in Illinois.
Wappanocca. The Lenni Lenapes or Delawares were so called by
some Indians, signifying "people at the rising of the sun," or, more
briefly,
"
Eastlanders." Name of a town in Arkansas.
Wappasuning, corrupted from Wapachsinnink, (Alg.), "where
there are white stones," alluding to a deposit of silver ore, the Dela-
ware word for silver being tcoapachsifi, "the white stone." Name
of a creek in Bradford county, Penn.
Wapsipinecon, Wapsiopinpecan, (Alg., Sac dialect). Name of
a river in Iowa. "A white bulbous edible root found grgwing along
this stream of a nutty character, commonly called ground nut," from
wapsi, "white," opin, "bulbous root," or "potato," and pecan, "nut."
Wapwallopen, corrupted from nawpaitmoUend,
"
the place where
the messengers were murdered." Name of a creek in Luzerne county,
Penn., near which was murdered Thomas Hill, a messenger from the
governor of Pennsylvania to the Indians at Wyoming. Other authori-
ties say it is corrupted from waphallachpink, "the place where w^hite
hemp grows."
Warpoes, Wapoos,
"
a hare or rabbit." The name of a tract of
laud on Manhattan Island, supposed at one time to abound in rabbits.
794
Warwarsing, usually abbreviated to Warsink, is said to signify
"
blackbird's nest." A town in New York.
Waseca, (Dak.
),
probably a corruption oi wauseda, "a pine
tree," or washecha, "red earth." Name of a town in Minnesota.
Washecha, "Vermillion," or "red earth," or "paint." The name
of several small streams in Minnesota and Dakota.
Washita, "male deer." In the Mandan dialect this word signi-
fies "flour." Name of a river in Arkansas.
Washta, WasHe, (Dak.), "good." The name of a place in Iowa.
Washtenaw, Washtenong, "river that is far off." Name of a
county in Michigan, and the name by which the Indians called Grand
river.
Wasioja, or Wazioju, (Dak.), "pine grove," so named from some
pine trees growing there. The name of a village and creek in southern
Minnesota.
Wastedon, WasHedo, (Dak.), "good." The name of a place in
Minnesota.
Watab, according to Bishop Baraga's dictionary of the Otchipwa
language, is "root of fir or pine to sew a canoe;" by some pronounced
Watap. Name of a town and river in Minnesota.
Wataga, in the Pottawattamie dialect, would signify "I heard;"
it may also come from the word nhwecdaga, "he has gone to gamble."
Watauga, said to mean "the river of islands." The name of a
river in North Carolina.
Watonwa, Watonwan, (Dak.), "sees," the name of a tributary of
Blue Earth river, Minn., for which a county and town in that state have
been named^
Waubay, Wahe, "place of hatching." A town and lake west of
Milbank, Dakota Ty.
Waubeek, Wauhic, (Alg.), "metal," or "metallic substance." A
town in Wisconsin and Iowa.
Waubeka, Wauhishka, (Alg.), "white." Name of a place in
Wisconsin.
Waubesa, (Alg.), "swan." Name of one of the lakes in the vi-
cinity of Madison, Wisconsin.
Wauboo, Waubo, (Alg., Ojibway dialect), "liquor," or the juice
I
I
of anything, as iscoda ivauho, "fire liquor," (whiskey), mishemln
wauho, "apple juice," (cider). Name of a town in AVisconsin, on the
Wisconsin Central Kailway. It is generally supposed that the term
"fire-water," as used by the Indians, has reference to the fiery or strong
nature of the liquor. It is said, however, that when the Indians first
began to use whiskey, as supplied to them by traders, they discovered
that by touching it with a flame it would ignite and burn.

Later, the
traders began to dilute their whiskey by mixing it with water, and as
the Indians noticed that the diluted article did not taste like that form-
erly furnished them they applied to it the fire test, and found that the
phenomenon before mentioned was wanting, which circumstance gave
to the pure article the term "fire-water."
Wauconda, (Dak., Omaha dialect), "the Good Spirit," or "master
of life." A town in Illinois. (See Waconda).
Waukarusa, the name of a stream in Kansas, and was originally
the name of the town now called Lawrence, in that state, signifying
"hip deep," or something to that effect. Albert D. Richardson, a cor-
respondent of the New York Tribune^ in his book "Beyond the Missis-
sippi," 1867, thus refers to the name of this stream: "Many moons
ago, before the white men saw these prairies, there was a freshet.
While the waters were rising, an Indian girl, on horseback, came to
the stream and began fording it. Her steed went in deeper and
deeper, until as she sat upon him she was half immersed. Surprised
and affrighted, she ejaculated icaukarusa, (hip deep). She finally
crossed in safety, but, after the invariable custom of the savages, they
commemorated her adventure by re-naming both her and the stream
Waukarusa. On reflection, the settlers decided not to perpetuate the
story, and changed the name of their town to Lawrence, in honor of
one of its most generous patrons, Amos Lawrence, of Boston."
Waukau, "habitually," "often." This word may be derived
from Wakauahkah, the name of a Winnebago chief, who formerly lived
near Waukau, meaning "snake hide," or "snake skin." Name of a
town in Wisconsin.
Waukegan, Wakiegan,
Wakiagan, (Alg.), "a house," or "fort;"
in other words,
"
the white man's dwelling." The Indians speaking the
dialect from which this word comes, called their own house or dwell-
ing icigwam; the white man's habitation they called wakiegan, vari-
ously pronounced
according to different dialects, and this was the
name they applied
indiscriminately,
whether it was a block house or con-
structed as a fortification,
place of defense, dwelling or trading house
;
-.J
INDIAN GEOGllAPHICAL NAMES. 797
in whatever form, it was called by the same name, if built by the white
man. Waukegan is the name of a town in northern Illinois, situated
on Lake Michigan, originally called Liitle Fort.
A French trading post was established at the point where the city
of Waukegan now stands, somewhere about the year 1700, perhaps a
few years earlier, and was the first trading post established on Lake
Michigan. The occasion of selecting this point as a trading post
seems to have been with reference to its favorable location as such,
being in the vicinity of excellent hunting and trapping grounds,
especially the latter, and was found to be the nearest point of any for
reaching the Desplaines river from Lake Michigan, where a good,
short, easy portage could be made on the route to the Illinois and
Mississippi rivers, saving forty miles of lake coast, when going by
way of Chicago. It was continued as a French post until probably
about 1760. After the English succeeded to the country, the point
became known as Little Fort, and the town subsequently built here
took that name. When, in 1847, it having grown in population, and
becoming a place of importance, the name became changed to its present
name of Waukegan, the intention being to substitute the Indian word
for Little Fort; but failing to get accurate information as to the cor-
rect meaning of words in this language, the present name became
adopted instead of the word Waukiegance, which would signify
"little fort
"
in the dialect it was sought to obtain a name from.
It is evident from the account given by Hennepin of La Salle's
expedition while coasting along the western shore of Lake Michigan,
during the month of October, 1679, that the point now called Wauke-
gan was visited by La Salle and those composing his expedition during
the forepart of that month of the year aforesaid, and from the knowl-
edge then gained of the country on the west, that this point was
marked by La Salle and his associates as a favorable point for a
trading post, which led to the establishment here of a post of this
kind a few years later.
This place, which is on the line of the Chicago & Northwestern
Eailway, now a flourishing city, is becoming quite a popular summer
resort, especially so from its mineral springs, among which is the
Sagaunash, so called from the noted Pottawattamie chief of that name,
called by the whites Billy Caldwell, whose favorite camping ground
in his frequent hunting
excursions in this locality, it is said, was in
the vicinity of this spring ; hence the name.
Waukesha,
Waugooshong, {A\g.), "at the Fox," or "Fox river."
A town in Wisconsin.
This place was originally called Prairieville.
U8
The inhabitants, desiring to change the name of the place which was
to become the county seat of a new county, and wishing each to bear
the same name, sought to find an appropriate Indian name, the aim
being to adopt some word to signify a place or locality at or on Fox river
;
to which end, it is said, the late Solomon Juneau, of Milwaukee, long
an Indian trader in that vicinity, who was familiar with the local
I
VIEW OF WAUKESHA.
Indian dialect, was applied to, who gave them the word Waugooshong,
meaning, in the Ojibway dialect, a place on Fox river, or "at the Fox,'*
which, it appears, became changed by misunderstanding of the person
to whom the word was given as Waukesha, which, being pronounced
quickly or not clearly, would be nearly the same sound.
Waukon, Wakon, (Alg.
),
"moss on trees that is eatable." A
word of the same sound is also found in the Dakota language, mean-
ing "spirit," "supernatural." Name of a town in Iowa.
WAUMBEC, ( Alg.
)
,
"
white rock.
'
' The Indian name for the White
Mountains in New Hampshire.
Waunakee, Wahnuhke, (Alg.), "he lives in peace." Name of a
town in Wisconsin.
Wauneta, Waniii, (Dak.
),
"winter camp." The name of a place
in Nebraska.
Waupacca, (Alg.), "pale water." The name of a town in Wis-
consin.
Wauponsee, the same as Wabaunsee. Name of a town in Illinois.
INDIAN GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES: 799
Waupun, (Alg., Sac dialect), "early day," "break of day," or
"early," alluding to a time past. A town in Wisconsin.
Wauregan, (Alg.), "agood thing," or "a pleasant thing." Name
of a village in Connecticut.
Wausau, (Alg.), "far off."
A
town in Wisconsin.
Wausaukee, (Alg.), "distant land." The name of a river in
Wisconsin.
Wauzeka, Wazika, (Dak.), "pine;" the Jca is merely an ending.
Name of a place in Wisconsin.
Wawayanda. Said by some to be an Indian corruption of the
English phrase
"
away over yonder." A town in New York.
Wayzata, Waziyata, (Dak.), "at the north." A railroad station
on Lake Minnetonka.
Weatogue, corrupted from wetuauke, (Alg.), "wigwam place."
A post-office in Connecticut.
Wechquetank,
Wikqiietank, (Alg.) The name of an old Indian
village in eastern Pennsylvania, called after a species of willow proba-
bly found on its site in former years.
Wecuppemee,
(Alg.), said to mean "basswood." The name of a
small river in Connecticut.
Weehawken,
Weachin, (Alg.), "maize land." The name of a
town in New York, on the Hudson river.
Wepatuck,
Weepatuck,
Weepwoiuntohki, (Alg.
),'
"place at the
narrow pass or strait."
The name is now applied to a mountain in
Connecticut.
Wepoiset,
(Alg.), "at the little crossing place." The Indian
name for the narrows of the Kekamuit river, Rhode Island.
Wequapaug,
(Alg.),
"at the end of the pond." The name of a
small stream in Rhode Island.
Wetaug,
(Alg., Ojibway
dialect), "a gambler." Name of a town
in Illinois.
Wetumpka,
"waterfall,"
"tumbling water." Name of a post vil-
lage in Alabama; also
the name of a post-office in Tennessee.
Wequatucket,
Weqiiatukqut,
(Alg.), "head of a tidal river."
The name of a cove and
tidal river near Stonington, Conn.
Wewoka,
"
barking
water."
Name of a stream in Indian terri-
tory ; also of a village
on its banks.
800
^"eyauwega. This is one of the words passing for an Indian
name, which in its present form is not an Indian word. The word,
according to the late Governor Doty, is Weyaiiweya, as given by him
to the post-office department at Washington, when the post-office at
that place was established. The department mistook the letter
y
in the
last syllable for
g,
rendering the name as it now is. The word
intended is an Algonquin word of the Menominee dialect, and signifies
*' whirling wind.*" It was the name of a faithful Menominee Indian
guide long in the service of Governor Doty, whose name he sought
after death to perpetuate through applying it to this town.
Wheatogue, (Alg.
),
"wigwam place." A post-office in Connec-
ticut.
Wheeling, Weeling, (Alg.), comes from the Delaware dialect
and signifies "place of the head," from weel, "head," and the local
termination ing, "place." Name of a stream flowing into the Ohio
river at the point where the city of Wheeling, W. Va., now stands,
from which the name is derived, from the circumstance of a white man
being killed by an Indian at this place, on the ground of being an in-
S
truder upon his land, when his head was severed from his body and
h
placed upon a pole erected near +.he mouth of this stream, as a terror to
subsequent intruding white men in the country. ij
Whippany, Whiphanne, (Alg.), "arrow stream." Name of a
river in Morris county, N. J.
Wiccopee, (Alg.), "long hill." Name of a mountain in New
York.
Wicomico, Wlkomekee, (Alg.), "where the houses are building."
Name of a small river on the eastern shore of Maryland.
WicoNisco, WikenJcnisken, (Alg.), "wet and muddy camp."
Name of a stream in Dauphin county, Penn.
WiKAiLAKO, m, "water," kaya, "rising," lako, "great," "large,"
"large spring." The name of a town of the Creek Indians in the
Indian territory.
WiLLiMANTic. Authors say this word may mean either "a good
lookout," or "good cedar swamps." Name of a river in Connecticut.
WiLiPQUiN, "place of interment of skulls and bones." Name of
a stream in Maryland. The Indians residing on the banks of this
stream, and, indeed, the Delawares generally, were in the habit of
taking the skulls and, whenever possible, the other bones of their
I
k.
dead companions to certain spots, and burying them in caverns and
deep holes.
WiNAMAC, (Alg.
),
"cat fish." The name of a Pottawattamie
chief, who was sent as a bearer of dispatches by Gen. Hull to Capt.
Heald, at Fort Dearborn, in August, 1812, advising him to evacuate
tho fort and proceed to Fort Wayne with his command, after distrib-
uting the stores among the Indians in the locality. A town in Indiana.
WiNAMEAG. Understood to be the same as Winnemac. Name of
a town in Ohio.
WiNGOHOCKiNG, Wingehacking^ (Alg.), "favorite place for plant-
ing."
Name of the south branch of^ Frankfort creek in Pennsylvania.
SCENE ON WINNEBAGO LAKE, NEAR NEENAH AND MENASHA.
Winnebago,
Winnebeego, or Winnebeegog, the plural, (Alg.),
"people of the dirty waters." Name of a county in Illinois; also the
name of a lake in Wisconsin, from the name of a tribe of Indians
found by the French on their first arrival at Green Bay, which they
called "stinking bay," for some cause not explained, whereby these
Indians became known as
"the people of the dirty waters."
Winnebeegogish,
(Alg.),
"very dirty or roily waters." Name
The word or inflection ish, is used in the
Ojibway language the same as in the English, to express or add quality
to nouns.
WiNNEBOSHO,
Manahosho,
Nayiahosho, (Alg.), "an Indian god or
51
802 THE AMERICAN INDIAN. I
diety, who, as the Indians believe, made the earth." Name of a town
in Wisconsin.
WiNNEPE, Wenehegiisheshing, ^'' a, place ol dirty waters." Name
WiNNEPEG, (Alg.
),
"roily," or perhaps, more properly, "salt
water,"
"
unclean water." A lake in British America. The Indians
call Lake Winnepeg "the great water," "the great sea," and use the
same expression to speak of the salt water or the sea.
WiNNETKA, (Alg.), "beautiful place." A town in Illinois, on the
Milwaukee branch of the C. & N. W. Ev.
WiNNiPAUK, Winnipaug, (Alg.), "fine pond." Winnipauk, saga-
more of Norwalk, is supposed to have taken this name from the place
where he lived, and subsequently his name was adopted as the name
of a village in Norwalk, Conn.
WiNNiPiSEOGEE, Winnini'ppisauke, (Alg.), " good water discharge
or outlet." The name of a river and lake in New Hampshire, the
river to which evidently the name first belonged being the outlet for
the lak It is said by some that, according to Indian tradition, the
word would mean "the smile of the Great Spirit." The beauty of this
lake is said to be suggestive of this idea.
WiNOCA. This is the name given by Schoolcraft to a cave found
by him and his party in the country of Arkansas, during an exploring
expedition in the geological research in the year 1818. He says it
is an Osage word for an underground spirit ; in other words, mean-
ing "underground spirit."
Winona, Wenona, (Dak.), meaning "firstborn," if a daughter.
Name of a city in Minnesota and Illinois.
WiNOOSKi, "beautiful stone river." Name of a post village in
Wisconsin.
WiSACODE, (Alg.) The name of a river putting into Lake
Superior on the noithern shore, meaning "burnt wood river," or "fire
river," from iscoda, "fire."
WisCASET, (Alg.), "place of yellow pine." Name of a town in
Maine.
WiSAMEKiNG, or WiSAMEEK, (Alg.), "catfish camp." There was
a place so called at or near where Washington, Penn., now stands, and
for many years was the residence of a noted Indian called Catfish.
INDIAN GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES., 803
WiscONK, Wisquonk^ (Alg.), "the elbow." The name of a river
in New Jersey.
Wisconsin, (Alg. ) The name of one of the states of the Union, and
a principal river therein. The word was given by Marquette as Meah-
kousing and Mishkousing, the letter m becoming afterwards changed
to IV, and the letter u became changed to n, making it Wishkonfiing.
The original word, as given by Marquette, is supposed to mean "strong
current," a feature which especially marks this stream in high water.
WiscOY, (Irq.
),
"many fall creek." The name of a town in New
York, and the name of a stream of water in that state.
WissAHiCKON, Miscwiekhan, (Alg.), "catfish stream." The name
of a stream in Philadelphia county, Penn.
Wissayek; qussuck, "a rock," 2cA;,
"
place," "the rocky place or
country." This was the Indian name of Dover, Westchester county,
New York.
WiTAKANTU, (Dak.), "high island." The name of a lake and
also of its outlet which flows into the Minnesota river, so called from
a high, wooden island in the lake.
WiTCHiTA ; in the Mandan language, is the word washita, signify-
ing "white man." A county in Kansas.
WiTHLOCOOCHEE, or WiTHLACOOCHEE, "little river." The name of
a river in Florida.
WiTUMKA, Wetiimpka, "tumbling water." The name of a tribu-
tary of the Yuchi or Euchee creek, a branch of the Chatahuaclii or
Chattahoochee river.
Wiwoka; ui, "water," wokis, "it is roaring," "roaring water."
The name of an eastern tributary of the Coosa river.
WoNEWOK, (Alg.), corrupted from iconeauke, "pleasant place."
Name of a town in Wisconsin.
WoNGUNK, (Alg.), "a bend," or "at the bend." This word refers
to a great bend in the Connecticut river, between Middletown and
Portland, Conn.
WoNKEMAUG, (Alg.),
"crooked pond." The name of a small
lake in Connecticut.
WUNNEGUNSET, (Alg.)
This word is said to signify "dish," or
"bowl." It is now,
however, applied to a high hill in Lebanon,
Conn. The probability is the name has been transferred from some
dish or bowl-shaped
valley adjacent.
JjO-lr
Wi'ALUSiNG, ( Alg., Delawaie dialect), the proper Indian name of
which is M'chicihilusing, meaning ''beautiful hunting-grounds."
Name of a town in Pennsylvania ; takes its name from a creek. Other
authorities say it signifies *'at the dwelling place of the hoary
veteran.*'
Wyanet. (Alg. ).

beautiful."' Name of a town in Illinois.
Wyoming. (Alg.
i,
a corruption of the name given to Wyoming
Yalley, Penn., by the Delaware Indians, who called it Magh-wau-ica-me.
The word is a compound of maug-hicau, meaning "large or extensive."
and ica-me sisrnifvino: "plains or meadows," so that it mav be trans-
lated "the large plains." The early settlers, finding it difficult to
pronounce the name correctly, spoke it Wauwaumie, then Wiicaumie,
then Wiomic, and, lastly, Wyoming. Name of a town in New York;
also the name of one of the territories of the United States. Other
authorities say this word is a corruption from weekicahming. meaning
"within." or "within a habitation." or from iceeahming, referring to
the locality within a valley, or place encompassed within the hills.
Wysauking, (Alg.. Delaware dialect), signifying "the place of
grapes.'' A town in Pennsylvania.
Wysox, Wysaukin. (Xlg.j.iiomiL'isachgimi. "place of grapes.''
Name of a stream in Bradford countv. Penn.
Y.
Yankeetown, the name of a post-office in New York and Wiscon-
sin, and adopted to designate various other localities in the United
States, as Yankee Doodle, a post-office in Missouri, Yankee Hinn, a
post-office in California, etc. This name comes from the mode of
pronouncing the word English, by the New England Indians. On the
first arrival of the Puritans, the Indians being informed that this
people were "English." in attempting to pronounce the word, having
no sound of I in their dialect, they pronounced it Yangees, which
became chanfjed. bv continued use, into Yankees or Yenkee. so that
whilst this word is not an Indian word, yet it is of Indian origin, as
before explained.
Yankton, Ihanktonwan, (Dak.j, "end village.'' The name of
the capitol town of Dakota territory.
Yantic. This word mav sicrnifv either "on one side of the tidal
river." or
"
extending to the tidal river." The name of a small river
in Connecticut.
9
INDIAN
GEOGRAPHICAL
NAMES.
805
800
Yazoo, in the Dakota language ydzo signifies "to blow on an in-
strument/' ''play on a fife or flute." It is supposed, however, that
this word more properly signifies "leaf," or "leafy." Name of a post-
ofiice in Iowa; also a river in Mississippi.
Yemassee, Yamassi, "mild," "gentle," "peaceable." The name
was first applied to a tribe of Indians inhabiting Georgia, and is now
the name of a town in South Carolina.
Yolo, probably corrupted from yoholo, which signifies, in the
Creek dialect, "possession of royal blood." A county in California.
Yosemite. Name of a valley in California; meaning, according
to A. D. Richardson, "grizzly bear." It was the name of a small
tribe of Indians inhabiting that part of the country.
YouGHiOGHENY, Corrupted horn jichiviahha7i7ie, (Alg.
),
"the stream
flowing in a contrary direction, or in a circuitous course." Name of
a river in Fayette county, Penn.
Yuma, "sons of the river." A county in Arizona, taking its name
from a tribe of Indians.
INDIAN GEOGRAPHICAL NAxMES.
807
INDIAN NAMES BY WHICH LOCALITIES HERE GIVEN
WERE FORMERLY KNOWN.
Akron, N. Y., was called by the Indians Deongofc, (Irq.). "place
of hearing."
Alabama, N. Y., was called by the Indians Gasivadak, (Irq.),
"by the cedar swamp."
Albany, N. Y., was called by the Indians Skanehtade, (Irq.),
"beyond the openings."
Albion, N. Y., was called by the Indians Deoivundakeno, (Irq
),
"place where boats were burned."
Alexander, N. Y., was called by the Indians Daosanogeh,
(Irq.), "place without a name."
Allen's Creek, N. Y., was called by the Indians Ocdka, "the
opening."
Angelica, N. Y., was called by the Indians Ganeoivehgayai,
(Irq.), "head of the stream."
Apulia, N. Y., was called by the Indians Oniinogese, (Irq.),
"lono: hickorA^"
Attica, N. Y., was called by the Indians Gicehtaanetecarnundo-
deh, (Irq.), "the red village."
Auburn, N. Y., was called by the Indians Wasco, (Irq.)? "float-
ing bridge."
Aurora, N. Y., was called by the Indians Deaweiidoie, (Irq.)
"constant dawn."
Avon, N. Y., was called by the Indians Ganoicauges, (Irq.),
"fetid waters."
Bald Eagle Creek, Pennsylvania, was called by the Delaware
Indians WapalanewachscJiiechanne, (Alg.), "the stream of the bald
eagle's nest."
Batavia, N. Y., was called by the Indians Dcoougoiva, (Irq.),
"the great hearing place."
Bath, N. Y., was called by the Indians Doncdagwenda,
(Irq.),
*' opening in an opening."
808
Bay Creek, in Oneida county, N. Y., was called by the Indians
Teguanotagowa, (Irq.)^ "big morasses."
Beaver Dam, a branch of the Kiskimenetas, in Westmoreland
county, Pennsylvania, was called by the Indians Amochkpahasinky
(Alg. ),
"where the beaver has shut up the stream."
Beaver Eiver, in New York, was called by the Indians Nehasane,
"crossing on a stick of timber."
Beaver Biver, Pennsylvania, was called by the Delaware Indians
Amochkwisipu, (Alg.), "beaver river," or Amochkhanne, "beaver
stream."
Beech Creek, a branch of Bald Eagle creek in Pennsylvania; in
the Delaware language is Schauiveminschhanne, (Alg.), "beech
stream."
Big Beaver Eiver, in western Pennsylvania, was called by the
Indians Amochkwisipu or Amochkhcmne, (Alg.), "beaver stream."
Big Tooth Creek, Pennsylvania, was called by the Indians
Mangipisiyik^ (Alg.), "the place where big teeth are found."
Big Salmon Creek, N. Y., was called by the Indians Gahenwaga,
(Irq.), "a creek."
BiNGHAMPTON, N. Y., was called by the Indians Ochenang, (Irq.),
"bull thistles."
Black Creek, in Alleghany county, N. Y., was called by the
Indians Jagosgeh, (Irq.), "place of hearing;" (this is feminine).
Buffalo Creek, in Erie county, N. Y., was called by the Indians
DosJioweh, (Irq.), "splitting the fork."
Black Lake, N. Y., was called by the Indians Chegwaga, (Irq.),
"in the hip."
Black Lick Creek, in Pennsylvania, was called by the Dela-
wares Naeskahoni, "a lick of blackish color."
Black Kiver, N. Y., was called by the Indians Kahiiahgo, (Irq.),
"great or wide river."
Black Stream, in Jefferson county, N. Y., was called by the
Indians Kahuahgo, (Irq.), "great," or "wide stream."
Blackstone Eiver, Conn., was formerly known by the Indian
name KuUutiick, (Alg.), "great, or principal river."
Blackwell's Island, in the East river, N. Y., was formerly known
as Minnahanock, which is corrupted from the Indian word manhan-
noc1i% (Alg.
),
"island place," or "place on the island."
Boston. In the history of the New England Indians, this town
holds a pre-eminent place. The Indian name of tlie peninsula on
which the city stands was Shawmut It appears to be, in Indian lex-
icography, a description of the figure of the peninsula on which the
town is situated, separated by its narrow neck from Dorchester. This
had, to the red men, a striking resemblance to the shape of the human
stomach, with the pylorus attached. In the cognate dialect of the
Ojibway, shaiomood is the name for the stomach of an animal, the
letter t being exchanged for d.
Brockport, N. Y., was called by the Indians GweMaaneiarmindo-
teh, (Ii*q.)' "I'^cl village."
Brooklyn, N. Y., the place where that city stands was called by
the Indians Mereychaivick, (Alg.
),
from we, "the," reckiva, "sand,"
ick, "place," or "locality," "the sandy place."
Buffalo Creek, in Pennsylvania, was called by the Indians
Sisiliehanne, (Alg.), "buffalo stream," "a stream whose banks are the
resort of the buffalo."
Brushy Creek, in western Pennsylvania, was called by the
Indians Achweek, (Alg.), "brushy," or "overgrown with brush."
Caledonia, N. Y., was called by the Indians Deonagano, (Irq.)'
"cold water."
Camillus, N. Y., was called by the Indians Oyahan, (Irq.)
"apples split open."
Craryville, N. Y., was called by the Indians Gcmdak, (Irq.
)
"by the plains."
Cazenovia Creek, in Erie county, N. Y., was called by the
Indians Gaanundehta, (Irq.)
"^
mountain flattened down."
Cazenovia Lake, in New York, was called by the Indians Ahica-
gee, (Irq.), "perch lake."
Chester Eiver, in Delaware county, Penn., was called in early
deeds Macopanackhan, corrupted from meechoppeyiackhan, (Alg.),
"large potato stream."
Clarion Kiver, a branch of the Alleghany, in Pennsylvania, was
called by the Delaware Indians Gaicunschhanne, (Alg.), "brier
stream," "the stream whose banks are overgrown with the green brier
i>
I
Clinton, N. Y., was called by the Indians Kadawisdag, (Irq.),
*' white field."
Clyde River, N. Y., was called by the Indians Ganagweh, (Irq.),
*
'river at a village suddenly sprung up."
Cortland, N. Y., was called by the Indians Onamiogiiska, (Irq.),
*' shag-bark hickory."
Crooked Creek, Pennsylvania, was called by the Indians Woak-
hanne, (Alg.), "crooked stream."
Crooked Lake, N. Y., was called by the Indians Ogoyaga,
(Irq.), "promontory projecting into the lake."
Cross Creek, in Washington county, Penn., was called by the
Indians Wuntschisaquik, (Alg.), "two streams emptying themselves
into a river on opposite sides."
Cross Lake, N. Y., was called by the Indians Uneendo, (Irq.),
"hemlock tops lying on wâter."
Crow Wing Eiver was called by the Ojibway Indians Kagauge-
wegwon, "crow's feather."
Dansville, N. Y., was called by the Indians Ganusgago, "among
the milkweeds."
Darien, N. Y., was called by the Indians Osooutgeh, (Irq.),
"place of turkeys."
Deer River, in New York, was called by the Indians Ganegoiodo
(Irq.), "compounder."
Deposit, a place in Delaware county, N. Y., was called by the
Indians Cokeose, (Alg.), "owl's nest," a name corrupted by the
English into Cookhouse, by which it is still designated by the old in
habitants.
Detroit, called by the Indians Teuchsagrandie, also Wawe-
fu7iong, (A]g.
),
both words signifying "the place of the turned chan-
nel." It has been remarked by many visitors who reached this place
by boat at night, or in dark wêather, or who were inattentive to the
currents, that owing to the extraordinary involutions of those currents,
the sun appears to rise in the wrong place.
Devil's Lake, called by the Winnebagoes (a tribe of the Da-
kota stock) Minniwakon, "spirit water." This is a small lake in Wis-
consin, northwest of Madison and near Baraboo. It is a popular
summer resort, situated on the Chicago & Northwestern Railroad.
/':
INDIAN
GEOGRAPHICAL
NAMES.
811
It lies in a gorge 400 feet deep, and is hemmed in on all sides by
rocks of prodigious size. The lake is about a mile and a half in
length and half a mile in width. It has no perceptible outlet. Near
the eastern extremity is an interesting
relic of the mound builders
a
large mound in the shape of a bird with outstretched wings.
SCENE ON devil's LAKE, WIS.
Duck Creek, in Delaware, was called in early deeds Quing
'Quingus, corrupted from quiquingus, (Alg.
),
the Delaware name for
the "mallard, or common wild duck."
Dunkirk, a town in New York, was called by the Indians Gana-
dawao, "running through the hemlocks.''
Durham, Conn., was called by the Indians Coginchaug, (Alg.),
^'long swamp."
Easton, Penn., was called by the Delawares Lechauwitank, "the
place at or within the forks."
East Canada Creek, N. Y., was called by the Indians Tecarhu-
harloda, (lrc[.), "visible over the creek."
Eel River, Ind. This river was called by the Indians Shoana-
que, (Alg.), "slippery fish."
Eighteen Mile Creek, in Erie county, N. Y., was called by the
Indians Tanunnogao, (Irq.)'
" f ^^^1 <^^f hickory bark."
Elbkidge, N. Y., was called by the Indians Kanoivaya, (Irq.
),
"skull lying on a shelf."
Elk Creek, Ind., was called by the Indians Mooshanne^ (Alg.
),
"elk stream." Moos is the name for elk in the Delaware language.
Elk Lick Creek, in Pennsylvania, was called by the Indians
Mosimahonliaime. (Alg.), "elk lick stream."
Ellicott Creek, N. Y., was called by the Indians Gadaoyadeh,
(Irq.), "level heavens."
Ellicottville, N. Y., was called by the Indians Deashendaqiia,
(Irq.), "place for holding courts."
Elmira, N. Y., was called by the Indians Skwedowa, (Irq.),
"great plain."
Erie, Pennsylvania, was called by the Indians Gushawaga,
(Irq.), "on the body."
Fayetteville, N. Y., was called by the Indians Gacheayo,
(Irq.), "lobster."
Fishing Creek, in Center county, Penn., was called by the
Indians Nameeshanfie, (Alg.),
"
fish stream."
Fish Creek, in Oneida county, N. Y., was called by the Indians
Tegeroken, (Irq.), "between the months."
Frankford Creek, in Pennsylvania, was called by the Indians
Wingohocking, or Wingshocking, (Alg.), "choice spot of ground for
cultivation," "a favorite spot for planting." Allusion is had to the
fertile banks of the stream.
Fonda, a post village in Montgomery county, N. Y., was called
by the Indians Ganawada, (Irq.), "on the rapids."
Fort Hunter, N. Y., was called by the Indians Teondaloga,
(Irq.), "two streams coming together."
Fort Plain, N. Y., was called by the Indians Twadaalahala,
(Irq.), "fort on a hill."
Geneva, N. Y., was called by the Indians Ganundasaga, (Irq.),
"
new settlement."
Geneva Lake, or, as latterly called, Lake Geneva, Wis., it is said
was called by the Indians of the Pottawattamie tribe Kishivaukato,
signifying "clear water;" but the better authority gives the Indian
<
813
name of this lake in the dialect of the tribe aforesaid as Kishkabeku,
meaning
"
steep or bold banks," where there is little or no beach
or shore. A favorite summer resort on the line of the ChicaLô k
Northwestern Railway.
SCENE ON LAKE GENEVA (KISH-KA-BE-KA;.
Great Valley Creek, in New York, was called by the Indians
Odasquadossa, (Irq.), '^ around the stone."
Grand Island, a post-office in New York, was called by the
Indians Gawehnogeh, (Irq.), "on the island."
Grindstone Creek, New York, was called by the Indians Heali-
hawhe, (Irq.),
"
apples in crotch of tree."
Hamilton, N. Y., was called by the Indians Daudenosagwanose,
(Irq.), "roundhouse."
Hasket Creek, in N. Y., was called by the Indians Osaaicenfhd,
(Irq.), "by the pines."
Hemlock Lake, N. Y., was called by the Indians Onehda, (Irq.)?
"the hemlock."
Herkimer, N. Y., was called by the Indians Teugega, (Ii'q.)i
"
at the forks."
Homer, N. Y., was called by the Indians Tewisfanoonfscmeha,
(Irq.), "place of the silversmith."
HoNEOYE Falls, in N. Y., w-ere called by the Indians Skosaisto,
(Irq.), "falls rebounding from an obstruction."
Hudson River was called by the Delaware Indians
MohiccaneU
tuck, (Alg.), "the river of the Mohicans."
814
Indian River, in Lewis county, N. Y., was called by the Indians
Ojeqiiack, iÎrq.),
"nut river."
IscHUNA Creek, Cattaraugus county, N. Y., was called by the
Indians Hesoh, (Irq.), "floating nettles."
Ithaca, N. Y., was called by the Indians Neodakheat, (Irq.),
"at the head of the lake."
James River, Va. The Indians call this stream Pawathanne^
(Alg. ),
"the river of pregnancy." The noted chief Powhatan is sup^
posed to have been named after this stream.
Jamesville Creek, N. J., was called by the Indians Gasunto,
(Irq.), "bark in the water."
Johnson's Creek, N. Y., was called by the Indians Ajoyokta^
(Irq. ),
"fishing creek."
JoRDON Creek, N. Y., was called by the Indians Hananto, (Irq.),
"small hemlock limbs on water."
Lafayette, N. Y., was called by the Indians Tekawistowa, (Irq.
)^
"tinned dome."
Lancaster, N. Y., was called by the Indians Gassquendageh^
(Irq.), "place of the lizard."
Leech Lake, Minnesota, was called by the Indians Gahgusgwah-
chemakang, (Alg.), "the place of leeches."
Lenox, N. Y., was called hj the Indians Skawaista, (Irq.), "a
point made by bushes."
Leroy, N. Y., was called by the Indians Osooidgeh, (Irq.),
"many rapids."
Lewiston, N. Y., was called by the Indians Gaanogeh, (Irq.),
"on the mountains."
Licking Creek, Pennsylvania, was called by the Indians Maho-
nink, (Alg.), "the place of the lick."
Lima, N. Y., was called by the Indians Skahasegao, (Irq.), "once
a long creek."
Lime Lake, in Cattaraugus county, N. Y., was called by the
Indians Tecarnoivundo, (Irq.), "lime lake."
Limestone Creek, in Onondaga county, N. Y., was called by the
Indians Deaonohe, (Irq.), "where the creek suddenly rises."
810
Little Beater Creek, in western Pennsylvania, was called by
the Indians Tankamochkhan7ie, (Alg.
),
"little beaver stream."
Little Brier Creek, Penn., was called by the Indians Tcmf/a-
wunshhanne^ (Alg.), "little brier stream."
Little Conemaugh, a branch of the Conemaugh or KiskimetaSj
in Cambria county, Penn., was called by the Indians Gunamochki,
(Alg.), "the little otter."
Little Moshannon, a branch of the Moshannon, in Center
county, Penn., was called by the Indians Tankimooshanne, (Alg.),
"little elk stream."
Little Salmon Creek, N. Y., was called by the Indians Gannn-
taskona, (Irq.
),
"
large bark."
Little Valley Creek, in Cattaraugus county, N. Y., was called
by the Indians Odasquawateh, (Irq.
),
"small stone beside a large one."
Liverpool, N. Y., was called by the Indians Ganaicaya, (Irq.),
"
a great swamp."
Liverpool Creek, N. Y., was called by the Indians Tundadaqua,
(Irq.
),
"thrown out."
Livonia, N. Y.,was called by the Indians Deodesote, (Irq.),
"
tlie
spring."
LoCKPORT, N. Y., was called by the Indians Deodosote, (Irq.),
"the spring," (referring to the cold spring).
Long Island was called by the Indians Gaicanasegeh, (Irq.),
"
a long island." This is a word in the Oneida dialect.
Marcellus, N. Y., was called by the Indians Usieka, (Irq.),
"
bitternut hickorv."
Medina, N. Y., was called by the Indians Dategehhoseh, (Irq.),
"
one stream across another."
MiDDLEPORT, N. Y., was called by the Indians Tekaondoduk,
(Irq.), "place with a sign post."
Mohawk Eiver, N. Y., above Herkimer, in that state, was called
by the Indians Dayahoowaquat, (Irq.) "carrying place."
Montezuma, N. Y., was called by the Indians Tecarjiknowana,
(Irq.), "place of salt."
Moose Kiver, N. Y., was called by the Indians Tekahimdiando,
(Irq.), "clearing an opening."
Moscow, N. Y., was called by the Indians Ganehdaontweh, (Irq.),
"
where hemlock was spilled."
Mount Marcy, N. Y., was called by the Indians Tahawas, (Irq.),
*'he splits the sky."
Mount Morris, N. Y., was called by the Indians So7iojowauga,
(Irq.
),
"big kettle." This was formerly the residence of a Seneca
chief of that name.
Mount Toby, Mass., was called by the Indians Quiikwaichu,
(Alg.
),
*'high mountain."
MusKRAT Creek, N. Y., was called by the Indians Squayenna,
(Irq
),
"a great way up."
Muddy Creek, in York county, Penn., is said to have been called
by the Indians AchseespagJwh, (Alg.), "muddy water."
Murder Creek, in Erie county, N. Y., was called by the Indians
Seeicngut, (Irq.), "noise," or
"
roar of distant water."
Naples, N. Y., was called by the Indians Nundawao, (Irq.),
"
great hill."
Newburgh, N. Y., was.called by the Indians Quassaic, Quassuck,
(Alg.), "the place of the rock." The location of the town on a high
rocky bluff justifies the same.
New Castle, a town in New York, was called by the Indians
Chappaqna, Shappaqua, (Alg.), "a vegetable root." Name of a
town in NeAv York ; country residence of the late Horace Greeley.
New London, Conn., was called by the Indians Nameock, or
Nameauk, (Alg.), "fishing place," or "where fish are taken."
Niagara Falls, N. Y., was called by the Indians Datecarskosase,
(Irq.),
"
the highest falls."
Nine Mile Creek, in Oneida county, N. Y., was called by the
Indians Teyanunsoke,
"
a beech tree standing."
North Sterling Creek was called by the Indians Doiskahe,
(Irq.),
"
hard talking."
Oakfield, N. Y.,was called by the Indians Tecardanaditk, (Irq.),
"place of many trenches."
Oak Orchard Creek, N. Y., was called by the Indians Dageano-
gaunt, (Irq.), "two sticks coming together."
u
INDIAN
GEOGRAPHICAL
NAMES.
817
Oil Ckeek, in Cattaraugus
county, N. Y., was called by the
Indians Tccarnohs, (Irq.),
"dropping oil."
Otisco Lake, N. Y., was called by the Indians Gaahna, (Alg.),
"rising to the surface, and sinking again." Legend of a drowning
man.
Otter Creek, in Lewis county, N. Y., was called by the Indians
Daweennet, (Irq.), "the otter."
Onondaga Lake, N. Y., was called by the Indiaus Ganuniauh,
(Irq.), "material for council fire."
Oxford, N. Y.,was called by the Indians Sodeahlowanuke, (Irq.),
"thick-necked giant."
Paint Creek, in Cambria county, Penn., was called by the Dela-
wares Wallamink, (Alg.), "where there is paint."
Painted Post, N. Y., was called by the Indians Tecarnasetcoah,
(Irq.), "a board sign."
Palmyra, N. Y., was called by the Indians Ganagweh, (Irq.), "a
village suddenly sprung up."
Pembroke, N. Y., was called by the Indians Oageh, (Irq.), "on
the road."
Pine Creek, in Pennsylvania, was called by the Indians Cuiven-
hamie, (Alg.), "the stream that flows through pine trees," or "Pine
Creek."
Pine Hill, N. Y., was called by the Indians Tcccisoaa, (Irq.),
"pine lying up."
Pittsburgh, Penn., was called by the Indians, after its occuj)ation
hy the French, Menachksink, (Alg.), "where there is a fence," "an
enclosure," in allusion to the fortifications.
Plumb Creek, in western Pennsylvania, was called by the Indians
Spuashanne, or Spuasink, (Alg.), "plumb stream," or "at the place
of the plumbs."
Pompey, N. Y., was called by the Indians Delsicafjaha, (Irq.),
"place of many ribs."
Pompey Hill, N. Y., was called by the Indians Deoivfjundo,
(Irq.), "windmill."
Prairie du Chien.
The Indian name for this place was Kipisa-
gee, (Alg.), meaning
"the place of the jet or overflow of the river."
,,
818
Pulaski, N. Y., was called by the Indians Gahenwaga, (Irq.),
"a creek."
Raccoon Cheek, in western Pennsylvania, was called by the
Inaians Nachenumhanne, (Alg.), "raccoon stream."
Racket River, N. Y., was called by the Indians Tanawadeh^
(Irq.), "swift water."
Red Stone Creek, in western Pennsylvania, was called by the
Indians Machkachsinhanne, (Alg.), "red stone stream."
RiDGEFiELD, Conn., takes its name from the Indian word Candoto^
(Alg.), otherwise written Candatowa, or Caudatotva, sigmijing "high
land," "the top of a hill," or
"
highest place."
Rochester, N. Y., was called by the Indians Gaskosago, (Irq.),
"at the falls."
RoYALTON Centre, N. Y., was called by the Indians Ogeawatekae,
tf
(Irq.), "place of the butternut."
Salina, N. Y., was called by the Indians Tegajikhado, (Irq.),
"place of salt."
Salmon Creek, N. Y., was called by the Indians Gadokena,
(Irq.), "a place of minnows."
Salt Lick Creek, in western Pennsylvania, was called by the
Indians Sikhewimdhoni, or Sikheihanne, (Alg.), "salt lick stream," or
"a stream flowing from a salt lick."
Sandy Creek, N. Y., (Monroe county), was called by the Indians
Onehchigeh, (Irq.), "long ago."
Sandy Lick, a stream in Venango county, Ponn., is a translation
of Segauivimahoni, ( Alg.
)
Sangerfield, N. Y., was called by the Indians Skanawis, (Irq.),
"^
long swamp."
Sassafras River, in Maryland, is a translation from the Indian
name of this river,
Winakhanne, (Alg).
Schenectady,
N. Y., was called by the Indians Onoalagonena,
(Irq.), "beyond the openings."
Scottsville,
N. Y., was called by the Indians Oatka, (Irq.),
"the opening."
INDIAN GEOGRAPHICAL
NAMES.
819
ScRiBAS Creek, N. Y., was called by the Indians
Gasotcna, (Irq.),
"high grass."
Schuylkill Eiver, in Pennsylvania, was called by the Delaware
Indians Ganshowehanne, (Alg.), "the roaring stream," "the stream
that is noisy in its course over rocks and stones."
Sherburn, N. Y., was called by the Indians
Oanadadele, (Irq.),
"steep hill."
Silver Creek, N. Y
,
was called by the Indians Gacmundafa,
(Irq.), "a mountain leveled down."
Slippery Kock, a creek in western Pennsylvania, is a translation
from the Indian name Weschachapuckka, (Alg.)
Smokes Creek, in New York, was called by the Indians Dadeo-
danasuktOj "bend in the shore."
Stafford, N. Y., was called by the Indians Yagoogeh, (Irq.),
"place of hearing."
Standing Stone Creek, emptying into the Juniata from the
north, in Huntington county, Penn., was called by the Indians Achsi-
nink, (Alg.), "where there is a large stone," "the place of the large
stone."
Stony Creek, a branch of the Quemahoning, in Somerset county,
Penn., was called by the Delaware Indians Sinnehanne, or Achsin-
hanne, (Alg.), "stony stream."
St. Francis Lake, N. Y., was called by the Indians Ganasadaga,
(Irq.), "side hill," in the Oneida dialect.
St. Lawrence Eiver, N. Y., was called by the Indians Ganawaga,
(Irq.), "the rapid river."
St. Eegis Eiver, N. Y., was called by the Indians Ahqiiasosne,
(Irq.), "partridges drumming," The town of St. Eegis was known
to the Indians by the same name.
Susquehanna Eiver, N. Y., was called by the Indians Gawano-
wananeh, (Irq.), "great island river."
Syracuse, N. Y., was called by the Indians Naindunk, (Irq.),
"pine tree broken with top hanging down."
Thames Eiver, was called by the Mohegan Indians Massapcquf-
tock, (Alg.), "great Pequot river."
Toby's Creek, in western Pennsylvania, was called by the Indians
Gwunschhanne, (Alg.), "brier stream."
820
Tongue Mountain, in New York, was called "by the Indians Aia-
Inposa, "the sliding place."
Trenton Falls, N. Y., was called by the Indians Datewasimt,
(Irq.), "great falls."
Trenton, N. Y., was called by the Indians Oseteadaque, (Irq.),
"in the bone."
TuLLY Lake, in Onondaga county, N. Y., was called by the
Indians Tekaneadahe, (Irq.), "a lake on a hill."
Turtle Creek, a west branch of the Conemaugh, in Inc^âna
county, Penn., was called by the Delaware Indians Tiilpewisipu, (Alg.
),
"turtle river."
Two Licks Creek, in western Pennsylvania, is translated from
the Indian word mischahoni, or nishahonink, ( Alg.
)
Two Sisters Creek, in Erie county, N. Y., was called by the
Indians Tecarnagage, (Irq.),
"
black waters."
Vernon, N. Y., was called by the Indians Skanusunk, (Irq.),
"place of the fox."
Vernon Centre, N. Y., was called by the Indians Shunandowa,
(Irq.), "great hemlock."
Verona, N. Y., was called by the Indians Teonatnle, (Irq.), "pine
forest."
Victor, N. Y., was called by the Indians Gaosagao, (Irq.), "in
the basswood country."
WAM^BIGK, irom. wamhi, (Alg.), "white." The Indian name for
the White Mountains, New Hampshire.
Warsaw, N. Y., was called by the Indians Chinosehehgeh, "on the
side of the valley."
West Bloomfield, N. Y., was called by the Indians Ganundaok,
(Irq.), "village on the top of a hill."
West Canada Creek and Mohawk River were called by the
Indians Teahoge, (Irq.), "at the forks."
Whitestown Creek, in Oneida county, N. Y., was called by the
Indians Chegaquatka, (Irq.), "kidneys." Whitestown, a village in
the same county and state, is known by the same name.

821
White Deeu Cheek, emptying into the Susquelnmna from the
west, ill Union county, Penn., was called by the Indians Wodptuchanne,
(Alg.
),
"white deer stream."
White Fish Point, on Lake Superior, was called by the Indians
Namikong, (Alg.), meaning, according to Mr. Schoolcraft, "excellent
beaver place," from na, "excellent," amik, "beaver," and onff, "a
place."
WiLLlAMSViLLE, N. Y., was called by the Indians Gaskosadaneo,
(Irq.
),
"many falls."
Wolf Creek, Penn., was called by the Delawares Tammeink,
(Alg.), "where there is a wolf," "the place of wolves."
Wyoming, N. Y., was called by the Iroquois Indians Tecareseia-
neoiif, "place with a sign post."
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,. .

Later DevelopmentsThe Race Fast Fading AwayThe Indian Mentally

Conclusions TherefromSimilar Customs

Ancient Pottery Same Made by Modern TribesIndian Languages Reveal

Traditions of the Origin of their RaceThe MandansTraditions of a Flood

Representation of the ArkCeremonies Commemorating the FloodPottawat-

Iroquois NationHiawathaMysterious PowerHis Miraculous Disappear-

Comparison of Words and SentencesOpinion of Rev. Jedidiah MorseSimi-

Names of GroupsAlgonquins, Iroquois, Appalachian, Dakota and Shoshonee

Algonquins Most NumerousGroups Composed of Tribes of Same Language

Location of Each GroupDefinitions and Names of Groups. 116

Location of TribesChanging LocationExtinct TribesMigrationIndian

CouncilsOrganizing and ConductingChiefs RankSuccessionEquality

Criminal CodeOpinion of Dr. FranklinCaleb Atwater's Description of an

Uniformity in Construction over the ContinentLanguage of the

Opinion of ColumbusLove their Neighbors as ThemselvesDue Respect to

Strict ConductNear Jewish Rites in Traditional RulesMedicine Lodge

Tabernacle of the JewsCustom of Indian WomenPoliteness in Conversation

Game of La CrosseAddicted to Practical JokingVarious Modes of Gambling

Polygamy ToleratedNot much Practiced. 284

Among Different Tribes and NationsCanoe of the Mandans and Western

Selecting Trees for a CanoeTime of Stripping Bark for Canoe

"There is Something in a Name"Custom of the DakotasCustom in

Dress of the Indian WomanIts Convenience- According to Notions of Strict

The Indian DudeIndian Dress of the Mountains and the Plains.

Believed in Souls of AnimalsBelief of the Iroquois.

Buffalo BloodMagic PropertiesSuperstitions of the War BonnetLarge

Its ConstructionClaims of Supernatural InfluenceAnimal Magnetism

Trials of PowerA Remarkable InstanceProphetic GiftsMental Telegraphy

Account from an Indian CaptiveSingular Instance of Foretelling the Future

Fulfilled in the Escape of Three CaptivesFather Charlevoix's Experience

Peter Jones Gives Instance of Indian Prophecy. 395

" The Indian Student's Lament "^Diseases among the Ojibways

What La Hontan Says of Diseases among the IndiansSmall-pox Very Fatal^

^Solar Walk or Milky WayIndian OpinionCoincidence with An-

The Great BearPleiades^Do not Pretend to More Knowledge than They

EclipsesIndian TheoryEarthquakesMoving of a Great TortoiseKnowl-

SummerAutumnWinterYear Begins With SpringPutting Out of the

Planting SeasonReckon Ages by Winters^Commemorate Events

No Division of Days into HoursRecall Time of Year by Past EventsHow

Man Devouring BirdDescription by MarquetteDescriptioa by Prof. John

The Primitive MindAnecdote of President Lincoln's FatherDescription

Its Sacred CharacterOther Classes of PipesMode of UseNotices by the

Mysterious Seal of ReligionCustom the Same among all the TribesCere-

"I was Born an Orator"Power of Indian EloquenceIndian Elo-

Indian Eloquence in CouncilNo Violent GesticulationsNo Overwrought

Indian Music Noted for its SimplicityScale of Music LimitedThe Chorus in

Description of Indian Implements of MusicLongfellow's Hiawatha an Imita-

Coincidence with Indian SongsSamples of Indian MusicDog Dance of the

Broken CovenantsProverbial DeceptionBlack Hawk War. 543

" State of Pupilage

Ponca IndiansThe Negro Race as Compared with the IndianThe Conclusion.

Questions Asked by Indians Concerning Eliot's

The Indian Disappearing by AmalgamationReports of Indian Agents to that

Numbers OverestimatedAnd so in VirginiaHow a Small Number of Indians

Sample of Indian JusticeAn Indian's Reply to a Challenge. 618

True History of the SameBurning of Joan of ArcOther Instances of Man's

Sometimes Called TammanyCharacter of this Chief as Described by Hecke-

Other Societies FormedIn New York under the Name of Tammany