Robotics 1

Wheeled Mobile Robots

Introduction and Kinematic Modeling
Prof. Alessandro De Luca
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Summary
! introduction
! Wheeled Mobile Robot (WMR)
! operating environments
! basic motion problem
! elementary tasks
! block diagram of a mobile robot
! kinematic modeling
! configuration space
! wheel types
! nonholonomic constraints (due to wheel rolling)
! kinematic model of WMR
! examples of kinematic models
! unicycle
! car-like
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Wheeled mobile robots
! locally restricted mobility NONHOLONOMIC constraints
SuperMARIO & MagellanPro
(DIS, Roma)
Hilare 2-Bis (LAAS, Toulouse)
with off-hooked trailer
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Wheeled mobile robots
Tribolo Omni-2
! full mobility OMNIDIRECTIONAL robots
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Video
! SuperMARIO ! Omni-2
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Operating environments
! external 3D
! unstructured
! natural vs. artificial landmarks
! internal 2D
! known
! availability of a map (possibly acquired by robot sensors
in an exploratory phase)
! unknown
! with static or dynamic obstacles
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! high computational complexity of the planning problem
! dynamic environment (including multiple robots)
! restricted mobility of robotic vehicle
analysis of elementary tasks
Basic motion problem
start
goal
static
obstacles
dynamic
obstacle
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Multi-robot environment
! 5 robots in simultaneous motion
2 Pioneer
1 Nomad XR-400
2 Hilare with
on-board
manipulator arm
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Elementary motion tasks
! point-to-point motion
! in the configuration space
! path following
! trajectory tracking
! geometric path + timing law
! purely reactive (local) motion
mixed situations of planning and control
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! point-to-point motion (e.g., parking)
Elementary motion tasks (contd)
initial
configuration
final
configuration
d
path
reference WMR
(closest on path)
parameter s
e
p

time t
reference WMR
(at instant t)
trajectory
! path following
! trajectory tracking
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Elementary motion tasks (contd)
detected
obstacle
sensor
range
goal
planned path
executed
path
unknown
obstacle
! wall following
! examples of reactive motion
! on-line obstacle avoidance
! target tracking
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Block diagram of a mobile robot
actuators (A) DC motors with reduction task output (even identity, i.e., q)
effectors (E) on-board manipulator, gripper,
sensors
! proprioceptive: encoders, gyroscope,
! exteroceptive: bumpers, rangefinders (IR = infrared, US = ultrasound),
structured light (laser+CCD), vision (mono, stereo, color, )
control
! high- / low-level
! feedforward (from planning) / feedback
task
planning control
A
mobile
robot
E
environment
sensors
(proprio/extero)
+
-
task
output
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Block diagram of a mobile robot (contd)
WMR +
encoders
-
+
high-
level
control
low-level control: analog velocity PI(D) loop with high gain
(or digital, at high frequency)
WMR
kinematic
model
-
high-
level
control
+
planning
high-level control: purely kinematics-based, with velocity commands
task
output
A
low-
level
controls
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Configuration space
for wheeled mobile robots
! rigid body (one, or many interconnected)
pose of one body is given by a set of INDEPENDENT variables
# total of descriptive variables (including all bodies)
- # total of HOLONOMIC (positional) constraints
# generalized coordinates
! wheels (of different types) in contact with the ground
(possibly) additional INTERNAL variables
configuration space C
! parameterized through
! dim C =
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Examples of configuration spaces
y
x
!
y
x
!
!
y
x
!
!
!
dim C = 3
dim C = 4
dim C = 5
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Additional configuration variables
in all previous cases, one can add in the parameterization
of C also the rolling angle of each wheel
r
!
!
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Types of wheels
! conventional
! fixed
! centered steering
! off-centered steering (castor)
! omni-directional (Mecanum/Swedish wheels)
t
v
t
v
d
t
v
0 =
n
v
t
v
n
v
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! pure rolling constraints
each wheel rolls on the ground without slipping (longitudinally) nor
skidding (sideways)
! continuous contact
! used in dead-reckoning (odometry)
! geometric consequence
there is always an Instantaneous Center of Rotation (=ICR) where
all wheel axes intercept: one ICR for each chassis (= rigid body)
constituting the WMR
Differential constraints
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Instantaneous Center of Rotation
ICR: a graphical construction
input
computing in sequence (with some trigonometry):
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Nonholonomy
from constraints
! for each wheel, condition can be written in terms of
generalized coordinates and their derivatives
! for N wheels, in matrix form
! N differential constraints (in Pfaffian form = linear in velocity)
partially or completely
integrable into
not integrable
NONHOLONOMY
reduction of C
(dim - )
but
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Nonholonomy (contd)
to feasible motion
nonintegrable (nonholonomic)
ALL feasible motion directions can be generated as
being
the image of the columns of matrix G
coincides with the kernel of matrix A
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Nonholonomy (contd)
a comparison
dim C = 3
the space of feasible velocities has dimension 3
and coincides with the tangent space
to the robot configuration space
fixed-base manipulator
same number of commands
and generalized velocities
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Nonholonomy (contd)
wheeled mobile robot
dim C = 3
path on (x,y) plane
(with varying orientation)

less number of commands
than generalized velocities!
the space of feasible velocities has here dimension 2
(a subspace of the tangent space)
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Kinematic model of WMR
! provides all feasible directions of instantaneous motion
! describes the relation between the velocity input commands and
the derivatives of generalized coordinates (a differential model!)
! needed for
! studying the accessibility of (i.e., the system controllability)
! planning of feasible paths/trajectories
! design of motion control algorithms
! incremental WMR localization (odometry)
! simulation
configuration space
(input) command space
with
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Unicycle (ideal)
! the choice of a base in the kernel of can
be made according to physical considerations on the
real system
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Unicycle (real)
a) three centered steering wheels [Nomad 200]
synchro-drive
(2 motors)
1 = linear speed
2 = angular speed
of the robot
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Unicycle (real)
b) two fixed wheels + castor [SuperMARIO, MagellanPro]
castor
linear speed of the
two fixed wheels
on the ground
(R = right, L = left)
note: d is here the half-axis length (in textbook, it is the entire distance between
the two fixed wheels!!)
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Equivalence of the two models
a) b) by means of a transformation
(invertible and constant) between inputs
however, pay attention to how possible (equal) bounds
on maximum speed of the two wheels are transformed!
here
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Car-like
y
x
!
!
ideal ( telescopic view) tricycle
with differential gear
on rear wheels
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Car-like (continued)
! FD = Front wheel Drive
kinematic model of unicycle with trailer
(e.g., Hilare 2-bis)
linear and angular
speed of front wheel
( )
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Car-like (continued)
! RD = Rear wheel Drive
singularity at
linear speed
of rear wheel
(medium point of rear-axis)
(the model is no longer valid)
( )
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a) f = fixed or centered s = steerable
General constraint form by wheel type
y
x
constant (f) or variable (s)
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b) o = steerable with off-set (off-centered)
y
x
d
variable
General constraint form by wheel type
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5 possible classes for the WMR kinematic model (single chassis)
Possible kinematic classes
on same axis
I
II
class description example (N = 3)
number of wheels
is an omnidirectional WMR!
= 3
= 2
= 1
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Example of class I WMR
(omnidirectional)
with three conventional off-centered wheels,
independently actuated
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III
synchronized if > 1
on same axis
at least one out of the common
axis of the two fixed wheels
synchronized if > 2
Possible kinematic classes (contd)
" WMRs in same class are characterized by same maneuverability
" previous models of WMRs fit indeed in this classification: SuperMARIO
(class II), Nomad 200 (class III), car-like (class IV)
IV
V
= 1
= 2
= 1
= 1
= 2
= 2
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