The document discusses various defects that can occur during metal forming processes such as rolling, extrusion, forging, and drawing. It describes four common types of defects in rolled plates: wavy edges caused by non-uniform thickness, zipper cracks and edge cracks from poor ductility, and alligatoring from non-uniform deformation. Extrusion defects include surface cracking from high temperatures, pipe forming from impurities drawn to the center, and internal cracking from die angle and impurities. Forging defects involve laps from insufficient material or internal cracks from excess material. Drawing defects comprise wrinkling, tearing, earing, scratches, and wrinkles transferred to walls. The document provides illustrations and explanations for each defect type.
The document discusses various defects that can occur during metal forming processes such as rolling, extrusion, forging, and drawing. It describes four common types of defects in rolled plates: wavy edges caused by non-uniform thickness, zipper cracks and edge cracks from poor ductility, and alligatoring from non-uniform deformation. Extrusion defects include surface cracking from high temperatures, pipe forming from impurities drawn to the center, and internal cracking from die angle and impurities. Forging defects involve laps from insufficient material or internal cracks from excess material. Drawing defects comprise wrinkling, tearing, earing, scratches, and wrinkles transferred to walls. The document provides illustrations and explanations for each defect type.
The document discusses various defects that can occur during metal forming processes such as rolling, extrusion, forging, and drawing. It describes four common types of defects in rolled plates: wavy edges caused by non-uniform thickness, zipper cracks and edge cracks from poor ductility, and alligatoring from non-uniform deformation. Extrusion defects include surface cracking from high temperatures, pipe forming from impurities drawn to the center, and internal cracking from die angle and impurities. Forging defects involve laps from insufficient material or internal cracks from excess material. Drawing defects comprise wrinkling, tearing, earing, scratches, and wrinkles transferred to walls. The document provides illustrations and explanations for each defect type.
The document discusses various defects that can occur during metal forming processes such as rolling, extrusion, forging, and drawing. It describes four common types of defects in rolled plates: wavy edges caused by non-uniform thickness, zipper cracks and edge cracks from poor ductility, and alligatoring from non-uniform deformation. Extrusion defects include surface cracking from high temperatures, pipe forming from impurities drawn to the center, and internal cracking from die angle and impurities. Forging defects involve laps from insufficient material or internal cracks from excess material. Drawing defects comprise wrinkling, tearing, earing, scratches, and wrinkles transferred to walls. The document provides illustrations and explanations for each defect type.
Defects may be present on the surfaces of rolled plates and sheets, or there may be internal structural defects. Defects are undesirable not only because they compromise surface appearance, but also because they may adversely affect strength, formability, and other manufacturing characteristics. 2 Defects in Rolled Plates and Sheets 1. Wavy edges 2. Zipper cracks 3. Edge cracks 4. Alligatoring
3 4 (a) Wavy edges (b) Zipper cracks in the centre of the strip (c) Edge cracks (d) Alligatoring 1. Wavy edges Wavy edges on sheets are the result of roll bending. The strip is thinner along its edges than at its center ; thus, the edges elongate more than the center. Consequently, the edges buckle because they are constrained by the central region from expanding freely in the longitudinal (rolling) direction. 5 2., 3. Zipper & Edge cracks The cracks shown in Fig are usually the result of poor material ductility at the rolling temperature. Because the quality of the edges of the sheet may affect sheet-metal-forming operations, edge defects in rolled sheets often are removed by shearing and slitting operations 6 4. Alligatoring Alligatoring is a complex phenomenon and typically is caused by non uniform bulk deformation of the billet during rolling or by the presence of defects in the original cast material. 7 Extrusion Defects There are three principal extrusion defects: 1. Surface cracking 2. Pipe 3. Internal cracking 8 1. Surface cracking If extrusion temperature, friction, or speed is too high, surface temperatures can rise significantly, which may cause surface cracking and tearing. These defects occur especially in aluminum, magnesium, and zinc alloys. This situation can be avoided by lowering the billet temperature and the extrusion speed.
9 1. Surface cracking 10 1. Surface cracking Surface cracking also may occur at lower temperatures, where it has been attributed to periodic sticking of the extruded product along the die land. Because of the similarity in appearance to the surface of a bamboo stem, it is known as a bamboo defect. 11 2. Pipe The type of metal-flow pattern in extrusion shown in Fig tends to draw surface oxides and impurities toward the centre of the billet-much like a funnel. This defect is known as pipe defect, tailpipe, or fishtailing. As much as one-third of the length of the extruded product may contain this type of defect and thus has to be cut off as scrap. Piping can be minimized by modifying the flow pattern to be more uniform, such as by controlling friction and minimizing temperature gradients. 12 2. Pipe Another method is to machine the billets surface prior to extrusion, so that scale and surface impurities are removed. 13 3. Internal Cracking The centre of the extruded product can develop cracks, called centre cracking, centre-burst, arrowhead fracture, chevron cracking. The tendency for centre cracking (a) increases with increasing die angle, (b) increases with increasing amount of impurities, and(c) decreases with increasing extrusion ratio and friction. 14 3. Internal Cracking 15 Forging Defects Defects can develop during forging as a result of the material flow pattern in the die. If there is an insufficient volume of material to fill the die cavity completely, the web may buckle during forging and develop laps If the web is too thick, the excess material flows past the already formed portions of the forging and develops internal cracks. 16 Laps 17 Laps formed by web buckling during forging; web thickness should be increased to avoid this problem 18 Internal cracks Internal defects caused by an oversized billet. Die cavities are filled prematurely, and the material at the centre flows past the filled regions as the dies close. DEFECTS IN DRAWING Sheet-metal drawing is a more complex operation than cutting or bending, and more things can go wrong. A number of defects can occur in a drawn product, some of which we have already alluded to. Following is a list of common defects, with sketches in Figure. 19 DEFECTS IN DRAWING 20 DEFECTS IN DRAWING a) Wrinkling in the flange . Wrinkling in a drawn part consists of a series of ridges that form radially in the undrawn flange of the workpart due to compressive buckling. b) Wrinkling in the wall. If and when the wrinkled flange is drawn into the cup, these ridges appear in the vertical wall.
21 DEFECTS IN DRAWING c) Tearing . Tearing is an open crack in the vertical wall, usually near the base of the drawn cup, due to high tensile stresses that cause thinning and failure of the metal at this location. This type of failure can also occur as the metal is pulled over a sharp die corner. d) Earing . This is the formation of irregularities (called ears ) in the upper edge of a deep drawn cup, caused by anisotropy in the sheet metal. If the material is perfectly isotropic, ears do not form.
22 DEFECTS IN DRAWING e) Surface scratches . Surface scratches can occur on the drawn part if the punch and die are not smooth or if lubrication is insufficient. 23 24 25 26
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