Learning through play

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Learning through play is a term used in education and psychology to describe how a child can
learn to make sense of the world around them. Through play children can
develop social and cognitive skills, mature emotionally, and gain the self-confidence required to
engage in new experiences and environments.
[1]

Key ways that young children lean include playing, being with other people, being active,
exploring and new experiences, talking to themselves, communication with others, meeting
physical and mental challenges, being shown how to do new things, practicing and repeating
skills and having fun.
[2]

Contents
[hide]
1 Play
o 1.1 Play and Work
o 1.2 Classical, modern and contemporary perspectives
o 1.3 Culture and Learning Through Play
o 1.4 Importance
2 In childhood
o 2.1 Beliefs about the play-learning relationship
3 Play-based learning
o 3.1 Criticism
3.1.1 Knowledge acquisition
3.1.2 Pretend play: creativity, intelligence and problem solving
4 Play-based learning programs
5 See also
6 References
Play[edit]
According to proponents of the concept, play enables children to make sense of their world.
Children possess a natural curiosity to explore and play acts as a medium to do so. In the
book Einstein Never Used Flash Cards, five elements of childrens play are listed:
[3]

Play must be pleasurable and enjoyable.
Play must have no extrinsic goals; there is no prescribed learning that must occur.
Play is spontaneous and voluntary.
Play involves active engagement on the part of the player.
Play involves an element of make-believe.
Definitions of play
Creativity
Role play and pretend play involves creativity, such as: making props to use or finding objects to
be used as props. Play can also be creative when the person involved constructs building blocks,
uses paint or uses different materials to build an object. Creativity is not about the end product
but the process of the play scenario.
Imagination
Imagination is used during play when the person involved creates images in their minds to do
with their feelings, thoughts and ideas. The person then uses these images in their play.
[4]

Seven common characteristics of play are listed in Playing and Learning, by Beverlie Dietze and
Diane Kashin: Play is active, child-initiated, process oriented, intrinsic, episodic, rule-governed,
and symbolic.
[5]

Play and Work[edit]
There are critical differences between play and work. Play is mostly a self-chosen activity by the
child, rather than prescribed by a parent or teacher; it is a process, rather than a predicted
outcome or product. Work, on the other hand, has a definite intent and a prescribed outcome.
[6]

According to Dietze and Kashin:
In order for an activity to be considered play, the experience must include a measure of inner
control, ability to bend or invent reality, and a strong internally based motivation for playing. If
parents and educators try to label experiences as play, but in reality have specific requirements
for the activity, then it becomes work not play. For example, it is really impossible to play with
flash cards whose purpose is to have a child memorize something on each card. This is not
playing and children quickly differentiate between pure play and work being disguised as play.
[7]

Play is not wasted time, but rather time spent building new knowledge from previous
experience.
[8]
However, long term developmental qualities of play are difficult to research.
[9]
There
are various ways in which researchers may choose to look at the differences between work and
play. Researchers may choose definitions of play or work based on:
1. Primary Activities: Even if a culture considers a childs action is play, a researcher may
choose to define the childs action as work because it does add immediate worth to the
family unit.
[10]

2. The Parents Concept: Parents from different cultures define childrens actions of work
and play differently.
[10]
For example, a Mayan mother whos daughter sets up her own
fruit stand may consider this action as play.
[11]
However, many westerners would
consider this work if the child is actually successful at selling items from the fruit stand. A
child in the United States who sets up a lemonade stand is considered to be working for
money.
3. The Childs Concept: Children have different ideas of what play and work are in
comparison to adults. A child who is pretending to cook may have the belief that he or
she is working and contributing to the family.
Classical, modern and contemporary perspectives[edit]
There are three main groups of play theories:
[5]

1. Classical theories focus on play from the aspects of burning off excess energy; recreation
and relaxation; replenishing energy after hard work; practicing future roles, and
recapitulation theory (passing through successive stages by ancestors). Herbert
Spencer suggests that play is a mechanism to allow humans to expend excess energy
not required for survival; this can be achieved by children through play.
2. Modern theories examine play from the perspective of how it impacts a childs
development. According to Dietze and Kashin, The learner is no longer regarded as a
passive receiver of knowledge, but as an active constructor of meaning.
[12]
This
perspective is emphasized within the constructionist theory through experiential learning.
Theorist John Dewey suggests that children learn best by both physical and intellectual
activity; in other words, children need to take an active role in play.
3. Contemporary theories focus on the relationship of play to diversity and social justice in
daily living and knowledge. Children learn social and cultural contexts through their daily
living experiences. The Zone of Proximal Development concept, developed by Lev
Vygotsky, suggests that children require activities that support past learning and
encourage new learning at a slightly-more-difficult level. Vygotsky believed that social
engagement and collaboration with others are powerful forces which transform children's
thinking. Urie Bronfenbrenner states that a child's development is influenced by both the
person and the environment (which includes family, community, culture and the broader
society).
Culture and Learning Through Play[edit]
The way that children learn through play is culturally specific "as result of differences in
childrearing beliefs, values, and practices."
[13][14]
Play both influences and reflects the way
children from different cultures learn. Most western cultures would agree with the previously
described definition of play where play is enjoyable, have no extrinsic goals,no prescribed
learning that must occur, is spontaneous and voluntary, involves active engagement on the part
of the player, involves an element of make-believe.
[3]
However, that is not so for most others. For
example, Yucatec Mayans do not have emotional aspects in pretend/ make believe play and
most of their play is reality based.
Yucatec Mayans learn through Intent Community Participation, a very different model way than
most middle class euro families do.
[11]
This learning style stresses observation and intent activity
that intertwines individuals into community action.
Unlike children from the U.S., Yucatec Mayan children do not pretend play because they must
incorporate all age groups into their play and their cultural structure does not support idea of
"pretend."
[13][14]
Instead of having imaginary circumstances and friends, they play through
various pre scripted real life situations. The children often have a set list of circumstances they
can reenact. All of these circumstances reflects everyday life of the Yucatec. For example,
children will go through the steps of making tortillas, weave, and clean clothing. This is as a
result of not having Age Segregation. Unlike children of the industrialized middle-class who play
with children of the same age, The Yucatec Mayan children must incorporate young infants to
those in middle childhood. Thus, play scripted to allow all age groups to enjoy exploring activities
of daily life.
Different cultures and communities encourage children to play in different ways. Adults may not
join in the play. Children may not be given toys to play with. Children may play in mixed age
groups away from adults. They may be expected to grow out of play by 5 or in middle childhood.
Rich childhood play may be linked with adult creativity and imagination.
[15]

Different age groups have different cognitive capabilities.
[16]
For example, when older Yucatec
children pretend to discipline (modeling parental structures and exploring emotions), children
who are younger react negatively because they do not understand that the discipline is a
game.
[13]

Their culture also emphasizes learning through observation. Children must be active participators
by observing and modeling activities that are useful to the whole community. " It is inherently
integrated into the daily activities of the compound."
[14]
Their repeated realistic representations of
the adult world is represent through their play.
Yucatec Mayan parents also do not support the idea of pretend.
[13]
Pretend Play is considered a
form of lying because children are not representing something that actually happens. For
example, a Mayan mother told an ethnographer that she would "tolerate" her child pretending
that the leaves in the bowl was a form of food.
[14]

In the first half of the twentieth century, Susan Isaacs introduced the study of play. This came
from the understanding of child development that came from Western Europe and the USA. In
the Western world, research has been critisised. Experts such as Gunilla Dahlberg et al (1999)
suggests that the Western ways of looking at play can not be applied cross culturally. Fleer
(1995), studied Australian aboriginal children, which challenges Western experts as to whether it
is ideal to encourage play. She suggests that, "the children she studied did not play, and that it is
not necessary for them to do so".
[17]
She argued that we cannot see play as benifical for every
childhood around the world.
Importance[edit]
Play is sufficiently important to the United Nations that it has recognized it as a specific right for
all children.
[18]
Children need the freedom to explore and play. Play also contributes to brain
development. Evidence from neuroscience shows that the early years of a childs development
(from birth to age six) set the basis for learning, behavior and health throughout life.
[19]
The
childs neural pathways are influenced in their development through the exploration, thinking,
problem-solving and language expression which occur during play episodes.
[20]
According to
the Canadian Council on Learning, "Play nourishes every aspect of childrens development it
forms the foundation of intellectual, social, physical, and emotional skills necessary for success
in school and in life. Play 'paves the way for learning'.
[21]

Learning occurs when children play with blocks, paint a picture or play make-believe. During play
children try new things, solve problems, invent, create, test ideas and explore. Children need
unstructured, creative playtime; in other words, children need time to learn through their play.
[3]

According to researcher Charles E. Pascel, "Play is serious business for the development of
young learners. This is such an important understanding. A deliberate and effective play-based
approach supports young childrens cognitive development. When well designed, such an
approach taps into childrens individual interests, draws out their emerging capacities, and
responds to their sense of inquiry and exploration of the world around them. It generates highly
motivated children enjoying an environment where the learning outcomes of a curriculum are
more likely to be achieved.
[22]

In childhood[edit]


Children in playground sandbox
It has been acknowledged that there is a strong link between play and learning for young
children, especially in the areas of problem solving, language acquisition, literacy, numeracy and
social, physical, and emotional skills. Young children actively explore their environment and the
world around them through learning-based play.
[23]
Play is a vital part of a childs optimal social,
cognitive, physical and emotional development.
[24]
Researchers agree that play provides a strong
foundation for intellectual growth, creativity, problem-solving and basic academic
knowledge.
[3][25][26]
According to researcher Dorothy Singer, Through make-believe games
children can be anyone they wish and go anywhere they want. When they engage in
sociodramatic play, they learn how to cope with feelings, how to bring the large, confusing world
into a small, manageable size; and how to become socially adept as they share, take turns and
cooperate with each other. When children play, they are learning new words, how to problem
solve, and how to be flexible.
[27]

As children learn through purposeful, quality play experience, they build critical basic skills for
cognitive development and academic achievement. These include verbalization, language
comprehension, vocabulary, imagination, questioning, problem-solving, observation, empathy,
co-operation skills and the perspectives of others.
[28]

Through play, children learn a set of skills: social skills, creativity, hand-eye
coordination, problem solving and imagination. It is argued that these skills are better learned
through play than through flashcards or academic drills.
[29]
Additionally, Slovak researchers
Gmitrova and Gmitrov have found evidence clarifying the importance of pretend play as a
medium through which children can progress in areas beyond the educational curriculum.
[30]

Beliefs about the play-learning relationship[edit]
According to Kelly Fisher and colleagues, experts and parents have different beliefs about the
relationship between play activities and learning. While parents ascribe more learning value to
structured play activities (e.g., educational videos), experts identify structured activities as "non-
play" and associate less learning value with these activities compared to unstructured activities
(make-believe, or pretend, play).
[31]

Play-based learning[edit]
Play develops childrens content knowledge and provides children the opportunity to develop
social skills, competences and disposition to learn.
[32]
Play-based learning is based on a
Vygotskian model of scaffolding where the teacher pays attention on specific elements of the
play activity and provides encouragement and feedback on childrens learning.
[33]
When children
engage in real-life and imaginary activities, play can be challenging in childrens thinking.
[34]
To
extend the learning process, sensitive intervention can be provided with adult support when
necessary during play-based learning.
[33]
Play-based learning can also be defined as:
" children being active and involved in their learning. Children learn best through first-hand
experiences the purpose of play-active learning is that it motivates, stimulates and supports
children in their development of skills, concepts, language acquisitions/communication skills and
concentration. It also provides opportunities for children to develop positive attitudes and to
demonstrate awareness/use of recent learning, skills and competencies, and to consolidate
learning."
[35]

The DCSF (2009) produced a document that outlined how all activities in the Early Years setting,
having a playful approach supports learning because:
playful children use and apply their knowledge, skills and understanding in different ways
and in different contexts;
playful practitioners use many different approaches to engaging children in activities that
help them to learn and to develop positive dispositions for learning.
This guidance goes on to say:
"Practitioners cannot plan children's play, because this would work against the choice and control
that are central features of play. Practitioners can and should plan for children's play, however,
by creating high quality learning environments, and ensuring uninterrupted periods for children to
develop their play"
[36]

According to researchers Kathy Hirsh-Pasek and Roberta Michnick Golinkoff, The level of
childrens play rises when adults play with them. The variety of play children engage in also
increases when adults join in. The joining in is different from controlling. Controlling makes
children follow their parents' agenda and does not lead to as much cognitive development as
when parents follow their children's lead.
[3]
There are several ways educators/parents/guardians
can facilitate childrens learning during play:
[20][25][37]

1. Adults can role-model positive attitudes towards play, encouraging it and providing a
balance of indoor and outdoor play throughout the year. When adults join in they should
guide shape, engage in and extend it, rather than dictating or dominating the play.
2. Orchestrate an environment by deciding what toys, materials, and equipment to be
included in that environment. It is important to offer a variety of materials and
experiences at varying levels of difficulty. The choice of materials is important, because it
provides the motivation for childrens exploration and discovery. Both indoor and outdoor
experiences should provide exploratory centres and space. The play environment should
allow children to make choices, and to explore play possibilities. The play environment
should reflect the childs daily living experiences.
3. Observe carefully as children begin to use the toys, materials and equipment.
Observation is an ongoing process, providing information about the childs interests,
abilities and strengths and opportunities for further learning and development.
Observation helps identify ways adults can build on and guide the learning.
4. Insinuate oneself carefully into the play activity
5. Listen, repeat, extend and ask questions at the right time
6. Extend childrens natural observation by providing the language necessary to help
children articulate what they see happening. Adults can promote play and opportunities
for expansive discoveries; they can enhance (or facilitate) play by encouraging children
to bring their interests and experiences into the play. The adults can ask questions, to
expand and enhance play.
7. Help children recognize the concepts that emerge as they grapple with the environment,
make hypotheses, recognize similarities and differences, and solve problems
8. Provide social knowledge while allowing children the opportunity to learn the physical and
logico-mathematical knowledge that helps them understand the world around them
Play helps children learn by connecting with their senses and new language that contributes to
their learning.
[37]

Criticism[edit]
Knowledge acquisition[edit]
Forty years of research has shown positive correlation between play and childrens
learning.
[38]
This has led many to generalize the conclusion that play is beneficial for all learning.
Many of the findings are reflective of procedural knowledge rather than declarative
knowledge.
[39]
It is not certain whether correlational research can prove or know what degree
play is responsible for these advantages .
[38]
The assumptions that children can learn declarative
information, such as words or facts, simply based on evidence that children acquire skills in play
can not be made.
[39]
The true value of play is not that it can teach children facts, but that it can
help them acquire important procedural knowledge, which is beneficial in acquiring declarative
knowledge.
[39]

Pretend play: creativity, intelligence and problem solving[edit]
An analysis of more than 150 previous studies on the relationship between pretend play and
child development claimed that pretend play may be overrated. Regarding creativity, the study
has shown unconvincing evidence of pretend play enhancing creativity.
[38]
Correlation studies
were inconsistent, with some showing relationships only to social pretend play, pretend play, or
constructional play, and other studies failing to show relationships to those same constructs.
[38]
In
terms of intelligence, the research has claimed it is not certain whether play promotes
intelligence or intelligence promotes play and other adult interventions are no different in
promoting intelligence in children.
[38]
For problem solving, the form of construction play is
correlated with solving problems that involve construction (puzzle toys). Further research should
examine if such play helps problem solving generally.
[38]

Pretend play, also known as "make-believe play" involves acting out ideas and emotions.
Children act out stories that contain different perspectives and ideas. Although some studies
show that this type of play does not enhance child development, others have found that it has a
large impact on children's language usage and awareness of the perspectives of others. Pretend
play can also help with a child's self-regulation in the areas of civility, delayed gratification,
empathy, and reduced aggression. It can also improve social skills such as empathy, problem
solving, and communication.
[40]

Play-based learning programs[edit]
Play-based learning programs include:
HighScope is an example of a teacher-led approach. The philosophy is that children should
be involved actively in their own learning. Adults working with the children see themselves
more as involved facilitators of play rather than managing the play itself.
[41]

The Montessori Method emphasizes self-directed activity on the part of the child and clinical
observation on the part of the teacher. The objective is to adapt the child's learning
environment to his or her development level. This broad approach encourages children to
learn through play.
[42]

Ontario Full Day Early Learning Kindergarten Program,
[43]
for 4- and 5-year-olds, is a school
program consisting of exploration, investigation, guided and explicit instruction.
Ontario Early Years Centres is a parent-child interactive program with a focus on play-based
learning. Parents and caregivers stay with the child, and can obtain information about
programs and services available for young children and their families.
[44]

The Reggio Emilia approach has a vision of the child as a competent learner, and has
produced a child-directed curriculum model. The curriculum has purposeful progression, but
no defined sequence. Teachers follow the children's interests, and do not provide focused
instruction in reading and writing. The Reggio approach believes that children learn through
interaction with others (including parents, staff and peers) in a friendly learning
environment.
[45]

See also[edit]
Educational entertainment
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