Introduction to Psychology and its Research Methods

Psychology definition: scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

Four main goals: describe, explain, predict, and change behavior.
Structuralism vs. Functionalism:
Structuralism sought to identify elements of consciousness and how those elements
formed the structure of the mind; relied primarily on method of introspection.
Functionalism studied how mental processes help the individual adapt to environment.
iopsychosocial model: draws from all seven modern perspectives
!psychoanalytic/psychodynamic, behavioral, humanistic, cognitive,
neuroscience/biopsychology, evolutionary and sociocultural" and also incorporates
#iological$ psychological and social processes$
asic Research vs. %pplied Research:
Basic Research studies theoretical issues.
Applied Research see&s to solve specific pro#lems.
'ey ethical issues in psychological research and therapy: Psychologists must maintain
high standards in their relation with human and on human research participants$ as well
as in their therapeutic relationships with clients. (he %P% has pu#lished specific
guidelines detailing these ethical standards.
)ow e*periments help researchers determine cause and effect: #y manipulating and
carefully controlling varia#les$ and e*periment is the only research method that can #e
used to identify cause+and+effect relationships.
,*perimental groups vs. -ontrol groups:
Experiment receive treatment.
Control no treatment.
Independent varia#les vs. .ependent varia#les
Independent are factors the e*periment manipulates
ependent measura#le #ehaviors of participants
Experimental controls include having one control group and one or more experimental
groups and holding extraneous variables constant.
)ow researchers guard against e*perimenter #ias: to safeguard against e*perimenter #ias$
researchers employ #lind o#servers$ single+ and dou#le+#lind studies and place#os.
)ow researchers safeguard against sample #ias and participant #ias:
For sample bias$ researchers use random/representative sampling and random
assignment.
For participant bias$ they rely on many of the same controls in place to percent
e*perimenter #ias$ such as dou#le+#lind studies. (hey also attempt to ensure anonymity
and confidentiality and sometimes use deception.
.escriptive Research and its (hree 'ey Methods: .escriptive research o#serves and
descri#es$ #ut it cannot determine the causes of #ehavior.
(hree &ey methods:
+!aturalistic observation used to study and descri#e #ehavior in its natural ha#itat
without altering it.
+Surveys interviews or 0uestionnaires to o#tain information on a sample of participants
+Case studies in+depth studies of a participant
-orrelational research: e*amines how one naturally occurring trait or #ehavior
accompanies another$ and how well one varia#le predicts the other
-orrelation coefficients: numerical values from correlational research that indicate the
degree and direction of the relationship #etween two varia#les. Correlation does not
imply causation.
iological research and ma1or tools of discovery: iological research studies the #rain
and other parts of the nervous system through dissection of #rains and cadavers$
a#lation/lesion techni0ues$ o#servation or case studies$ electrical recordings and electrical
stimulation of the #rain !,S". -omputed tomography !-("$ positron emission
tomography !P,("$ magnetic resonance imaging !MRI"$ functional magnetic resonance
imaging !fMRI"$ and transcranial magnetic stimulation !(MS"$ are noninvasive
techni0ues that provide important information on intact$ living #rains.
2euroscience and iological Foundations
'ey parts and function of neurons: !eurons are cells that transmit information
throughout the #ody. (hey have three main parts: dendrites$ which receive information
from other neurons$ the cell body$ which provides nourishment and 3decides4 whether
the a*on should fire$ and the axon$ which sends along the neural information. "lial cells
support and provide nutrients for neurons in the central nervous system.
-ommunication within the neuron !the action potential" and #etween neurons: 2eural
communication #egins within the neuron when the dendrites and cell #ody receive
information and transmit it to the a*on. (he a*on is speciali5ed for transmitting neural
impulses$ or action potentials. .uring times when no action potential is moving down
the a*on$ the a*on is at rest. (he neuron is activated$ and an action potential occurs when
positively charged ions move in and out through channels in the a*on6s mem#rane.
%ction potentials travel more 0uic&ly down myelinated a*ons #ecause the myelin sheath
serves as insulation. Information is transferred from one neuron to another at synapses #y
chemicals called neurotransmitters. 2eurotransmitters #ind to receptor sites much as a
&ey fits into a loc&$ and their effects can #e e*citatory or inhi#itory.
)ow neurotransmitters and hormones relate to our everyday life: 2eurotransmitters
regulate glands and muscles$ sleep$ alertness$ learning$ memory$ motivation$ emotion$
psychological disorders$ etc. #ormones are released from glands in the endocrine
system directly into the #loodstream. (hey act at a distance on other glands$ on muscles$
and in the #rain. (he ma1or functions of the endocrine system$ including the
hypothalamus$ pituitary$ thyroid$ adrenals$ testes$ ovaries$ and pancreas$ are to help with
regulation of long term #odily processes !such as growth and se* characteristics"$
maintain ongoing #odily processes$ and assist in regulating the emergency response to
crises.
2ervous system: divided into two ma1or divisions central nervous system !-2S"$
composed of the #rain and spinal cord$ and the peripheral nervous system !P2S"$
including all nerves connecting to the -2S to the rest of the #ody. (he -2S processes
and organi5es information$ whereas the P%2 carries information to and from the -2S.
Ma1or functions of spinal cord: spinal cord is the communications lin& #etween #rain and
the rest of #ody$ and is involved in all voluntary and refle* responses.
Su#divisions of peripheral nervous system and their functions:
P2S divided into somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system.
Somatic nervous system includes all nerves carrying incoming sensory information and
outgoing motor information to and from the sense organs and s&eletal muscles.
%utonomic nervous system includes the nerves outside the #rain and spinal cord that
maintain normal functioning of glands$ heart muscle$ and the smooth muscle of #lood
vessels and internal organs. .ivided into 7 #ranches:
+$arasympathetic nervous system dominates when person is rela*ed or calm.
+Sympathetic nervous system dominates when person is under physical or
mental stress. Mo#ili5es #ody for fight or flight #y increasing heart rate and #lood
pressure and slowing digestive processes.
-ere#ral corte*: thin surface layer on cere#ral hemispheres$ regulates most comple*
#ehaviors and higher mental processes.
Ma1or functions of the lo#es of cere#ral corte*:
+(wo %rontal lobes control higher functions$ speech production$ and motor
control.
+(wo parietal lobes are receiving and interpretation area for sensory information.
+(wo temporal lobes are concerned with hearing$ language$ memory$ and some
emotional control.
+(wo occipital lobes are dedicated to vision and visual information processing.
F$&'
Phineas -age: Frea& accident where metal rod pierced frontal lo#es. -hange in #ehavior
and mental processes provide invalua#le clues to the important role of the frontal lo#e in
motivation$ emotion$ and other cognitive activities.
-orpus -allosum and Split+rain Research: (wo hemispheres are connected #y corpus
callosum !#ridge"$ through which they communicate and coordinate. Split+#rain research
shows each hemisphere performs somewhat separate functions. For most people$ left
hemisphere is dominant in ver#al s&ills$ such as spec&ing and writing$ and analytical
tas&s. (he right hemisphere e*cels at nonver#al tas&s$ such as spatio+manipulative s&ills$
art and music$ and visual recognition.
ehavioral genetics: studies the relative effects of heredity and the environment on
#ehavior and mental processes. (wo important &eys to heredity are genes and
chromosomes(
+8enes hold the code for certain traits that are passed on from parent to child$
can #e dominant or recessive.
+-hromosomes 9:; contains many genes$ which are found in .2% molecules.
,volutionary psychology: #ranch of psychology that loo&s at evolutionary changes
related to #ehavior and mental processes. Several different evolutionary processes$
including natural selection and genetic mutations can affect #ehavior and mental
processes.
,volutionary theory and current se* differences: ,volutionary theory modern se*
differences !li&e male6s superiority spatial and motor s&ills and the female superior ver#al
fluency and fine motor coordination" are the product of gradual genetic adaptations. (hey
helped our ancestors adapt and survive in their environment.
Sensation and Perception
Sensation vs. Perception:
Sensation refers to process of detecting$ converting$ and transmitting raw sensory data
to the #rain.
$erception process of selecting$ organi5ing$ and interpreting sensory information into
useful mental representations of the world.
ottom+up vs. (op+down processing
Bottom)up information processing that #egins 3at the #ottom4 with raw sensory data
that are sent 3up4 to the #rain for higher+level analysis.
'op)do*n starts at top with higher level cognitive processes !such as e*pectations and
&nowledge"$ and then wor&s down.
Psychophysics definition and a#solute vs. difference thresholds: $sychophysics studies
the lin& #etween the physical characteristics of stimuli and our sensory e*perience of
them.
Absolute threshold smallest magnitude of a stimulus we can detect
i%%erence threshold smallest change in a stimulus we can detect
Su#liminal stimuli: ;e can perceive su#liminal stimuli that are presented #elow our
conscious awareness. )owever$ they are wea& stimuli that have little or no persuasive
effect.
Sensory adaptation: is a decrease in sensitivity as a result of repeated or constant
stimulation. It offers important survival #enefits #ecause we cant afford to waste time
paying attention to unchanging stimuli.
8ate+control theory of pain perception: <ur e*perience of pain depends in part on a
3gate4 in the spinal cord that either #loc&s or allows pain signals to pass on to the #rain.
=ight: composed of waves of electromagnetic energy of a certain wavelength. (he
wavelength of a light determines its hue !color"; how often a light or sound wave cycles
is &nown as the %re+uency; and the amplitude !height" of a light wave determines its
intensity.
(he eye and its functions: function of eye is to capture light and focus it on visual
receptors that convert light energy to neural impulses. =ight first enters through the pupil
and lens$ and then travels through to the retina. 2eural impulses generated #y the retina
are then carried #y the optic nerve to the #rain. Receptor cells in the retina called rods
are speciali5ed for night vision$ whereas cones are speciali5ed for color and fine detail.
-ommon pro#lems with vision: 2earsightedness !myopia"$ farsightedness !hyperopia"
result from pro#lems with lens and cornea focusing image in front or #ehind retina.
Pres#yopia occurs when lens #ecome less fle*i#le. =ight adaptation and dar& adaptation
result from visual peculiarities related to rods and cones. .ichromats and monochromats
are terms related to pro#lems with color perception.
(richromatic vs. opponent+process vs. dual+process theory:
'richromatic three color systems in retina$ #lue$ green or red.
&pponent)process three color systems either or fashion$ red or green$ #lue or yellow$
#lac& or white.
ual)process #oth theories are correct; trichromatic system operates at level of retina$
opponent+process occurs in #rain.
%udition and ,ar: %udition sense of hearing. ,ar has > parts:
&uter ear conducts sound waves to
,iddle ear conducts vi#rations to
Inner ear hair cells are #ent #y a traveling wave in the fluid of the cochlea and
transduced into neural impulses. (he neural message is carried along the auditory
nerve to the #rain.
Physical properties of sound waves: we hear sounds via sound waves$ which result from
rapid changes in air pressure caused #y vi#rating o#1ects. (he *avelength of these
sounds waves is sensed as the pitch of the sound. (he amplitude of the waves is
perceived as loudness. %nd the range of sound waves is sensed as timbre$ the purity or
comple*ity of the tone.
Place and fre0uency theories related to hearing:
$lace theory pitch perception corresponds to the particular spot !or place" on the
cochlea6s #asilar mem#rane that is most stimulated.
Fre+uency theory pitch perception occurs when nerve impulses sent to the #rain match
the fre0uency of the sound waves. oth place and fre0uency theories are correct$ #ut
place #est e*plains how we hear high+pitched sounds$ whereas fre0uency theory #est
e*plains how we hear low+pitched sounds.
-onduction vs. 2erve deafness:
Conduction dea%ness results from pro#lems with transferring sound waves to the
cochlea.
!erve dea%ness + involves damage to the inner ear or auditory nerve.
<lfaction and 8ustation: sense of smell !olfaction" and sense of taste !gustation" are
called the chemical senses and are closely interrelated. Receptors for olfaction are at top
of nasal cavity. Receptors for gustation are on tongue and are sensitive to five tastes:
salty, s*eet, sour, bitter, and umami(
Illusions: false or misleading perceptions that can #e produced #y actual physical
distortions$ as in desert mirages$ or #y errors in perception. (hese errors allow
psychologists insight into normal perceptual processes.
Selection process: allows us to choose which of the #illions of separate sensory messages
will eventually #e processed. )as > factors:
+Selective attention processes of filtering out and attending only to important
sensory messages.
+Feature detectors are speciali5ed #rain cells that distinguish #etween different
sensory inputs.
)#abituation we ha#ituate to unchanging stimuli and only pay attention when
stimuli change in intensity$ novelty$ and location.
Perceptual constancies: through perceptual constancies of si-e, shape, color, and
brightness we are a#le to perceive a sta#le environment$ even though the actual sensory
information we receive may #e constantly changing. (hese constancies develop from
prior e*periences and learning.
Factors that influence how we interpret sensations: Interpretation$ the final stage of
perception$ can #e influenced #y perceptual adaptation, perceptual set, and %rame o%
re%erence(
States of -onsciousness
-onsciousness and alternate states of consciousness !%S-s":
-onsciousness an organism6s awareness of its own self and surroundings.
%lternate states of -onsciousness !%S-s" sleep and dreams, daydreams, and states
induced by psychoactive drugs, hypnosis and meditation(
Consciousness is difficult to study and define; flowing stream by William James.
odern researchers emphasi!e that consciousness exists along a continuum.
-ontrolled vs. %utomatic processing:
Controlled processing re0uire focused attention$ are at highest level of the continuum
of awareness.
Automatic processing re0uire minimal attention$ are found in the middle.
"nconciousness and coma are at the lowest level.
Si* common myths a#out sleep:
Everyone needs . hours o% sleep(
It/s easy to learn complicated things *hile asleep(
Some people never dream(
reams only last a %e* seconds(
"enital arousal means the sleeper is having a sexual dream(
reaming o% dying can be %atal(
-ircadian rhythms: #iological changes that occur on a 79+hour cycle$ <ur sleep+wa&e
cycle$ alertness$ moods$ learning$ #lood pressure$ and the li&e all follow circadian
rhythms. .isruptions to circadian rhythms due to shift wor&$ 1et lag$ and sleep deprivation
can cause accidents and other serious pro#lems.
Stages of sleep and typical night6s sleep:
(ypical night6s sleep consists of 9 to ? @A+minute cycles. -ycle #egins in stage B then
moves through stage 7$ >$ and 9. %fter reaching the deepest level of sleep$ the cycle
reverses up to R,M !rapid eye movement" sleep$ in which the person is often dreaming.
Sleep stages B$7$> and 9 are called 2R,M !non rapid eye movement" sleep.
;hy sleepC: ,*act function is un&nown. %ccording to evolutionary/circadian theory$
sleep evolve to conserve energy and protect us from predators. %ccording to
repair/restoration theory, sleep is thought to #e necessary for its restorative value$ #oth
physically and psychologically.
;hy dreamC: (hree ma1or theories:
)$sychoanalyic/psychodynamic vie* dreams are disguised sym#ols of
repressed desires$ conflicts$ and an*ieties.
+'he biological perspective 0activation)synthesis hypothesis1) dreams are
simple #y+products of random stimulation of #rain cells.
+Cognitive vie* dreams are an important type of information processing of
everyday e*periences.
8ender and cultural affects to dreams: Many similarities and differences in dream content
#etween men and women and across cultures. )ow people interpret and value their
dreams also varies across cultures.
Ma1or sleep disorders: 7 ma1or diagnostic categories:
)yssomnias 2 insomnia$ sleep apnea$ and narcolepsy
)$arasomnias 2 nightmares and night terrors
Insomnia repeated difficulty falling or staying asleep$ or awa&ening too early.
Sleep apnea temporarily stops #reathing during sleep$ causing loud snoring or poor+
0uality sleep.
!arcolepsy e*cessive daytime sleepiness characteri5ed #y sudden sleep attac&s.
!ightmares #ad dreams that occur during R,M sleep.
!ight terrors a#rupt awa&enings with feelings of panic that occur during 2R,M sleep.
Psychoactive drugs: chemicals that change conscious awareness$ mood and/or perception.
(hese drugs wor& primarily #y changing the amount and effect of neurotransmitters in
the synapse. Some drugs act as agonists that mimic a neurotransmitter6s effects$ whereas
other drugs act as antagonists and #loc& normal neurotransmitter functioning.
;hy do addicts a#use drugsC: Research shows that their #rains 3learn4 to #e addicted.
!eurotransmitters$ li&e a dopamine and glutamate$ activate the #rain6s reward system
and create lasting cravings and memories of the drug use.
Four main categories of psychoactive drugs:
epressants slow the central nervous system
Stimulants increase its central nervous system activity
&piates num# the senses and relieve the pain
#allucinogens produce sensory or perceptual distortions called hallucinations.
-lu# drugs: can produce desira#le effects$ #ut can also cause serious health pro#lems and
impair good decision ma&ing.
)ypnosis: an alternate state of heightened suggesti#ility characteri5ed #y deep rela*ation
and intense focus. )ypnosis is the su#1ect of many myths$ such as 3forced hypnosis.4 ut
it also has #een used successfully to reduce pain$ to increase concentration$ and as an
ad1unct to psychotherapy.