The TQM legacy Gurus

contributions and
theoretical impact
Mohamed Zairi
European Centre for Best Practice Management, Keighley, UK
Abstract
Purpose The purpose of this paper is to examine the various contributions made by Gurus who
have impacted significantly on the theory and practice of total quality management (TQM) over the
past 100 years.
Design/methodology/approach The paper uses the solid foundation created by the various
thoughts, concepts, principles and methods contributed by specifically considered individuals.
Findings The methodology makes the case for the legacy that TQM has created and in particular,
its unique additions to theory building.
Originality/value A unique examination of a century of TQM Gurus.
Keywords Total quality management, Performance management, Best practice, Quality culture,
SPC, Variability, Quality control, Management theory
Paper type Viewpoint
Introduction
The conceptual root of total quality management (TQM) can be traced to the work of
Walter Shewhart in statistical process control (SPC) at the Bell Laboratories in the USA
during the 1920s. Shewharts concern was to develop a system to measure variables in
production. Additionally, he designed the plan-do-check-act cycle, which applied the
scientific method to improve the work process (Evans and Lindsay, 2001).
Shewharts early work on the statistical control of processes and the control chart
established a foundation for the quality of management movement. His emphasis on
the need for statistical analysis to create adequate understanding of work processes
was clearly seminal for grasping the essence and causes of variation, both controlled
and uncontrolled (Bank, 1992).
Following Shewharts innovations, the three major pioneers in the quality
movement emerged all Americans W. Edwards Deming, Joseph M. Juran, and Philip
B. Crosby (Evans and Lindsay, 2001). Fundamentally, through Shewharts work, these
later pioneers, or quality gurus as they are referred to, grasped the significance and the
basis of variation in production (Tribus, cited in Bank, 1992). Deming himself specified
that: If I had to replace my message to managers to just a few words, Id say it all had
to do with reducing variation (cited in Bank, 1992).
The contributions of Deming, Juran, and Crosby to improving quality have had
a profound impact on countless managers and organizations around the world. Other,
somewhat more derivative theorists, important to the revolution in quality management,
include Armand V. Feigenbaum, Kaoru Ishikawa, Bill Conway, Genichi Taguchi, Shigeo
Shingo, and W.G. Ouchi. In the following sections, each of these nine contributors to
our present day understanding of TQM is considered individually. In subsequent
sections, the individual TQM approaches of major theorists are compared. Models and
frameworks of TQM derived from theory are described; and, finally, empirical studies of
TQM and associated critical factors are presented.
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at
www.emeraldinsight.com/1754-2731.htm
The TQM Journal
Vol. 25 No. 6, 2013
pp. 659-676
rEmerald Group Publishing Limited
1754-2731
DOI 10.1108/TQM-06-2013-0069
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The TQM legacy
Demings philosophy and contribution
The origins of the quest for quality management in the minds of many analysts may
not be so certain and clear as those outlined above. Some controversy is apparent (Dow
et al., 1999). Powell (1995), for example, credits the Union of Japanese Scientists and
Engineers ( JUSE) in 1949. Deming appears to defer to Stewharts 1930s SPC work.
However, most management gurus who have contributed to the development of TQM,
find their origins in Deming (1986). Deming outlined a new theory of management
based on 14 points, which [y] provide criteria by which anyone in the company may
measure the performance of management. The focus is on improving the quality of
the products or services by reducing uncertainty and variability in the manufacturing
processes (Deming, 1986; Evans and Lindsay, 2001). In addition to stipulating the
criteria of effective management performance, Demings analysis indicates that higher
quality, established through systems of monitoring, analysis and control, would
instigate higher productivity. These two, working in tandem, establish a methodology
aimed at the achievement of long-term competitive strength. The system, known as
Demings chain reaction theory (Deming, 1986, p. 3), is as follows:
Improve quality-Productivity up-Cost down-Price down-Markets increased-Stay in
business-More jobs and better return on investment
The derivation of Demings 14 points follows from his analysis of the critical situation
of Western (mainly USA) management approaches. Factors contributing to this
situation were identified as follows (Deming, 1994):
.
lack of constancy of purpose and focus of short-range planning;
.
emphasis on short-term profits and immediate reviews;
.
annual merit reviews and individual performance evaluations;
.
mobility of top management;
.
managing the company only by visible figures;
.
excessive medical cost for employee healthcare, which increases the final cost of
goods and/or services; and
.
excessive costs of warranty fuelled by lawyers on contingency fees.
Demings solution consisted of 14 points:
(1) create constancy of purpose in order to improve both products and services;
(2) learn a new philosophy and reject commonly accepted levels of delay and
mistakes by understanding that it is possible for something to be done right
the first time;
(3) cease the dependence on mass inspection to achieve quality by incorporating
quality into the product;
(4) end the practice of awarding business based on the price tag alone;
(5) improvements must be continuous and not just a one time effort. Management
must look for ways to reduce waste and constantly improve quality;
(6) institute on-the-job training to ensure that employees are trained properly;
(7) institute modern methods of responsive supervision;
(8) drive out fear;
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(9) break down barriers between departments;
(10) eliminate slogans, exhortations and numerical targets for the work force
these have never helped anyone to do a better job;
(11) eliminate numerical quotas for both the work force and the management;
(12) remove barriers that rob people of their right to take pride in their work, such as
misguided supervisors, faulty equipment and defective materials people are
anxious to do a better job and become distressed when they are unable to do so;
(13) institute a vigorous programme of education and retraining; and
(14) take action to accomplish the transformation.
Demings work, which helped him to formulate his theory, was carried out with the
Japanese in the 1950s, as they rebuilt their industry after Second World War. The
contribution of Deming to Japanese attitudes to business and manufacturing is
indisputable. His role as a key player in the countrys turnaround labelled him as the
father of the third wave of the industrial revolution remarked Bank (1992). Deming
(1986) defined quality as satisfying the customer beyond expectations. Satisfying the
customer is central to Demings approach to quality and quality management. In his
opinion, improved quality leads to a reduction in rework, fewer delays, and better
utilization of equipment. Improvement in the companys productivity makes it able to
market better quality products at a lower price, and this offers employees a good
chance of secure employment with a company likely to stay in business. It is
variability, as referred to in this discussion, which matters. Quality and productivity
increase as variability decreases, Deming argued. Central to his approach are the
nature of variation and what companies need to do about it. Deming identified two
types of variation, special and common. Special causes are assignable to individual
machines or operators, and common causes are those shared by operations and are the
managements responsibility. In this way, root causes can be identified, and an action to
remove variability may be taken by the appropriate persons.
Demings work went on to considerably extend quality management beyond
statistical methods, focusing on senior management becoming actively involved
in quality management. He estimated that management was accountable for over 90
per cent of potential improvement. Elimination of numerical targets and performance
appraisals are key points in reducing variation. Targets are often beyond the reach of
the target managers. They distort the system and cause knock-on problems in other
production areas. Likewise, performance appraisal becomes manifestly unfair if there
is a great deal of common cause variation, which effectively hampers an employees
personal contribution. Deming maintained that workers work in the system, not on
the system which remains a management activity (cited in Bank, 1992).
Beyond Demings concern for the deficiencies of ordinary management practice, and
the 14 points essential for rectifying it, his paradigm for change includes a seven-point
action plan. This action plan begins with management struggling over the 14 points,
the obstacles, and finishes with the construction of a system of organization for quality,
which he regards as requiring the participation of knowledgeable statisticians (Mann,
1992). The action plan includes the following (Mann, 1992):
.
Management struggles over the 14 points and their obstacles and agrees to the
meaning and plan direction.
.
Management takes pride and develops courage to move in a new direction.
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.
Management explains to people in the company why change is necessary.
.
Every company actively is divided into stages, identifying the customer of each
stage as the next stage. Continual improvement of methods should take place at
each stage, and stages should work together towards quality.
.
Start as soon and as quickly as possible to construct an organization to guide
continual quality improvement.
.
Everyone can take part in a team to improve the input and output of any stage.
.
Embark on construction of the organization for quality.
In the Deming cycle, the activity of quality improvement is designed to be a continuous
process. His plan-do-check-act cycle comprises a sequence of steps to improve the end
result of the process and then to ensure continued improvements. The plan phase
begins with a study of the current situation, during which facts are collected and used
in formulating an appropriate set of actions that improve quality. In the do phase the
planned actions are implemented. During the check phase results are compared with
those specified in the plan phase and techniques and procedures used to identify the
extent to which they really solve the identified problems. Finally, the act phase is used
to standardize successful methods so that new techniques are continuously applied.
Demings review of his quality management philosophy comprises four areas:
(1) Application for a system: this means everyone needs to understand the constituent
parts of the system in which they work and the various inter-relationships that
occur; a failure in one part of the system affects success in another part.
(2) Knowledge of statistical theory: this requires that all staff are conversant with
the general methods of statistics and are able to apply them effectively.
(3) Theory of knowledge: this relates to effective planning and implementation of
those plans to determine what works and what does not.
(4) Knowledge of psychology: quality development requires changes in peoples
attitudes, values and behaviours. Consequentially, management and workers
alike need to understand what drives people and how those drives can be
tapped for the continuous development of quality ( James, 1996).
Jurans philosophy and contribution
Jurans philosophy of quality was originally developed during his work with western
Electric in the USA in the 1920s and in the 1940s he worked with Deming. Certain
similarities and, equally importantly, differences were established between the two
theorists. Juran, like Deming, taught principles of quality management to the Japanese
in the 1950s. His work was fundamental to their post-war re-organization. Jurans
approach has had considerable influence throughout the world. His overall approach
was designated as managerial breakthrough (cited in Flood, 1993).
Juran echoed Demings conclusion that US businesses faced a major crisis in quality
due to the increase in poor quality products and services and the loss of sales to foreign
competition. Both concluded that the solution to this crisis depended on developing
new thinking concerning quality that would include all levels of the management
hierarchy. Upper management in particular required training and experience in
managing to achieve higher quality (Evans and Lindsay, 2001; Flood, 1993).
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Unlike Deming, Juran specified a detailed procedure for quality improvement through
his quality trilogy (Flood, 1993; Evans and Lindsay, 2001):
(1) Quality planning:
.
identify the customers, both internal and external;
.
determine customer needs;
.
develop product features that respond to customer needs;
.
establish quality goals that can meet the needs of customers;
.
develop a process that can produce the needed product features; and
.
prove process capability show that the process can meet the quality goals
under operating conditions.
(2) Quality control:
.
choose control subjects what to control;
.
choose units of measurement;
.
establish measurements;
.
establish standards of performance;
.
measure actual performance;
.
interpret the difference (actual vs standard); and
.
take action on the difference.
(3) Quality improvement:
.
prove the need for improvement;
.
identify specific projects for improvement;
.
organize a guide for the projects;
.
organize a diagnosis for the discovery of causes of problems;
.
diagnose to find these causes;
.
provide remedies;
.
prove that the remedies are effective under operating conditions; and
.
provide for control to hold the gains.
The quality trilogy consists of three basic managerial processes through which the
management of an organization can achieve quality ( Juran, 1988a, b):
(1) quality control: emphasizes the prevention of quality problems and the
correction of defects to create a product that is free from deficiencies;
(2) quality improvement: is based on looking for opportunities to improve quality
before problems arise; and
(3) quality planning: provides the operating forces with the means of producing
products that meet consumer needs.
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Fitness for use is Jurans definition of quality. He uses this in the context of a user-
based view, which signifies that quality lies with the actual use of a product or service.
Juran applied two different meanings to quality features and freedom from
deficiencies. Effective management of these quality types is achieved by using the
quality trilogy ( Juran, 1986). This emphasizes the connection between quality
planning, quality control and quality improvement. Only the customer can determine
the quality of the product or service using Jurans definition. James (1996) argues that
[y] consequently, manufacturers do not like to use it, but prefer a more controlled
conformance to specifications. Therefore, fitness for use is a utility value concept,
which varies from one customer to another. According to Juran (1974), this concept is
based on five quality characteristics:
(1) technological (e.g. strength);
(2) psychological (e.g. beauty);
(3) time-oriented (e.g. reliability);
(4) contractual (e.g. guarantees); and
(5) ethical (e.g. sales staff courtesy).
Juran emphasized a structured approach to planning for product quality. Within
Jurans system, the quality of a manufactured product is defined primarily by
technological and time-oriented characteristics, whereas a service product may involve
all the characteristics indicated above. Further, he determined that fitness for use could
be broken down into four elements:
(1) quality of design;
(2) quality control;
(3) availability; and
(4) field service.
Quality of design concentrates on quality of market research, product concept
and quality of specification; quality of conformance includes technology,
manpower, and management; Availability focuses on reliability, maintainability,
and logistical support; field service quality comprises promptness, competence
and integrity ( James, 1996).
Quality improvement was always Jurans focus, he determined that the goal was to
increase performance to levels never achieved previously. To do this he indicated that
companies must achieve a series of breakthroughs in attitude, organization, knowledge,
cultural patterns, and results. Consequently, he developed six phases of problem solving
for quality improvement which include ( James, 1996, p. 65):
(1) identify the project:
.
nominate projects;
.
evaluate projects;
.
select a project;
.
ask: is it quality improvement; and
.
prepare a mission statement.
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(2) establish the project:
.
select a team;
.
verify the mission; and
.
analyse symptoms.
(3) diagnose the cause:
.
confirm/modify mission;
.
formulate theories;
.
test theories;
.
identify root cause(s);
.
identify alternatives.
(4) remedy the cause:
.
design remedy;
.
design controls;
.
design for culture;
.
prove effectiveness;
.
implement; and
.
design effective controls.
(5) hold the gains:
.
foolproof the remedy;
.
audit the controls; and
.
replicate the results.
(6) replicate and nominate:
.
nominate the new project.
In these phases, 23 activities are carried out. The first three phases and activities
involved are described as the journey from symptom to remedy and the remaining
three phases and the activities are considered as the journey from remedy to further
opportunity. According to Juran, the process is cyclic in nature and reflects the
continuous spiral of quality development in an organization.
Unlike Deming, Juran did not propose making a major cultural change to the
organization, but rather sought to improve quality by working within the system.
Jurans programmes were designed to fit into an organizations current business
planning with a minimal risk of rejection. He argues that employees at different levels
of an organization speak in their own language, while Deming believes that statistics
should be the common language (Flood, 1993; Evans and Lindsay, 2001).
Jurans approach recommends ten steps to quality improvement as follows ( Juran, 1992):
(1) build awareness of the need and opportunity for improvement;
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The TQM legacy
(2) set goals for improvement;
(3) organize to reach the goals (establish a quality council, identify problems,
select projects, and appoint teams, designate facilitators);
(4) provide training;
(5) carry out projects to solve problems;
(6) report progress;
(7) give recognition;
(8) communicate results;
(9) measure all processes and improvements; and
(10) maintain momentum by making annual improvement part of the regular
systems and processes of the company.
Crosbys philosophy and contribution
Crosby worked as Corporate Vice President for Quality at International Telephone and
Telegraph for 14 years after working his way up from line inspector. Crosbys had a
straightforward attitude to quality management. He states that top management in an
organization should adopt a quality management style, not because it is the right thing
to do, but because it is good for the bottom line (Crosby, 1979, 1984). This approach
substantiates Jurans insight into management motivation for TQM.
Crosby states that quality is free and that unquality things cost money when
organizations are not doing the right things right (Crosby, 1979, 1984). Crosby argues
that quality does not cost money. What costs money is not doing the job right the first
time. He sets out four pillars of quality in terms of making quality certain:
(1) management participation and attitude;
(2) professional quality management;
(3) original programme; and
(4) recognition.
In Crosbys approach, the focus is on altering the attitudes and behaviours of the
workforce. He attributes quality problems to a lack of standards and attention to detail
among employees (Harris, 1995). Crosbys quality slogan is conformance to the
requirements and quality is free. Crosby (1979) developed five absolutes of quality:
(1) Conformance to requirements. Once the requirements have been determined,
the production process will exhibit quality if the product or service resulting
from that process conforms to those requirements.
(2) There is no such thing as a quality problem.
(3) There is no such thing as the economics of quality it is always cheaper to do
the job right the first time.
(4) The only performance measurement is the cost of quality.
(5) The only performance standard is zero defects (ZD).
In the opinion of Crosby, the underlying philosophy behind these absolutes is a
conformance mentality. It breaks down if the design of the product or service is incorrect
or does not match the actual customer requirements effectively. Crosby argues that
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since management deals predominantly in the language of money, putting the cost of
non-conformance in cash terms makes sense. This concept clearly illustrates the effect
of non-conformance and focuses attention on prevention issues. It is Crosbys basic
thesis that quality is free.
Crosby (1979) believes that the first step for an organization to move towards a
quality management profile is to determine its current level of management maturity.
A management maturity grid is developed based on the concept that there are five
stages in quality management maturity:
(1) uncertainty exists when management does not recognize quality as a positive
management tool;
(2) awakening exists when management starts to recognize that quality
management can help but will not commit resources to it;
(3) enlightenment begins when management learns about quality management
and becomes supportive;
(4) wisdom evolves when management participates personally in quality
activities; and
(5) certainty is established when quality management is a vital part of organizational
management.
Crosby developed a 14-point plan for quality improvement. These points were meant to
deal predominantly with implementation issues (Crosby, 1979):
(1) management commitment: determining where management stands on quality,
developing a quality policy and management visibly becoming serious about
quality;
(2) the quality improvement team;
(3) quality measurement for each activity throughout the company;
(4) the cost of quality: Crosby suggested that cost of quality is a catalyst that
brings the quality improvement team to full awareness of what is happening;
(5) quality awareness: according to Crosby this means providing the sort of
support necessary to raise the level of concern and interest in quality among all
staff in order for them to understand, acknowledge, and support the reason for
the quality programme;
(6) corrective action: Crosby suggested that there is a need to develop systematic
methods to solve problems previously exposed;
(7) ZD planning: Crosbys main points of ZD planning are:
.
explain the concept and programme to all supervisors;
.
determine what material is required;
.
determine the method and process of delivery of the ZD programme; and
.
identify the error-cause-removal programme and make plans for its execution.
(8) supervisor training: Crosby suggested this is necessary in order to ensure that
supervisors are able to carry out the tasks and responsibilities of the quality
improvement programme;
(9) ZD day: hold a ZD day to establish the new attitude;
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The TQM legacy
(10) employee goal setting should take place;
(11) error causes removal;
(12) recognition;
(13) quality councils; and
(14) do it over again: emphasizing that quality is about continuous improvement.
In the opinion of Crosby, the above-mentioned points should be used as a guide to help
in the rapid development of a programme. He also identified four absolutes of quality
management:
(1) quality is conformance to requirements;
(2) the system of quality is prevention;
(3) the measurement of quality is the price of non-conformance; and
(4) the performance standard must be ZD.
Feigenbaum
Feigenbaums career in quality started more than 40 years ago as President and Chief
Executive Officer of General Systems Co. He is widely regarded as one of the worlds
best quality control thinkers and practitioners. Feigenbaum (1961) coined the term total
quality control (TQC), which he defines as:
An effective system for integrating the quality development, quality maintenance, and
quality improvement efforts of the various groups in an organization so as to enable
marketing, engineering, production, and service at the most economical levels, which allows
for full customer satisfaction.
Feigenbaums work also emphasized employee involvement, teamwork and long-term
commitment to planning for continuous improvement. He made a major contribution
by studying quality cost and indicated that quality and cost are a sum not a difference;
they are partners not adversaries. Feigenbaum identified ten benchmarks necessary for
total quality competitive success:
(1) quality is a company-wide process;
(2) quality is what the customer says it is;
(3) quality and cost are a sum, not a difference;
(4) quality requires both individual and team work;
(5) quality is a way of managing;
(6) quality and innovation are mutually dependent;
(7) quality is an ethic;
(8) quality requires continuous improvement;
(9) quality is the most cost effective, least capital intensive route to productivity; and
(10) quality is implemented within a total system connected with customers and
suppliers (Stevens, 1994).
Ishikawa
Ishikawa was probably not known for his contributions to quality management
through statistical quality control. His development of the Ishikawa diagram (fishbone)
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and the employment of the seven tools of quality provided the capacity to use problem-
solving techniques throughout an organization. In Ishikawas own words these seven
tools were described as indispensable for quality control (Bank, 1992), and consist of:
(1) pareto analysis;
(2) fishbone diagrams;
(3) stratification;
(4) check sheets;
(5) histograms;
(6) scatter diagrams; and
(7) control charts.
With these tools, Ishikawa argues, managers and staff could tackle and solve the
quality problems facing them. According to James (1996), Ishikawa was more people
oriented than statistically oriented. He believed that everyone in the company should
be involved in quality development, not just the management who drove it, and he
remarked that, in many western organizations, grass-root workers were, and still are,
denied the opportunity to make a contribution to quality. From the experience of Japan,
he argues that the Japanese insistence on teamwork, and all staff being equal on the
basis of contributions to quality, illustrates the major gap existing between Japanese
and western management quality practices.
Ishikawa advocated TQC in Japan prior to Second World War. As a professor at the
University of Tokyo, he was one of the creators and early champions of quality circles,
and founder of the Union of JUSE.
Ishikawas philosophy for quality management is company-wide quality, which
involves both vertical and horizontal co-operation. Vertical co-operation occurs
between managers, supervisors, and the workers, while horizontal co-operation means
looking beyond the internal organization, caring about end customers through
customer service and the quality that suppliers offer.
According to Ishikawa, TQC embraces five strategic goals:
(1) quality must be sought before profits;
(2) the infinite human potential occurs when inspection is no longer necessary;
(3) a long-term consumer orientation must be fostered within and outside the
organization;
(4) facts and statistical data must be used to communicate throughout the
organization, and measurement must be used as motivation; and
(5) a company-wide TQC/M system should be developed with the focus of all
employees on quality implications of every decision and action (Brocka and
Brocka, 1992).
Key elements of Ishikawas quality philosophy are as follows:
.
quality begins and ends with education;
.
the first step in quality is to know the requirements of customers;
.
the ideal state of quality control occurs when inspection is no longer necessary;
.
remove the root cause, not the symptoms;
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.
quality control is the responsibility of all workers and all divisions;
.
do not confuse the means with the objectives;
.
put quality first and set your sights on long-term profits;
.
markets are the entrance and exit of quality;
.
top management must not show anger when facts are presented by subordinates;
.
of problems in a company, 95 per cent can be solved with simple tools for
analysis and problem solving; and
.
data without dispersion information (i.e. variability) is false data (Evans and
Lindsay, 2001).
Conway
Bill Conway is referred to as the Deming disciple (Zairi, 1991). In Conways approach,
quality management equates with management of all stages of development,
manufacturing, purchasing, and distribution. Conway (1991) emphasizes consideration
of economic viability, improvement in activities to reduce material waste and time wastage.
Problems of failure in quality management often point to managements lack of
conviction and commitment. In Conways system, TQM combines consistency,
pervasive application of a statistical approach and tools with a new way of
management thinking. His system incorporates six guidelines or quality improvement
tools (Zairi, 1992a, b, c):
(1) human relation skills: management responsibility to create a working climate
built on trust, mutual respect and common goals;
(2) statistical surveys: use the power of surveys to identify areas for improvement
and to be better informed about various development;
(3) simple statistical techniques: use simple charts and diagrams to highlight
problems, analyse them and propose various solutions;
(4) SPC: minimize variations within various processes using control charts;
(5) imagineering: problem-solving techniques using problem visualization with
the view of identifying ways for waste elimination; and
(6) industrial engineering: the use of various techniques to redesign work,
methods and plant layout for the purpose of achieving great improvements.
Taguchi
Taguchi was awarded the Deming prize in 1960 in recognition of his techniques
involving industrial optimization. From 1978 to 1982 Taguchi acted as director of the
Japanese Academy of Quality. Taguchi notably developed methods for on-line and off-
line quality control. These methods comprise the basis of Taguchis TQC assurance
approach. For his contribution to Japanese industrial standards, Taguchi received
MITIs Purple Ribbon Award from the Emperor of Japan.
Taguchis employment of statistics primarily focused on their use by designers and
engineers to optimise the settings so that products are robust (Zairi, 1991). In the
early stages of product development, these approaches act as trouble-shooting/
problem-solving tools. Control variables, dealt with by SPC, and noise variables, are
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identified through Taguchis methods. If left unaccounted these factors may affect
product manufacture and performance.
Taguchi defined quality from a social perspective: The loss imparted by the
product to the society from the time the product is shipped (Zairi, 1991). Loss may
include customer complaints, damage to companys reputation, market lead loss, and
added warranty expense. Taguchis argument concerning the loss function is that loss
is not initiated until the product is out of specification. More critically, loss is initiated
when deviation from target value exists. The QLF concept allows management
awareness of deviation at the early stages of product development. Cost estimates are
also provided. Taguchis guidelines for quality improvement are (Zairi, 1991, p. 30):
.
quality losses result from product failure after sale; product robustness is more
a function of product design than on-line control, however, stringent, the
manufacturing processes;
.
robust products deliver a strong signal regardless of external noise and with
a minimum of internal noise;
.
any strengthening of a design, that is, any market increase in the signal-to-noise
ratios of component parts, will simultaneously improve the robustness of the
product as a whole;
.
to set targets of maximum signal-to-noise ratios develop a system of trials that
allows you to analyse change in overall system performance;
.
to build robust products, set ideal target values for components and then
minimize the average of the square of deviations for combined components
averaged over the various customer-user conditions;
.
before products go on to manufacturing, tolerances are set;
.
virtually nothing is gained in shipping a product that just barely satisfies the
organization standard over a product that just fails. Get on target; do not just try
to stay in specification;
.
work relentlessly to achieve designs that can be produced consistently;
.
a concerted effort to reduce product failure in the field will simultaneously
reduce the number of defectives in the factory; and
.
strive to reduce variances in the components of the product and variances will be
reduced in the production system as a whole.
Shingo
Shingo pioneered the area of zero quality control (ZQC). He established that ZQC does
not significantly raise production costs in any important way. Shingo has consistently
promulgated his concepts that both statistical quality control and typical inspection
processes should be totally eliminated. His basic idea is that control must occur at
the problems source, not after the problem emerges. Incorporation of inspection is used
in the process where the problem is identified. At that point the problem is eliminated.
Statistical quality control (SQC) focuses on effects, not the cause, of process
imperfection, and abnormalities. SQC concentrates on errors related to operators.
Human error is completely eliminated with checklists for each operation. This
checklist process is termed Poka Yoke, this is similar to automation or Vikhoda in
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which operators stop automatically when operations are complete or mistakes occur.
Shingos guidelines are (Zairi, 1991, p. 31):
.
Control upstream, close to the source of problem by, for example, incorporating
devices to warn on defects in materials or abnormalities within the process.
.
Establish control mechanisms to deal with different problems to enable
operators to know which problem to cure and how to cure it with minimal
disruption to the operating system.
.
Take a step-by-step approach by taking small strides, simplifying control
systems, and having economic viability in mind. Efficiency, technological
sophistication, available skills, work methods have all got to be carefully studied
for effective usage of Poka Yoke.
.
Do not delay improvements by over-analysing: although many manufacturers
main objective is to achieve closeness between design manufacturability, many
Poka Yoke can be implemented as soon as the problems have been identified with
no cost to the companies concerned. Poka Yoke encourages interdepartmental
co-operation and is a main vehicle for continuous improvement because it
encourages continuous problem-solving activity.
Ouchi
Ouchis famous contribution to management is Theory Z. Ouchi has examined overall
Japanese management philosophy in terms of its effect on business in the USA. He
concluded that Japanese success was built on a commitment to quality and a participative
management style. US business is burdened with great inefficiencies acute specialization
is the problem. Ouchis plan for improvement is simply implementation of his analysis of
the Japanese system (Zairi, 1991). The basis of Theory Z is (Zairi, 1991, p. 32):
.
understand the Type Z organization and your role;
.
audit your companys philosophy;
.
define the desired management philosophy and involve the company leader;
.
implement the philosophy by creating both structures and incentives;
.
develop interpersonal skills;
.
test yourself on the system;
.
involve the union;
.
stabilize employment avoid layoffs and share the misfortune;
.
decide on a system for slow evaluation and promotion;
.
broaden career path development;
.
prepare for implementation at the lowest level;
.
seek out areas of implement participation; and
.
permit the development of relationships (e.g. promote good communication).
TQM contributions to theory
To determine whether quality management has made an effective contribution to
theory building, one has to go back to some of the fundamentals, and refer to some of
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the key references where eminent authors and researchers constantly have attempted
to argue the merits and demerits of TQM contribution and the evaluation of its
soundness as a concept, philosophy and a new management discipline. As we have
stated in a paper published in the TQM journal, (Dale et al., 2001) we argued that:
Theory is important to researchers as it provides the guidance and framework to analyze
problems, helping them to focus on key issues when undertaking a piece of research. It also
helps to explain relationships between variables and provides the basis for answering
questions and understanding issues which arise in research.
In a special issue of The Academy of Management Review on TQM the editor,
Dr Klimoski (1994) has argued that although TQMhas been around for quite some time it
has, however, been given little attention by research teams in top universities. On
closer analysis, however, it appears that there is a consensus from different researchers
on TQM in terms of its soundness, its value, and its contribution to management
theory. On the whole, most researchers conclude that TQM is a sound concept and it
has enabled organizations to address some of the competitive issues. It was also found
to have an impact on raising performance and improving work flow in organizations.
Similarly there is a consensus on TQM informing other management theories about
succinct issues and also TQM itself being influenced by existing management theories.
Reed and Lemak (1996) present a very clear description of TQM. They state that:
TQM is not a quick fix or a golden egg solution.
TQM is a business level strategy with components of process and content that both
demand attention. Further, Spencer Barbara (1994) states that TQM is conceptualized,
not as a new paradigm, but as a comprehensive management practice that captures
signals from established models of organization and amplifies them by providing a
methodology for use. The real issue it appears, as Spencer Barbara (1994) states is that
TQM origins lie mainly outside the academic world, it has therefore little connection to
management theory and these connections are yet to be made explicit.
Whilst the arguments about the merits of TQM as a pioneering concept that has
emerged and been significant in most of the twentieth century may continue, it is useful,
however, to go back to basics and revisit certain aspects of theory building, theory
testing, theory management. First of all in relation to understanding TQM as a concept,
it seems that in most cases academicians particularly look at TQM in very simplistic
terms. They argue that the issue of causality has to be transparently established and if it
is to be given any due credibility it has therefore got to demonstrate through empirical
testing that it can impact on organizational performance and that its workability is
therefore no longer an issue. Furthermore, contributions to theory building should also
be accepted as a spectrum of strategies, some are to look at causality of a concept, some
are to look at the credibility and the soundness of the concept itself, some have to look at
the relevance of certain concepts and some have to look at the value rendered through a
newly developed and introduced concept.
There are of course difficulties associated with proving irrefutable evidence on the
soundness of TQM. For instance by explaining how TQM makes tangible contribution
and assessing the value it renders to improvement that takes place in organizations
and the support it provides in raising performance standards and sustaining
competitive advantage. Since TQM feeds from existing management theories, on the
whole it is very difficult to look at the concept from the point of view of originality
rather than the sound logical approach that needs to be adopted. Rather, there is more
merit in looking at synergy, interconnectedness and the integration and the workings
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of various management theories presented together and enhanced by new thinking and
new ideas. TQM feeds from theories of management linked to strategy, financial
management, human resource management, to operations management, customer focus
and marketing, and to other disciplines particularly in most recent years in the areas of
information technology, information management and the development of socio
technical work environments. This complexity therefore makes the issue of investigating
causality and contributions much more difficult because there are hundreds of variables
that are working together all the time to create the synergy and to support the
performance of organizations and the implementation of new ideas and thinking, for the
purpose of raising competitive standards.
In general, it has to be accepted that TQM is a set of integrated management
concepts, a bundle of theories and innovations and an amalgamation of management
thinking and tools and techniques that work in harmony for the purpose of supporting
organizational excellence and their drive for achieving sustainable performance. To
answer the question therefore, What has been the main contribution of Total Quality
Management to the development of theory, this compilation attempts to present some
facts to describe some of the initiatives and to argue and discuss some of the key
findings, and to present some of the new ideas, new models, new tools and techniques
that have evolved from investigating the workings of TQM in hundreds of organizations
and in various parts of the world.
Specific examples of contributions to theory
This paper includes various ideas and thoughts on TQM philosophies and principles
going back nearly a century. The solid teachings coming from the various gurus have,
over the years, provided the opportunity to scrutinize the viability of TQM and how it
really works in practice. Some of the ideas researched over the years, looked at the
implementation aspects of TQM in different organizational contexts and also in
different cultures. The understanding, therefore of the drivers of TQM implementation
and the factors that inhibit its workings and particularly understanding the subtle
differences between cultures is to be considered as a major contribution to bringing
enlightenment in so far as introducing new innovations is concerned, but also in
supporting the practicality of the existing management theories and blended theories,
enriched by the addition of TQM thinking.
There is also important work that has been done to isolate key factors of success
that enable the implementation of TQM and which really provide the fundamentals of
the TQM thinking and its implementation. The compilation of several studies which,
through empirical means have attempted to verify the soundness of certain factors that
have been collected from the existing literature and incorporated through observations
and scrutinizing the experience of many organizations that have been successful in the
introduction of TQM.
One useful link that has been comprehensively studied is the relationship
between TQM and performance measurement, TQM and business excellence. This is
important since TQM, although very often presented as a concept that deals with
long term issues, nonetheless by relaying its workings to various aspects of
performance measurement and performance enhancement and the drive for
excellence, this adds credibility to the concept and particularly supports the
implementation effort in organizations where sceptical leaders and executives who
may question the soundness and who probably may not have sufficient patience to
focus on long term issues.
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There is no blurred thinking that still exists in some of the management schools of
thought and particularly this will help convince the cynics who still regard TQM as a
fad, as a lightweight concept and as a topic that has had very little impact on theory
development. The case is made for TQM to be easily implementable in any cultural
context. Various empirical studies have consistently come to the same conclusion, that
it is the focus on a list of critical factors of the success that generate success in
implementation rather than focusing on unique and peculiar, cultural aspect that will
dictate the outcomes of TQM implementation effort. These critical factors have been
verified in different cultural contexts and they are therefore now produced as a generic
list of items that senior management must adhere to when contemplating the
introduction of quality initiatives. Another contribution to TQM thinking is the ability
of the concept to create a seamless, integrated value chain that focuses on customers
and creates customer orientation.
Lastly, in terms of causality, TQM through various empirical studies, has
demonstrated that it impacts positively on enhancing competitive performance of
those organizations that have embraced the concepts fully, and can assist in the
delivery of sustainable performance and the creation of competitive advantage.
Conclusion
In summary, TQM, it can be argued, has made a significant contributions to the
development theory enhancement and to demonstrating how various management
theories can be blended together and be put to work in harmony for the benefit of
organization excellence. The credibility of TQM philosophy is not an issue any longer
and cannot be questioned at all since it has been demonstrated in various countries in
the world, that competitive advantages can be created and sustained by complying
through the adoption of TQM thinking. The best examples to quote are: Japan has
dominated the worlds economy for over a period of 50 years; the USA has regained its
competitive position by encouraging the adoption of TQM thinking, not just in the
private sector but also in government services and the public sector as a whole. The
proliferation of journals and publications focusing on TQM thinking, the research that
addresses challenges and opportunities that TQM offers, and the thousands of courses
at graduate and post graduate levels offered at universities throughout the world, the
establishment of quality associations and professional bodies that encourage the
development of the quality professionals at all levels, the regular events and
conferences of an international nature, bring together scholars and practitioners
together to exchange views share new thinking and debate some aspects of TQM
implementation is a testimony of how well the concept is regarded, how credible it is in
terms of its value and impact generated and how supportive it is to the development of
a new thinking also in the development of individual professionals.
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Corresponding author
Prof Mohamed Zairi can be contacted at: m.zairi@ecbpm.com
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