Radiographic Testing

Techniques
A focus on X-Ray and Gamma ray testing principles
Introduction
In general, Radiographic Testing is method of inspecting
materials for hidden flaws by using the ability of short
wavelength electromagnetic radiation (high energy
photons) to penetrate various materials.
The major distinction between X-rays and gamma rays is
the origin where X-rays are usually artificially produced
using an X-ray generator and gamma radiation is the
product of radioactive materials.
Basic principle of radiation
testing
Properties of X-Rays and Gamma
Rays
They are not detected by human senses (cannot be seen,
heard, felt, etc.).
They travel in straight lines at the speed of light.
Their paths cannot be changed by electrical or magnetic fields.
They can be diffracted, refracted to a small degree at
interfaces between two different materials, and in some cases
be reflected.
They pass through matter until they have a chance to
encounter with an atomic particle.
Their degree of penetration depends on their energy and the
matter they are travelling through.
They have enough energy to ionize matter and can damage or
destroy living cells.

Advantages of Radiation testing
techniques
Both surface and internal discontinuities can be detected.
Significant variations in composition can be detected.
It has a very few material limitations.
Can be used for inspecting hidden areas (direct access to
surface is not required)
Very minimal or no part preparation is required.
Permanent test record is obtained.
Good portability especially for gamma-ray sources.

Disadvantages of exposure to
radiation
Hazardous to operators and other nearby personnel.
High degree of skill and experience is required for exposure
and interpretation.
The equipment is relatively expensive (especially for x-ray
sources).
The process is generally slow.
Highly directional (sensitive to flaw orientation).
Depth of discontinuity is not indicated.
It requires a two-sided access to the component.

X- Ray Non Destructive testing
Radon mathematically showed that it is possible to calculate
the density distribution of an object from its x-ray projection.
Based on this principle, 2D-tomography was developed and
currently used for NDT testing of equipments.
2D-tomography reconstructs the attenuation values of single
planes inside the object.
PFD of a typical X-Ray RT setup
2-D Tomography
A large electrical potential is created between the cathode
and the anode by the high-voltage generator. Electrons that
break free of the cathode are strongly attracted to the anode
target. The stream of electrons between the cathode and the
anode is the tube current.
A focusing cup is used to concentrate the stream of electrons
to a small area of the target called the focal spot
In addition, X-ray generators usually have a filter along the
beam path (placed at or near the x-ray port). Filters consist of
a thin sheet of material (often high atomic number materials
such as lead, copper, or brass) placed in the useful beam to
modify the spatial distribution of the beam
Tomographic films
construction
X-ray films for general radiography basically consist of an
emulsion-gelatin containing radiation-sensitive silver halide
crystals.
The emulsion is usually coated on both sides of a flexible,
transparent, blue-tinted base in layers about 0.012 mm thick.
Additionally, the film is placed between two sheets of
intensifying material, which enhance the radiation emitted.
This material in sheet form is called an intensifying screen or
simply a screen.
By intensifying the radiation, exposure time can be reduced.

Extracting image from the film
When X-rays, gamma rays or light rays strike the crystals or
grains, some of the Br- ions are liberated leaving the Ag+ ions.
In this condition, the radiograph is said to contain a latent
(hidden) image because the change in the grains is virtually
undetectable, but the exposed grains are now more sensitive
to reaction with the developer.
The image is developed from the film in a similar way to how a
photographic image is developed from a negative.
A Sample of 2-D Computed
Tomography(CT)
Tomogram of a plate of carbon fibre reinforced
plastic after impact damage
3-D Tomography
In 3D x-ray-computed tomography (3D-CT), not only one plane
but also the volume of an object is reconstructed using the 2-
dimensional (2D) radiographic projections of the object.
For 3D-CT, typically cone beam geometry is used.
The object is rotated in a x-ray cone beam produced by a x-ray
tube to generate the 3D tomogram.
A sample of 3-D CT
A 3-D Image of a battery cell constructed by 3-D CT.
Gamma Ray Testing
Manmade radioactive sources are produced by introducing an
extra neutron to atoms of the source material.
Two of the most common industrial gamma-ray sources for
industrial radiography are Iridium-192 and Cobalt-60.
Because the radiation emitted by a gamma-ray source cannot
be varied in quality there is a limited range of material
thickness for which each source can produce satisfactory
radiographs
Gamma Ray Testing
Thickness ranges in steel for which gamma-ray sources will produce
satisfactory results
Source Thickness(approx.), mm
Iridium 192 10-75
Cobalt-60 50-150
Caesium-137 25-100
Caesium-134 35-100
Thulium-170 5-10
Ytterbium-169 2-10
Selenium-75 4-35
Process of Testing
The beam of radiation must be directed to the middle of the
section under examination and must be normal to the
material surface at that point
The length of weld under examination for each exposure shall
be such that the thickness of the material at the diagnostic
extremities, measured in the direction of the incident beam,
does not exceed the actual thickness at that point by more
than 6%.

Gamma Ray Testing
The specimen to be inspected is placed
between the source of radiation and the
detecting device and the radiation is allowed
to penetrate the part for the required length
of time to be adequately recorded.
The radiograph is examined as a negative
because, in printing, some of the detail is
always lost and no useful purpose is served.

Applications of Radiographic
testing in Equipment Design
The basic purpose of radiographic inspection is to obtain
information about abnormalities in the specimen.
These abnormalities may be flaws in metal (e.g. cracks,
inclusions), errors in assembly, wrongly-positioned
components or dimensional errors, and may or may not be
significant.

Radiographs
Following is required to understand a radiograph:
A sound basic knowledge of all aspects of the specimen being
examined and the types of defects likely to arise in it.
A knowledge of the basic principles of the radiographic
technique used interpretation cannot be left to non-
radiographic personnel.
it is necessary to have information in advance concerning the
types of defects or other abnormalities likely to be
encountered.



Viewing a radiograph
Films should be handled with care and viewed correctly so as to
determine precisely the various defects in equipments in various
stages.
A radio graph is examined by placing it on an illuminated viewing
screen of appropriate luminance.
For the examination of small areas of film of high density, a
Photoflood bulb in a box with a restricted aperture on the front can
be used.
The radiograph may be a few centimetres from the glass of the bulb
and the film is moved slowly across the aperture




Weld Verification
Welds are commonly used to join two or more metal parts.
There is a chance that welding may fail if not created to
proper specification. For example, the base metal must reach a
certain temperature during the welding process, must cool at a
specific rate, and must be welded with compatible materials or the
joint may not be strong enough to hold the parts together, or cracks
may form in the weld causing it to fail.
Typical welding defects are lack of fusion of the weld to the base
metal, cracks or porosity inside the weld, and variations in weld
density.
Weld Verification(cont.)
Welds may be tested using NDT techniques such as industrial
radiography or industrial CT scanning using X-rays or gamma
rays, ultrasonic testing, liquid penetrant testing, magnetic particle
inspection or via eddy current.
The vast majority of radiography concerns the testing and grading
of welds on pressurized piping, pressure vessels, high-capacity
storage containers, pipelines, and some structural welds or pipe
wall (locating anomalies due to corrosion or mechanical damage).


Weld Verification(cont.)
The most widely used welding process to which
radiographic inspection is applied is the metallic-
arc fusion butt weld.
Welds form the cores of equipment design with each
weld contributing to hold up the equipment.

Weld Verification(cont.)
Using of radiography to determine defects in
welds becomes crucial for proper
maintenance of the equipment and to
compute the falling efficiency of the yield
with time.
This gives us insights to the supports/girders
that the equipment might require at some
point in the future.

Surface defects
Undercutting
Incompletely-filled groove
Dressing, chipping, grinding marks
Spatter
Excessive underbead (excessive penetration)
Shrinkage groove
Overlap: an overflow of weld metal on to the surface of the parent
Metal
Misalignment
Crater pipe: due to shrinkage at the end of a weld run.

Surface defects
Undercutting
Excessive Underbead

Internal defects
a) Blowhole: a large cavity due to entrapped gas. This term is
conventionally applied to cavities exceeding 1 mm
diameter, and such cavities are easily detected by
radiography.
b) Gas pore: a small cavity due to entrapped gas. Similarly,
this term is conventionally applied to cavities less than 1
mm diameter.
c) Porosity: a group of gas pores, often lying in strings, i.e.
linear porosity.
d) Pipe or worm hole: this is an elongated cavity, and is
frequently end-on to the X-ray beam, so that the image is
circular.
Internal defects
e) Inclusion: slag or other foreign matter trapped
during welding. These occur as isolated
inclusions, clusters of inclusions, or lines of
inclusions.
f) Incomplete root penetration
g) Lack of sidewall fusion
h) Cracks
i) Undercutting
j) Shrinkage grooves
k) Misalignment

Applications of Radiographic
testing in Equipment Design

Casting
X-raying of cast products has been used
primarily as a Quality Assurance tool to
inspect castings for various anomalies like
shrink and porosity.

Defects in Cast components
Microporosity : very small cavities occur, usually around the grain
boundaries. This defect is common in aluminium alloys.
Porosity : individual pores less than about 1 mm diameter are
present.
Sponginess : there is a system of interconnected small cavities.
Airlock : sometimes air is trapped in the casting mould by the
inflowing molten metal.
Shrinkage : cavities caused by contraction of metal. They are usually
extensive cavities and their form depends on the metal thickness
and the rate of cooling




Defects in Cast components
Cracks: These occur as hot tears or stress cracks.
Cold shut : formed when two streams of molten metal fail to unite.
Unfused chaplets: Chaplets are devices for maintaining the position
of mould cores. Sometimes does not fuse properly and sometimes
produces gas and inclusions.
Segregations : This is a condition resulting from local concentrations
of any of the constituents of an alloy. It may be general, localized or
banded


Applications of Radiographic
testing in Equipment Design

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