Introduction to Radio Astronomy

Richard Porcas

Max-Planck-Institut fuer Radioastronomie, Bonn
1 Contents


Radio Waves
Radio Emission Processes
Radio "Noise"
Radio source names and catalogues
Radio telescopes
Radio receivers - the feed
Description of noise
Receivers: amplification
Receivers: mixing and detection
Signals for Interferometry
Radio disturbances
2 Radio Waves


EM-waves in frequency range 30 MHz to 800 GHz
wavelengths 10 m - 0.4 mm; a factor 30,000
The new interferometer arrays LOFAR and ALMA will ex-
plore these two extremes





Radio frequency band designations
L band 1 to 2 GHz
S band 2 to 4 GHz
C band 4 to 8 GHz
X band 8 to 12 GHz
Ku band 12 to 18 GHz
K band 18 to 26 GHz
Ka band 26 to 40 GHz
Q band 30 to 50 GHz
U band 40 to 60 GHz
V band 50 to 75 GHz
E band 60 to 90 GHz
W band 75 to 110 GHz
F band 90 to 140 GHz
D band 110 to 170 GHz

The term P band is sometimes used for UHF frequencies below L-band.
3 Radio Emission Processes


Thermal emission; black-body spectrum
Example: the Moon
Free-free emission (Bremsstrahlung) from ionized gas

Example: HII regions
Synchrotron emission from charged relativistic particles in
magnetic field
Example: AGN jets
Spectral line emission from atoms, radicals, molecules

Example: Neutral hydrogen (HI); 1421 MHz (21 cm)
Also: spectral line absorption against background continuum
emission
Pulsar emission (probably curvature radiation)








Figure 1: Karl
Jansky
4 Radio "Noise"


Cosmic ob jects producing radio waves are called radio sources
Radio emission often referred to as radio noise
First detection of radio source by Karl Jansky in 1932-33
Measure of radio source strength is its flux density, S
(sometimes incorrectly termed "flux")
Unit of flux density = jansky (Jy) = 10
-26
WHz
-l
m
-2

Flux density calibration sources at different frequencies

Spectral index, a for continuum sources: S a
+a
steep spectrum: a < -0.5 (opt. thin synchrotron)
inverted spectrum: a > 0.0
flat spectrum: 0.0 > a > -0.5





Surface brightness of an extended source is the flux density
per unit surface area. Units often used in maps or images of
a radio source are mJyjbeam (where beam is the area of the
point source response in the map).
Physical unit is brightness temperature, T
b
: the temperature
at which a black body would give the same radio emission per
unit area
T
b
= S
2
j2kn
where S is the source flux density, is the observing wave-
length, k is Boltzmann's constant and n is the observed solid
angle of the emission.





5 Radio source names and catalogues

Radio sky dominated by very different population from optical
sky
Radio sky looks different at different frequencies because of
the wide range of frequencies (over 4 decades) and the range
of different spectral indices. At low frequencies the sky is
domininated by steep spectrum sources, mostly synchroton
emitters. At high frequencies there are more flat and inverted
spectrum sources.
Source names often from catalogues derived from flux density-
limited surveys of the radio sky at particular frequencies, es-
pecially if they are more prominent in the radio sky





Some well-known examples:
CYGNUS A - the strongest source in Cygnus
VIRGO A - but also M87
3C 273 - strong quasar from the 3rd Cambridge Catalogue
(178 MHz)
3C 84 - but also N-galaxy NGC 1275
PKS B 1413+135 - from the Parkes Catalogue (hhmm+dd.d)





6 Radio telescopes

They come in many shapes and sizes !

A single radio telescope is usually called an antenna
A collection of antennas may be operated together to form an
array (e.g. MERLIN, VLA, EVN, VLBA, ALMA....)
The most common type of antenna is the steerable parabolic
dish
(but not used for LOFAR !)








Figure 2: Karl Jansky's Antenna

















A parabolic dish antenna focuses incoming radiation at the
focus
It is pointed at the source by steering on orthogonal axes, on
either an azimuth/elevation or polar (HA, DEC) mount.
The size of the dish (diameter, D) determines both the reso-
lution and the sensitivity
Resolution is given by the diffraction limit: e A/D

so radio telescopes must be big !
Point-source response is known as the beam - its size is the
beamwidth





Sensitivity determined by the collecting area: physical area
but must have sufficient surface accuracy: A/20
Figure of merit is the telescope gain, g which quantifies the
amount of radio noise power received from a source of unit
flux density: units K/Jy. (see next section.....)
The gain is often a function of elevation, since there may be
elevation-dependent gravitational deformations of the parabolic
surface.
Example: Effelsberg 100m diameter radio telescope

wavelength
50em 6em 3mm
beam FWHM 25' 2.5' 10"
gain K/Jy 1.5 1.5 0.1





7 Radio receivers - the feed

Radio photons of energy hv are too weak to do anything use-
ful !
EM-wave electric field oscillations can induce voltage oscilla-
tions in a conductor
In a radio telescope this process happens at the antenna focus
in a device called the feed. The simplest sort of feed is a linear
dipole, which responds to E-field oscillations in a single plane.
Other feeds may respond to a circular polarization mode.
The output of a feed is a noise voltage, representing noise
power from the radio source. By comparison with the Johnson
noise from a resistor of temperature T {power = kT per unit
bandwidth), the noise power s measured in kelvins, K, and is
referred to as the antenna temperature, T
a





For the Effelsberg telescope at 5 GHz (6cm) the antenna tem-
perature from a 1 Jy source is 1.5 K. For a VLBA (25m)
antenna it is 0.14 K.
Since the E-field is a (2D) vector, and the induced voltage
is a scalar, clearly 2 feed channels are needed to completely
sample the field. This is then a dual-polarization feed.
Note that a feed responds to the radiation at a single point
in the focal plane - we are measuring the signal for a single
pixel ! Focal plane feed arrays exist, but are rare.
For azimuth/elevation ("alt/az") mounted telescopes the an-
gle of the feed with respect to the radio source changes with
HA by the parallactic angle.





8 Description of noise

The induced voltage has characteristics which mimic the prop-
erties of (one component of ) the E-field. We can describe the
noise signal voltage as the sum of sinusoidal oscillations at
all frequencies within the observing band, each with arbitrary
relative phase. We characterise this by the centre frequency,
the radio frequency or RF and the bandwidth, b. For a time
shorter than 1/b the voltage behaves like a pure single fre-
quency at RF. After a time longer than 1/b the signal phase
has changed arbitrarily (due to relative rotation across the
band of the individual component frequencies).





The antenna noise power, T
a
, averaged for a time t has noise
fluctuations T
a
/
r
(tb)
Note that this is a fundamental limit to the achievable signal-
to-noise ratio. It is equivalent to (but not the same as) photon
counting noise in other domains.

A typical bandwidth may be 100 MHz; note that at 5 GHz
this is only 2 percent of the band.





9 Receivers: amplification

The induced voltage is in general too faint to detect directly.
The voltage is amplified to achieve a detectable level. Note
that the noise power fluctuations are also amplified by the
same amount.
The amplifier adds its own noise ! This is usually much
greater than the signal noise we are trying to detect. Radio
astronomers therefore need low noise amplifiers.





For the Effelsberg telescope at 5 GHz the voltage noise after
amplification (and after other spurious sources of noise have
crept in) is equivalent to adding a further 30 K before ampli-
fication !
The average noise power is now a (T
a
+ 30) K
The fluctuations are now a (T
a
+ 30)/
r
(tb) K
The signal-to-noise ratio is degraded by a factor T
a
/(T
a
+ 30)
Further electronic stages generally do not add significantly to
the (already amplified) noise. The sum total of all the noise
contributions is referred to as the system temperature, T
sys
.
The quantity T
sys
/g is a measure of the combined sensitivity
performance of the antenna and the receiving system and is
called the system equivalent flux density or SEFD.





10 Receivers: mixing and detection

For most observing frequencies, further electronic manipula-
tion is more conveniently performed at lower frequencies. We
use heterodyne systems in which the RF signal is mixed with
a pure frequency tone, the local oscillator, LO.

The output difference frequency is called the intermediate
frequency or IF, typically centred around 150 MHz or
500 MHz.
The noise characteristics of the IF signal preserve those of the
input RF signal, but contain a phase-shift due to the phase of
the LO signal.
The IF voltage signals can be transmitted over long distances
via low-loss cables, e.g. from the focus cabin to the observing
room on the ground. From here on the processing depends
strongly on the type of observation being made.





For single dish observations one may simply wish to measure
the source average noise power. This is performed by passing
the IF signal into a square-law detector.
The output measures the mean total noise power with fluctu-
ations producing a "thermal noise error"(in Jy) given by:
SEFD/
r
(tb)
As the output is the sum of source and other contributions,
however, it is necessary to compare an on-source measurement
with an off-source measurement.
But this is not the sub ject of this school !





11 Signals for Interferometry

Leading into the next lecture....
For interferometry one wishes to cause interference between
the IF voltage signals from 2 or more antennas. This mimics in
electronics the results one would have by causing interference
between the radio waves arriving at those antennas.
The IF signals from different antennas are transported to a
correlator, using cables, waveguides (VLA), radio-links (MER-
LIN) or optical fibres.
Note that signals from a common noise source can only pro-
duce interference provided that their path difference is less
than 1ib





For very robust transmission it is necessary to digitize the
signal using samplers. These sample the signal at the Nyquist
rate (1/2b) and represent it at various levels of crudity: 1-bit,
2-bit,.....
For very long distances between the antennas (VLBI) one can
then record the signals at each antenna on magnetic tape or
disk, together with a time stamp to identify each bit. This
permits off-line replay of the signals from the various antennas
after they have been transported to the correlator. (This can
be by air, sea, truck or internet !)
Do not ask where the photons are.....





Note that for dual-polarization observations the whole am-
plification, mixing and digitization chain will be duplicated,
resulting in 2 signals (e.g LHC and RHC polarization) which
need to be correlated with their counterparts from other an-
tennas.
Sometimes the IF signal band is divided into further sub-bands
for separate digitization and correlation. These are loosely
referred to as separate "IFs" in the AIPS world.





12 Radio disturbances

radio interference: Radio source signals are extraordinarily
weak compared with most man-made signals, and cannot nor-
mally be detected when the latter are present in the band.
Radio astronomers are constrained to observe in narrow bands
more-or-less reserved for them by international agreement.





the troposphere causes:
absorption of the radio signal, increasing at higher frequencies.
corresponding thermal emission creating an unwanted addi-
tion to T
a
an extra path delay of 2 m at the zenith with spatial and
temporal variations
the ionosphere produces:
an extra (highly unpredictable) path delay proportional to A
2
a barrier for radio waves at frequencies below 10 MHz
Faraday rotation for frequencies below 1 GHz