2.

MICROIRRIGATION THEORY & PRACTICE

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Irrigation advancements within the last decade have been
astounding. Microirrigation is one of the latest innovations for
applying water and it represents a definite advancement in irrigation
technology. It can be defined as the frequent application of small
quantities of water on or below the soil surface as drops, tiny streams
or miniature sprays through emitters or applicators placed along a
water delivery lateral line. It differs from sprinkler irrigation by the
fact that only part of the soil surface is wetted. Microirrigation
encompasses a number of methods or concepts such as bubblers,
drip, trickle, mist or spray and subsurface irrigation.
2.1.1 Surface Drip Irrigai!"
The application of water to the soil surface as drops or tiny
streams through emitters with discharge rate for point source
emitters less than 8 lh for single outlet emitter and for line!source
emitters less than " lh. #ften the terms drip and trickle irrigation are
considered synonymous.
2.1.2 Su#$urface Drip Irrigai!"
The application of water below the soil surface through emitters,
with discharge rate generally in the range of $.% to " lh. This method
of water application is different from and not to be confused with the
6
method where the root &one is irrigated by water table control, herein
referred to as sub irrigation.
2.1.% Spra& Irrigai!"
The application of water by a small spray or mist to the soil
surface, water travel through the air becomes instrumental in the
distribution of water. In this category two types of equipment are in
use vi&., micro!sprayers and micro!sprinklers. Micro!sprayers and
static micro 'ets are non!rotating type with flow rates ranging from ($
to )*$ lh, whereas, micro!sprinklers are rotating type with flow rates
ranging from )$$ to +$$ lh.
2.1.' (u##)er Irrigai!"
The application of water to the surface at a small stream or
fountain where the discharge rate for point source bubbler emitters
are greater than the drip or subsurface emitters but generally less
than ((* lh. ,ince the emitter discharge rate generally e-ceeds the
infiltration rate of the soil, a small basin is usually required to contain
or control the water.
2.2 PRESENT DE*E+OPMENTS AND E,PANSION O-
MICROIRRIGATION
The first reported microirrigation e-periments began in
.ermany in )8%$, where subsurface clay pipes were used in
combination with irrigation and drainage systems /0avis, )12"3. In
the 4nited ,tates, around )1)+ 5ouse /0avis, )12"3 tried to irrigate
with perforated subsurface pipes, but he indicated that the method
7
was too e-pensive. Irrigation of plants through narrow openings in
pipes can also be traced back to green house operations in the 4nited
6ingdom in the late )1"$s /0avis, )12"3.
7urrent microirrigation technology dates back to the work of
8lass /)1%"3. 8ased on the observation that a large tree near a leaking
faucet e-hibited a more vigorous growth than other trees in the area,
he developed the first patented driptrickle irrigation system. The
availability of low cost plastic pipe for water delivery lines helped to
speed up the use of drip irrigation systems. 9rom Israel the drip
irrigation concept spread to :ustralia, ;orth :merica and ,outh :frica
by the late )1%$s and eventually throughout the world. The large
scale use of drip irrigation system started in )12$s in :ustralia,
Israel, Me-ico, ;ew <ealand, ,outh :frica and 4,: to irrigate
vegetables, orchards and its coverage was reported as *%,$$$ ha. The
microirrigated area grew slowly but steadily and it was $.") million ha
in )18), ).) million ha in )18%, ).22 million ha in )11), +.$ million
ha in ($$$, %.( million ha in ($$% and about 8.$ million ha in ($$1
/I7I0, ($$13. :t present 4nited ,tates /).*( million ha3 has the
greatest land area under microirrigation followed by ,pain /).* million
ha3 and India /)."+ million ha3.
:lthough microirrigation systems are considered the leading
water saving technologies in irrigated agriculture, their adoption is
still low. :t present, of the total world irrigated area, about (.1= /8
million ha3 is equipped with microirrigation. Most of the microirrigated
area is concentrated in >urope and the :merica. :sia has the highest
8
area under irrigation /)1+ million ha, which is %1= of the total
irrigated area3, but has very low area ).8 million ha /?).$=3 under
microirrigation. In some countries such as Israel @ Aordan, where
water availability limits crop production, microirrigation systems
irrigate about 2*= of the total irrigated area. In India it accounts for
(.+= of the total irrigated area /%(.+ million ha3. Bhile the ultimate
potential for microirrigation in India is estimated at (2 million ha.
Microirrigation, like other irrigation methods, will not fit every
agricultural crop, specific site or ob'ective. Cresently, microirrigation
has the greatest potential where /i3 water and labour are e-pensive or
scarceD /ii3 water is of marginal quality vi&., salineD /iii3 soils are sandy,
rocky or difficult to level, /iv3 steep slopes and undulated topographyD
and /v3 high value crops are produced. The principal crops under
microirrigation are commercial field crops /sugarcane, cotton, tobacco
etc3, horticultural crops fruit @ orchard crops, vegetables, flowers,
spices @ condiments, bulb @ tuber crops, plantation crops and
silvicultureforestry plantations. This method of irrigation continues
to be important in the protected agriculture vi&., greenhouses shade
nets, shallow @ walking tunnels etc., for production of vegetables @
flowers. Microirrigation is also used for landscapes, parks, highways,
commercial developments and residences.
4ndoubtedly, the area under microirrigation will continue to
increase rapidly as the amount of water available to agriculture
declines and the demands for urban and industrial use increase.
9
Microirrigation is also one of the techniques that enable growers to
overcome salinity problems that currently affect 8.$ million ha in
India. :s this area increases, so too will the use of microirrigation to
maintain crop production. In addition, because growers are looking to
reduce cost of production but at the same time improve crop quality,
the improved efficiency provided from microirrigation technology will
become increasingly important.
2.% POTENTIA+ AD*ANTAGES O- MICROIRRIGATION
Many reports have listed and summari&ed potential advantages
of microirrigation compared to sprinkler and surface irrigation
methods. >ach irrigation method has possible advantages and
limitations with respect to technical, economical and agronomic /or
crop production3 factors. 5ere, an attempt is made to discuss some of
the important benefits of microirrigation.
2.%.1 E".a"ce/ P)a" Gr!0.1 Yie)/ a"/ 2ua)i&
The soil water content in a portion of the plant root &one
remains fairly constant because irrigation water can be supplied
slowly and frequently at a predetermined rate using drip irrigation.
.enerally, the total soil water potential increases /the soil water
suction decreases3 with elimination of the wide fluctuations in the soil
water content, which typically result from conventional sprinkler and
surface irrigation methods /8resler, )1223. 4nder traditional irrigation
methods plants e-tract water from the soil from 9ield 7apacity down
towards Cermanent wilting point. 0uring this transition in the soil
10
moisture, it becomes increasingly difficult for the plant to e-tract
water and therefore the consumptive water use rate decreases. This
reduction in water use accompanied by a reduction in growth of the
plants results in reduced yields. Ideally to achieve ma-imum yields
the soil moisture level should be slightly below field capacity. The drip
irrigation system with its controlled application of water makes
possible the task of maintaining the soil moisture close to the field
capacity, thus resulting in noticeable increase in growth and yield.
The more favourable growing conditions made possible by drip
irrigation will bring the crops into maturity earlier than traditional
irrigation methods. Table (.) provides data on yield increase with drip
irrigation in different crops.
Ta#)e 2.1 3 Yie)/ i4pr!5e4e" 0i. /rip irrigai!"
Cr!p
Yie)/ 67.a8
C!"5e"i!"a) Drip
9 Yie)/
i"crea$e
8anana *2.* 82.* *(
.rapes (%." +(.* (+
,weet lime )$$.$ )*$.$ *$
Comegranate **.$ )$1.$ 18
Capaya )+." (+.* 2*
Tomato +(.$ "8.$ *$
Bater Melon (".$ "*.$ 88
#kra )*.+ )2.2 )%
7hillies ".( %.) ""
,weet Cotato ".( *.1 +1
,ugarcane )(8.$ )2$.$ ++
7otton (.+ (.1 (%
,ourceE I;7I0 /)11"3, 0rip irrigation in India, ;ew 0elhi.
/Task 9orce Feport, ($$"3
11
2.%.2 :aer C!"$er5ai!" .r!ug. i"crea$e/ #e"eficia) u$e !f
a5ai)a#)e 0aer
There is a general agreement that irrigation water requirements
can be less with drip irrigation than with conventional surface and
sprinkler irrigation methods /:l'ibury, )12"D 0avis, )12*D ,ho'i, )122D
8resler, )122D 5illel, )18$D 5owell et al., )18$3. The savings, of
course, depend on the crop, soil, environmental conditions and the
attainable on!farm irrigation efficiency /Table (.(3. Crimary reasons
given for the water savings include irrigation of a smaller portion of
the soil volume, decreased direct soil surface evaporation /0an, )12"3,
reduced water uptake by weeds due to dry surfaces between
rowstrees /Gemon, )1*%3, reduced irrigation runoff from the field /the
dry soil between rows could also store more precipitation3, prevention
of runoff from steep hills /Marsh et al., )12*3 and particularly for low!
permeability or crusted soils /6emper and ;oonan, )12$3 and
controlled deep percolation losses /Fawlins, )12+3 especially on sandy
soils /Foth, )12"3 below the crop root &one. ,prinkler irrigation is
sub'ect to water loss by wind drift, increased evaporation, or poor
application uniformity, especially with strong winds /,eginer, )1%13.
9urther the increase in yields combined with water savings results in
higher water use efficiency /B4>3 /Table (.(3.
12
Ta#)e 2.2 3 :aer $a5i"g$ & :UE 0i. /rip irrigai!" i" 5ari!u$
cr!p$
Cr!p
Yie)/
i"crea$e1
9
:aer Sa5i"g1
9
I"crea$e i"
:aer U$e
Efficie"c&1 9
8anana *( "* )2%
7hilly "* %+ (1)
.rapes (+ "8 )+%
.roundnut 1) +% )12
,weet Gime *$ %) (81
Comegranate "* "* )%2
,ugarcane ++ *% ($"
Tomato *$ +) ))1
Bater Melon 88 +% )1*
,ourceE I;7I0 /)11"3, 0rip irrigation in India, ;ew 0elhi.
Task 9orce Feport,($$".
2.%.% Re/uce/ $a)i"i& .a;ar/$ ! p)a"$
7onsiderable evidence e-ists that waters of higher salinity can
be used with drip irrigation than with other methods without greatly
reducing crop yields. Minimi&ing the salinity ha&ard to plants irrigated
by drip irrigation can be attributed toE /i3 dilution of the soil solutionHs
salt concentration, as a consequence of high frequency the irrigation
used to maintain high soil water contents in the root &one /8ernstein
and 9rancois, )12*D Fhoades et al., )12"3D /ii3 elimination of leaf
damage caused by foliar salt absorption with sprinkler irrigation
/.ornat et al., )12+D 8ernstein and 9rancois, )12*3D and /iii3
movement of salts beyond the active plant root &one /Catterson and
Bierenga, )12"D Tscheschke et al., )12"3.
13
2.%.' I4pr!5e/ feri)i;ai!" .r!ug. ferigai!"
0rip irrigation offers considerable fle-ibility in fertili&ation
/Gindsey and ;ew, )12"D Isobe, )12"3. 9requent or nearly continuous
application of plant nutrients along with the irrigation water is
feasible practice known as fertigation and appears to be beneficial for
crop production. ,everal researchers /8ester et al., )12"D ,hani, )12"D
Marsh et al., )12*3 have proposed various reasons for the increased
efficiency of fertili&ation. /i3 decreased quantity of applied fertili&er,
because fertili&er is applied only to the root &one /Table (.+3D /ii3
improved timing of fertili&ation to match plant requirements at various
growth stagesD and /iii3 improved distribution of fertili&er with
minimum leaching beyond the root &one or runoff.
Ta#)e 2.% 3 Sa5i"g$ i" feri)i;er 0i. /rip ferigai!" i" 5ari!u$
cr!p$
Cr!p
Sa5i"g i"
feri)i;er1 9
I"crea$e i"
Yie)/1 9
,ugarcane *$ "$
8anana ($ ))
#nion "$ )%
7otton +$ ($
Cotato "$ +$
Tomato "$ ++
7astor %$ +(
#kra "$ )8
8roccoli "$ )$
,ourceE I;7I0,/)11"3 0rip irrigation in India, ;ew 0elhi.
Task 9orce Feport, ($$".
14
5owever, fertili&ers must be completely soluble in water in order
to be distributed evenly through the drip system. 7hemicals of low
solubility may precipitate causing blockage of the emitters. There is
usually no problem with nitrogen and potassium compounds /Miller et
al., )12%3. Chosphorous is usually added in soluble forms as
orthophosphate, as mono ammonium polyphosphate, phosphoric acid
/Fauschkolb et al., )12%3. Microelements may be added in chelate
form.
The drip systems is well suited to the application of herbicides
and soil!borne diseases and pests, since locali&ed application only in
the wetted area results in the chemicals being more effective at lower
concentrations
2.%.< Re/uce/ !perai!" )a#!ur
Gabour and operational costs can be reduced by simultaneous
application of water, fertili&er, herbicide, insecticide, fungicide and
other additives through the drip irrigation system /0avis and ;elson,
)12$D ,ivanappan, )11"D ;arayanamoorthy, ($$)3. Gocali&ed dry and
wet patterns facilitate these simultaneous operations. 9urther drip
irrigation systems can be easily automated where labour is limited @
e-pensive using simple automation equipment such as electrical,
mechanical or battery operated time clocks that activate pumps and
solenoid valves at selected time during the day.
2.%.= Mai"ai"i"g /r& f!)iage
15
0ry foliage retards the incubation and development of many
plant pathogens. Therefore, less frequent pesticide and fungicide
application is required under drip irrigation and the chemicals are not
washed from the leaves by irrigation water. :n additional advantage of
dry foliage is the avoidance of leaf burn when irrigating with saline
water /8ernstein and 9rancois, )12*3 and the possibility of using
reclaimed sewage water without leaf and fruit contamination.
Moreover, dry foliage eliminates direct evaporation loss of water from
the canopy, although such evaporation is sometimes desirable for
microclimate modification. ,helhevet et al. /)18+3 showed a )$=
reduction in water loss due to avoidance of canopy wetting of potato
by drip compared with sprinkler irrigation.
2.' POTENTIA+ DISAD*ANTAGES O- MICROIRRIGATION
0espite observed successes, several problems have been
encountered in the mechanics of applying water with microirrigation
equipment for some soils, water qualities and environmental
conditions. ,ome of the more important possible disadvantages of
microirrigation systems as compared to other irrigation methods
include the followingE
2.'.1 E4ier c)!ggi"g
>mitter clogging is considered the most serious problem in drip
irrigation unless preventive measures are taken /8ucks et al., )1223.
7logging will adversely affect the rate and uniformity of water
application, increase maintenance costs /as it becomes necessary to
16
check, replace or reclaim clogged emitters3, and result in crop damage
and decreased yield if not detected and corrected early. Fesearchers
and equipment manufacturers have chosen to solve this problem
either by developing emitters which may require less maintenance
/,olomon, )1223 or by improving the quality of water before it reaches
the emitters /;akayama et al., )128D 8ucks et al., )1223. 5owever, all
agree that preventive maintenance /including filtration, chemical
water treatment, flushing dripper lines and field inspection3 is
probably the most effective solution to emitter clogging.
2.'.2 Mec.a"ica) /a4age
0amage to drip system is sometimes caused by man
/implements and vandalism3 or by animals /birds or mammals making
holes in the laterals while searching for water3. This damage may be
partially prevented by covering the laterals and emitters with a
shallow layer of soil, but by doing so, problems of clogging by roots
may occur and furthermore, the performance of the emitters cannot
be easily observed. Trapping, or repelling, the fauna or providing them
with an alternative source of water is sometimes effective. Mechanical
damage may also be induced by annual removal and subsequent
installation of the laterals, by tillage implements or by thermal
e-pansion and contraction, which may disconnect inline emitters.
2.'.% Ec!"!4ic )i4iai!"$
8ecause equipment requirements are numerous with
microirrigation, initial investments and annual costs may be high. The
17
actual costs will vary considerably depending on the crop, grade of
pipelines, filtration equipment, fertigation equipment and the degree
of automation desired. .enerally, the system was found to be
economically viable in commercial field crops, vegetables, flowers,
orchard @ fruit crops. Microirrigation systems are generally not
applicable to cereals and millets due to prohibitive initial system
costs.
2.'.' Operai!"a) c!"$rai"$
5igh technical skills are required for the proper design and
maintenance of drip irrigation systems. The filtration requirements are
stringent and should be designed according to fluctuations in water
quality. 7areful monitoring of the filtration system, the operating
pressures and the emitter flow rates is required. 0rip systems have a
limited buffering capacity because of the limited wetted root volume.
Therefore, any malfunction of pumping, filtration, fertili&ing or
chlorination equipment or any leak in mains or laterals can have a
disastrous consequence, if not corrected in a timely manner. This is
especially true for a subsurface system, where the emitters are buried
and any failures caused by clogging are difficult to observe and still
more difficult to repair.
2.< SYSTEM COMPONENTS
Much significant advancement has occurred in the design of
components and microirrigation systems. The basic components of a
microirrigation system can be grouped into three subsystems vi&.,
18
control head unit, water carrier system and water distribution system
besides a pumping station /9ig. (.)3.
-ig. 2.1 3 +a&!u !f /rip $&$e4
5ead control unit ;on return valve, :ir release valve, Iacuum
breaker, 9iltration unit, 9ertigation unit, Throttle valve,
Cressure gauge, Bater meter, Cressure regulator and Cressure
relief valve.
Bater carrier system CI7 main pipeline, CI7 submain
pipeline, 7ontrol valve, 9lush valve and other fittings.
Bater distribution system 0rip lateral, >mitters, Micro
sprinklers, .rommet, ,tart connector, ;ipple, >nd 7ap.
The water distribution system components vary depending upon
the type of emitter device selected by the farmer to suit his soil and
crop requirement. 9or e-ample if the farmer is growing citrus or
mango at wider spacing, drip system with online emitters is
recommended. #n the other hand if he is growing vegetable or field
19
crop like sugarcane or cotton crop with narrow spacing, integral
dripline with line source emitters would be appropriate. In fruit crops
with more than )$ years age spray irrigation vi&., either micro
sprinkler or micro 'ets may be advisable in view of adaptability
problems with drip irrigation.
2.<.1 E4ier$
Many different emitters have been devised and manufactured
within the last decade. ,ome of the more distinctive designs are the
short!path, long!path, short!orifice, vorte-, pressure!compensating,
self!flushing, perforated single and double ! chamber tubing, as well
as porous tubing emitters /,olomon, )1223. These designs can be
classified into two types, point source and line source. Coint source
systems discharge water from individual or multiple outlets that are
spaced at least ) m apart. Gine source systems have perforations,
holes, or porous walls in the irrigation tubing that discharge water at
close spacings, or even continuously along a lateral line /6eller and
6armeli, )12*3. Typically, point!source emitters are used for tree
crops, vines, ornamentals and shrubs, whereas line!source emitters
are used for small fruits, vegetables, or other closely spaced row
crops. 8etter materials and manufacturing have improved e-trusion
and molding of point!source emitters. Multilayer bonding and laser
techniques have enhanced the reliability of line!source emitters. :
miscellaneous group of emitters /bubblers, low!head sprayers,
spitters, foggers, etc.3 can also be included, since they resemble both a
point source emitter and a small sprinkler.
20
5ydraulically, most emitter flow regimes can be
characteri&ed by the Feynolds number, Fe, defined as
Fe J vdv
Bhere v is the emitter flow velocity /msec3, d is the emitter
diameter /m3, and v is the 6inematic viscosity /m
(
sec3. 9our flow
regimes are defined asE /)3 laminar, Fe?($$$D /(3 unstable,
($$$KFeK"$$$D/+3 partially turbulent, "$$$KFeK)$,$$$D and /"3 fully
turbulent, )$,$$$ KFe.
6eller and 6armeli /)12", )12*3 and 5owell and 5iler /)12"3
have suggested that the emitter flow function can be given as
q J c5
e
Bhere q is the emitter discharge rate /litershr3, c is the emitter
discharge coefficient that depends on the choice of units, 5 is the
emitter pressure head /m3, and e is the emitter discharge e-ponent
that characteri&es the flow regime. 9or fully turbulent flow, e J $.*D for
partially turbulent flow, $.*?e?$.2D for the unstable flow regime,
$.2?e?).$D and for laminar flow eJ).$. ,hort!orifice emitters are
always fully turbulent, where as long!path or other emitters may vary
in flow characteristics.
Many manufacturers provide standard curves that show
average emitter discharge rates for different operating pressure heads
under laboratory conditions.
2.<.2 Di$ri#ui!" )i"e$ a"/ -ii"g
21
0istribution lines consist of a network of graduated pipe si&es
starting with a single, large main line followed by smaller submain
and lateral lines. The buried main and submain lines are normally of
rigid polyvinyl chloride /CI73 pipe. They can also consist of lay!flat
CI7 pipe /temporary surface lines for row crops3, asbestos!cement
pipe /main line for tree crops3, or polyethylene /C>3 plastic /temporary
surface lines for all crops3. Main and submain lines range in diameter
from " to )* cm and should have valved outlets for periodic pipeline
flushing. The submain line may also contain pressure regulators or
flow control valves, manual or automatic control valves, secondary
filters for final filtration or protection against pipeline breakage, or
additional safety devices.
Gateral lines are usually of C> plastic and range in diameter
from 8 to (* mm, with the )"!mm si&e being most common. >arly
versions of C> tubing developed cracking problems, caused by
polya-ial stress from the insertion of fittings that were larger than the
inside diameter of the lateral, andor by the thermal or chemical
environment /,hipston, )12%3. ,tress cracks also developed where
ends of C> lateral were closed off or crimped. Improved C> pipe
e-trusion techniques, the use of cross!linking methods and ultraviolet
decomposition inhibitors, the proper si&ing of barb fittings and the
development of compression fittings have eliminated most of the
problems. :lso, polybutylene is sometimes used in place of C> for
lateral lines to avoid stress cracking. 5owell and 8arinas /)18$3 have
measured the pressure losses across emitters and fittings that are
22
inserted in lateral lines and have presented head loss curves for them
in terms of equivalent lengths of pipe as a function of flow rate.
2.<.% S&$e4 c!"r!)1 :aer 4ea$ure4e" a"/ Au!4ai!"
The main control station for a trickle irrigation system consists
of a pump, a backflow prevention device, a primary filter, a pressure
regulator /or automatic or mechanical flow control valves3, pressure
gauges, a water meter and sometimes automation and chemical
in'ection equipment. ,ome of these components will be discussed in
greater detail later in this chapter. The importance of installing a
water measurement device on every trickle system has been too often
overlooked. : water meter is needed to check initial designs, to
manage or schedule irrigations and to monitor possible maintenance
problems. 9requent measurement of the flow rate to various sections
of the field facilitates detection of problems before they become
serious. 9or e-ample, a gradual decrease in flow rate may indicate a
clogged secondary filter or emitter, whereas a sudden increase in flow
could suggest a break in the distribution lines. 8ecause discharge
rates for trickle emitters are normally low, smaller capacity and less
costly water meters can be used for trickle than for other traditional
irrigation methods.
Trickle systems are readily automated. ,ingle and multistation
timers or controllers and related solenoid valves are easily installed to
eliminate the work of turning water on or off manually. 9ilter back
washing /Bilson, )12(3 and lateral line flushing /,hearer, )1223 for
23
system maintenance can also be automated. ,oil moisture sensors
/:ustin and Fawlins, )122D ;ew and Foberts, )12+3 can be used to
activate control systems. ,ophisticated switching tensiometers were
tested by Bendt et al. /)12+3. Chene et al. /)12+3 described the
successful use of a soil matric potential /heat!dissipation3 sensor to
automate trickle irrigation systems. Can evaporation measurements
/8usman and 9angmeier, )121D Chene and 7ampbell, )12*3 have also
been used with trickle irrigation systems. Mears et al. /)1213
developed a microprocessor based controller for automatic trickle
irrigation. 9uture trickle irrigation systems will probably use
microprocessors that monitor not only soil moisture, but also
hydraulic pressure, flow rate, chemical in'ection rate and weather
data.
2.= SYSTEM DESIGN AND E*A+UATION
8efore any system is installed, the hydraulic design should be
adequately evaluated and the emission uniformity continually
evaluated for assuring ma-imum economical and efficient operation.
2.=.1 H&/rau)ic$
The flow regime throughout a trickle irrigation system is
hydraulically steady, spatially varied pipe flow with lateral outflows.
The total discharge in the distribution network /Gateral, sub main and
main lines3 decreases with respect to distance from the pump. The
lateral and submain have similar hydraulic characteristics and are
designed to maintain a small pressure variation along the lateral line.
24
The main line is designed in terms of input pressures and minimal
required pressures at any submain line. Trickle design principles are
similar to those developed for sprinkler irrigation systems e-cept that
the flow rates are lower and the number of outlets /sub
mains, laterals and emitters3 is larger.
Trickle irrigation distribution lines are normally considered to
be smooth pipes, and either the 0arcy Beisbach or 5a&en Billiams
equation can be used to compute friction losses for the pipelines.
The 0arcy Beisbach equation is
5
f
J %.+8fLD
!*
Q
(

Bhere 5
f
is the pipe friction loss /m3, G is the pipe length /m3, 0 is the
inside pipe diameter /mm3, L is the pipe flow rate /litershr3, and f is a
dimensionless friction factor. :n acceleration of gravity of 1.8) msec
(
was assumed in this equation. Batters and 6eller /)1283 proposed a
simplified form of 5
f
J %.+8fLD
!*
Q
(
5
f
J $."%*LD
!".2*
Q
).2*
>quation 5
f
J $."%*G0
!".2*
L
).2*
incorporates a friction factor estimated
from the 8lasius equation for smooth pipes with a water temperature
of ($
$
7 /vJ).$M)$
!%
m
(
sec3.
The empirically developed 5a&en Billiams equation is
5
f
J $.%(8 LD
!".8%*
N/)$$Q3/CO
).8*(
Bhere 7 is a dimensionless pipe roughness factor. >quation 5
f
J
$.%(8 LD
!".8%*
N/)$$Q3/CO
).8*(
is widely used because of its simplicity,
although it has no correction for viscosity. 7are should be taken in
25
selecting the 7 values. 5ughes and Aeppson /)1283 showed that the
selection of the proper 7 for 5
f
J $.%(8 LD
!".8%*
N/)$$Q3/CO
).8*(
obviously
depends on the Feynolds number FeD and 5owell et al. /)18$3
suggested that the best 7 values for trickle irrigation systems were 7 J
)+$ for )"!)* mm pipe, 7 J )"$ for )8!)1 mm pipe, and 7 J )*$ for
(*!(2!mm pipe. : low estimate of 7 will overestimate the friction loss,
whereas a high estimate will result in more conservative friction loss
for design purposes.
Cressure variations along a trickle irrigation line are primarily
due to friction and slope. ;umerous publications and books describe
the basic principles, procedures and details for proper si&ing of trickle
irrigation pipelines /8aars, )12%D 6eller and 6armeli, )12*D 5owell et
al., )18$D Bu et al., )1213 present design charts for lateral, submain
and main lines for different field slopes, shapes and pipe si&es along
with design e-amples. ,ome of the more recent developments in
trickle irrigation hydraulics are as followsD 8resler /)1283 introduced a
design procedure using both soil water flow models and hydraulicsD
6eller and 6armeli /)12"3 developed a compact PpolyplotQ design
technique for tapered submainsD 8raud and ,oom /)18)3 introduced
design equations including both emitter and pipeline hydraulicsD and
Bu and .itlin /)18)3 developed double inlet and inflow outflow
systems using network design principles.
,teady and nonsteady infiltration models /8resler, )1283 were
used to calculate the desired spacing between emitters as a function
of their discharge, soil hydraulic properties and crop sensitivity to
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water stress. Ideally, trickle irrigation systems should be designed
with emitter spacings and discharge rates such that small depression
ponds of less than $.( m in diameter will develop beneath or around
an emitter without runoff or down slope channeli&ation.
Iarying the si&e of submain lines gives the designer an
opportunity to reduce costs, investigate alternate designs and develop
site!specific designs /6eller and 6armeli, )12"3. 0esign equations in a
form that include emitter characteristics /emitter e-ponent, emitter
variability, etc.3 as well as lateral line hydraulics /length, diameter,
land slope, etc.3 are being developed for analysis by programmable
digital calculators /8raud and ,oom, )18)3. Multiple!inlet systems
can be designed with a combination of double!inlet /inflow from both
ends of a lateral line from two submains3 and inflow outflow /inflow
from a submain to a lateral line with out flow to the ne-t submain
line3 in a total network design /Bu and .itlin, )18)3. This type of
design can permit any length of lateral in varying field shapes and
terrain. :s a general recommendation, lateral lines should seldom be
more than +$$ m long and should be laid down slope for less than *=
slopes. If the slope e-ceeds *=, laterals should be installed along the
field contour, pressure compensating emitters specified, or pressure
control devices installed.
4niformity of water application along lateral lines can also be
improved by changing emitter si&es /Myers and 8ucks, )12(3. The
fi-ed emitter characteristics are normally adequate from a hydraulic
standpoint for level terrain.
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2.=.2 E4i$$i!" U"if!r4i&
,everal methods have been proposed for assessing the
uniformity of water application in irrigation systems. The term
emission uniformity has generally been used to describe the emitter
flow variation for a trickle irrigation unit or subunit. >mission
uniformity can be a function ofE /)3 hydraulic variation caused by
evaluation changes and friction losses along distribution lines and /(3
emitter discharge variation at a given operating pressure caused by
manufacturing variability, clogging water temperature changes, and
aging. Cresently, no design equation has been developed that includes
all the factors which might affect emission uniformity.
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