Chapter 4

Steering Systems
A steering system is designed to enable the driver to control the traveled path of a vehicle. The steering
system must give the operator some form of which would allow him/her to feel about the load condition
that the tires of the vehicle experiences. This feedback is very important for the driver to easily control the
direction [SH:PhD:REF05].
4.1 Axle-Beam Steering System
This steering system consists of a steering wheel, which imparts motion to the steering-box. This conveys the
steering eort through the drop-arm and drag-link directly to one of the two stub-axles pivoting at the ends
of the axle-beam. A track-rod joins both the stub-axles together. Figure 4-1 shows the axle-beam steering
layout in three-dimensional view, so that each component and its relative position within the system may
be easily studied. The steering box provides a gear reduction so that, with only a small eort, a much larger
force can be applied to the steering linkage. At the same time, the degree of stub-axle movement will be
reduced for a given angular movement of the steering wheel. This is desirable as it prevents the steering being
oversensitive to the drivers touch on the wheel. With the rigid-beam suspension, a stub-axle is pivoted at
each end of the axle-beam so that relative movement can take place only in the horizontal plane. Therefore,
the eective track-rod length is not inuenced by any vertical suspension deection [SH:PhD:REF05].
4.2 Independent Suspension Steering Systems
Independent suspension steering has to cope with each stub-axle moving up or down independent of the
other so that the distance between track-rod-arm and ball-joint center is continually varying. If, therefore,
a single track-rod jointed the two stub-axles together, the slightest bump or rebound would tend to pull
both stub-axle arms at once and would thus interfere with steering-track toe-in or toe-out. The diculty of
the changing distance between track-rod-arm and ball-joint center portion of the track-rod may either be a
relay-rod suspended between the steering-box drop-arm and an idler arm xed to the body structure Figure
4-2, or it may form the track shaft of a rack-and-pinion steering-box Figure 4-3. In either case, this part has
freedom to move in the horizontal plane but is restrained from moving in the vertical plane. The two outer
connection rods, commonly known as tie-rods, provide movement in the vertical plane. The tie-rods swing
about the ball-joints situated at the end of the middle track-rod member and describe arcs of radius nearly
the same as those of the transverse wishbone members.
The most popular steering system used for small and medium size cars is the rack and pinion layout
Figure 4-3. This type of steering has a rack and pinion housing bolted along the body cross member. The
driver steering wheel angular movement is converted to a linear movement by mean of the pinion and rack
teeth meshing together. Each end of the rack shaft is attached to the tie-rod by means of ball and socket
joint. The outer tie rod ends also have ball joints, which are bolted to the stub axle track rod arm. The rack
shaft supplies the transverse steering thrust, with the tie rod ball joints allowing pivoting in two planes, that
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Steering-column drive shaft
Steering box
Drop arm
Drag link
Axle beam
Spring seat
King pin
Stub axle
Track rod arm
Track rod end joint
Track rod
Drag link ball joints
Drag link arm
Forward
direction
Steering wheel
Figure 4-1: Axle Beam Steering System
is, suspension in the vertical deection and in the horizontal steering direction. In the steering systems shown
in Figure 4-1, Figure 4-2 and Figure 4-3, the connection between the steering wheel and the steering linkage
is pure mechanical connection. There is no any hydraulic or electric power assist in the steering process.
A rack and pinion or a gearbox is used to reduce the driver steering eort. However, this multiplication
is achieved at the expense of having to multiply the distance the input eort has to move (steering wheel
rotation) to bring about the desired angular rotation to the steering road wheels about their swivel pins.
Due to this issue, these types of steering systems are limited to small steering applications.
4.3 Power Assisted Steering (PAS) System
To reduce the physical steering eort the driver has to apply to the steering wheel, a steering gear box
ratio is used so that for a given input force on the steering wheel the output torque is amplied in rotating
the steering stub axle. However, this multiplication of output torque is achieved at the expense of having
to multiply the distance the input eort has to move (steering wheel rotation) to bring about the desired
angular rotation to the steering road wheels about their swivel pins. Power assisted steering is designed to
reduce the eort the driver has to exert on the steering wheel and to reduce the steering wheel movement
for a given swivel pin angular turn, that is, to make the input (steering wheel movement) to output (swivel
pin movement) more direct.
The power assistance relieves the driver of a large amount of physical exertion when steering, particularly
if the vehicle is large and carries heavy loads, yet there must be sucient resistance for the driver to overcome
when moving the steering wheel so that he or she feels that they are exerting an input force corresponding to
the changing road conditions and vehicle load. The driver is therefore able to experience or sense operating
conditions and drives accordingly. Thus a small car may only receive 25% input assistance so that 75% of
the eort needed to steer the car is provided by the driver, whereas a large truck carrying a full load may
require up to 90% assistance, that is, only 10% input eort is supplied by the driver. The integral power
assisted steering gearbox can be used for rigid front axle suspension commonly used on vans and commercial
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Figure 4-2: Independent Suspension Steering System: Split track rod with relay rod and idler steering linkage
layout
Steering wheel
Steering column
Upper universal joint
Steering link shaft
Lower universal jointl
Pinion shaft
Rack and pinion housing
Rack
Tie rod
Tie rod arm
Wishbone arm
Swivel pin
Stub axle
Figure 4-3: Independent Suspension Steering System: Rack and pinion steering linkage layout
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Figure 4-4: Power Assist Steering: Integrated steering box and power assisted steering utilized with rigid
axle front suspension.
vehicles Figure 4-4, and can also be utilized in conjunction with independent front suspension layouts on
large cars and vans Figure 4-5.
Power assist steering systems requires external hydraulic power which is supplied by the steering pump.
The combined reaction control-valve and steering box uses this hydraulic power and acts as an amplier
between driver command and actuation power to the steering mechanism. The rack and pinion steering
gear and the reaction control valve are all combined and share a common housing. A reaction valve which
controls the charging and discharging is a spool type valve. With no steering eort, the reaction control
valve will take up a central position determined by the centering springs. Under this conditions uid from
the hydraulic pump is free to ow back to the reservoir tank.
Rotating the steering wheel anticlockwise immediately pushes the reaction control valve to the right hand
side. This causes uid pressure to act on the right hand end of the rack piston. This uid pressure assist the
manual eort applied by the driver on the steering wheel to rotate the drop-arm in a clockwise direction.
The greater the eort applied to the steering wheel by the driver to turn the steering, the greater will be
the steering force acting on the drop-arm. Thus it can be seen that the power assistance provided matches
the input eort applied by the driver, so that the assistant is progressive and the driver feels that he or she
is in control at all time.
Most power assist steering systems use an engine-driven hydraulic pump. Power steering hydraulic pumps
are usually belt driven from the front crankshaft pulley of the engine. Some power steering pumps are of the
slipper or roller design instead of the vane type. When the engine starts, the drive belt rotates the power
steering pump pulley and the rotor assembly inside the power steering pump.
4.4 Electro-Hydraulic Power Assist Steering (EHPAS) System
In a conventional power assist steering systems shown in Figure 4-4 and Figure 4-5 the power steering pump
is driven by the engine crankshaft through a belt drive connection. There is a continuous rotation of oil
as long as the engine is running. This continuous oil rotation results in mechanical and hydraulic friction
losses. A medium sized vehicle will have a loss of approximately 0.3 to 0.4 additional liters per 100 km trav-
eled [6]. The phrase power on demand is currently associated with energy ecient electric steering, while
the phrases hydraulic Feel and hydraulic Power are associated with electro-hydraulic power steering systems.
Considering existing sensors, motor, pumps, valves, and other component technology, and having the goal
to provide the best performance at the lowest possible price, it is clear that the EHPAS system which use
the conventional hydraulic power steering component with an electrically driven and electronically controlled
power steering pump satises to a great extent the major goals. So referring to Figure 4-6 and Figure 4-7, the
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Figure 4-5: Power Assist Steering: Integral steering box and power assisted steering utilized with independent
front suspension.
Electrical
Motor
Figure 4-6: Electro-Hydraulic Power Assist: Steering System for Rigid Axle Front Suspension.
main deference between the power assist steering system and the electrical-hydraulic power assist steering
system is in the way the power steering pump is driven. Instead of being driven directly by the vehicle engine
through belt connection, it is driven by an electrical motor for example, which controls the pump upon the
steering command [7]. An electrically driven motor is used to drive the power steering pump. Movement of
the steering wheel activates the motor and hence supplies the pressurized oil for the steering process. This
power on demand criteria is the major advantage of electro-hydraulic power assist steering systems.
4.5 Electric Power Assist Steering (EPS) System
Traditional hydraulic power steering systems have provided remarkable performance for many years in terms
of handling, cost, and comfort. However, these systems have the drawback of adding drag on the engine
equal to a decrease of 5 horsepower. The hydraulic pump runs regardless of whether steering assistance
is required in fact the power cost of the pump is highest at high speed, when steering assistance is least
needed. Automotive manufacturers are moving to Electric power Steering ( EPS) to provide the convenience
of steering assist without the cost in engine size and fuel consumption. EPS systems are available today and,
by 2006, up to 50have electric instead of hydraulic power steering.
Key Benets
1. EPS Provides a more exible and less expensive steering system than a conventional hydraulic system.
2. Supports a single- device solution using an integrated peripheral set.
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Electrical
Motor
Figure 4-7: Electro-Hydraulic Power Assist: Steering System for Independent Front Suspension.
3. Combines MCU functionality and DSP processing power for high- speed sensor input processing.
4. Supports automotive environments (40-C to 125C).
5. Oers a low- cost device and system solution with wider market application availability.
6. Out- of- box software frameworks designed to expedite time- to- market and reduce development costs.
Design Challenges
The steering assistance possible for any EPS system is limited by the maximum current available from the
vehicle Typical 12V systems can provide a peak maximum current of 80 amps, limiting peak power to only
1 Kilowatt, so current applications of EPS are limited to smaller vehicles, such as the compact or smaller
medium class of cars However, once, 42V electrical systems are available, EPS can be easily applied to larger
vehicles, even trucks.
Another challenge is minimizing system cost and maximizing robustness, safety, and exibility. Choosing
the right components is key to success. EPS is also a cheaper and more exible solution than a hydraulic
pump. Besides providing a ve percent improvement in fuel eciency, EPS is lighter (4 Kg to 6 Kg or 8 lbs
to 13 lbs) and driving for a sports car and smooth, safety- assisted steering for the family sedan simply by
changing the controllers software.
Power steering applications require that the assist device mimic the driver s inputs at the steering wheel
The inputs are typically precise course corrections followed by periods of inactivity. This condition presents
an interesting challenge to any motor design. The motors must also operate for extended periods in an
under- hood environment that can sometimes reach temperatures of to 150 degrees Celsius with little or on
maintenance.
An acceptable motor design with a high eciency and temperature tolerance, is one that can be precisely
manipulated. Today s multiple- poled brushless DC motors have been designed with tasks like these in mind
Their brushless design moves the electrical windings to the stator, the outer housing, which eliminates the
need for harshest of conditions with a very long service life.
4.5.1 EPS System Conguration
An electric motor is used directly to assist the driver, no hydraulic circuit is required. Omission or simplica-
tion of the hydraulic circuit components (pump, bracket, oil reservoir, pipes) result in an easier maintenance
and reduced manufacturing cost. The electrical steering concept enables to dene the vehicles specic steer-
ing characteristics and other parameters [6].
Four basic variants of the electrical steering exist as shown in Figure 4-8. The electrical motor location
denes the type of the EPS system. There are four major EPS systems: column-type, pinion-type, double
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(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure 4-8: Electric Power Assist Steering (EPS) Systems: (a) column type, (b) pinion type, (c) double
pinion type, (d) rack type.
pinion-type and rack-type. As shown in Figure 4-8, in the column, pinion and rake types the motor acts di-
rectly on the steering column, the steering pinion or the steering rack respectively. In the double pinion-type,
the motor acts in a separate pinion meshed with the steering rake. Particularly the steering column variety
is an economical solution for small vehicles. The pinion principle is suitable for medium class vehicle, the
double pinion solution constitutes a compromise between the economical pinion solution and the expensive
rack solution. The rack solution is primarily suitable for higher-class vehicles. The support torque of the
electric motor is transferred directly to the rod via a planetary gear [6].
A brief description of an EPS system in its column assist type is shown in Figure 4-9, the system is made
up of a steering column, a gear assist mechanism attached to this column, a brushless motor, a controller
and a torque sensor attached to the steering column. The rest of the steering system: steering wheel, inter-
mediate shaft, rack and pinion, and the tie rods are also shown. The main purpose of any power steering
system is, of course, to provide assist to the driver. This is achieved by the torque sensor, which measures
the drivers torque and send a signal to the controller proportional to this torque [8].
The controller also received steering position information from the position sensor, the torque and position
information is processed in the controller and an assist command is further modulated by the vehicle speed
signal. This command is given to the motor, which provides the torque to the assist mechanism. The gear
mechanism amplies this torque, and ultimately the loop is closed by applying the assist torque to the
steering column [8].
4.6 Steer By Wire (SBW) System
The next generation of steering systems following EHPS and EPS is the steer-by-wire systems (Figure 4-10).
The motivation behind developing such systems is a reduction in total system cost, reduced risk of injury by
a steering column in the event of an accident, and better overall performance [9]. The main dierent between
the conventional steering systems and the steer-by-wire systems is at the connection between the steering
wheel and the steering mechanism. We can view the steering system as having two main sub-systems: 1.
command input sub-system (steering or hand wheel), 2. steering mechanism (rack and pinion mechanism
in case of medium size vehicle, and steering hydraulic power circuit in case of large size vehicles or o-road
vehicles) [10].
The conventional systems include dierent forms of mechanical and hydraulic connection between the
steering wheel and the steering mechanism. In simplest terms, the steering wheel rotation is proportionally
amplied by the steering mechanism to obtain a proportional articulation angle. Since the steering wheel
and the steering mechanism are mechanically or hydraulically coupled, there is a built in inherent force
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Steering function
Motor Control Power Amplifier
Sensor plausibility
and sensor
evaluation
Battery
Current Feedback
Torque sensor
Reduction gear
Electric motor
Motor sensor
Steering column
Rack and pinion
mechanism
ECU
Figure 4-9: Electric Power Assist Steering (EPS) System Block Diagram.
feedback to the operator at the steering wheel proportional to the steering load resistance [10].
Like a conventional system, steer-by-wire uses a steering mechanism (electrically powered rack and pin-
ion, hydraulic power) to articulte the wheels. Unlike the conventional systems, however, the by-wire system
steering wheel is connected to the steering mechanism sub-system by an electrical wire, rather than a shaft.
A steer-by-wire system has only electrical signals connection between the steering wheel sub-system and
the steering mechanism sub-systems [11]. That alone may be the biggest advantage of the steer-by-wire. It
eliminates the shaft, freeing up packaging space, improving crash worthiness, and increase design exibility
by allowing engineers to place the steering wheel on the right or left side of the cockpit. Furthermore, it
provides a foundation for such features as automated collision avoidance and lane keeping by enabling the
vehicle to steer itself via a computer. Steer-by-wire systems consists of four main elements: a hand wheel,
an electro-mechanical force feedback actuator, a micro-processor-based controller; and electrically powered
rack and pinion or hydraulic-power steering mechanism. When the driver turns the hand wheel (so named
because it is more like a sensor than a steering wheel), sensors tell the microprocessor how far the wheel has
been turned. The microprocessor then sends a signal to an electric motor or a solenoid valve, which will,
operates the rack and pinion or the hydraulic-powered steering mechanism. The steering mechanism then
provides the force needed to turn the wheels [11].
To provide the feedback feel of conventional steering wheel, an electro-mechanical force feedback actuator
is used, which consists of a motor or a brake. As a result, the driver gets the feel of the road. Furthermore,
the steer-by-wire enables to tune the steering control system parameters to provide precise vehicle handling
characteristics. The bock diagram shown below Figure 10 shows the main structure of a steer-by-wire system
which use rack and pinion as its steering mechanism, a torque sensor and a motor are used to emulate the
hand wheel resistance feedback [11].
Steer - by- wire, a next - generation steering system in which there is on mechanical link between the
vehicles s steering wheel and the front- wheel directional actuator, is receiving much attention recently
features in comparison with conventional steering include the following .
1. Saving energy over the entire service life with the electric steering for cars, an electric motor that is
independent of the vehicle s driveline generates the serve power assistance . The system can be exibly
adapted to any steering and vehicle concept and requires 80
2. With a steer by wire steering systems, there is on mechanical connection between the steering wheel
and the wheels . The steering power is generated by electric or elector- hydraulic wheel positioning
systems so the column is not thrust toward the driver in the event of a front- end collision .
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Steering wheel motor
feedback signal
Steering
controller
Steering wheel
controller
Motor
Vehicle speed
Yaw angle speed
Steering angle
Torque signal
Steering wheel
motor current
Steering motor
current
Steering motor
feedback signal
Amp
Amp
Motor
ECM
Figure 4-10: Steer-By-Wire System Structure
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Figure 4-11: Steer-By-Wire System Main Components
3. Interference with the driver during stability control and automatic steering can be avoided i.e. the
active steering intervenes in cases of extreme situations, in emergencies, and at varying road surfaces ,
actively corrects the steering angle and thus stabilizes the vehicle . This kind of intervention is hardly
noticed by the driver.
4. There is more freedom in vehicle design in areas such as steering layout
Components for Steer-By-Wire
Steer- by- wire is based on mechanics, microcontrllers, real- time software , elector motors, power electronics
and digital sensors as follows :
1. sensors for rotation angle and torque of steering wheel and front tires these sensors must be miniaturized
to minimize moving masses and to save energy and space . under the motor hood and must have an
built - in standardized digital interface for computer read- out .
2. Actuators for steering - wheel force feed- back and active tire movement, actuators may be electors
motors
3. Power electronics required to drive the elector motors, power electronics must be transistor - based
since no AC current is available on board .
4. Controllers are microprocessor - based and contain real- time software and operating system. Con-
trollers must receive a feed- back- signal to ensure correct steering and force feed - back .
5. Mechanical components such as gear, overriding gear, steering wheel, pinion, gear rod and tires .
4.7 Electric Assist Steering System
A place where the mechanical-to-electric transformation is taking place, albeit slowly, is in your cars power
steering. Some smaller cars in Europe appeared with electric power steering back in 1998, with volumes
increasing steadily as European automotive manufacturers adapted the new technology. By using an electric
motor to replace the traditional combination of hydraulic pump, uid, hoses, and uid reservoirs, you have a
system that, while not signicantly less expensive to produce, is smaller and lighter. In addition, the electric
system is powered by the cars battery, not the engine, which adds to fuel-consumption eciency and gives
the automobile manufacturer more options in conguring the steering system (Figure 4-12)
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Figure 4-12: Replacing a traditional hydraulic steering system with an electric motor, as shown here,reduces
the systems size and weight. The electric system also improves fuel eciency and givesthe car manufacturer
more design exibility. (courtesy Xilinx)
4.8 Electro-Hydraulic Steer-By-Wire System
Automotive and earth moving equipment industry has been developing by-wire systems for steering, brake,
and engine throttle control. These systems are expected to appear in the car market and oered to consumers
by the year 2007. By-wire systems refer to the physical connection between operator command devices and
the controlled sub-system, such as the connection between the steering wheel and the steering mechanism,
the connection between the brake pedal and the brake actuators, the connection between the accelerator
pedal and engine controller.
The main dierent between the conventional steering systems and the steer-by-wire systems is at the
connection between the steering wheel (or steering lever) and the steering control valve. We can view the
steering system as having two main sub-systems: 1. Command input subsystem (steering wheel and/or
steering lever), 2. Steering power circuit (i.e in the case of electro-hydraulic power steering, this sub-system
includes the pump, cylinder, and valves). The conventional systems include dierent forms of mechanical
and hydraulic connections between the steering wheel and the steering valve. In simplest terms, the steer-
ing wheel rotation is proportionally amplied by the steering valve to obtain a proportional articulation
angle. Since the two systems (steering wheel and steering power system) are mechanically coupled, there is
a built in inherent force feedback to the operator at the steering wheel proportional to the steering conditions.
A steer-by-wire system has only electrical signal connection between the steering wheel sub-system and the
steering power sub-systems. This approach has both advantages and disadvantages compared to conventional
steering systems. Steer-by-wire advantages: - Modular steering sub-system design, simplies the assembly,
lower manufacturing cost - Software customizable to t dierent machine needs - The injury risk caused by
the steering column in accident will be diminished. The main disadvantage of SBW system is that there is
no direct mechanical feedback to the operator about the steering conditions, which must be emulated by an
active control system.
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Figure 4-13: Electro-Hydraulic Steer-By-Wire System for Articulated Vehicles