Economic History Review

, LVII, 3 (2004), pp. 437464

Economic History Society 2004. Published by Blackwell Publishing, 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford OX4 2DQ, UK and 350 Main Street,
Malden, MA 02148, USA.

Blackwell Publishing Ltd.Oxford, UK and Malden, USAEHRThe Economic History Review0013-0117Economic History Society 20042004

LVII

3437464Articles

ITALIAN AGRICULTURE, 10002000GIOVANNI
FEDERICO AND PAOLO MALANIMA

Progress, decline, growth:
product and productivity in Italian
agriculture, 10002000

By GIOVANNI FEDERICO and PAOLO MALANIMA

n the late middle ages, the Centre-North of Italy was one of the most
advanced areas in Europe. Its economy was highly diversied by the
standard of the time but agriculture still accounted for a substantial part of
the total employment and GDPabout 6070 and 4560 per cent respec-
tively.

1

From the Renaissance onwards, Italy lost its leadership, and in the
nineteenth century it was clearly lagging behind the industrializing regions
of Western Europe. Modern industry was almost non-existent; agriculture
was backward and unable to adopt modern techniques.

2

From the end of
the century, Italy experienced the process of modern economic growth,
which brought it back into the group of advanced countries, and, as else-
where in the developed world, caused the size of the agricultural workforce
to shrink to less than 5 per cent of the total at the end of the twentieth
century.
Trends in agricultural production and productivity are crucial to under-
standing the prosperity, fall, and recovery of the Italian economy, but they
are still poorly known. Before 1861the year of the political unication of
Italydata on production and employment are scarce, and refer to few
farms and small areas. Even the standard series of national accounts, avail-
able since 1861, are highly controversial. This article aims to ll this gap in
historical knowledge by presenting new series of agricultural production and
output per worker from the year 1000 until 2000. Section I sketches out
the standard demand-side method to estimate agricultural production and
output per worker and puts forward a preliminary estimate of long-run
trends. Section II presents new price indices (also separately for agricultural
and non-agricultural goods) and urban and rural wages from 1300 to 1860.
These indices are used in section III to estimate per caput and total pro-
duction. Section IV deals with trends in agricultural employment, while
section V discusses the long-run evolution in output per worker. Section VI
sums up our interpretation with the help of a simple geometric model, and
section VII sets the Italian case in a comparative perspective. This recon-
struction refers to the Central and Northern part of the country, from the

1

For further details, see Malanima,

Leconomia italiana

, pp. 143, 445.

2

See, for example, Daneo,

Storia

; further references in Federico, Lagricoltura, and Cohen and
Federico,

Economic development

, pp. 3045.
I

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GIOVANNI FEDERICO AND PAOLO MALANIMA



Economic History Society 2004

Southern borders of the current regions of Tuscany, Marche, and Umbria,
to the Alps, an area of some 161,000 sq. km., with about 60 per cent of the
population of Italy.

3

I

It is common practice to estimate agricultural production from the demand
side when the output data are missing or unreliable.

4

By denition, gross
agricultural output Y (the total production available for human consump-
tion) is:

(1)

where c is consumption per caput, P is the population, and R is the ratio
of agricultural production to agricultural consumption (i.e., R is 1 if trade
in agricultural products is balanced). Per caput consumption depends on
per caput income and prices

(2)

where W refers to real wages, K to prices of agricultural goods, and Z to
the prices of other goods, and a, b, and c are elasticities. It is then possible
to compute output per worker (y) as

(3)

where L is the agricultural labour force.
This method needs series of prices and wages, which are simply not
available before 1300. In this case, by following the pioneering work by
Wrigley, the urbanization rate may be used in order to estimate output per
worker, albeit crudely.

5

In fact, if:

(i) agricultural consumption and agricultural production are equal (i.e., R is 1);
(ii) agricultural per caput consumption is constanti.e., it is not affected by any
change in prices or income;
(iii) the ratio of total workforce to population is constant;
(iv) the proportion of non-agricultural workers in the rural population is constant;
(v) the time allocation between agricultural and non-agricultural work for all
workers is constant;

aggregate agricultural output equals per caput consumption of agricultural
goods multiplied by population (P), and agricultural employment equals

3

From an agricultural point of view, Latium resembles the South much more closely than the other
regions of the North and Centre. Therefore, unlike most current work, this article excludes Latium from
the Centre.

4

This method has been widely used in the debate about agricultural growth and the British industrial
revolution, since the seminal work by Deane and Cole,

British economic growth

, ch. II (cf. Crafts,

British
economic growth

, pp. 3942; Jackson, Growth and deceleration; Allen, Tracking the agricultural revo-
lution). It has also been used for Spain (cf. Simpson, Produccin and

idem

, Respuesta and Prados,
Estimacin) and, more recently, by Allen for a number of European countries (Economic structure).

5

Wrigley, Urban growth.
Y c P R =
c W K Z
a b C
=
y Y L =

ITALIAN AGRICULTURE, 10002000

439



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the whole population minus the urban population and rural non-agricul-
tural population (millers, smiths, tailors, servants, carters, and so on). Thus,
output per worker (y) can be calculated as:

(4)

where Ur is the urbanization rate and Rna is the proportion of the rural
non-agricultural workers in the total population.
Before 1300, there are very few data on the urban population outside
Tuscany.

6

Some indirect evidence suggests that Italian cities were the largest
in Europe at that time, and that the urbanization rate was rising, at least
since the tenth and eleventh centuries.

7

From 1300, we can calculate the
urbanization rate for towns with more than 5,000 inhabitants in the Centre
and North until 1861.

8

It is thus possible to piece together a series of
urbanization rates from 1000 to 1861, and put forward a very tentative
estimate of output per worker, under the assumption that Rna was constant
(table 1).

9

According to this estimate, production per worker grew by about one-
fth in the rst 300 years. When urbanization grows, per caput consumption

6

Kotelnikova,

Mondo contadino e citt

, p. 205; Russell, Thirteenth-century Tuscany;

idem, Medieval
regions

.

7

Malanima,

Leconomia italiana

, pp. 371ff. Additional, but not always highly reliable, information on
Italian cities of the tenth and eleventh centuries is in Bairoch,

De Jricho Mexico

, pp. 186, 209; and
Bairoch et al.,

La population

, pp. 409. The population of the largest cities at that time can be very
crudely estimated from the area included within the city walls and from a regression of urbanization
rate on total population in the period 13001861.

8

Cf. Malanima, Italian cities, 13001800;

idem

, Urbanization and economy in Italy. A version of
the database, extended to 1861 with data from the rst Italian population census (MAIC,

Popolazione

)
is now available at http://www.issm.cnr.it

9

We lack information on rural population engaged in non-agricultural activities. An estimate for
fteenth-century Tuscany suggests a gure of 6%, which seems too low (Herlihy and Klapisch-Zuber,

Les Toscans et leurs familles

, ch. 10). The actual gure was probably around 10%. Changes in proto-
industrial population are discussed in section IV, below.
y =
- + ( )
=
- + ( )
P
P P Ur Rna Ur Rna
1
1

Table 1.

Urbanization rate and agricultural
productivity, 10001861

(1500

=

100)

Date Urbanization rate Output per worker

1000 [512] 86
1100 [512] 86
1200 [12] 90
1300 21.4 100
1400 17.6 96
1500 21.0 100
1600 18.4 97
1700 16.9 94
1800 17.5 95
1861 16.2 94

Source:

see text

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of foodstuffs and raw materials grows more than proportionately. It is
probable that agricultural productivity increased, between the tenth century
and the fourteenth, by more than 20 per cent.

10

It then stagnated or slowly
declined until 1860. This periodization tallies with the available information
on long-run trends and assumptions (i) to (v) are not totally implausible
(cf. section V). However, some medium-term movements (e.g., the decline
after the Black Death) are not convincing.

II

The appendix (columns 1 and 2) presents new decennial price indices of
agricultural and non-agricultural goods (mainly textiles) as well as an overall
index of prices (column 3). These series of prices are obtained by splicing
two Laspeyres price indices for Tuscany (from 1300 to 1620) and for
Lombardy (from 1610 to 1860) (gure 1).

11

Total prices rose until the early
fourteenth century, decreased from 1350 until about 1450, and rose again
until the end of the sixteenth century. During the seventeenth century, they
fell; then they resumed the upward trend from 1730 until 1820, and
declined thereafter. Long-run trends are similar to movements in England
and the Netherlands, with some substantial differences in the time patterns
(gure 2).

12

Prices grew much less for non-agricultural goods than for agricultural
goods.

13

Such a trend is by no means surprising, given the diminishing

10

See esp. Persson, Labour productivity in medieval agriculture.

11

For further details and a consistency test, see Malanima,

Leconomia italiana

, app. 3.

12

For England, Clark, Long march of history; for the Netherlands, van Zanden, Prices.

13

See app., col. 2.

Figure 1.

Italian price index 13001870

(142040

=

1)

Source:

app., col. 3
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
1
3
0
0
-
1
0
1
3
4
0
-
5
0
1
3
8
0
-
9
0
1
4
2
0
-
3
0
1
4
6
0
-
7
0
1
5
0
0
-
1
0
1
5
4
0
-
5
0
1
5
8
0
-
9
0
1
6
2
0
-
3
0
1
6
6
0
-
7
0
1
7
0
0
-
1
0
1
7
4
0
-
5
0
1
7
8
0
-
9
0
1
8
2
0
-
3
0
1
8
6
0
-
7
0
I
n
d
e
x
Date

ITALIAN AGRICULTURE, 10002000

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returns to labour and the slow technical progress in agriculture. In fact, the
relative prices of textiles also fell in other European countries, such as
England and France, in the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries.

14

The urban wage series (gure 3)

15

is based on the salary of Tuscan
bricklayers, which is closely correlated with the comparable (but shorter)
series for building workers in Genoa, Milan, and Venice.

16

The index of rural
wages (gure 4)

17

is obtained by splicing together the series for Tuscany
(13201620) and for Piedmont (16101860).

18

Money wages are assumed

14

Hoffman et al., Real inequality.

15

See app., col. 4.

16

See Malanima,

Leconomia italiana

, app. 4. The Tuscan series is based on data from de la Roncire,

Prix et salaires Florence

, p. 280 (128095 and 131020); Goldthwaite,

Building of Renaissance Florence

),
pp. 4378 (131020 and 13401580); Parenti,

Prime ricerche

, p. 69 (15801620); for the period 1620
1820 data are from Archivio Salviati (in Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa), serie II, 459 and 547
(Cerbone), and serie V, 66672 (Pisa). Data for 1820 are from Bandettini, Le retribuzioni. All the
wage series are deated with the same price index, and this would create a spurious correlation if nominal
wages remained constant. Correlation is, however, high also in periods of changing nominal wages, such
as the second half of the sixteenth century and the second half of the eighteenth.

17

See app., col. 5.

18

Nominal wages for Tuscany are from Tognetti, Prezzi e salari (13201500) and Parenti,

Prime
ricerche

(15001620); for Piedmont from Doria,

Uomini e terre

(16101720) and Pugliese,

Due secoli di
vita agricola

(17101860).

Figure 2.

Prices in CN Italy, the Netherlands, and England, 14501860


(145070

=

1)

Source:

Italy: app., col. 3; Netherlands: van Zanden, Prices; England: Clark, Long march of history
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
1
4
5
0
-
6
0
1
4
8
0
-
9
0
1
5
1
0
-
2
0
1
5
4
0
-
5
0
1
5
7
0
-
8
0
1
6
0
0
-
1
0
1
6
3
0
-
4
0
1
6
6
0
-
7
0
1
6
9
0
-
1
7
0
0
Date
I
n
d
e
x
1
7
2
0
-
3
0
1
7
5
0
-
6
0
1
7
8
0
-
9
0
1
8
1
0
-
2
0
1
8
4
0
-
5
0
CN Italy
Netherlands
England

442

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to have been representative of the incomes for the whole rural population.
In Centre-North Italy, the number of rural labourers grew in early modern
times. The available evidence suggests that changes over time in the condi-
tions of daily labourers, sharecroppers, and tenants were fairly similar.

19

All
nominal wages are deated with our overall price index.
As in the rest of Europe, urban wages increased after the Black Death,
and the level remained relatively high for about a century. They started to

19

Giorgetti,

Contadini e proprietari.

Figure 3.

Real wages in building in Tuscany (12851860)

(142040

=

100)

Source:

app., col. 4; n. 16
0
20
40
I
n
d
e
x
Date
60
80
100
120
1
2
8
5
-
9
5
1
3
3
0
-
4
0
1
3
6
0
-
7
0
1
3
9
0
-
1
4
0
0
1
4
2
0
-
3
0
1
4
5
0
-
6
0
1
4
8
0
-
9
0
1
5
1
0
-
2
0
1
5
4
0
-
5
0
1
5
7
0
-
8
0
1
6
0
0
-
1
0
1
6
3
0
-
4
0
1
6
6
0
-
7
0
1
6
9
0
-
1
7
0
0
1
7
2
0
-
3
0
1
7
5
0
-
6
0
1
7
8
0
-
9
0
1
8
1
0
-
2
0
1
8
4
0
-
5
0

Figure 4.

Real wages in agriculture in CN Italy, 13201860

(142040

=

100)

Source:

app., col. 5; n. 18
0
20
40
I
n
d
e
x
Date
60
80
100
120
1
3
0
0
-
1
0
1
3
3
0
-
4
0
1
3
6
0
-
7
0
1
3
9
0
-
1
4
0
0
1
4
2
0
-
3
0
1
4
5
0
-
6
0
1
4
8
0
-
9
0
1
5
1
0
-
2
0
1
5
4
0
-
5
0
1
5
7
0
-
8
0
1
6
0
0
-
1
0
1
6
3
0
-
4
0
1
6
6
0
-
7
0
1
6
9
0
-
1
7
0
0
1
7
2
0
-
3
0
1
7
5
0
-
6
0
1
7
8
0
-
9
0
1
8
1
0
-
2
0
1
8
4
0
-
5
0
1
8
5
0
-
6
0

ITALIAN AGRICULTURE, 10002000

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decrease in Italy during the second half of the fteenth century, earlier than
in England,

20

reached a minimum after 1530, and then recovered in the
early seventeenth century because of the reduced labour supply after the
plague of 162930. After remaining stable for almost a century, real wages
declined from 1730 to 17901820 and recovered somewhat afterwards.
As gures 3 and 4 show, long-run trends in wages are quite similar but
sometimes, in the (relatively) short run, the two series diverge markedly.
Relative urban wages rose during the sixteenth century because the expan-
sion of the urban economy increased the demand for labour.

21

Thus, the
use of urban wages only, as common in the literature, would bias the results.
The wage series is computed by weighting the urban and rural wage series
with the share of agriculture on the total workforce.

22

The parameters of the demand curve have to be assumed from the
literature concerning todays backward economies, as there is no direct
evidence on elasticities before the nineteenth century.

23

In his estimate of
agricultural productivity in Europe, Allen assumes a (cross-) price elasticity
for non-agricultural goods of 0.1, a price elasticity for agricultural products
of

-

0.6, and an income elasticity for agricultural products of 0.5 (the
parameters must sum to zero for the homogeneity constraint). Other
authors use slightly different coefcients, with income elasticities ranging
from 0.3 to 0.9.

24

Following Allen, we assume 0.1 as the cross-price elas-
ticity for non-agricultural goods, and we reduce price elasticity for agricul-
tural products to

-

0.5, and income elasticity to 0.4. As table 2 shows, at
least in the case of Italy, the choice of a set of parameters does not deeply

20

Cf. also, Allen, Great divergence, which, however, reports only 50-year averages.

21

Malanima, Urbanization and economy in Italy.

22

The weights are obtained by extrapolating backwards the 1881 gure (from Zamagni, Century of
change) with the series of the ratio of agricultural workforce to total population (section IV).

23

The only exception is an estimate for British poor in the late eighteenth century: income elasticity
of food consumption hovered around 0.6 (Clark et al., British food puzzle, tab. 3)

24

Cf. Allen, Economic structure, p. 14; Crafts,

British economic growth

, p. 39 (0.7); von Ende and
Weiss, Consumption (0.6); Jackson, Growth and deceleration (0.5, with sensitivity tests for the range
0.30.9).

Table 2. Sensitivity tests of consumption of agricultural products
(186070 = 100)
Wage elasticity 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Agricultural price elasticity -0.4 -0.5 -0.6 -0.7
Non-agricultural price elasticity 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
133040 111.9 115.6 119.7 124.7
140010 132.4 143.3 156.3 172.0
150010 116.4 120.6 125.5 131.3
160010 102.5 102.5 102.5 102.4
170010 108.3 110.5 113.0 116.0
180010 97.5 96.0 94.2 92.0
Sources: see text
444 GIOVANNI FEDERICO AND PAOLO MALANIMA
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modify the long-term trend of consumption, except in the fteenth century
(gure 5)and for these years, a lower elasticity gives more plausible
results.
Consumption per caput (gure 6 and appendix, column 6) declined from
the late middle ages onwards with interruptions during the fteenth and
seventeenth centuries. The minimum was reached between the end of the
eighteenth century and the beginning of the nineteenth: table 3 shows how
low the level of consumption was in these years and also at the end of the
sixteenth century. It compares the estimated consumption, in constant
Figure 5. Agricultural product per caput, 13001870 (186070 = 1; different
elasticities)
Source: see text
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
1
3
0
0
-
1
0
1
3
3
0
-
4
0
1
3
6
0
-
7
0
1
3
9
0
-
1
4
0
0
1
4
2
0
-
3
0
1
4
5
0
-
6
0
1
4
8
0
-
9
0
Date
I
n
d
e
x
1
5
1
0
-
2
0
1
5
4
0
-
5
0
1
5
7
0
-
8
0
1
6
0
0
-
1
0
1
6
3
0
-
4
0
1
6
6
0
-
7
0
1
6
9
0
-
1
7
0
0
1
7
2
0
-
3
0
1
7
5
0
-
6
0
1
7
8
0
-
9
0
1
8
1
0
-
2
0
1
8
4
0
-
5
0
Figure 6. Agricultural product per caput, 13001870 (186070 = 100)
Source: app., col. 6
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
1
3
0
0
-
1
0
1
3
3
0
-
4
0
1
3
6
0
-
7
0
1
3
9
0
-
1
4
0
0
1
4
2
0
-
3
0
1
4
5
0
-
6
0
1
4
8
0
-
9
0
1
5
1
0
-
2
0
1
5
4
0
-
5
0
1
5
7
0
-
8
0
1
6
0
0
-
1
0
1
6
3
0
-
4
0
1
6
6
0
-
7
0
1
6
9
0
-
1
7
0
0
1
7
2
0
-
3
0
1
7
5
0
-
6
0
1
7
8
0
-
9
0
1
8
1
0
-
2
0
1
8
4
0
-
5
0
Date
I
n
d
e
x
ITALIAN AGRICULTURE, 10002000 445
Economic History Society 2004
18601870 Italian lire, with the cost of a minimal subsistence basket,
including rewood and sufcient basic food to provide some 2,100 to 2,200
calories per caput per day.
25
Prices in the countryside may have been somewhat lower than the urban
ones used to compute table 3, and, in time of distress, people could substi-
tute wheat with inferior (and cheaper) cereals. Yet, in these critical periods,
a substantial share of the Italian population was on the brink of destitution.
Famine struck especially at the end of the sixteenth century, from 1760 to
1780, and in 181517, and mortality increased substantially in these peri-
ods. This long-term decline in consumption was not unique to Italy.
26
The
low level of consumption in the rst half of the nineteenth century is
conrmed by recent research in anthropometric history for Northern Italy
as well as for other European countries.
27
III
Gross output should be estimated as per caput consumption times popula-
tion times the foreign trade coefcient (equation 1). The estimates of the
Italian population before 1500 are, admittedly, speculative, even though
25
This intake is relatively low by present-day standards, but the historical minimum, especially during
shortages, was surely lower: the proportion of infants was greater and biological needs were smaller as
the average height and body mass were lower (Fogel, New ndings). Toutain (La consommation
alimentaire, tab. 45) estimates that average French consumption in 17811800 was only 1,753 calories.
26
Allen, Economic structure; idem, Great divergence, p. 429.
27
Cf. on Northern Italy, AHearn, Living standards (and for the rise in the second half of the
nineteenth century, Federico, Heights, calories and welfare); cf., on the European trends, Komlos,
Shrinking in a growing economy?; Baten, Heights and real wages.
Table 3. Prices of an essential basket of agricultural products
(in current money and in constant 18601870 Italian lire)
Goods
Quantity
(kg. p.a.)
15801600
(Florentine lire)
17601780
(Milanese lire)
18001820
(Milanese lire)
18601870
(Italian lire)
Wheat 50 13.5 12.3 20.9 13.8
Other cereals
a
170 23.0 26.3 40.7 27.4
Meat
b
10 7.6 7.3 11.2 13.7
Wine 80 13.2 19.6 31.5 45.4
Olive oil 3 2.0 5.2 9.0 7.3
Firewood 365 2.7 7.1 13.5 14.3
Price (current prices) 62.0 77.8 126.8 121.9
Ratio
c
1.42 1.46 1.41 1.30
Note: a half the wheat price per kg. in 15801600; maize price afterwards
b beef
c ratio of actual consumption (app. col. 6, converted into 186070 Italian lire) to the cost of the essential basket
Notes and sources: 15801600: prices for Florence are from Parenti, Prime ricerche, but with wheat and minor cereals
from Malanima, Wheat prices and idem, Grain prices. 176080: prices for Milan are from De Maddalena, Prezzi e aspetti
di mercato in Milano. 186070: prices for Milan are from idem, I prezzi dei generi commestibili. Prices are converted
into 186070 Italian lire using the agricultural price index (app. , col. 1) and the silver content of the three currencies
in 1861.
446 GIOVANNI FEDERICO AND PAOLO MALANIMA
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they are probably among the least uncertain for any region in Europe.
Recent research by historical demographers has conrmed and specied the
classic reconstruction proposed by Beloch several decades ago (table 4 and
gure 7).
The population in the Centre-North increased from the tenth and elev-
enth centuries to a peak around 1300. It then stabilized for about three
centuriesdespite the strong negative effect of plagues in 13489 (a fall in
population of about 40 per cent took place in the half century 13501400)
and 162930 (a 20 per cent decrease). Population growth resumed from
the second half of the seventeenth century, and it was quite fast in the
nineteenth century and subsequently, until the 1970s, when it slowed down
and eventually ceased.
We will assume that trade in agricultural produce was roughly balanced.
North and Central Italy had imported industrial raw materials, such as
wool, cotton, and silk, and agricultural goods, such as wheat, oil, wine, and
Table 4. Population of Italy and of the Centre-North
(thousands)
Date Total Centre-North
1000 5,200
1050 5,800
1100 6,500
1150 7,300
1200 8,500
1250 10,100
1300 12,500 7,750
1350 9,500 5,605
1400 8,000 4,720
1450 7,500 4,425
1500 9,000 5,310
1550 11,500 6,785
1600 13,273 7,828
1650 11,500 6,230
1700 13,481 8,051
1750 15,500 9,300
1800 18,092 10,212
1861 26,900 15,950
Borders
1901 33,370 19,330
1951 47,756 26,622
1991 57,103 31,023
Notes and sources: It is impossible to distinguish the Centre-North from the rest
of Italy in the uncertain data before 1300. Data for 1000 to 1800 are from
Beloch, Bevlkerungsgeschichte Italiens; Bellettini, La popolazione italiana; Del
Panta et al., La popolazione italiana. Cf., also, Galloway, Population of North
Italy, and, for Tuscany, Breschi, La popolazione della Toscana dal 1640 al 1940,
and now, the series based on the inverse projection from 1575 in Breschi and
Malanima, Demograa ed economia in Toscana. Figures for 1861, 1901, and
1951 are from census data by ISTAT, Sviluppo della popolazione, tab. 1.III;
1991 ISTAT, Annuario Statistico. Data before 1861 include the population of
Nice, Monaco, Istria, Corsica, and Malta in the total and of Nice, Monaco,
and Istria in the Centre-North.
ITALIAN AGRICULTURE, 10002000 447
Economic History Society 2004
sugar, since the late middle ages. These ows, however, were quite small in
comparison with the agricultural gross product.
28
In 156080, imports,
almost entirely from the South, accounted for little more than 5 per cent
of the agricultural production of the area. The late sixteenth century, in all
likelihood, marked a historical peak for imports, and ows declined during
the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
29
They did not cease, however:
just before Unication, wheat imports fed about half a million people, or
3 per cent of the whole population of the Centre-North.
30
Most of this wheat
came from abroad, especially from Russia. North-South trade was quite
small in the second half of the nineteenth century and remained so even as
late as 1911.
31
The Centre-North of Italy exported some agricultural prod-
ucts as well. Its main staple product was raw and processed silk. Massive
28
Malanima, La ne del primato, ch. 2 and pp. 705.
29
For a general view on the North-South exchanges in Italy, cf. Visceglia, Commercio estero e
commercio peninsulare.
30
Correnti and Maestri, Annuario II, 1864, pp. 417ff.
31
Cafagna, La questione; Zamagni, Ferrovie ed integrazione.
Figure 7. Population of Italy, 7002000
Note: The vertical scale is logarithmic.
Source: see tab. 4
1
10
100
700 850 1000 1150 1300 1450 1600 1750 1900
Date
M
i
l
l
i
o
n

p
e
o
p
l
e
448 GIOVANNI FEDERICO AND PAOLO MALANIMA
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exports started in the seventeenth century, and rose to account for about
30 per cent of total Italian exports in the late nineteenth century.
32
Silk was,
however, a semi-manufactured good: the purely agricultural raw material,
the cocoons, accounted for 23 per cent of gross agricultural product.
33
To
sum up, neither imports nor exports represented a large share of gross
agricultural output, and they compensated each other.
The consumption-side estimate of output for the period 1300 to 1860 is
then continued to 2000 with an output-side series.
34
The latter is obtained
by linking together a new estimate for 18601910 with the standard series
from the Italian national accounts.
35
Not surprisingly, trends in total output in pre-modern times are heavily
affected by demographic growth. Population fell in the wake of the major
epidemics of 13489 and 162930, but, in the long run, it rose substantially
(gure 8).
36
The exception is the period from the 1730s to the 1810s. In
these years, the population grew by 15 per cent, while agricultural output
32
Federico, Il lo doro, tab. 1.
33
Idem, Una stima del valore aggiunto, tab. 1.
34
See app., col. 8.
35
Cf. Federico, Nuove stime; ISTAT, Indagine; ISTAT, Annuario statistico; ISTAT, Il valore
aggiunto. The share of the Centre-North in the total output until 1951 is computed from regional data
in Federico, Lagricoltura. For later years, ISTAT itself provides the regional breakdown. The series is
then adjusted to take into account changes in borders.
36
Allens series for Italy broadly tallies with our estimate. However, it rises more from 1300 to 1400
(by 24%, instead of 6%or 13%, if we take 132030 as the base) and as a consequence, falls more
later. Furthermore, the decline is slower until 1700 and much faster than in our series in the eighteenth
century (by 30% instead of by 15%).
Figure 8. Gross agricultural product in CN Italy, 13001870
(186070 = 100)
Source: app., col. 8
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
1
3
0
0
-
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ITALIAN AGRICULTURE, 10002000 449
Economic History Society 2004
declined slightly. This divergence was partly dependent on the massive
diffusion, particularly in the Po Valley, of the cultivation of maize, whose
price was half that of wheat.
37
The living conditions of most of the popula-
tion worsened noticeably. Agricultural output (in value terms) went on
falling until 1820, and then recovered slightly. However, this increase did
not outpace the population growth until the late nineteenth century and the
start of the boom giolittiano. Output growth slowed down a little in the
interwar years and then picked up speed again after the Second World War
(gure 9).
IV
Data on the Italian population by occupation are available from the year
1861 onwards, as a result of the start of regular population censuses (held
every 10 years, with the exception of 1891 and 1941). Vitali shows that the
original census data underestimate the female workforce in agriculture and
revises the series from the 1881 census onwards. His revision can be
extended back to 1861.
38
Agricultural workers accounted for some 38 per
37
Malanima, La ne del primato, pp. 163ff.
38
Cf. Vitali, La popolazione attiva, for 18811936; ISTAT Sommario di statistiche storiche, tabs. 7.2 and
7.3 for 195181 and ISTAT, Annuario statistico for later years. The agricultural workforce in 1861 and
1871 is calculated as the original census gures (MAIC, Censimento 1861 and MAIC, Censimento 1871)
times the ratio between Vitalis estimates and original census data in 1881 (from Vitali, La popolazione
attivo). The 10-year averages after 186070 (app., col. 9) are obtained from a yearly series computed
by interpolating the census estimates linearly.
Figure 9. Gross agricultural product in CN Italy, 18602000 (186070 = 100)
Source: app., col. 8
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
1
8
6
0
-
7
0
1
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7
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-
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0
1
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0
1
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0
1
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6
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0
1
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7
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0
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9
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0
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0
Date
I
n
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x
450 GIOVANNI FEDERICO AND PAOLO MALANIMA
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cent of the total Italian population in 1861 and for 27 per cent in 1936,
before the start of the great migration from the Italian countryside. This
decline is inversely related to the growth of the urbanization rate, with an
elasticity of about 0.4.
39
This elasticity can be used to project backwards the
share of the agricultural workforce in the total population in 1861. The
resulting series uctuates just below 40 per cent.
40
This stagnation tallies
well with the information on trends in urban population (table 1) and with
the evidence on the diffusion of non-agricultural activities in the country-
side. The development of proto-industry in Central and Northern Italy did
not match its growth in northern Europe from the seventeenth century
onwards, but it was not negligible either.
41
Iron working grew in the hills
close to the Alps, straw making spread in Tuscany and Emilia, cotton and
wool processing developed in many areas and, above all, silk production
grew quite quickly. However, as late as 1861, the silk industry employed
only some 150,000200,000 peoplei.e., less than 1 per cent of the whole
population. Even adding the other rural inhabitants employed in secondary
activities, the total is barely 5 per cent of the total population. In other
words, the growth of manufacturing in the countryside at most compen-
sated for the decrease in the urban population.
Column 10 of the appendix shows our estimate of the agricultural work-
force, which closely shadows the movements in the total population until
1860. After Unication, the share declined, but the number of agricultural
workers increased until the beginning of the twentieth century and
decreased slowly thereafter. In 1951, there were still almost 5 million agri-
cultural workers, about 20 per cent of the total population. In the next
10 years, the period of the Italian economic miracle, the number fell by
40 per cent, plunging to a mere 10 per cent of the total population.
Nowadays, only half a million workers are employed in agriculture: less than
1 per cent of the total population.
V
The product per worker (gure 10) can be calculated as the ratio between
gross output and workforce.
42
The results correspond only in part to con-
ventional knowledge on the history of Italian agriculture. Product per
worker grew, albeit slowly (about 0.05 per cent yearly), from the early
eleventh century to the early fourteenth. Agriculture beneted from the
growth in the economy as a whole, and also from the investment of urban
39
Cf. app., col. 9 and urbanization rate from tab. 1 with additions for 1871 (18), 1881 (20.5), 1911
(27.2), 1921 (31.2), 1931 (36), and 1936 (39) from Malanima, Leconomia italiana, p. 379. The R
2
of
the regression is 0.96 and urbanization is signicant at the 1% level.
40
See app., col. 9.
41
Belfanti, Proto-industrial heritage and, on silk, Battistini, Lindustria della seta, and Cafagna,
Prolo della storia industriale.
42
See app., col. 11.
ITALIAN AGRICULTURE, 10002000 451
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capital. New fertile lands were colonized and the stock of capital per
worker (buildings and probably also livestock) grew.
43
An important contri-
bution to the widening of the arable acreage certainly derived from the rise
in temperatures during the Medieval Climatic Optimum, which made pos-
sible the cultivation of many hilly areas.
44
This growth was already slacken-
ing from the beginning of the fourteenth century.
45
The arrival of the
plague in 1348 caused total output to fall. However, product per worker
increased, as a consequence of the greater endowment of land and capital
per worker. Output per worker peaked in 142030, and then started to
diminish as the population grew. The outbreak of new major plague epi-
demics in 162930 caused a temporary trend reversal both in population
and in output per worker, which, however, did not last for long. The
disappearance of the plague from the second half of the seventeenth cen-
tury and the ensuing increase in the population caused the returns in
agriculture to decrease. Product per worker declined until the end of the
eighteenth century.
Throughout the rst half of the nineteenth century, product per worker
remained around the level of the eleventh century (cf. table 1). This result
may seem surprising; but it tallies with the opinion of specialists in medieval
economic history. Toubert describes the tenth and eleventh centuries as the
golden age of the peasants in Italian agriculture.
46
The country was rich
in land and forests but poor in labour. Peasants did not have to work a lot,
and were able to supplement agriculture with hunting and shing. In con-
43
Cf. Fumagalli, Terra e societ, and Toubert, tudes sur lItalie mdivale.
44
See the recent Mann and Jones, Global surface temperatures.
45
Herlihy, Black Death.
46
Toubert, Les structures.
Figure 10. Output per worker, 13001870 (186070 = 100)
Source: app., col. 11
60
80
100
120
140
160
1
3
0
0
-
1
0
1
3
3
0
-
4
0
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3
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452 GIOVANNI FEDERICO AND PAOLO MALANIMA
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trast, in the overcrowded countryside of the nineteenth century, the peas-
ants had to work hard on little land per caput, and with the help of little
capital. The Italian land-labour ratio was the lowest, and the livestock-
labour ratio was among the lowest, in Europe.
47
Product per worker started to rise in the second half of the nineteenth
century, but this growth was rather slow until the 1930s. Indeed, only in
the interwar years did production exceed the peak of the early fteenth
century. Prima facie, this result can be construed as evidence of the con-
ventional wisdom about the technical stagnation in agriculture in the rst
half of the twentieth century. However, this was not the case: the technical
progress in the late nineteenth century and in the rst half of the twentieth
was substantial, although it was heavily biased towards land-saving innova-
tions, notably fertilizers.
48
Labour productivity soared after 1945, with the
big waves of migration from the countryside and because of mechaniza-
tion. From 194951 to 19982000, output per worker grew at 6.5 per cent
per year, a really astonishing achievement: a 24-fold increase in 50 years
(gure 11). The Value Added per worker rose a little more slowly, as the
modernization of agriculture entailed a huge increase in purchases out-
side the primary sectorfertilizers, fuel, etc. Countrywide, it grew at
5.2 per cent per annum, about 1 point less than the gross output per
worker. An impressive performance, indeed.
The decline during the early modern period is conrmed also by Allens
estimate, although with some important differences (table 5). According to
47
Malanima, Leconomia italiana, p. 16.
48
Pezzati, Industria ed agricoltura, tab. D.
Figure 11. Agricultural output per worker in CN Italy, 18602000
(186070 = 100)
Source: app., col. 11
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
1
8
6
0
-
7
0
1
8
7
0
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ITALIAN AGRICULTURE, 10002000 453
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Allen, the decline started later. The sixteenth and seventeenth centuries
were a period of stability in average productivity, while the eighteenth-
century crisis was somewhat more serious than in our reconstruction.
So far, our estimate has assumed as constant the number of hours of work
per year and the intensity of work. These assumptions are necessary for the
lack of hard data, and, indeed, they are standard in similar long-run exer-
cises. However, it is well known that European peasants reacted to the
increase in population and the decline in income by working longer and
harder on the land, and by looking for work in (proto)-industry and trans-
port.
49
Proto-industry developed less in Italy than in northern Europe, but
Mediterranean agriculture had more scope for intensication. The produc-
tion of traditional labour-intensive tree-crops, such as vineyards or fruit
trees, increased, but the key factor was the massive introduction of silkworm
farming (coming from Southern Italy) and maize (from North America).
The yearly production of silk in the Centre-North rose from less than 100
tonnes at the end of the sixteenth century, to 3,100 tonnes at around 1850
and the input of labour (for cultivating mulberries and feeding silkworms)
rose correspondingly.
50
Maize started to spread in the late sixteenth century
as well, and, two centuries later, it became the main cereal in most of
Northern Italy and the staple food for peasants. It needed about twice the
labour input per unit of land, and produced about twice the calories:
without maize, the growth of the population in the seventeenth and eigh-
teenth centuries would have been impossible. However, the peasants paid
a high price for it, as a maize-based diet caused a serious disease, pellagra,
which spread widely in the Po Valley in the nineteenth century. It is thus
highly likely that our series of output per worker underestimates the actual
decrease in productivity. In a purely neo-classical world, with perfectly
49
On the topic see, esp. Sandgruber, Die Anfnge der Konsumgesellschaft, p. 377 and de Vries, Indus-
trial and industrious.
50
Battistini, Lindustria della seta, for the sixteenth-century estimate, and Federico, Il lo doro,
pp. 4501 for 1855.
Table 5. Product per worker: a comparison with
Allens estimate, 13001800
(1500 = 100)
Allen Federico and Malanima
1300 90 104
1400 111 113
1500 100 100
1600 104 82
1700 101 87
1750 88 93
1800 71 79
Sources: Allen, Economic structure, tab. 8; app., col. 11
454 GIOVANNI FEDERICO AND PAOLO MALANIMA
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integrated markets, marginal labour productivity would be equal to wages.
From 140050 to 186070, daily real wages in agriculture fell by 60 per
cent (from 3.35 to 1.33 constant lire), while output per worker fell only by
one-third (from 540 to 387 lire). It can thus be computed that a years
product corresponded to 161 days of work at the prevailing wage in the
fteenth century (540/3.35) and to 290 days (387/1.33) in the mid-
nineteenth century. This calculation is clearly crude, not least because it
overlooks the changes in the number of hours per day (which, anyway, was
constrained by technology) and in the intensity of work. However, it pro-
vides a rst approximation to the extent of the worsening in the standard
of living of Italian peasants.
VI
Figure 12 sums up our interpretation of the Italian case.
51
The 45 degree
line represents the subsistence need per caput for the whole population
(assuming a constant activity rate). The curve represents output. At low
levels of population, it exceeds subsistence needs. Without technical
51
See also the reconstruction for Italy of the long-run GDP in Malanima, Measuring the Italian
economy.
Figure 12. Product and population
y
1
y
2
y
3
Y
P
0
E
ITALIAN AGRICULTURE, 10002000 455
Economic History Society 2004
progress and given the constraints to increase the stock of land and capital,
population growth is bound, eventually, to set in, thereby diminishing
returns. The marginal product of labour declines and, consequently, per
caput product declines as well. At point E the marginal product per worker
equals per caput subsistence needs. Stochastic shocks from the epidemics
such as those in 1348 and 1629are followed by a movement towards the
origin both along the lines of subsistence needs and the curve of the
agricultural product. Capital and natural resources are plentiful for the
reduced population: the demographic crisis is a source of increasing capital
per worker. Productivity cannot but increase, and this causes the population
to rise, in a kind of low-equilibrium trap. Modern agricultural innovations
change the prole, as they displace the product curve on the left (from y to
y
1
and to y
2
). Productivity may increase even if population is rising. In the
pre-industrial age (13001800), the output per worker was inversely corre-
lated to the population: a 1 per cent rise in population caused productivity
to fall by 0.27 per cent (gure 13).
52
The intensication process caused a parallel increase in output per unit
of land. The latter is often proxied with cereal yields, but this denition is
decidedly misleading. Tree crops, whose products accounted for a substan-
tial proportion of Italian gross output, need to be considered also. But even
the combined acreage of arable and tree crops would be too restrictive a
denition to analyse intensication in the very long run. Land endowment
includes permanent pasture, forest and woodland, and marshesin other
52
The regression is estimated in logs: the coefcient of population is signicant at the 1% level, the
R
2
= 0.84; the residuals are stationary at the 1% level.
Figure 13. Average labour productivity and population in CN Italy,
13001870
Source: see text
0
20
40
60
80
P
r
o
d
u
c
t
i
v
i
t
y
100
120
140
160
180
0 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000
Population
456 GIOVANNI FEDERICO AND PAOLO MALANIMA
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words, all the surface which could be put to productive use with sufcient
investment of capital. Consequently, the total stock of land would, by this
denition, be almost constant. So dened, land productivity varied in
parallel to output, falling in the fourteenth century, rising steadily from
1500 to 1800, and then increasing in the nineteenth century (table 6). In
1911, according to estimates by OBrien and Prados, land productivity was
higher in Italy than in the United Kingdom or France.
53
VII
How did Italys performance compare with that of other countries?
Data on output and productivity are not easy to nd for a period as long
as the one dealt with here. Allens estimates stop in 1800, while most
historical series of production start in the second half of the nineteenth
century.
54
The gap can be lled for France, the Netherlands, and the United
Kingdom (with three different series). Table 7 shows the results, along with
both our productivity estimates for Italy and a series for the United States,
which set the pace of labour-saving technical progress in the nineteenth and
twentieth centuries.
The long-term decline before 1800 is not unique to Italy. While England
and the Netherlands stand out as success stories, in other countries the
performance was modest. In France, long-term stability prevailed with a
fall in the seventeenth century. In Spain the agricultural output per worker
declined sharply in the early modern age. In Germany and Austria the trend
was downward. Belgium, too, although in a leading position in the fteenth
and sixteenth centuries, declined gradually thereafter.
55
The Italian experi-
ence exemplies more closely than the English one some common features
53
OBrien and Prados, Agricultural productivity.
54
Federico, Growth of output.
55
Allen, Economic structure.
Table 6. Land productivity in Italy (Centre-North),
13002000
(1400 = 100)
Date Index
1300 146
1400 100
1500 94
1600 119
1700 131
1800 150
1900 345
2000 1,054
Sources: see text
ITALIAN AGRICULTURE, 10002000 457
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of the advanced, mature, European agrarian economy and its difculties in
accommodating the growing population pressure otherwise than through
the common classical procedures of the intensication of land use and of
labour. However, the time prole of the long-term decrease differs from one
country to another. In Italy, productivity probably fell in the eighteenth
century to a greater extent than in other countries.
From 1800 to 1940, Italy was decidedly the worst performer. Undoubt-
edly, labour productivity grew, but less than in the United Kingdom,
France, or the United States. Its performance was particularly modest
during the rst half of the nineteenth century. Even later, however, growth
was not striking by international standards. Italy experienced an impres-
sive productivity growth after the Second World War, matching France
and the United States, and outperforming the United Kingdom and the
Netherlands.
So far, the discussion has dealt with trends. How did Italian productivity
compare in levels? Prados and OBrien estimate the relative productivity of
Table 7. Agricultural output per worker in Italy, and other countries,
13002000
(1800 = 100)
Date CN Italy Italy England (a) England (b) UK France Netherlands US
1300 132 56
1400 143 64 92
1500 127 121 70 100 74
1600 107 82 53 87 74
1700 110 99 80 89 86
1750 117 112 108 96 103
1800 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
1850 103 122 143 143 137 121 115
1880 106 106 160 195 147 115 170
1910 122 131 173 254 215 134 228
1940 222 171 445 321 159 346
1980 2,857 1,675 2,100 2,767 975 3,920
2000 6,423 4,059 2,894 6,807 1,457 6,475
Sources: Italy: app. col. 11 (since 1880, three-year moving averages; the Italian level in 186070 is extrapolated back
to 1800 assuming the same aggregate growth). England a: Clark, Agricultural revolution, tab. 5 (output per male
worker, preferred estimate: average of contiguous decades, with 1500 = 150049). England b: until 1800: Allen,
Economic structure; output and workforce 1800 and 1851: idem, Agriculture during the industrial revolution,
tabs. 5.1 and 5.3: UK: 18501940 output: Federico, Growth of output, three-year moving averages (from Feinstein,
National income, adjusted for boundary changes; 1850 = 18557; 1940 = 19368) and workforce: Mitchell, British
historical statistics, labour force tab. 2chained to 1800 with the data of England b; 19401980: Hayami and Ruttan,
Agricultural development, tab. B.1 and B.5; 1980 and 2000: output (three-year moving averages) and agricultural
workforce FAO Statistical Database (www.fao.org). France: gross output: Federico, Growth of output, three-year
moving averages (from Toutain, La croissance, adjusted for boundary changes; 1940 = 19368); workforce: Marchand
and Thelot, Deux sicles. US: 1800 and 1850: Weiss, Economic growth, tab. 1.1; 1880, 1910, and 1940 (three-year
moving averages): Federico, Growth of output. Netherlands: until 1800: Allen, Economic structure; 18001910:
van Zanden, Estimates (three-year averages); 1940 output: Knibbe, Agriculture, and workforce. Mitchell: International
historical statistics; 19502000: FAO.
458 GIOVANNI FEDERICO AND PAOLO MALANIMA
Economic History Society 2004
agricultural labour in four European countries around 1910.
56
A straight-
forward extrapolation of their gures with the country indices of table 7
yields table 8.
57
Needless to say, the gures are only a rough approximation.
58
However,
they conrm that Italy lagged behind the advanced European countries until
the great emigration from the countryside to the cities in the 1950s and
1960s. Since then, however, Italy has caught up brilliantly. Last, but not
least, labour productivity is perhaps the least attering measure for the
performance of a densely populated country, with very little good land
available. However, the performance in terms of Total Factor Productivity,
since the 1870s at least, has not been that bad. The rate of growth was not
inferior to that of other European countries.
59
VIII
These new estimates of agricultural product and productivity have some
far-reaching implications for the interpretation of the economic history of
Italy in the past millennium. The literature of the 1950s and 1960s repre-
sented Italy as an advanced country from the late middle ages until the end
56
OBrien and Prados, Agricultural productivity, tabls. 1 and 6. The US gure uses Hayami and
Ruttan, Agricultural development, tabs. B1B5.
57
In 1910, productivity in the Centre-North was about 90% of the Italian average (Federico, Nuove
stime, tab. 6). The England column is computed with col. England b in tab. 7.
58
Our ranking tallies well with the most recent data from international organizations. The gross output
per worker (PPP dollars) c.2000 was: in Italy 36,831, in France 67,801, in the UK 48,130, in the US
67,456 (production data from www.newsourceoecd.orgaverage 19992001; number of agricultural
workers in 2000, from www.fao.org).
59
Federico, Lagricoltura, tab. 4.
Table 8. Gross agricultural output per worker in Italy (Centre-North), the
United Kingdom, France, and the United States
(UK 1910 = 1)
Date CN Italy Italy England UK France US
1300 0.292 0.218
1400 0.316 0.249 0.251
1500 0.281 0.273 0.272
1600 0.237 0.206 0.237
1700 0.243 0.312 0.243
1750 0.259 0.421 0.262
1800 0.221 0.390 0.272 0.457
1850 0.228 0.564 0.564 0.373 0.525
1880 0.235 0.243 0.769 0.401 0.779
1910 0.270 0.300 1.000 0.585 0.960
1940 0.491 0.392 1.754 0.875 1.582
1980 6.323 3.844 8.279 7.539 17.926
2000 14.215 9.316 11.407 18.547 29.611
Sources: see text
ITALIAN AGRICULTURE, 10002000 459
Economic History Society 2004
of the sixteenth century. The seventeenth-century crisis caused a severe
economic decline in absolute and relative terms.
60
The Italian economy
recovered in the eighteenth century, but did not catch up until the late
nineteenth. Since the 1970s historians have put forward a different view,
which still prevails. The Italian path could be represented as a straight line,
higher than that of most other European regions in the late middle ages and
the Renaissance and lower from the seventeenth century onwards. Italy did
not decline in absolute terms, but only relatively because of the progress of
the northern European economies.
61
Our estimates of the long-run agrarian evolution suggest the existence of
three long phases. A rst period of 300400 years, probably starting in the
tenth century, features a clear, albeit slow, progress in productivity, which
was sufcient to support a doubling in the urbanization rate. A second
period starts from the fourteenth century and is characterized by a clear
declining trend, with occasional recoveries as consequences of high mortal-
ity crises. Epidemics implied an accumulation of capital, so to speak. The
decline was interrupted only after four to ve centuries, around 1820. A
substantial growth started at the very end of the nineteenth century, to
accelerate thereafter and become a sharp rise after the Second World War.
European University Institute, Florence
Institute of Studies on Mediterranean Societies, CNR, Naples
First submitted 14 May 2003
Revised version submitted 6 February 2004
Accepted 24 June 2004
APPENDIX: STATISTICS
60
See Cipolla, Le tre rivoluzioni, as a main example.
61
Rapp, Industry and economic decline; Aymard, La fragilit di uneconomia avanzata; Sella, Crisis
and continuity. This view inspired also the estimates of Italian GDP by Maddison, World economy.
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11)
Centre-North
130010 7,750 36.0 2,790
131020 5.5 12.6 6.2 187.2 125.2 7,900 61.9 36.0 2,844 131.8
132030 6.4 12.6 7.2 164.1 142.5 119.7 7,900 59.1 36.0 2,844 126.0
133040 7.3 12.6 8.2 151.3 125.5 115.6 8,000 57.8 36.0 2,880 121.6
134050 8.3 12.6 9.3 187.2 110.6 115.2 7,700 55.5 36.0 2,772 121.3
135060 11.4 34.2 12.4 230.8 180.6 131.4 5,600 46.0 37.9 2,122 131.4
136070 9.8 34.2 11.0 217.9 204.6 137.9 4,500 38.8 37.9 1,706 137.9
137080 12.6 36.8 10.1 271.8 282.2 125.2 4,800 37.6 37.9 1,819 125.2
138090 15.1 38.1 16.3 166.7 174.8 124.5 4,500 35.0 37.9 1,706 124.5
13901400 14.9 39.4 16.2 171.8 188.2 127.7 4,500 35.9 37.9 1,706 127.7
140010 11.8 40.7 13.0 230.8 241.4 143.3 4,720 42.3 38.0 1,794 142.9
141020 11.8 43.3 13.2 235.9 239.1 144.7 4,250 38.4 38.0 1,615 144.3
142030 10.0 43.3 11.2 276.9 280.7 157.3 4,200 41.3 38.0 1,596 156.9
460 GIOVANNI FEDERICO AND PAOLO MALANIMA
Economic History Society 2004
Appendix: Continued
143040 11.7 43.3 13.2 235.9 259.5 148.7 4,200 39.0 38.0 1,596 148.3
144050 12.8 43.3 14.4 230.8 237.5 143.6 4,250 38.2 38.0 1,615 143.2
145060 11.8 44.6 13.2 220.5 259.5 147.5 4,425 40.8 38.3 1,695 145.9
146070 11.8 44.6 13.2 225.6 259.5 147.8 4,730 43.7 38.3 1,812 146.2
147080 12.8 45.9 14.1 212.8 195.0 135.3 4,950 41.9 38.3 1,896 133.8
148090 13.2 45.9 14.6 182.1 188.5 132.5 5,200 43.1 38.3 1,992 131.1
14901500 15.8 47.2 17.2 138.5 160.4 122.5 5,250 40.2 38.3 2,011 121.2
150010 16.5 47.2 18.5 125.6 147.5 120.6 5,310 40.0 36.2 1,922 126.2
151020 13.9 47.2 15.6 192.3 186.1 133.0 5,670 47.1 36.2 2,053 139.2
152030 21.2 51.1 22.8 133.3 127.4 114.5 6,050 43.3 36.2 2,190 119.8
153040 23.9 55.8 25.7 153.8 109.1 113.0 6,460 45.6 36.2 2,339 118.2
154050 23.7 61.0 25.6 151.3 114.4 114.5 6,600 47.3 36.2 2,389 119.9
155060 29.7 67.5 31.8 128.2 83.6 107.0 6,785 45.4 36.8 2,497 110.1
156070 31.0 74.9 33.3 153.8 87.3 109.7 6,900 47.3 36.8 2,539 113.0
157080 36.5 85.3 39.3 166.7 88.3 110.5 7,200 49.7 36.8 2,650 113.8
158090 40.4 81.4 43.0 141.0 93.0 108.0 7,200 48.6 36.8 2,650 111.2
15901600 48.8 76.2 51.5 135.9 74.5 103.1 7,500 48.4 36.8 2,760 106.2
160010 49.8 74.0 52.3 138.5 73.3 102.5 7,828 50.2 37.6 2,943 103.3
161020 46.2 72.7 48.5 159.0 98.6 107.8 7,980 53.8 37.6 3,000 108.6
162030 45.8 64.5 47.9 159.0 107.0 108.3 8,100 54.8 37.6 3,046 109.2
163040 41.1 75.3 45.5 159.0 112.7 113.5 6,500 46.1 37.6 2,444 114.4
164050 38.7 75.8 44.0 179.5 116.5 117.1 6,600 48.3 37.6 2,482 118.1
165060 38.9 71.9 42.7 187.2 120.1 115.4 6,230 45.0 39.2 2,442 111.6
166070 34.7 75.8 39.9 184.6 128.6 120.2 6,700 50.3 39.2 2,626 116.2
167080 36.2 72.7 40.4 182.1 127.0 117.6 7,000 51.5 39.2 2,744 113.7
168090 36.2 68.4 39.5 200.0 129.8 117.5 7,400 54.4 39.2 2,901 113.6
16901700 45.2 72.7 47.6 166.7 107.8 109.3 7,800 53.3 39.2 3,058 105.7
170010 43.2 72.7 47.0 143.6 109.2 110.5 8,051 55.6 38.3 3,084 109.3
171020 35.4 74.9 40.5 169.2 126.6 118.6 8,270 61.3 38.3 3,167 117.4
172030 29.6 73.2 35.1 194.9 131.4 124.0 8,630 66.9 38.3 3,305 122.7
173040 38.5 75.3 43.5 156.4 116.6 115.3 9,000 64.9 38.3 3,447 114.1
174050 43.6 79.2 48.4 141.0 122.0 113.9 9,150 65.1 38.3 3,504 112.6
175060 41.2 81.8 46.8 143.6 130.3 117.1 9,300 68.1 37.9 3,525 117.0
176070 44.3 81.4 49.3 138.5 99.1 110.2 9,450 65.1 37.9 3,582 110.2
177080 58.8 86.6 62.7 107.7 84.1 102.9 9,300 59.8 37.9 3,525 102.9
178090 55.7 92.2 60.5 112.8 88.0 105.3 9,740 64.1 37.9 3,691 105.3
17901800 77.8 93.5 80.0 89.7 97.4 101.1 10,050 63.5 37.9 3,809 101.1
180010 81.3 105.2 85.1 79.5 84.3 99.9 10,212 63.8 38.0 3,881 99.6
181020 95.4 108.7 97.4 82.1 68.9 96.0 10,600 63.6 38.0 4,028 95.7
182030 72.7 104.8 77.2 92.3 77.2 100.7 11,400 71.7 38.0 4,332 100.4
183040 77.4 107.8 82.0 97.4 91.5 102.8 12,280 79.0 38.0 4,666 102.6
184050 81.3 101.3 84.5 97.4 100.2 102.7 14,800 95.1 38.0 5,624 102.5
185060 98.8 98.7 99.3 84.6 89.3 97.8 15,200 93.0 38.0 5,776 97.5
186070 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 15,661 100.0 41.2 6,453 100.0
187080 16,648 104.1 41.0 6,826 98.4
188090 17,727 108.9 39.1 6,940 101.2
18901900 18,879 125.6 40.4 7,624 106.2
190010 20,253 146.0 39.6 8,007 117.5
191020 21,887 155.5 36.3 7,948 126.2
192030 23,071 183.0 31.3 7,214 164.3
193040 24,548 203.2 26.3 6,444 203.5
194050 25,736 165.7 21.8 5,393 199.6
195060 27,120 248.2 14.6 3,908 422.5
196070 29,158 305.5 7.3 2,119 991.6
197080 31,169 376.6 3.7 1,164 2130.2
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11)
ITALIAN AGRICULTURE, 10002000 461
Economic History Society 2004
Series: (1) price index of agricultural goods; (2) price index of non-agricultural goods; (3) price index;
(4) urban wages; (5) agricultural wages; (6) per caput agricultural product; (7) population (thousands);
(8) gross agricultural output; (9) agricultural workforce as percentage of total population; (10)
agricultural workforce; (11) output per worker.
In 186070, daily agricultural wages were 1.33 lire; urban wages 2.11; and the gross output, measured
at 1951 borders and at 186070 prices, was 2,485 million. By then, this area had a population of 15.661
million and an agricultural workforce of 6.453 million and thus the average consumption was 158.3 lire
and the output per worker was 386.7 lire.
Sources: for population 13001850: see tab. 4. For 18611961, Istat, Sviluppo, tab. 1.II and 1.III; for
196187, ISTAT, Sommario, 1985, tab. 2.1; for 19872000, ISTAT, Annuario statistico; for all other
series, see text.
Appendix: Continued
198090 31,385 444.3 2.6 799 3635.8
19902000 31,231 472.0 1.7 561 5502.6
Italy
186070 26,579 100.0 36.8 9,786 100.0
187080 28,317 104.8 34.8 9,837 104.3
188090 30,339 113.1 33.3 10,098 109.6
18901900 32,492 128.4 33.0 10,730 117.1
190010 34,700 147.5 31.8 11,028 130.9
191020 36,897 153.1 29.9 11,037 135.8
192030 39,006 173.6 27.4 10,691 159.2
193040 42,458 187.0 24.2 10,280 178.1
194050 45,559 150.3 20.4 9,307 158.8
195060 48,479 226.0 15.2 7,356 306.6
196070 52,285 293.8 8.8 4,601 654.9
197080 55,560 367.7 5.0 2,763 1328.0
198090 57,200 431.8 3.4 1,924 2224.9
19902000 57,262 456.6 2.3 1,289 3540.8
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11)
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