1.

TANGENT LINES AND RATES OF CHANGES

1.1 Average rate of change

In general, if x and y are quantities related by an equation , we can consider the rate
at which y changes with x. Lets refer to Figure 1, geometrically; the average rate of change
of y with respect to x over the interval ] , [
1 0
x x is the slope of the line joining the points

and

.

The slope of this line can be calculated as

Figure 1

Definition If , then the average rate of change of y with respect to x over the
interval ] , [
1 0
x x is

Example1:
Let

, find the average rate of change of y with respect to x over the interval [3,5].
Solution:
Let

and

, then:

Thus, on the average, y increases 8 units per unit increase in x over the interval [3,5].

1.2 Instantaneous rate of change (tangent of a curve)

Instantaneous rate of change is calculated with respect to a point and not an interval. Lets
refer to Figure 2. Geometrically, the instantaneous rate of change of y with respect to x at

is the slope of the line that touches the curve only once at

(This line is also

called as tangent of at

).

Figure 2
To find the slope of this line, lets employ
the formula used in section 1.1 and
approach to

form

(see Figure 3), and

then we have

Figure 3

Definition If , then the instantaneous rate of change of y with respect to x when

is

Example2:
Let

, find the average rate of change of y with respect to x when x = -4.

Solution:
Let

, then

Thus, for a small change in x from x = -4, the value of y will change approximately 8 times as
much in the opposite direction. That is, because the instantaneous rate of change is negative,
the value of y decreases as the values of x move through x = -4 from left to right.

2. DERIVATIVE

Figure 4
As mentioned in section 1.2, at any point, tangent to a curve is a line that touches the curve
only once at that point. Figure 4 shows another notation for finding the slope of the tangent
line to the graph f(x) at

.
From figure 4, let

, then the slope is:

And the equation of the tangent line: ) .( ) (
o o
x x m x f y = .

The expression
h
x f h x f
o o
) ( ) ( +
is called the difference quotient of f at
o
x with
increment h. If the difference quotient has a limit as h approaches zero, that limit is given a
special name and notation. In other words, the slope of the tangent line to the graph f(x) is
also called derivative of f(x) and is usually denoted as ) (
'
x f .

Definition The derivative of a function f at a point
o
x is denoted as ) (
o
x f '
and its value is


h
x f h x f
x f
o o
o h
o
) ( ) (
lim ) (
+
= '

(Provided this limit exists)

Example 3:
Find the slope of the graph of

at the point (2,5), and use it to find the equation of

the tangent line to

at .
Solution:
The slope of the graph at the point (2,5) is given by
4 ) 4 ( lim
4
lim
5 1 ) 2 (
lim
) 2 ( ) 2 (
lim ) 2 (
2 2
= + =
+
=
+ +
=
+
= '

h
h
h h
h
h
h
f h f
f
o h o h o h o h

The tangent line is the line through the point (2,5) with slope 4,
3 4 ) 2 ( 4 5 ) 2 ( 4 ) 2 ( = = = x y x y x f y

Note:
The process of calculating a derivative is known as Differentiation.
A function f is differentiable at a if ) (a f ' exists.
If ) (x f ' exist (the limit exist), => f is differentiable at x => f has a derivative at x.
If ) (x f ' exists at every point in the domain of f, we call f differentiable.

Notation:
The derivative of ) (x f with respect to x:
) ( ) ( ) ( )] ( [ ) ( x f y if x f D x Df
dx
df
dx
dy
x f
dx
d
y x f
x
= = = = = = ' = '
The derivative of ) (t f with respect to t:
) ( ) ( )] ( [ ) ( t f y if t Df
dt
dy
t f
dt
d
y t f = = = = ' = '
The derivative of f at the point a x = : ) ( )] ( [ a f x f
dx
d
dx
dy
a x a x
' = =
= =



2.1 One-Sided Derivatives (Differentiable on an Interval)

A function ) (x f y = is differentiable on an open interval if it has a derivative at each point
of the interval.

It is differentiable on a closed interval | | b a, if it is differentiable on the interior ( ) b a, and if
the limits
h
x f h x f
h
) ( ) (
lim
0
+
+

and
h
x f h x f
h
) ( ) (
lim
0
+

exists at the endpoints.

Note:
If ) (a f ' does not exist (the limit does not exist) => derivative of f does not exist at a x = .
(occurs at corner points, cusp points, points of vertical tangency, points of discontinuity)

Theorem (Differentiation and continuity): If f has a derivative at c x = , then f is
continuous at c x = .

3. TECHNIQUES OF DIFFERENTIATION

In the last sections, we defined the derivative of a function f as a limit, and we used that limit
to calculate a few simple derivatives. In this section, we will develop some important
theorems that will enable us to calculate derivatives more efficiently.

The graph of a constant function c x f = ) ( is the horizontal line y = c and hence the tangent
line to this graph has slope 0 at every value of x. thus, we should expect the derivative of a
constant function to be 0 for all x.

Theorem (derivative of constant function): the derivative of a constant function is 0; that
is, is c is any real number, then
0 ] [ 0 ) ( = = ' c
dx
d
or x f

Theorem (The Power Rule): If n is an integer
1
] [

=
n n
nx x
dx
d

In words, the derivative of x raised to a positive integer power is the product of the integer
exponent and x raised to the next lower integer power.

Example4:
x x
dx
d
2 ] [
2
= ,
2 3
3 ] [ x x
dx
d
= ,
11 12
12 ] [ t t
dt
d
= ,

Theorem (The Constant Multiple Rule ): if f is differentiable at x and c is any real number,
then cf is also differentiable at x and
f c cf x f
dx
d
c x cf
dx
d
' = ' = ) ( ; )] ( [ . )] ( [
In words, a constant factor can be moved through a derivative sign.

Example5:
7 7 8 8
32 ] 8 [ 4 ] [ 4 ] 4 [ x x x
dx
d
x
dx
d
= = =
11 12 12
12 ] [ ) 1 ( ] [ x x
dx
d
x
dx
d
= =
2
2 1
) ( ] [ ] [
x
x x
dx
d
x dx
d t
= t = t =
t




Theorem (The Sum and Difference Rule): If f and g are both differentiable at x, then so are
f + g and f - g
g f g f x g
dx
d
x f
dx
d
x g x f
dx
d
' ' = ' = ) ( ; )] ( [ )] ( [ )] ( ) ( [
Example6:
10 5 10 5 9 6 9 6
9 12 ) 9 ( 12 ] [ ] 2 [ ] 2 [

= + = + = + x x x x x
dx
d
x
dx
d
x x
dx
d

x x
x
dx
d
dx
d
x
dx
d
x
x x
dx
d 1
2
1
2 0 ] 2 [ ] 1 [ ] 2 1 [
2
[ =
|
|
.
|

\
|
= = =

Example7:
At what points, if any, does the graph of 4 3
3
+ = x x y have a horizontal tangent line?
Solution:

Horizontal tangent line have slope zero, so
we must find those values of x for which .
0 ) ( ' = x y . Differentiating yields
3 3 ] 4 3 [ ) ( '
2 3
= + = x x x
dx
d
x y
Thus, horizontal tangent lines occur at
those values of x for which 0 3 3
2
= x ,
that is, if 1 = x or 1 = x . The
corresponding points on the curve
4 3
3
+ = x x y are (-1,6) and (1,2) (see
Figure 5)

Figure 5

Theorem (The Product Rule): If f and g are both differentiable at x, then

; )] ( [ ) ( )] ( [ ) ( )] ( ). ( [ x f
dx
d
x g x g
dx
d
x f x g x f
dx
d
+ = f g g f g f ' + ' = ' , . ) . (





Example8: find differentiation of ) 7 )( 1 4 (
3 2
x x x y + =
Solution:
There are two methods that can be used to find dy/dx. We can either use the product rule or
we can multiply out the factors in y and then differentiate. We will give both methods.

Method 1.(using the product rule)
1 9 140 ) 8 )( 7 ( ) 1 21 )( 1 4 (
] 1 4 [ ) 7 ( ] 7 [ ) 1 4 ( )] 7 )( 1 4 [(
2 4 3 2 2
2 3 3 2 3 2
= + + + =
+ + + = + =
x x x x x x x
x
dx
d
x x x x
dx
d
x x x x
dx
d
dx
dy


Method 2. (multiplying first)
x x x x x x y = + =
3 5 3 2
3 28 ) 7 )( 1 4 (
Thus,
1 9 140 ] 3 28 [
2 4 3 5
= x x x x x
dx
d

Which agrees with the results obtained using the product rule.

Example9:
Find ds/dt if t t s ) 1 ( + = .
Solution: Applying the product rule yields
t
t
t
t
t
t
dt
d
t t
dt
d
t t t
dt
d
dt
ds
2
3 1
2
1
] 1 [ ] [ ) 1 ( ] ) 1 [(
+
= +
+
= + + + = + =

Theorem (The Quotient Rule): If f and g are both differentiable at x, and 0 ) ( = x g , then

2
'
2
. .
;
)] ( [
)] ( [ ) ( )] ( [ ) (
) (
) (
g
g f f g
g
f
x g
x g
dx
d
x f x f
dx
d
x g
x g
x f
dx
d ' '
=
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
(

Example10: let
1
1
) (
4
2
+

=
x
x
x f , find ) ( ' x f
Solution:
2 4
3 5
2 4
3 2 4
2 4
4 2 2 4
4
2
) 1 (
2 4 2
) 1 (
) 4 )( 1 ( ) 2 )( 1 (
) 1 (
] 1 [ ) 1 ( ] 1 [ ) 1 (
1
1
+
+ +
=
+
+
=
+
+ +
=
(
(

=
x
x x x
x
x x x x
x
x
dx
d
x x
dx
d
x
x
x
dx
d
dx
dy


Theorem (The Reciprocal Rule): If g is differentiable at x, and 0 ) ( = x g , then

2
'
2
1
;
)] ( [
)] ( [
) (
1
g
g
g
x g
x g
dx
d
x g dx
d '
=
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
(

4. HIGHER DERIVATIVES

First derivative of f: f f ' = ' ) ( y
dx
dy
' =
Second derivative of f: f f ' ' = ' ') ( ) (
2
2
2
x f D y
dx
y d
dx
dy
dx
d
= ' ' = =
(

Third derivative of f: f f ' ' ' = ' ' ' ) ( ) (
3
3
3
2
2
x f D y
dx
y d
dx
y d
dx
d
= ' ' ' = =
(
(

Fourth derivative of f:
) 4 (
) ( f f = ' ' ' '
.
.
.
nth derivative of f:
) (n
f ) ( )] ( [
) (
x f D y x f
dx
d
dx
y d
n n
n
n
n
n
= = =

5. DERIVATIVES OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

We will assume in this section that the variable x in the trigonometric functions is measured
in radians. The derivatives of the trigonometric functions are

x x
dx
d
cos ] [sin = x x
dx
d
sin ] [cos = x x
dx
d
2
sec ] [tan =
x x x
dx
d
tan sec ] [sec = x x
dx
d
2
csc ] [cot = x x x
dx
d
cot csc ] [csc =

To find the derivatives that involves trigonometric functions, use the various differentiation
formulas.

Example11: find dy/dx if x x y sin = .
Solution: using derivatives of trigonometric functions and the product rule we obtain
x x x x
dx
d
x x
dx
d
x x x
dx
d
dx
dy
sin cos ] [ sin ] [sin ] sin [ + = + = =

Example12: find ) 4 / (t ' ' f if x x f sec ) ( =
Solution:
x x x f tan sec ) ( = '
] [sec tan ] [tan sec ) ( x
dx
d
x x
dx
d
x x f + = ' '
x x x x x tan sec . tan sec sec
2
+ =
x x x
2 3
tan sec sec + =
Thus,
) 4 / ( tan ) 4 / sec( ) 4 / ( sec ) 4 / (
2 3
t t + t = t ' ' f
2 3 ) 1 )( 2 ( ) 2 (
2 3
= + =


6. THE CHAIN RULE

Theorem (The Chain Rule): If g is differentiable at the point x and if f is differentiable at
the point g(x), then the composite function ) ( g f is differentiable at the point x. moreover,
if )] ( [ x g f y = and ) (x g u = , then ) (u f y = and

dx
du
du
dy
dx
dy
=

Example13: find dy/dx if ) cos(
3
x y =
Solution: let
3
x u = and express y as ) cos(u y = . Applying chain rule yields
dx
du
du
dy
dx
dy
=
) sin( 3 ) 3 )).( sin( (
) 3 ).( sin (
] [ ] [cos
3 2 2 3
2
3
x x x x
x u
x
dx
d
u
du
d
= =
=
=


Example14: find dw/dt if ) tan(x w = and t t x + =
3
4 .
Solution: in this case the chain rule computations take the form
dt
dx
dx
dw
dt
dw
=
) 4 ( sec ) 1 12 ( ) 1 12 )].( 4 ( [sec
) 1 12 ).( (sec
] 4 [ ] [tan
3 2 2 2 3 2
2 2
3
t t t t t t
t x
t t
dt
d
x
dx
d
+ + = + + =
+ =
+ =


3.3.1 An alternative version of the chain rule

dx
du
du
dy
dx
dy
= can be unwieldy in some problems because it involves so many variables. As
you become more comfortable with the chain rule, you may want to dispense with writing out
the dependant variables by expressing the chain rule in the form
) ( )). ( ( ) ( ) ( ))] ( ( [ x g x g f x g f x g f
dx
d
' ' = ' =
A convenient way to remember this formula is to call ) (x g is the inside function and ) (x f
is the outside function in the composition )) ( ( x g f . So, in words, the derivative of )) ( ( x g f
is the derivative of the outside function evaluated at the inside function times the derivative of
the inside function.




Example15: find ) (x h' if ) cos( ) (
3
x x h = .
Solution: we can this of h as a composition )) ( ( x g f in which
3
) ( x x g = is the inside function
and ) cos( ) ( x x f = is the inside function. Thus,
) sin( 3 3 ). sin(
3 ). ( ) ( )). ( ( ) (
3 2 2 3
2 3
x x x x
x x f x g x g f x h
= =
' = ' ' = '


3.3.2 Generalized Derivative Formulas

There is a useful third variation of the chain rule that strikes a middle ground between the
previously discussed formulas in chain rule. If let ) (x g u = in ) ( )). ( ( ))] ( ( [ x g x g f x g f
dx
d
' ' = ,
the we can rewrite that formula as
dx
du
u f u f
dx
d
). ( )] ( [ ' =

This result, called the generalized derivative formula for f, provides a way of using the
derivative of f(x) to produce the derivative of f(u), where u is a function of x
Using this general formula, we can obtain the following theorem:

Theorem: If n is any real number and ) (x g u = is differentiable, then

dx
du
nu u
dx
d
n n
. ] [
1
= ) ( . )] ( [ )] ( [
1
x g x g n x g
dx
d
n n
' =




7. IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION

Up to now we have been concerned with differentiating functions that are given by equations
of form ) (x f y = . In this section, we will consider methods for differentiating functions for
which it is inconvenient or impossible to express them in this form.

Functions defined explicitly and implicitly

An equation of the form ) (x f y = is said to define y explicitly as a function of x because the
variable y appears alone on one side of the equation and does not appear at all on the other
side. However, sometimes functions are defined by equations in which y is not alone on one
side; for example, the equation x y yx = + + 1 is not of the form ) (x f y = , but still defines y as
a function of x since it can be written as
1
1
+

=
x
x
y

Thus, we say that x y yx = + + 1 defines y implicitly as a function of x, the function being

1
1
) (
+

=
x
x
x f


We can use the following steps to perform implicit differentiation.

1. Differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to x, treating y as a differentiable
function of x.
2. Collect the terms with
dx
dy
on one side of the equation.
3. Solve for
dx
dy
.
Example16: Use implicit differentiation to find dy/dx if
2 2
sin 5 x y y = + .
Solution:
] [ ] sin 5 [
2 2
x
dx
d
y y
dx
d
= +
x y
dx
d
y
dx
d
2 ] [sin ] [ 5
2
= +
x
dx
dy
y
dx
dy
y 2 ) (cos 2 5 = +
|
.
|

\
|

x
dx
dy
y
dx
dy
y 2 ) (cos 10 = +
y y
x
dx
dy
cos 10
2
+
=

Note that this formula involves both x and y. in order to obtain a formula for dy/dx that
involves x alone, we would have to solve the original equations for y in terms of x and the
substitute in the final answer. However, it is impossible to do this, so we are forced to leave
the formula for dy/dx in terms of x and y.

8. DERIVATIVES OF LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

In this section we will obtain derivative formulas for logarithmic functions. Lets start with
x x f ln ) ( = :
0
1
] [ln ) ( > = = ' x
x
x
dx
d
x f

A derivative formula for the general logarithmic function x
b
log can be obtained as below:
] [ln
ln
1
]
ln
ln
[ ] [log x
dx
d
b b
x
dx
d
x
dx
d
b
= =

It follows from this that
0
ln
1
] [log > = x
b x
x
dx
d
b


Let u be a differentiable function of x, and if u(x) > 0, then applying the chain rule to the
above formulas produces the following generalized derivative formulas:

dx
du
u
u
dx
d
.
1
] [ln = and
dx
du
b u
u
dx
d
b
.
ln
1
] [log =

Example17: find )] 1 [ln(
2
+ x
dx
d

Solution:
1
2
2 .
1
1
] 1 [ .
1
1
)] 1 [ln(
2 2
2
2
2
+
=
+
= +
+
= +
x
x
x
x
x
dx
d
x
x
dx
d


When possible, the properties of logarithms should be used to convert products, quotients,
and exponents into sum, difference, and constant multiples before differentiating a function
involving logarithms.

Example18:
x
x
x x x
x
x
x x x
dx
d
x
x x
dx
d
2 2
1
cot
2
) 1 ( 2
1
sin
cos 2
) 1 ln(
2
1
) ln(sin ln 2
1
sin
ln
2
+
+ =
+
+ =
(

+ + =
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
+


Figure 6
Figure 6 shows the graph of x x f ln ) ( = . This function is important because it extends the
domain of the natural logarithm function in the scenes that the values of x ln and x ln are the
same for x > 0, but x ln is defined for positive values of x
The derivative of x ln for x 0 can be obtained by considering the cases x > 0 and x < 0
separately:

Case x > 0. In this case x x = , so
x
x
dx
d
x
dx
d 1
] [ln ] [ln = =
Case x > 0. In this case x x = , so
x
x
dx
d
x
dx
d 1
)] [ln( ] [ln = =

Since the same formula results in both cases, we have shown that
0
1
] [ln = = x if
x
x
dx
d


Example19: using the above formula and the chain rule:
x
x
x
x
dx
d
x
x
dx
d
cot
sin
cos
] [sin
sin
1
] sin [ln = = =

Example20: The derivative of
4 2
3 2
) 1 (
14 7
x
x x
y
+

= is messy to calculate directly. However, if we
first take the natural logarithm of both sides and then use its properties, we can write

) 1 ln( 4 ) 14 7 ln(
3
1
ln 2 ln
2
x x x y + + =
Differentiating both sides with respect to x yields
2
1
8
14 7
3 / 7 2 1
x
x
x x dx
dy
y
+

+ =
Thus, on solving for dy/dx and using
4 2
3 2
) 1 (
14 7
x
x x
y
+

= , we obtain

(

+
+

=
2 4 2
3 2
1
8
14 7
3 / 7 2
) 1 (
14 7
x
x
x x
x
x x
dx
dy


9. DERIVATIVES OF EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

To obtain a derivative formula of
x
b , we rewrite
x
b y = as y x
b
log = and differentiate
implicitly to obtain:
dx
dy
b y
.
ln
1
1=
Solving for dy/dx and replacing y by
x
b we have
b b b y
dx
dy
x
ln ln = =
Thus, we have shown that b b b
dx
d
x x
ln ] [ =
In special cases where b = e we have ln e = 1, and we have
x x
e e
dx
d
= ] [
Moreover, if u is a differentiable function of x, then using the chain formula, we can obtain
dx
du
b b b
dx
d
u u
. ln ] [ = and
dx
du
e e
dx
d
u u
. ] [ =









10. DERIVATIVES OF INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS


Definition The inverse sine function, denoted by , sin
1
is defined to be the inverse of the
restricted sine function
2 / 2 / , sin t t s s x x
Definition The inverse cosine function, denoted by
1
cos

, is defined to be the inverse of the

restricted cosine function
t s s x x 0 , cos
Definition The inverse tangent function, denoted by
1
tan

, is defined to be the inverse of the

restricted tangent function
2 / 2 / , tan t t < < x x
Definition The inverse secant function, denoted by
1
sec

, is defined to be the inverse of the

restricted secant function
2 / 0 sec t t = s s x with x x




Let u be a differential function of x, then, derivatives of inverse trigonometric functions are:

| | ) 1 1 (
1
1
sin
2
1
< <

u
dx
du
u
u
dx
d

| | ) 1 1 (
1
1
cos
2
1
< <

u
dx
du
u
u
dx
d

| | ) (
1
1
tan
2
1
+ < <
+
=

u
dx
du
u
u
dx
d

| | ) (
1
1
cot
2
1
+ < <
+
=

u
dx
du
u
u
dx
d

| | ) 1 (
1
1
sec
2
1
u
dx
du
u u
u
dx
d
<

| |
dx
du
u u
u
dx
d
1
1
csc
2
1

Example21:


Find
dx
dy
if
(a) ( )
3 1
sin x y

= (b) ( )
x
e y
1
sec

=
a) Solution
( )
( )
6
2
2
2
3
1
3
3
1
1
x
x
x
x
dx
dy

=
b) Solution
( )
( )
1
1
1
1
2 2

=
x
x
x x
e
e
e e
dx
dy






11. L'HPITAL'S RULE

L'Hpital's rule is a general method of using derivatives to find limits. This method enables
us to resolve indeterminate forms of various type such as 0/0, /, and so on. In chapter 1,
we used numerical and algebraic methods to resolve indeterminate forms in limits.

11.1 L'Hpital's rule for form 0/0

Suppose that f and g are differentiable functions on an open interval containing x = a, except
possibly at x = a, and that
0 ) ( lim =

x f
a x
and 0 ) ( lim =

x g
a x


If )] ( / ) ( [ lim x g x f
a x
' '

exists, or if this limit is + or -, then

) (
) (
lim
) (
) (
lim
x g
x f
x g
x f
a x a x '
'
=


Moreover, this statement is also true in the case of a limit as

a x ,
+
a x , x or as
+ x .


Applying L'Hpital's rule:
Step1: check that the limit of ) ( / ) ( x g x f is an indeterminate form of 0/0.
Step2: differentiate f and g separately.
Step3: find the limit of ) ( / ) ( x g x f ' ' . If this limit is finite, + or -,then it is equal to the limit
of ) ( / ) ( x g x f

Example22: find the limit
2
4
lim
2
2

x
x
x
using L'Hpital's rule.
Solution:
Try substitution first:
0
0
2 2
4 2
2
4
lim
2 2
2
=

x
x
x

Applying L'Hpital's rule:
4
1
2
lim
] 2 [
] 4 [
lim
2
4
lim
2
2
2
2
2
= =

x
x
dx
d
x
dx
d
x
x
x x x

This agrees with the computation
4 ) 2 ( lim
) 2 (
) 2 )( 2 (
lim
2
4
lim
2 2
2
2
= + =

+
=

x
x
x x
x
x
x x x





11.2 L'Hpital's rule for indeterminate for of /

Suppose that f and g are differentiable functions on an open interval containing x = a, except
possibly at x = a, and that

=

) ( lim x f
a x
and =

) ( lim x g
a x


If )] ( / ) ( [ lim x g x f
a x
' '

exists, or if this limit is + or -, then

) (
) (
lim
) (
) (
lim
x g
x f
x g
x f
a x a x '
'
=


Moreover, this statement is also true in the case of a limit as

a x ,
+
a x , x or
as + x .

Example22: find the limit
x
x
e
x
+
lim using the L'Hpital's rule
Solution:
Try substitution first:

=

+
e e
x
x
x
lim , this is indeterminate form
Applying L'Hpital's rule: 0
0 1
lim lim =

= =
+ +
x
x
x
x
e e
x



11.3 L'Hpital's rule for indeterminate form of 0., -

Example: Evaluate the following limits using hospitals rule
a) x x
x
ln lim
0
+

b) x x
x
2 sec ) tan 1 ( lim
4 /

t
c) |
.
|

\
|

+
x x x sin
1 1
lim
0

Solution:
a) try substitution: = =
+

. 0 0 ln . 0 ln lim
0
x x
x

Re-writing the limit:
x
x
x x
x x / 1
ln
lim ln lim
0 0
+ +

= now, we have indeterminate form of /.
Applying L'Hpital's rule: 0 ) ( lim
/ 1
/ 1
/ 1
ln
lim ln lim
0
2
0 0
= =

= =
+ + +

x
x
x
x
x
x x
x x x

b) try substitution: = t t
t
. 0 4 / 2 sec ) 4 / tan 1 ( lim
4 / x

Re-writing the limit:
x
x
x x
x x 2 cos
tan 1
lim 2 sec ) tan 1 ( lim
4 / 4 /

=
t t
now, we have indeterminate
form of 0/0.

Applying L'Hpital's rule:
1
2
2
2 sin 2
sec
lim
2 cos
tan 1
lim 2 sec ) tan 1 ( lim
2
4 / 4 / 4 /
=

=
t t t x
x
x
x
x x
x x x


c) try substitution: =
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|

+
0 sin
1
0
1
sin
1 1
lim
0 x x x

combining the two terms: |
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|

+ +
x x
x x
x x x x sin
sin
lim
sin
1 1
lim
0 0
now, we have indeterminate
form of 0/0.
Applying L'Hpital's rule twice:
|
.
|

\
|
+

=
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|

+ + +
x x x
x
x x
x x
x x x x x cos sin
1 cos
lim
sin
sin
lim
sin
1 1
lim
0 0 0

0
2
0
sin cos cos
sin
lim
cos sin
1 cos
lim
0 0
= =
|
.
|

\
|
+

=
|
.
|

\
|
+

=
+ +
x x x x
x
x x x
x
x x